26903	----	DETERMINING THE AGE OF CATTLE BY THE TEETH GEORGE W. POPE Quarantine Division [Device] FARMERS' BULLETIN 1066 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. August, 1919 Show this bulletin to a neighbor. Additional copies may be obtained free from the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1919 PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO CATTLE. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Vesicular Stomatitis of Horses and Cattle. (Department Bulletin 662.) Hemorrhagic Septicemia. (Department Bulletin 674.) Breeds of Beef Cattle. (Farmers' Bulletin 612.) The Feeding of Dairy Cows. (Farmers' Bulletin 743.) Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves and Young Dairy Stock. (Farmers' Bulletin 777.) Contagious Abortion of Cattle. (Farmers' Bulletin 790.) Breeds of Dairy Cattle. (Farmers' Bulletin 893.) Dehorning and Castrating Cattle. (Farmers' Bulletin 949.) Cattle Scab. (Farmers' Bulletin 1017.) DETERMINING THE AGE OF CATTLE BY THE TEETH. The age of cattle can be approximated closely by the appearance, development, and subsequent wear of their second incisor teeth. Cattle have eight incisor teeth, all in the lower jaw. In the calf at birth two or more of the temporary or first incisor teeth are present. With the first month the entire eight incisors have appeared. [Illustration: FIG 1.--Internal face of incisors of the calf.] As the animal approaches 2 years of age the center pair of temporary incisor teeth or pinchers are replaced by the permanent pinchers which at 2 years attain full development. [Illustration: FIG 2.--Internal face of incisors at 2 years.] At from 2-1/2 to 3 years the permanent first intermediates are cut and are usually fully developed at 3 years. [Illustration: FIG 3.--Internal face of incisors at 3 years.] At 3-1/2 years the second intermediates or laterals are cut. They are on a level with the first intermediates and begin to wear at 4 years. [Illustration: FIG 4.--Internal face of incisors at 4 years.] At 4-1/2 to 5 years the corner teeth are replaced, the animal at 5 years having the full complement of incisors with the corners fully developed. [Illustration: FIG 5.--Internal face of incisors at 5 years.] At 5 to 6 years there is a leveling of the permanent pinchers, the pinchers usually being leveled at six and both pairs of intermediates partially leveled and the corner incisors showing wear. From seven to eight the pinchers are noticeably worn; from eight to nine the middle pairs, and by ten years the corner teeth. After 6 years the arch gradually loses its rounded contour and becomes nearly straight by the twelfth year. In the meantime the teeth have gradually become triangular in shape, distinctly separated, and show the progressive wearing to stubs. [Illustration: FIG 6.--Internal face of incisors at 12 years.] 
33972	----	generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) FLORIDA An Ideal Cattle State Copyrighted 1918 by THE FLORIDA STATE LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION P. O. Box 1181 Jacksonville, Florida Foreword _By W. F. Blackman, Ph. D., LL. D._ _President of the Florida State Live Stock Association, Member of the Florida State Live Stock Sanitary Board._ Requests for authentic information as to the advantages and possibilities of Florida for the growing of live stock, and in particular of beef cattle, have been coming of late, and in constantly increasing numbers, from all parts of the country. This booklet has been compiled for the purpose of providing this information. The gentlemen who have contributed to the volume are men of ability, long and successful experience in the live stock and kindred industries, and the most trustworthy character. Several of them have been engaged for many years in the growing and marketing of cattle on a very large scale in Texas, and have recently made a prolonged and close study of Florida conditions. The report of their findings is of the utmost interest. Prof. C. V. Piper, agrostologist of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, is recognized as the foremost authority on Southern grasses and forage crops. We are indebted to him for permission to make use of the valuable address on this important subject which was made by him at the recent annual meeting of the Florida State Live Stock Association. A study of these papers will make it evident, I believe, that Florida possesses a number of advantages for the profitable growing of live stock greater than those to be found elsewhere; among these are a mild, equable and healthful climate, comparative freedom from animal diseases, a long grazing season, vast areas of cheap lands, a soil adapted to the growing of numerous improved grasses and forage crops (especially such legumes as the velvet bean, the cow pea, the soy bean, the vetches, the indigenous beggar-weed, the peanut, and certain clovers), a copious and well-distributed rainfall, and countless springs, streams and lakes, providing almost everywhere an abundant and unfailing supply of pure water. There can be no doubt, I believe, that Florida will take a leading place in the near future among the important live stock states of the Union. What she needs is additional thousands of intelligent, energetic, thrifty and experienced farmers, who will take advantage of the opportunities she offers and develop to the full her immense and latent resources. Lake Monroe, February, 1918. POSSIBILITIES OF BEEF PRODUCTION IN FLORIDA. _By Frank S. Hastings, Manager of the S. M. S. Ranch, Stamford, Texas, who spent two weeks studying conditions in Florida just previous to the Sixth Annual Convention of the Florida State Live Stock Association, at which he was one of the speakers. These impressions have been prepared by Mr. Hastings for the benefit of the cattle men of Florida._ Before coming to the State I asked that I might see as many classes of cattle as possible and in as many different parts of the State as possible. My first trip was through the Everglades. I then made a trip near Gainesville, and visited the registered Hereford herd owned by Mr. N. A. Callison; also the grade herd of both Herefords and Shorthorns owned by Mr. A. L. Jackson of Gainesville, and the pure-bred and graded Shorthorn herd owned by Mr. S. H. Gaitskill of McIntosh. Then followed a four days' careful trip over the properties and herd of the Kissimmee Island Cattle Company, where I saw Brahma cattle, Hereford cattle and Shorthorn cattle in various grades, and their herd of Florida cattle bought last year. Then over the Indian Prairie country, the Osceola prairie country, including Halpatioka Flats, the marsh country of Okeechobee, with an unusually good opportunity for seeing the cattle scattered over the open range and to observe conditions on the open range. Incident to this great expanse, comprehending over six hundred miles in actual auto driving, I did not see a single windmill, or other artificial means of furnishing water, although I am told that on not a single acre of that entire property is there any difficulty in finding water at a depth of from ten to fifty feet. I shall come back to this item, only pausing here to call your especial attention to the fact that over this vast area of undeveloped water conditions, water can be supplied at a very small cost sufficient to increase the carrying capacity of the range at least several hundred per cent, and as against developing a similar water supply over the average Texas pasture country, it can be done at twenty-five per cent of the cost in Florida as against the Texas cost. Probably the most important thing that I saw in Florida was the registered Hereford herd of Mr. Callison. I recall that he boasted that in eight years they had never been given any winter help, and there were no evidences on his property that the cattle were in any way pampered. He had about thirty or forty of last spring's calves, which he was just weaning, and they were as good, on the average, as any bunch of calves I have ever seen in the great registered Hereford producing districts. I saw his yearlings and twos and his cows, and the entire herd shows in general development and quality a very favorable comparison with anything in the great breeding districts outside of distinct show herds. If the climate of Florida can produce these registered cattle without help and have them make a favorable comparison with cattle in the great registered breeding grounds of other parts of America, there is no reason why beef cattle can not be produced which, in turn, will form a favorable comparison with those of the great pasture breeding grounds, which, in turn, are furnishing the feeder cattle for the corn belt. On Mr. Jackson's place we found both graded Herefords and Shorthorns in the third generation, with splendid development and quality, and we found in his registered or pure-bred herd of Shorthorns good quality and development. At the home of Mr. Gaitskill we found both pure breds and grades of good development, and a splendid object lesson in a half-bred cow known as "Old Blue," her dam one of the primitive Florida cows and her sire a pure-bred Shorthorn bull. She is what might be called a blue roan, with the blue almost black. Then we saw her daughters and their daughters, and I think we saw a fourth generation, but either in this third or fourth generation, I remarked to Mr. Gaitskill that he could lie a little about that heifer, as she had absolutely every appearance and all development of an absolutely pure-bred Shorthorn. In this same district we learned from Mr. Jackson that graded cattle all the way from half-breeds up to seven-eighths and in the mixed threes and fours ages, all by registered bulls, weighed 900 pounds off grass last fall. As near as I can obtain information, the same ages in the native Florida steers and under most favorable conditions would probably not weigh to exceed 600 pounds. On this same trip Mr. Edwards of McIntosh told me that he got about half the gain on the native steers that he does from three-quarter-bred grades, on the same feed. The foregoing is a practical demonstration that as far as climate, general feeds and ordinary normal conditions are concerned, graded cattle thrive in Florida. It is important that I should have seen them, because I am working on well defined and demonstrated general principles of breeding and beef production, and they respond in every way to the foregoing. From this time on we must reckon with the world's supply of live stock. Without attempting to go into details, there has been a very material decrease in it during the past ten years. We know that Europe must be re-stocked after the war, and that the American supply is freer from disease than that of any other country. We know that under normal conditions the beef production of America has not kept pace with the population, and that even without the influence of war values of beef, stock cattle values have shown a steady increase for the past ten years. There is, therefore, every reason to believe that for a very long period in the future, even taking into consideration reduced beef consumption as the result of substitutes or every other influence, there is a reasonable expectation for strong values and a profit on production under normal expense. I think that we may go beyond the favorable general market and say that there will be a better market in proportion for the intermediate grades of beef, for grass produced beef, than for the very extreme corn-fed finish, and that in the evolution of the Florida beef problem, the grades produced will at least be in as great demand, and probably greater demand, than the ultra finished class. It is, therefore, fair to argue that the market is with the producer. You are singularly fortunate in having a Legislature which seems in every way disposed toward doing everything in its power to help develop the resources of the State. The Government believes that live stock production is its second greatest problem, and in every possible way that it can give co-operation is pledged to do so. In fact, I do not think that I would have been here at all unless a high official in the Bureau of Animal Industry had not urged me to come, in line with their work of general development throughout the South. Another thing, I find that Florida is very much in the public eye, and that all the live stock journals are anxious to have anything which touches upon increased beef production anywhere, but in the South particularly. With the knowledge that I might be here some time this winter, I talked to two of the great packers about the development of the beef industry in the South, and they both said that they thought the South was going to come to the front very rapidly, and that either they or some one else would undoubtedly keep pace with the development by enlarging their present facilities or building new packing houses. In that connection a packer loves a hog country to work in conjunction with cattle. Without giving the topic any more than this general statement, I can see where hog production is going to be one of the great things in Florida, and that while in Texas we do not attempt to produce any hogs along with our cattle, that hogs will be to some extent a part of the great pasture problems. In a general way, conditions are very similar in Florida now to those of some thirty-five years ago in Texas, at which time that State was an open range proposition. Today, with the exception of a very small strip along the Gulf Coast, the entire State of Texas is under fence, and in a general way has been under fence for nearly twenty years. There has never been a time in the State of Texas in the past twenty years when practically all of the grazing area of the State has not been occupied, and as against the cattle carried on the open range with practically no water development, the pastures of Texas, which are known as the range (but the word range in Texas means large bodies of inclosed land), are carrying several hundred per cent more cattle than at that time. The thing which in Texas led to great hardships alike to the large pasture owner and to the settler himself was the fact that so much of the land did not lie in solid bodies. I judge that in the main there is much less of this in Florida than in Texas, and that either by partition, or purchase, or auxiliary lease, the great bulk of that complication can be handled. And that brings me to the principle of fencing, which I think may be covered under the general heading of Control. First, it means defined ownership, which is always recognized. It means fire control, because it eliminates the wantonness which we now find all over your open range, each man working out his problem and firing the range for various causes. Fencing means that an area may be developed to its capacity. For instance, on your ranges fire kills the various varieties of the carpet or blanket grass and kills the little blue cane, as well as any number of other grasses, all of which, however, come back where an area is protected, and as they are among your very best feeds, the carrying capacity of a pasture is materially increased. Water may be developed through the windmill process directly in proportion with the needs of the cattle and concentrated to them as against any water development on the open range. It is a scientific fact that eradication of the tick may be accomplished by resting a pasture for a certain time. Fencing means the concentration of that area to the best bulls as against not only their mixture with the scrub bulls on the open range, but the fact that the old Spanish fighting blood in the scrub bull materially reduces the effectiveness of the higher class bull. Fencing means that if on any favorable areas you wish to introduce any of the wonderful grasses which the Department of Agriculture is showing can be spread very rapidly, it can be done concentrating to ownership. Fencing means that lands which are now being occupied by some one else without revenue, but at an expense, may be made to either pay a fair interest on the investment of land, improvements and cattle, or at least a rental revenue which will take care of taxes, interest on improvements and become a net economy, as against the open range. I believe, too, that the principle will stand that a property defined by fences immediately takes on increased value; that the buyer would pay more for it per acre defined than looking at it in the abstract as part of the open range. I do not think that in the whole State of Texas you will find a single land owner, who has fenced his ranches, who does not know that it has been done at a splendid profit. You begin your problem with a tick-wide eradication law, which Texas has only had a very short time. You begin it at a time when the Government and most of the tick-infested states are releasing thousands of square miles every year, and at a time when both science and every practical observer understands it as an economic measure, which may be pursued with practically no detriment or danger to the cattle. I think that we probably dipped in the neighborhood of a million cattle, considering the number of times that they were dipped, and we did not lose a total of fifty head from all causes. Eradication means larger cattle in better condition on the same feeds and a less mortality. It means that they can go anywhere in America without restriction; or, in other words, a broader market and no punishment just before shipment. I do not think that the perpetuity of the tick can be defended from any economic standpoint. I want to take up the breeding section, first with reference to what your cattle represent and a comparison with primitive cattle in other countries. I am advised on reliable authority that forty years ago the only ready money in this country came from the cattle men who either topped their bulls and took them to Cuba, or the Cubans came here and topped them, taking the very best sires that you produced for sport and slaughter. You have, therefore, for forty years been grading down, as far as the sire is concerned. In the matter of the cows, there has been no culling, added to which there has been in-breeding, and on both the sire and dam side following out the law that evil qualities intensify in posterity, the tendency has been down instead of up in the breeding of native cattle for forty years, to which the only relief has been a very limited introduction of the beef strains. In addition to this, the cattle have been infested with ticks, and every evil influence that could arrest their development seems to have had a good chance at them, and yet in spite of all this I find them on the whole much better than I had expected. I have been trying to make a comparison between them and the primitive cattle of Texas, which I have known for fifty years, as they were pastured next to my father's farm in great quantities when I was only seven years old and long before there was any process of improvement. I think the Texas cattle had greater scale, but from all I can learn I do not believe they had any greater vitality. I think, on the whole, though, that in evolving a race of cattle you have a little further to go than Texas had. Mr. Alvin Sanders, Editor of the Breeders' Gazette, in his book, "The Story of the Herefords," traces very carefully the first introduction of blooded bulls to the Texas and Western ranges, and forty years, certainly forty-five, is as far back as that influence began. My own people began on primitive Texas cattle in 1882, but from that time used only full-blooded sires, about ninety per cent Hereford and about ten per cent Shorthorn, and only about three years after I went with them sixteen years ago, I took selected calves from their herd to Chicago and won grand sweepstakes for feeder cattle with them against all competition from all sections of the United States. When I went to the S. M. S. herd I found a wonderful lot of breeding cows, the bulk of them at least fifteen-sixteenths and only requiring a vigorous culling process to bring them to a remarkably high standard. I was identified with Mr. Kirk Armour during the great progress in grading up Texas herds in the '90's, and it was noticeable in the stock yards that in a short space of about six years there was an absolute change in the general run of cattle from the ranges to the yards from primitive cattle to cattle showing very appreciable improvement, and in twelve years the longhorn had become a scarcity; he was practically extinct in 1900. Argentina during the same period evolved from a primitive race of cattle one which will compare very favorably to that of America in its up-grading. The other South American Republics have been slower, but between Argentina and America two demonstrations have been given within my own lifetime of a race of cattle absolutely redeemed from the primitive to practically full-bloods, and that the first twelve years of that work has resulted in animals showing fifty per cent increase in weight under the same conditions, a much higher degree of meat in the rib and loin and round, with an immense improvement in their instinct for putting on weight on the same feed over the primitive cattle. I am simply taking these generally demonstrated laws of breeding to apply to your conditions. I am sure that by using good sires you will find an immense improvement in three years; that in six years it will be a revelation, and that in twelve years you will have a race of cattle for which the world will make a path to your door. To arrive at this process I must first disclaim any thought of urging any particular breed upon you. On the other hand, I could not be fair to the problem without calling your attention to the fact that the Hereford has been the redeemer of the great Western ranges. I am sure, however, that the greater the degree of purity that you use in him, up to at least a seven-eighths, will be shown in the result. I find that there is some prejudice against the Hereford in Florida, but as far as I can follow it they apparently got a very low grade of bulls--I am inclined to think not over half-breeds, and then, too, they found they didn't get any more at that time for the better grades than they did for the others. The limitation of the Hereford is that in the first cross between a pure-bred and any of the primitive cattle ninety per cent will show white faces or dominant characteristics, and just so in the use of bulls, the animal may not have the intensification of blood that he should have simply because he has a white face, and the bull peddler has, as a proposition, bought something that he could sell at a profit, rather than in following out any visions of cattle improvement. I can not urge you too strongly to know absolutely the breeding strength of anything you buy, and that means in a general way that you must buy known cattle. I realize, too, that there is a great shortage of bulls, and probably the only way that you can get what you want, because it goes without saying that you can not afford to pay the price for registered bulls in all your work, is to work in some way through a central community of interests, go to Texas and buy the bull calf crop of some herd of cattle that will show fifteen-sixteenths or better breeding. I urge this freely, because you must go below the line and none of our own cattle are available. I believe that if you bring these calves over here, say in November at weaning time, at the age of about six months, and give them some good winter help, that they will acclimate quickly, and will give you very fair returns in the yearling period, although, of course, you can not expect from them a real usefulness until the two-year-old period. While the Hereford has been the redeemer of the ranges, practically every ranch man in Texas has felt that an undercurrent of Shorthorn is of the greatest advantage. We have used it persistently in our own work, and feel that it has given a most appreciable contribution to the weight and general quality of our cattle. In the last few years the Brahma cattle have come into prominence, and every investigation that I have made shows that they will undoubtedly prove a great factor in the evolution of Florida cattle. They seem to be immune to most of the pests and do not require as much in the way of acclimatization. They show a wonderful growth in yearlings and they mark their progeny with size and distinct characteristics in a most decided way. The packers seem to like them; they kill out a large per cent of beef, and while I have never had any experience with them, all my observation has been in their favor, and I urge you to go as far as you can in utilizing them in Florida. I am, however, convinced that you are going to need both the Shorthorn and the Hereford to combine with them. I am also convinced that both the Shorthorns and the Black cattle are going to prove very valuable adjuncts in your eventual work in the State, particularly as applied to small areas where the cattle are not asked to live as much upon their own resources. The experience, however, in Texas has been that the calf crop is not as great from either of these breeds as from the Herefords. For your information, on the S. M. S. Ranch we have averaged better than eighty percent calf crop for the last ten years. I think that perhaps you will find the Brahma cattle even more prolific than the Herefords. I think, too, that in every possible way you should encourage the breeders of full-blood cattle in all of these breeds, and that you give them every encouragement in purchasing their progeny. The introduction of good bulls is a comparatively simple matter, because they can be purchased, but a great cow herd can only be produced by accumulation, probably by a culling of at least ten per cent of all females every year during the process of up-grading. The yearling heifers should not be bred. We always cull them when about eighteen months old, cutting them ten per cent. Culling should be done both from an individual standpoint and from the standpoint of "Get." The culling process is the most important element in beef evolution. The process of culling will not be extravagant, because looking to the next few years it would seem that canner cattle will probably be as strong as any other branch of the industry, and these culls are usually not only splendid canners, but furnish quite an element of cutters, which means cattle producing very fair meat for regular consumption. I believe, too, that on any range of appreciable dimensions you will find it an economy to produce your own bulls, and in starting any good sized property I urge that you keep that in mind. Get your cows just as good as you can get them; of course pure-breds will be better, and then use only the best registered sires in that herd. I think advisable, too, in your branding, to put the year brand on all heifers, as it will be of material assistance to you in the matter of knowing the intensification of blood during the early process. It will not be so important later on when the cattle are all very high grade. The use of the scrub bull is an economic crime; therefore no matter what you use in the way of a sire you are pointed upward, but I feel that it will be a distinct economy to try to get seven-eighths, or at least fifteen-sixteenths sires. Another thing which offers a great economy in your country is the possibility of dropping calves an average of about two months earlier than they do in Texas. We do not like to have a calf come before the 1st of April. I believe that you can drop yours during January and February without any trouble, judging from the average condition of your cattle in a winter said to be from early October, the most severe you have ever had. Dropping a calf at that time will have him old enough to eat your young grasses when they begin to come. He will have a two months' pull over the Texas calf; will have at least two months longer to combine nursing and grazing to deliver him the first of November. As a summary of your breeding problem, I regard it as the simplest thing you have to deal with. There seems to be a sure result by comparison with other countries; there can be little argument as to its economic value, and it is simply a matter of disposition and making the proper investment in inclosures, in bulls and water development to accomplish a good business result. I only want to add this fragment as to breeding. Since dictating this section I chanced to meet at lunch today Mr. Will Goodwin, for thirty years one of the officers and managers of the Breeders' Gazette and one of the best authorities in the world on cattle. His winter home is near Ocala, Florida, and he has seen enough of your ranges to convince him of their great utility in beef production. He agrees with me that the evolution of your cattle is simply a matter of disposition. I find, however, that he has no use for the Brahma bull, although he joins me in the belief that you can not do anything to hurt the present breeding process, and he rather grudgingly admits that the Brahma bull may have a place in scale. I reviewed with him at some length what has preceded and asked him what he thought about my comparison with the Texas primitive cattle as to having more scale. He thinks I am right in that connection, but says that he believes the Florida cow is more shapely; that she has a better hindquarter than the old Texan cattle, and is, in a sense, a miniature Shorthorn, and that he believes that a cross between a Shorthorn and a primitive Florida cow will give you the best basis. I called his attention to the fact that in range experience neither the Blacks nor the Shorthorns seem to be able to make their own living as well as the Herefords and do not get the calf crop, and he was quite free to say that it had a little force. On the other hand, he confirms fully my belief that where a better class of protection can be offered than the vast ranges, the Shorthorn cross and the cross with the Blacks either on primitive cows or their cross will have splendid results. He also called my attention to the prominence that Blacks are getting in Florida. There is, therefore, a very wide range of possibilities in your breeding problem, all of it pointed upward, and there may be something in your experience here which will show that the Shorthorn and Black have a greater mission on the open range than they had in Texas. There certainly can be no question about the value of the blood. And here I might add that the Government is not asking any one to increase beef production from a patriotic standpoint, but rather that it offers a splendid investment. And perhaps I might add that when our boys who have gone into the army come back again they will practically all be trained athletes; men seasoned to the out-of-doors and loving it; men who have obtained an earnestness in life and a new vision as to usefulness, and when you stop to reflect that we have been sending the flower of the world to the front, when it comes back to us we will not only have the attributes I have described, but the flower of the world to apply them, and I look for an increased interest in all of the out-of-door lines of business such as America has never seen before. I thought I knew something of my own country and something of the possibilities of land available for cattle production, but seeing your ranges has been a revelation. They are off the track of the tourist. There is sparse settlement, and they are known to very few. In fact, they might be, in a sense, called a hidden country, but the whole of America is interested in everything that offers a good agricultural or stock-raising possibility, and when our boys come back, not only the boys of the South, but the boys of America are going to investigate your properties. I promised to come back to water development. Practically every question that I have asked in the main about water has been covered by the reply, "Water everywhere." Much of your area is watered by rivers and lakes, and where good surface water is not easily available for stock, your well water is so easily obtainable and at such small investment you can afford to have it every two miles over the entire country. I am told that the windmill will furnish ample production, and at that narrow depth the light mills, which go well in a light wind, are available. We have found it very valuable, however, to use the one and a half horsepower gasoline engines, and from that pumping supply as our live stock demanded, because you must keep water constantly before the cattle. Cattle become accustomed to watering at one place, and if there is no water they will stand around and wait for the mill to pump. Without attempting to go into details, you should have a proper water storage at each mill. It is small expense, and with a storage tank and a windmill it would be cheaper than a gasoline engine. It is always customary in our country to put salt around the water holes. I find, as a proposition, your cattle do not have salt at all, and it is very much needed in their development. Over some areas there is no lime, and there it would probably be wise to combine salt and lime, which can be very easily done by using a compressed cake, not rock salt. It may take these primitive cattle some time to learn how to lick the salt, but the next generation will be there all right, and it will have its influence in their development. It is my observation that under a proper development of water, a fenced area and proper subdivision fences permitting the protection of one pasture for winter purposes, forcing the cattle out in summer upon areas best adapted to that season, that Florida lands will carry from two to three times the number of cattle that the average Texas range does. I find, too, that a great deal of the range offers a splendid hog feed from the cabbage palm, the seed of the palmetto and from the mast found in the shinnery. It would seem, therefore, that an appreciable number of hogs may be produced without extra cost on most Florida ranges. While they will not sell for the top prices unless fattened on some concentrate, they bring a very fair figure as against combined result and overhead charges, and should be a big factor in revenue and one that we do not have in Texas. Your lands are singularly free from pests. To illustrate, it cost us something over $75,000 to kill prairie dogs on about 450,000 acres of Texas lands, and outside of the shinnery lands the great bulk of Texas lands have been populated with prairie dogs, which in bad times take at least one-third of the grass. You do not seem to have the screw worm, which bothers us a great deal in very wet weather. You can own your posts at a comparatively small cost and with normal prices of wire I should say could construct your fences for three-fourths of what it costs us. You have no very long drives for your cattle when shipping them, and in the matter of winter help to your cattle it will cost very little as compared with what we have to spend in Texas. To give you an idea, we are buying $50,000 worth of feed to winter a herd of 25,000 head of cattle. While your season here will permit you to get through with very little extra cost, if any, I think that you should make a provision for some concentrate, so as to have it. In Texas, when the grass is all gone, the use of cotton seed cake is limited when not taken in conjunction with a good filler, and there is never a time when you at least don't have a good filler. It is simply a matter of getting a little concentrate on it and cutting out the weak cattle and concentrating them to such winter help. You are right where we were in '82--large areas of land, in which our problem was to make them carry themselves without cost, or pay a small interest until such time as they would sell at good value. We had very low values on cattle, long distances from the railroads--in fact, every possible disadvantage, but these lands have always paid for taxes and overhead expenses and have always given us a little something in addition, and are at a point now where they pay us a very good net interest on $10.00 land and $70.00 cows. We probably could sell every acre that we own at a price which would give us more net money than we get from the cattle business, but our people consider it a mighty good back-log to have lands which were almost without value brought up to that value and to their earning capacity. I think that if you go into the cattle business you should study very carefully the possibility of disposing of the calf at weaning time. That is something you will have to grow to. The Government is authority for the statement that the economical production of beef is the calf, taken at weaning time, not allowed to go back, but kept coming in the matter of feeding, and if this calf is to be taken at that age, you can run twenty per cent more cows on your range, producing an average of fifteen per cent more calves, as against developing a steer to the three or four year old period, in which his individual gain is your revenue in the matter of a carrying charge. I believe, too, you will find it an economy to dehorn these calves at branding time. It can be done with practically no loss of blood. The animal is well in a very short time. I think he develops better and he certainly sells quicker. Packers have immense contracts, and if the war continues they must have lots of tinned beef. On the other hand, if the war stops the world must stock up again with tinned beef. We know that they expected to pay an average of at least one cent per pound more for their canners the past year, but that the great drought has forced so many cattle in, the owners were very thankful to take what they got and the packers were forced to their capacity to attempt to handle them in such quantities. We know that the calf crop of Texas next year will probably show a decrease of twenty-five per cent, and that if rain comes in time to give good spring grass that a farmer will pay anywhere from ten to twenty-five per cent more in Texas than any other part of America. It would not surprise me at all to see your Florida cattle shippped over to Texas. We know, too, that next year, instead of the normal number of cows coming in in the culling process, which find their average market as canners, it will be the disposition of every ranchman to hold back cows which would ordinarily go into the culls in order that his ranch may be brought up sooner to re-stocking. I would urge all of you to get your fences up and buy as many cattle as you can handle, because the she-stuff is going to be higher. This is particularly true of the she-stuff which has been selling at the values of Florida primitive cattle. FORAGE CROPS FOR FLORIDA. (_Address delivered before the Florida State Live Stock Association, January 9, 1918, by Prof. C. V. Piper, Agrostologist, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C._) For many years I have been interested in the problem of more and better forage for the South, because it has long been evident to students of agriculture that sooner or later there would be an important live stock industry developed in the South. The present greatly increased interest of Florida, and, indeed, of the entire South, marks, I believe, the beginning of this epoch. Several economic incentives have conspired to bring about the present active interest and development. Chief among them, perhaps, were: First, changes necessitated by the spread of the cotton boll weevil; and, second, the present high range of prices for live stock--prices that in all probability will be little, if any, reduced for many years to come. Another incentive that must, however, be recognized was the desire of enterprising men to develop the latent resources of the South, not only as an attest of their economic faith, but also from the patriotic motive of helping the nation in this period of stress. As an indication of the extent of this movement I may state that within the past two years over thirty extensive live stock enterprises have been launched, all in the piney woods region of the Southern States. Most of these companies have ample capital, and most of them are proceeding along conservative lines. The future development and prosperity of this industry must rest upon a thorough knowledge and proper utilization of the forage crops adapted to the region. In very large measure these forages are quite different from those used in the portions of the United States where animal husbandry is most developed. From a practical standpoint we cannot use in the South the forages of the North and West, with the important exception of corn. The other great forages--timothy, red clover, alfalfa, blue grass and white clover--can never become important in Florida. This fact needs emphasis, because the newcomer in Florida is often carried away with the idea that these forages may be made to succeed. In the beginning of this active live stock development it is unfortunate that there is not a larger body of exact data concerning both the culture and feeding value of the more important forages available. There is a large amount of such information concerning corn, timothy, red clover, alfalfa, blue grass and white clover, not only in America, but also in Europe. Furthermore, countless live stock farms exist where the practical utilization of these forages has been worked out in detail. In comparison, our stock of knowledge concerning Southern forages, both from experimental investigations and from practical experience, is relatively small. This is not surprising, because the experiment stations have very properly been compelled to devote their energies mainly to assisting agricultural industries in proportion to their existing importance, rather than to industries in which there was relatively little interest. In this matter of Southern forages I have long advocated much more generous support on the part of the State and Federal agricultural agencies, because I have great faith in the future possibilities. With the magnificent start that has now been made in live stock farming in the South, we may hope for much more generous support to live stock and forage investigations, but this hope will be realized only if we are insistent in our demands. The knowledge thus to be obtained is fundamental, and the progress that is made in live stock raising will be conditioned in an important measure on the accurate investigations that can be conducted only at properly equipped experiment stations. One other angle of these general considerations must not be overlooked. The northern or western man who may be considering developing a live stock ranch in the South naturally wants to see developed ranches in which the practical problems have been worked out. In all the South there are very few cattle ranches which have reached a finished state of development--where the concrete demonstration exists of a type of management that can be duplicated. Now, of course, I am fully aware that Florida and all the South has long had an extensive cattle industry based on the natural grasses of the prairies and of the piney woods. In general, this has been a profitable industry, especially on free range. Without hurting anyone's feelings, we will, I think, agree that this has not been a very high grade of live stock ranching. Indeed, the ordinary Northern or Western man, who is, of course, a superficial observer, has gotten the idea from the scrub cattle and razorback hogs that he saw, that there is something in the South that is inimical to good live stock. Usually he has decided it is the climate. Fortunately we know from the work of every Southern experiment station, as well as of a few good live stock ranches, that the South can raise just as good cattle and hogs as the North. It isn't a matter of climate, at all, but purely one of _breed_ and _feed_. I have spoken thus candidly because I feel that I am a friend among friends, and because I have very much faith in the industry you represent. If I were not so optimistic as to the future of the live stock industry in Florida I should be afraid to lay bare any weak factors that exist. I believe with Huxley in the wisdom of facing things as they are, rather than indulging in make believe. Perhaps it will be most helpful in discussing the forages adapted to Florida to proceed from the viewpoint of the man starting a cattle ranch. The basis, of course, of any profitable cattle ranch is permanent pasturage, the cheapest of all feeds, and, to supplement this, a supply of feed, which may be hay, ensilage, or in Southern Florida, green feed, to bridge over the season of short pastures. If one is to produce highly finished beef, grain feeds and other concentrates must be raised or purchased. In discussing pasturage it will be convenient to recognize three types of lands, namely, piney woods, prairie, and mucks, realizing, of course, that this is a very rough classification. Piney Woods Lands. In the piney woods the natural pasturage is composed mainly of broom sedge and wire grasses. During the growing season, from spring till late fall, these grasses furnish fair pasturage, but through the rest of the year they merely enable animals to exist. What can be done towards converting these poor native pastures into good permanent pastures? There are three possibilities in the light of our present knowledge. On better soils good Bermuda pastures can be developed, or where the lands are moist, as on most flatwood areas, carpet grass may be used. On the drier and poorer soils, Natal grass is the only one that has given much success. How can Bermuda or carpet grass pasture best be established? The sure method is to stump your land and plow it, and then plant the Bermuda by the vegetative method in spring, or any time thereafter in summer, during the rainy season. At the McNeill station in Mississippi, located on land much like that of the northern tier of counties in Florida, they have developed the following method: Plow furrows about ten feet apart between the stumps in spring, and stick in a root or sprig of Bermuda about every ten feet. At McNeill it is found necessary to use a little fertilizer to insure the growth of these Bermuda plants. During the following winter the stumps are removed, and then in spring the land is plowed and Lespedeza seed sown. Enough Bermuda has grown in the furrows to insure a stand of Bermuda, and this is supplemented by the Lespedeza. Indeed, the first season the Lespedeza will furnish more pasturage than the Bermuda. Lespedeza is rather a tricky plant in Florida and is hardly worth consideration except in the northern part of the State. On most of the Florida flatwood soils carpet grass is much more aggressive than Bermuda, and in time will, if left alone, completely replace the Bermuda. To a large extent this can be obviated by plowing the pastures whenever the carpet grass seems to be obtaining the upper hand. Unfortunately, we do not know the relative values of equal areas of Bermuda grass and of carpet grass where the latter is most aggressive. Carpet grass does not grow so tall, but is green for a longer period. It may, indeed, be found more economical not to try to save the Bermuda after the carpet grass crowds it. From observations, I am inclined to believe that neither the carrying capacity nor the feed values per acre of the two grasses is greatly different on most flatwood soils. If this be true, it would not be economy to go to any particular trouble to retain the Bermuda instead of the carpet grass. At McNeill the pasturage on areas that have long been closely grazed is carpet grass. Unfortunately, no experiments have been conducted to compare these two grasses as to ease of establishment and as to carrying capacity. Carpet grass produces abundant good seed, and therefore spreads much more rapidly than Bermuda, which rarely produces seed in humid regions. It is found necessary to remove the stumps at McNeill, because for the first year or two on the plowed ground, weeds, especially "fennel" or "Yankee weed," appear abundantly, and must be mowed or they will kill the grasses by shading. Mowing with the stumps on the land is impracticable, as the weeds conceal many of the stumps. Whether it is practicable to establish good permanent pastures without stumping and plowing the land is yet an unsolved problem. About every Florida settlement where the town cattle graze, there is good pasture, commonly carpet grass. You will find just this on the outskirts of Jacksonville. Such pasturage has been established by heavy continuous grazing, under which conditions the broom sedge and wire grass are exterminated, while the creeping carpet grass comes in and persists. It may be that the manure of the animals is also a factor, and there can scarcely be a question that the trampling helps. As an example of this kind occurs about nearly every Florida town, it would seem as if it could be duplicated on cattle ranches. I have suggested to several cattlemen that it is worth trying on a scale by three methods: (1) Simply burning the native grass in winter; (2) burning, followed by disking or harrowing; and (3) plowing among the stumps. If possible, carpet grass seed should be scattered on each area, and in all cases close grazing should be practiced. Unfortunately, carpet grass seed cannot be secured commercially, except in small quantities at high prices, but it is easy to cut the mature carpet grass in fall from a pasture and cure the hay. The carpet grass can then be sown simply by scattering the hay. Whether any of these schemes will work out satisfactorily still remains to be determined. As to Natal grass, I have already mentioned that this succeeds better on the poorer and drier pine lands than any other grass yet introduced. Thus far it has been exploited purely as a grass for market hay. On this basis many hundred acres were planted in Lake County and elsewhere. Grass culture purely for market hay is a very precarious proposition. The proper agricultural economy is grass for live stock, selling only the surplus to the market. Notwithstanding the very large acreage planted to Natal, I have been quite unable to secure satisfactory data as to its value for pasturage, measured in carrying capacity and satisfactory gains. It seems to me, from the slender data I have been able to secure, fairly probable that Natal will prove a valuable grass for combined hay and pasture on the soils to which it is so well adapted, but of course it can hardly be expected to yield enough to justify the extravagant prices paid for land planted to Natal. Prairie Lands. On the prairies of Florida there is much better natural pasturage than in the piney woods, and, indeed, it is on the prairies that the old type of cattle industry reached its highest development. The prairies are in reality wet meadows. Their grass cover is due to water relations, most of them being periodically overflowed--conditions that are inimical to pines and palmettos. On the other hand, the period of overflow is too brief to meet the conditions necessary for cypress and other swamp trees. These prairies stretch from the border of the pine woods and palmettos on relatively high ground to permanently wet swamps. The best natural pasturage consists of various species of paspalum and related flat-leaved grasses on the soils fairly moist during a large part of the year; and maiden cane on still moister land, or even in shallow water. Generally speaking, the moisture relations of the more extensive prairies are nearly ideal for continuous pasturage in the varying seasons. There is grave danger in any extensive drainage operations, as palmettos and pines will quickly invade such drained land, and thus destroy the grass. For improved pasture on these lands, particularly on those reasonably moist, Para grass offers great possibilities. The remarkably rapid growth and high yield of this grass, combined with its palatability and nutritiousness, make it of prime importance in connection with better live stock. Para succeeds well also on the better uplands, but, generally speaking, it is a grass for moist lands. The farther south, the more valuable it is, as after frost it is of little value. Another grass that is likely to be very valuable on the prairies, and, indeed, on the flatwoods and better uplands, is _paspalum dilatatum_, native to Argentina. This is perhaps the best of the paspalums, and it is now widespread in the Southern States. Unfortunately, with us the seeds are largely destroyed by a fungus, but good commercial seed is obtainable in quantity from Australia. Muck Lands. On the muck lands the problem of pasturage is easy. At least four grasses, namely, Para, Carib, Rhodes and Bermuda, especially Giant Bermuda, yield wonderfully. The enormous area of muck lands in Florida, especially in the Everglades, can, it would seem, be utilized only with the aid of livestock. While there may be some fairly difficult problems to solve in handling live stock on muck soils, especially in the wet season, there can be little doubt that grass and live stock will insure the permanency of these lands. Under continuous cultivation there is a constant shrinkage in muck soils, but with grass and live stock this is nearly, if not quite, counterbalanced. Carib grass on muck soils is, from limited data, superior to Para grass both in yield and quality. On other types of soil Para will outyield Carib. Rhodes grass does wonderfully on muck soil, and, indeed, on most rich soils. Giant Bermuda is far coarser and more vigorous than ordinary Bermuda. It will succeed wherever ordinary Bermuda will grow, and, in addition, seems much better able to withstand flooding. Temporary or annual pasture crops are mainly important in connection with swine raising. Various systems of such crops have been devised to furnish successive pastures. Florida has a long list of such crops that can be utilized. Among them are oats, rye, rape, sorghum, peanuts, cow peas, chufas, sweet potatoes, corn and velvet beans. Under certain conditions the cattleman may have to utilize one or more of these crops, but corn and velvet beans is the one that is the most important. The story of the velvet bean is really one of the romances of agriculture. Introduced into Florida about 1875 from some unknown source, it first attracted attention as a forage about 1890. Until 1914 it was but little grown outside of Florida. In 1915 the crop was certainly less than 1,000,000 acres. In 1916 it had increased to 2,500,000, and in 1917 to about 6,000,000 acres. The explanation of this remarkable increase was the finding of earlier "sports." Three of these appeared independently--one in Alabama, two in Georgia. These early varieties immensely increased the area over which the velvet bean can be grown, so that now it embraces practically all of the cotton belt. These early sports of the old Florida are most grown, but the Chinese velvet bean, introduced by the Department, and the hybrids developed by the Florida Experiment Station, are important. In spite of vigorous search, the native home of the Florida velvet bean yet remains unknown, but it is probably in the Indo-Malayan region of Southern Asia. The importance of the velvet bean to the live stock industry now developing in the South can scarcely be over-estimated. Grown with corn, it increases the corn crop year after year, and besides furnishes a large amount of nutritious feed to be eaten by the animals when the grass pasture season is over. It reduces greatly the cost of finishing of beef animals for market. This year the velvet bean has been no small factor in helping out the great shortage of foodstuffs, quantities of them having been shipped to Texas. Finally, it has resulted in a new industry for the South, namely, the manufacture of velvet bean meal, which has already won for itself a large demand. Hay Plants. The problem of producing hay in Florida is made particularly difficult by frequent rains, except in the fall of the year. The bulk of the hay now produced is from the crab grass that volunteers in cultivated fields. In recent years much Natal hay has been grown for market. Para grass hay is of good quality, and Rhodes grass of very fine quality. Other hays are made from cow peas, cow peas and sorghum mixed, Mexican clover, beggar-weed, oats, millet, etc. The subject of hay, however, is vital only to the city market. To the live stock man it is of minor importance, as silage furnishes so satisfactory a substitute. Ensilage Crops. Corn is, of course, the standard crop for ensilage, and its relative importance in Florida is not far different from that in other States. Under certain conditions sorghums will yield greater tonnage than corn, and the resulting silage is but slightly inferior. Florida possesses, in addition, a unique silage plant in Japanese sugar cane. The perennial nature of this plant and its high yielding capacity make it a cheap fodder to grow. It may be utilized as green feed, as silage, as dry fodder, or for pasture. Your own experiment station has published the best information we have on this forage. As a feed for dairy cows there can be no question of its high value, either green or as silage. There still seems to be question, however, as to the relative value of Japanese cane silage as compared with corn silage. In Southern Florida the cane stays green all winter, as a rule, so that there is no necessity for ensiling it for winter feed. It may well prove, however, that a supply of Japanese cane silage will prove good insurance against periods of shortage even in South Florida. You may have noted that all the pasture plants I have mentioned are grasses. Very unfortunately we have not as yet any good perennial pasture legume adapted to Florida. I say "unfortunately" because, as is well known, the true grasses are nutritious in proportion to the fertility of the land. That is, the better the land the more nutritious the pasture. But with legumes no such relations exist, because legumes are not dependent on the soil for their nitrogen supply. While we have no satisfactory perennial pasture legume, we have one summer annual, lespedeza, that helps to some extent in North Florida. There are also two winter annuals that reproduce themselves in which I have considerable confidence, namely, burr clover and narrow-leaf vetch. I believe that on many of the better pasture soils, especially in North Florida, that these legumes can be established and that they will re-seed themselves year after year. Of course due care must be taken to secure inoculation, preferably by the soil method. The Outlook for New Forages. What the future may hold in store for us in the way of new forages does not assist at the present time, but it is worth considering. It is well to bear in mind that the agriculture of the North, with the single important exception of corn, is mainly a direct inheritance from European agriculture. Substitute root crops for corn and you have in essence the European practice. Southern agriculture, on the contrary, is almost purely an American development--cotton, corn, tobacco, sweet potatoes, from the American Indian; cow peas, Rhodes grass, Natal grass and sorghum from South Africa; soy beans, lespedeza, Japanese cane from Japan; carpet grass and Para grass from the West Indies; Bermuda from India; velvet beans from Southern Asia. Northern forage plants have been pretty thoroughly studied both in Europe and America, because European conditions are fairly like those of our Northern States. But there yet remains hosts of grasses and legumes adapted to sub-tropical climates concerning which we know practically nothing. Out of very numerous grasses and legumes at present under test are several that possess promise, and these I shall discuss briefly. Kudzu. Kudzu is not particularly new, but it seems to me destined to a much greater importance than at present. It is the only perennial forage legume that has in any sense made good in Florida. It is much better adapted to clayey soils than to sandy soils, but it also succeeds remarkably well on the limestone soils about Miami. On the better sandy soils it would also seem to be valuable, but on the poorer sandy soils and poorly drained lands it is doubtful if it has a place. On clay soils at Arlington Farm, Va., we have consistently gotten two cuttings, totaling five tons of hay per acre--double what we can get from cow peas or soy beans. I believe kudzu is entitled to a fair trial by every Florida cattleman. Napier Grass. You have doubtless seen some of the numerous references recently in Florida papers to "Japanese bamboo grass" or "Carter's grass" as grown about Arcadia. These names rest upon a misconception. The grass is a native of South Africa, properly known as Napier grass, or _Pennisetum macrostachyum_, introduced by the Department in 1913. This is a perennial much like Japanese cane, and in our tests is found hardy as far north as Charleston. It does well on rather poor soil and yields heavy crops. In chemical analysis it is richer than corn in protein and carbohydrates, but also contains three times as much fiber. It is this high fiber content or woody character that makes me dubious about its silage value, in which opinion Professor Rolfs concurs. When two or three feet high it is greedily eaten by animals, and so may be a pasturage possibility. As a green feed crop it could be cut three or more times each season, when three or four feet high, and I am sure will prove a very valuable forage for the man with one or two cows. Whether it is a crop for the stockman is still doubtful. In 1916 we introduced a very similar species, _Pennisetum merkeri_, which is perhaps a little superior, though it is hard to tell the two apart. Metake. The name "Japanese bamboo grass" leads me to mention a true Japanese bamboo, the _metake_. This is a bamboo that spreads by rootstocks and forms dense thickets ten to fifteen feet high, much like cane brake, and, like our native cane, a valuable winter pasture plant. Mr. P. K. Yonge has grown it with marked success about twenty miles north of Pensacola. It seems to me a valuable plant to furnish a supply of pasturage in winter, when pasturage is practically gone. It is worthy of careful trial on all well-drained Florida soils. Tripsacum Laxum. Last year we secured from Guatemala a new perennial grass which, if it proves winter hardy, will, I am certain, be of enormous value to South Florida. This grass grows much like teosinte, but is stouter and very much more leafy. The stem is tender, sweet and juicy, and all the leaves remain green. It is an ideal silage plant. So far as I am aware, our trial at Miami is the first time this grass has ever been cultivated. The few live stock men who have seen it went into ecstasies. It may prove valuable, however, only for frostless regions. Creeping Pasture Grasses. At the present time we have under trial five creeping pasture grasses, more or less like Bermuda in a general way. You are, of course, aware that a pasture grass to be valuable should be able to spread naturally and must be able to hold the ground. Naturally it takes time to determine all these facts. The five grasses I refer to are as follows: Blue Couch (_Digitaria didactyla_). This is much like Bermuda, but produces abundant good seed. For lawns and pastures it promises to be about equally as valuable as Bermuda. Manilla Grass (_Osterdamia matrella_). This is especially adapted to rather moist sandy lands. It grows very dense, and where it thrives should be valuable. Lovi-lovi (_Chrysopogon aciculatus_). This furnishes much pasturage in India, the Philippines, and South China. The seeds are very abundant, and each sticks into the clothing like a pin. But about Hongkong it is used generally as a lawn grass. It is well adapted to dry sandy soils. If it proves well adapted to Florida we can, I think, chance its becoming a nuisance, because if it does thrive it will give much pasture. Nilghiri Grass (_Andropogon emersus_). This is the only creeping grass of the genus Andropogon (which includes our broom sedges) that we have yet found. I secured it in the Nilghiri Hills of South India. It looks promising. Kikuyu Grass (_Pennisetum sp._). This is native to the highlands of Uganda, in British East Africa, and in South Africa has created great interest. It looks much like St. Augustine grass. At Biloxi, Miss., it has succeeded well. It looked very fine at Arlington, Va., but could not stand the winter. This grass is said to be very nutritious, and I believe that on the better soils of Florida it will prove a real acquisition. I mention these new things to give you some idea of what we are doing. I might mention several others that look good to us, but it will be time to speak when we have tried them further. In brief, we are scouring the earth to find grasses and legumes to meet Florida's needs. We have faith that the grasses and legumes exist, if we only can find them. Gentlemen, in closing I must say one thing more. Our country is at war--a war that will tax our energies and resources to the uttermost. No more dangerous idea can be entertained than to minimize the task, or to delude ourselves with the prospect of an early peace. One important factor is food, especially meat and wheat. Only an unusually favorable season can produce for us as much wheat as last year. Our meat and forage supplies are low, because in times of food scarcity, grass crops are necessarily sacrificed. Gentlemen, you can do much to help increase the meat supply. In developing your ranches to increase your output, I want to urge as a patriotic duty that you increase your good pasturage and your winter feed supply as rapidly as you can. I could not urge this in peace times, because rapid development is never the most economical. But in this time of stress you cattlemen can help the nation most by increasing your output to the maximum. There is no other way for you to give to the nation that will count so much. I therefore urge that you brush aside all questions as to the economically best method of increasing pasturage and forage, and to devote all your capital and all your energy to doing this along any lines that are sure. FLORIDA AS SEEN FROM A TEXAS STANDPOINT. _Address by W. N. Waddell of Fort Worth, Texas, before the Florida State Live Stock Association, January 9, 1918._ _Mr. Waddell started to working cattle on the Texas ranges in 1875, and has been in the cattle business for himself since 1881._ _He was chairman of the Live Stock Sanitary Commission of Texas for four years, and for a number of years has been the Texas representative of the Live Stock Exchange National Bank of Chicago, and of the Chicago Cattle Loan Company._ _After spending a week in Florida during August of 1917, Mr. Waddell returned to the State in November and spent considerable time investigating the opportunities for raising cattle. This address gives his views on the advantages Florida possesses as a cattle-producing state._ In order to understand or to be able to appreciate a proposition of almost any character it is necessary to approach it by comparison, and in making comparisons touching Florida I wish to state that I have traveled over the range of the five northern states of old Mexico; I have traveled over the southern part of the range belt of Arizona; I have traveled over about half of the state of New Mexico and virtually all of Texas, and I find in Florida conditions favorable to the production of live stock that do not exist in any of the states I have named, which constitute the great range belt of the Southwest. In Mexico there is very little water, and water is very hard to get by digging, the wells averaging from 150 to 1,000 feet deep, and in a great many instances no water at all. In Mexico they also have a great many animals that prey on the live stock, such as panthers, lobo wolves, bears, as well as the common, ordinary coyote. None of these have to be contended with here. In Arizona and New Mexico about the same conditions prevail as do in northern Old Mexico. In Texas we have bears and sundry pests to prey on our live stock. The prairie dog infests a great many of our ranches, destroying the grass, digging holes in the ground, and making it dangerous for the cowboy to ride over in the pursuit of his range endeavors. We have wolves of all species. In Texas we have also the screw worms that are a tax on the live stock producer to the extent of from two to five per cent of the calves born on his ranch, and I am sorry to say that worst of all we have periodical droughts. None of these adverse conditions I find prevail in Florida. Here I find the country covered with a thick, heavy coat of grass, streams running with plenty of water and I understand where natural water is not available that it is only about from twenty to one hundred feet to an abundant supply of water under the ground, making the proposition of watering the ranches in Florida, where artificial water is necessary, a very simple matter. The climate in Florida is temperate and mild, rainfall is regular and abundant, and, so far as the production of forage for live stock on the range is concerned, your rainfall and your soils all seem to combine in favor of the producer of live stock. I never was more amazed in my life than I was last summer, when, in company with a committee of other cattle men from Texas, I visited this state. At that time I was shown over the southern middle part of Florida; was shown a great domain of country lying out of doors, as it were and as we term it in Texas, furnishing free range for hundreds of thousands of cattle. I did not believe my ears when I was told those conditions existed here, and I can't understand yet why a state as old as Florida, with as many surface indications of possibilities for the production of live stock, should remain unfenced, unoccupied, and non-revenue producing to the men who own the land. Another surprise that met us when we came to Florida in the summer was the absolute lack of any improvement in the live stock that we found here. In fact, it is my judgment that the cattle in Florida today, from what I have read of the history of Florida, are not as good as they were thirty years ago, and I am surprised, when I think of the facilities furnished the cattle men of Florida by the land owners for the grazing of their cattle, that they haven't taken any more interest in their cattle than they have and tried to improve them. Florida today, as never before, is attracting national attention as a possible beef-producing state. The eyes of the investing public are turned toward Florida, and it is my judgment that within the next five years Florida will make greater strides in the development of the live stock industry than it has ever made before. And I want here and now to issue a warning to you gentlemen who are running your cattle on the open ranges of Florida that you had better get busy and get control of what land you expect to use as a cattle ranch, for if I mistake not, outsiders are coming into this state who will buy or lease these lands, put them under fence and inaugurate a system of live stock production on an improved basis as compared to the present methods being pursued in this state. And in this connection I wish to state that I have discussed this open range proposition with some of the largest land owners in Florida. They tell me that they want to see Florida developed; they tell me they are in line to lend their energies, their time and their money to anything that will develop the State of Florida. After listening to them talk this line of earnest progressiveness, I have put the proposition to them just like it was put to us in Texas, and that is, formulate an equitable leasing proposition, one that will safeguard the interests of the land owner, and at the same time lend protection to the vested rights of the lessee, and advertise that to the world. Let the people not only of Florida, but the people outside of the State of Florida, know that they can come to Florida and at a small rental cost, lease as many acres of good grazing land as they have money to get cattle with which to stock it, assuring the prospective lessee that they will fence the land according to his desires and will build him a ranch house to live in; that they will fence him a horse pasture to keep his saddle horses in; will build him a dipping vat on the land, and where necessary will bore wells and equip them with windmill and pump sufficient to furnish plenty of water for the live stock on the land so leased. There was never any marked development or marked improvement in the live stock industry in the State of Texas as long as the cattle ranged on the free grass, but in 1884 the Legislature passed what was known as a Lease Law. Then it was, gentlemen, that the fencing up of the State of Texas began in earnest. No man was willing to pay lease on land and let somebody else's cattle graze on it. And that is the first step needed to be taken in the evolution of better cattle in Florida. The land owners should fence up their lands, cut them up in pastures to suit the men who want to run their cattle on them, making the lands of Florida revenue-producing, instead of being a liability, and put the cattle of Florida under fence and under control wherein individual effort may develop in a desire to excel. I can not stress this proposition too strongly. I haven't the language to express the importance of putting the lands of Florida under fence and the cattle under control in order that better cattle and more cattle may be raised. The most important step looking to better cattle in Florida has already been taken in the creation of a Live Stock Sanitary Board and the work incident thereto of tick eradication. This work and the efforts of the Florida State Live Stock Sanitary Board will be much more effective and easier of accomplishment when you get the ranges of Florida fenced and the cattle under control. It seems to me that Florida has been overlooked. I am led to the belief that the Florida cowmen have been lulled to sleep, as it were, by the fact that they haven't been bothered by any outside influences. In discussing the breeding up or improving of the cattle with a good many breeders whom I have met in this State, I find that all voice the sentiment that they would like to raise better cattle; that the State ought to produce better cattle; and that it is a good cattle country. Florida is wasting approximately enough good pasture to produce a meat supply sufficient to feed several states by confining the quality of the herds to the little native cattle we saw on the ranges. True, we saw lots of cattle, more than I supposed existed in the entire State, but the opportunity before the cattle men is to breed up the quality and size. That this can be done was demonstrated by some herds we visited, and the reports on those herds show that this is a better cattle breeding country than Texas, for your owners are branding a larger proportion of calves to breeding cows in herds than we are able to get. I am sure that good cattle can be raised in Florida because I have seen them. I am sure that good hogs can be raised in Florida because I have seen them, and on the question of the hog, I wish to state that on the open range country of Florida, especially the southern part in the prairie country, where there are hard wood and cabbage hammocks, is the ideal country in which to grow hogs. I made the statement when I was here in the summer that I believed a man could fence up a range of ten or twenty or thirty thousand acres in Florida, stock it with cattle and stock it with hogs, and that I believed the hogs would pay the overhead charges of running the ranch, and my observations here for the past thirty days traveling over the State have convinced me that that statement was not very much exaggerated. There is no reason why cattle men should not make dividends on investments while breeding up the quality of their herds, for this is a great cattle country. I am very much surprised to find that sheep are not more generally handled on the ranges with the cattle. The absence of coyotes make sheep raising particularly attractive, and they will not injure the cattle pasturage if properly proportioned. There ought to be several hundred thousand sheep on the Kissimmee River Valley ranges. We handle large numbers of sheep and cattle together, although our ranges are not nearly so good as those in Florida. * * * * * In conclusion, I will state that I think Florida offers the best field for live stock production along improved lines of any State in America. That is, cattle can be raised here cheaper and with less uncertainty than any place I know. A GLANCE BACKWARD AND FORWARD. _Annual Address before the Florida State Live Stock Association, January 8, 1918, by Dr. W. F. Blackman, President of the Association._ Never before have we met in circumstances so extraordinary and under the stress of thoughts and emotions so many, so various, so conflicting and perplexing as today. Our minds are engrossed and appalled by the world catastrophe into which we have been plunged. Since our last meeting, life for every man and woman of us has been changed in all its major aspects and fallen into disorder. All the peaceful routine of our thoughts and habits has been upset. Our sons and neighbors are on their way to the hideous and heroic and bloody work abroad to which they have been summoned. * * * But disquieting as are the times, the business of the stock raiser in America, and particularly in Florida, was never on so sound a basis as today, never so full of promise. The exhaustion of domestic animals throughout Europe and the increasing shortage in our own country are creating a demand which will insure for many years to come a profitable market for all the beef, pork, mutton and dairy products which we can supply. Definitely, I think it can be said that there can be no danger of overproduction in these lines for a long time to come. And for this industry, which we may perhaps properly call the most ancient, fundamental, necessary, stable, wholesome, honorable and delightful of all the occupations in which men are engaged, Florida has advantages of soil, climate, rainfall and location greater, on the whole, than those enjoyed by any other state of the American union. This is being recognized in increasing measure, far and wide. The eyes of discerning and experienced men are being turned this way as never before. Inquiries by mail and visits of exploration from the North, the West and the Southwest have never before been so numerous as during the year which we are reviewing, and our own people are awakening to the opportunities which lie all about them, unused and inviting. There are vast areas of cheap and hitherto waste lands in every part of the State, lying open the year round to the genial and fructifying rays of a semi-tropical and sub-tropical sun, which need only the expenditure upon them of money and labor to fit them for the support of herds and flocks greater than any other region can maintain. We have every reason, as we face the new year, to take courage and to gird ourselves for the task of turning into reality these gracious possibilities which nature has spread about us with a lavish hand. The past year has been signalized by one great achievement, carrying two others in its train. The great achievement to which I refer, the greatest by all odds ever accomplished in this State, is the creation by the Legislature of a State Live Stock Sanitary Board and the appropriation of public monies for the carrying on of its work; and the two consequent achievements are the beginning of definite, determined, statewide, co-operative and adequately supported efforts to eradicate the pestilent cattle tick from all our borders and to control hog cholera. * * * And I venture now to say--and I say it with pardonable pride and great pleasure--that no state in the Union has a more carefully considered, better balanced and guarded, and more rigid and effective law, covering the matter of live stock sanitation, than has Florida. Perhaps a detail here and there needs to be amended and strengthened, but, on the whole, the measure was a good one and is working well. * * * I may add, finally, that the State Live Stock Sanitary Board, in the two great undertakings to which, for the present and the immediate future, it will, of necessity, chiefly devote its energies, the eradication of the cattle tick and the control of hog cholera, we are leaning heavily on two co-operative agencies. The first of these is the Federal Government, through its Bureau of Animal Industry, and the States Relations Service. In Dr. E. M. Nighbert, inspector in charge of the work of tick eradication; Dr. A. H. Logan, inspector in charge for hog cholera control; Dean P. H. Rolfs of the University, director of the Experiment Station, in charge of the work in Florida of the States Relations Service, and the numerous assistants placed by the Federal Government, under the direction of these three gentlemen, we have a large body of capable, trained and energetic experts, whose co-operation with our Board is of inestimable value to the State, and whose maintenance costs us nothing. The members of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board serve without remuneration, so that we have in Florida approximately thirty men who are engaged in promoting the work of live stock sanitation without expense to the taxpayers of the State. It is fitting, I think, that this Association should be reminded of this very great and very costly, but nevertheless wholly gratuitous, service which is being rendered to the interests which we represent. * * * So much for the past year; now for a glance forward. What I have just been saying indicates clearly the special work to which we ought, in my judgment, to devote ourselves in the immediate future--I mean the complete and final eradication of the tick in every county in Florida and the largest possible measure of control of hog cholera. If we see clearly, we see that these tasks are preliminary to all others. * * * Fortunately the tick is a very weak and vulnerable enemy, though so mischievous. Put all the cattle of Florida through the dipping vat once a fortnight for five or six months, and there would be no more ticks left in this State than there are snakes in Ireland. Let us consecrate ourselves here in this meeting to the doing of this thing, and doing it _soon_. Hog cholera is not so simple and manageable an affair. In the micro-organism which causes this disease, we face an enemy far subtler, more cunning, more elusive, more persistent and more swiftly fatal than is the tick. It escapes observation by the most powerful microscope; it laughs at quarantine lines; it flows in the stream; it lurks in the pool; it rides upon the foot of beast and bird, the shoe of man, the wagon's wheel; it soars aloft on the buzzard's wing; you can not catch and dip it. I earnestly advise the formation of local live stock associations throughout the State, at least one in each county affiliated with the State Association, and having special committees on Tick Eradication and Hog Cholera Control, composed of the ablest, the most energetic and the most influential men in the various communities. Let these associations hold meetings at regular intervals for the free exchange of views and experiences; let expert and interesting speakers from abroad bring to these meetings fresh information and impetus; let there be added such social and entertaining features as may be available--music, barbecues, moving pictures, boat excursions, what-not--to attract the multitude, relieve the monotony of farm life, and increase neighborliness and good community feeling. Let the co-operation of the banks of the region be secured, for the generous financing of pig clubs and corn clubs. * * * There is one other matter of prime importance to which I invite your attention. If the live stock industry of Florida is to be put on the most stable basis and developed with reasonable rapidity, immense sums of money will be required. Fences must be built; drainage canals and ditches must be dug; improved and more nourishing grasses must be introduced over vast areas; other great areas must be planted with forage crops; silos must be built; plows, harrows and other expensive implements must be purchased; horses, mules and tractors, herdsmen, farmers and laborers must be secured and put to work in great numbers; a multitude of pure-bred bulls and cows, boars and sows, rams and ewes, stallions, jacks and mares must be imported for the improvement of our native stock. Where are the necessary funds coming from for the financing of those enterprises? Perhaps the large ranch owners can take care of themselves, but what our State needs above all things else is thrifty farmers by the thousand, now on the ground or drawn from other states by our surpassing advantages of soil and climate; where shall these secure the funds necessary for the development of their more modest holdings? Florida is a relatively new and scantily populated State; there are here no great reserves of cash and securities, accumulated and bequeathed by generations of toiling and thrifty ancestors, as in some parts of the country. Many of the banks are doing their best to care for our live stock interests, but the ability of our local banks--and I speak now as a banker--is strictly limited in this direction. What we need in Florida, in my judgment, as the very next step to be taken, is one or more strong cattle loan companies, such as flourish in the West, whose sole business it will be to provide the funds necessary for the developments which I have mentioned, so far as cattle are concerned. This is a matter which will occupy us during one entire session of this meeting, and I need not, therefore, deal with it further now, except to say that the present time seems especially propitious for the securing of such funds as we need for this business. Men are asking how they may make safe investment of their savings in these troubled times; the future of the railways, now under Government control, is uncertain; industrial enterprises have been largely thrown into abnormal condition by the war; stocks, bonds and other similar securities have in them today a considerable speculative element which gives pause to conservative investors. But amid all this flux and uncertainty, here lies the land, as from of old, unchanging, peaceful, fruitful, a mother's full breast, and upon the land feed and grow, enriching and renewing it forever even as they feed upon it, the friendly animals, whose flesh and milk support our life from the cradle to the grave. There is nothing speculative here, and I am confident that investors, perplexed now by the unheard of aspect of the world's affairs, will be disposed to put their funds more and more into the soil and its products, if they are shown the way; and the cattle-loan company, organized and administered by experienced and careful men, can show them the way and lead them safely in it. And now, gentlemen, we will proceed to the program our Executive Committee has provided. I hope that our meeting together, the messages which will be brought us from abroad, and the various discussions in which we ourselves shall engage, will serve to hearten us for our work and help us to feel, amid the toil and perplexities of our daily task, that in providing a more copious supply of food for the world, in causing two blades of grass to grow where one grew before, and in transforming these blades of grass by the mysterious and wonderful processes of nature into the thoughts and loves of men and women, the orator's speech, the poet's song, the statesman's wisdom, the soldier's fierce energy, the mother's brooding care, and the babe's new life, we are doing our part to support and render more rich and worthy this wondrous human drama and are partners with God in the work of his earthly kingdom. FLORIDA SUITED TO EXTENSIVE CATTLE RAISING. Texas Ranchmen Declare Conditions Ideal for Cattle, Sheep and Goats. The impression made upon a prominent Texas ranch owner who recently visited the great cattle ranges of Florida was that Nature has been too good to the cattle industry in this State to encourage improvement in the crude methods of breeding and handling stock which have been in vogue for years, for the cattle owners have made money without trying. Among those who spent a week during the latter part of August inspecting range conditions were M. Sansom of Fort Worth, president of the Cassidy-Southwestern Commission Co., director of the Federal Reserve Bank and owner of large cattle ranch interests. * * * Mr. Sansom expressed his impression of Florida's opportunity for raising cattle in these words: "The only trouble you have in Florida, Nature has been too good to you. If it had done half as much for Texas the Government officials would not now be worrying about the future meat supply for the United States and our Allies. I have seen Texas when the cattle were no better than the grade I have seen on this trip. We started twenty-five years ago to improve our herds and stayed with it, until today we furnish some of the best breeding and feeding cattle for the Northern States. "Florida now has very great advantage over pioneer Texas, as you can get some of our good breeding stock and make rapid progress breeding up your herds. The Osceola Cattle Co., in Osceola County, has started along right lines, and the manager gave me some figures on calf production which show that his herd are producing a larger percentage of calves than we get in Texas. "But your luxuriant range grasses and abundance of stock water are almost unbelievable. Your range will carry from three to ten times as many cattle per section as the Texas land in a normal year. And when I say normal year I want you to remember that sometimes the rain clouds forget all about Texas for months at a time, and then our ranges suffer from drought, as large sections of them are doing at this time. "You have a sheep country as good as exists, and a goat country better than any other. It is too bad that you do not raise more sheep on your ranges, for they do not hurt the cattle pastures, eating only the tender blades down under the more mature grass. We run thousands of sheep on our cattle ranges in Texas. The goats will be a distinct benefit to the Florida ranges, as they do not eat much grass when they can get underbrush, briars and weeds. By having those cleaned out of the pastures the grass will have a better chance to grow. "I am informed that Florida does not have to combat coyotes, which are our worst sheep enemies, so you really have no serious losses to anticipate on your sheep investments. And yet there are very few sheep on the ranges we have visited. It is to be hoped that your cattlemen will use more sheep on the ranges. "The range country should become the calf incubator for the Southeastern States, the offspring being sold at weaning time or as yearlings. That will give your ranges a larger carrying capacity for breeding stock and let the grain-producing sections do the finishing."--_From the Manufacturers' Record, Sept. 13, 1917._ CATTLE RAISING IN FLORIDA. As I Saw it on a Thousand-mile Tour of the Central Part of the State. _By A. C. Williams._ Wasn't it Saul who went out in search of asses and found a kingdom? You men who are familiar with the Bible can answer that. But I can testify that I, while not in search of asses, duplicated Saul's experience during the past month, when, in company with M. Sansom, W. N. Waddell, Caesar Kleberg and Tom T. East of Texas, Dr. L. J. Allen of Oklahoma, Geo. M. Rommel of Washington, P. L. Sutherland, C. L. Gaines and J. G. Boyd of Florida, I had the pleasure of a thousand-mile trip through the central part of the State of Florida. Nature has been very kind to Florida, providing delightful climate, fertile lands and adequate rainfall for farming purposes; broad prairies, carpeted with succulent grasses and watered by running streams for live stock raising; timber galore for sawmills, and countless beauty spots beckoning to tourists. But the citizens of that State have been slow to take advantage of their opportunities. Agriculture in many sections has been a neglected art. Practically all of the foodstuffs, including grain, meat, butter and eggs, have been produced outside the State. Colonization companies have devoted their energies to boosting orange orchards and truck gardens (the "poker game of agriculture"), and little organized effort has been made to attract farmers and stockmen of tireless energy--the backbone of any community. Among the neglected industries, none stand out more conspicuously than stock raising. The native cattle, inbred, stunted specimens of doubtful origin, have been turned loose on the free, open range to rustle for themselves, and little effort has been made in most sections toward breed improvement. Due to the mild climate, good range, adequate water supply and absence of screw worms, coyotes and other pests, they have survived. And with open range and no expense they have been very profitable. In our entire trip we saw only two or three flocks of sheep and goats. They were of better quality than I had expected--fairly good for mutton, but light on wool. A new era is dawning for the cattle business of Florida. The war has forced a reduction in the exports of turpentine and rosin, and the large land owners are turning their attention to improved stock raising. A packing house has been erected at Jacksonville. Systematic tick eradication is being carried on. Large tracts of land have been fenced and stocked. Hundreds of well-bred Texas cows and registered Hereford, Angus, Shorthorn and Brahma bulls are being purchased, and the work of breed improvement is growing in popularity. Good feed and forage crops can be grown in most sections, and with this new movement for improved live stock will come deeper interest in agriculture. The chief forage crops now produced in that State are corn, velvet beans, Japanese cane, sorghum, cow peas and beggar-weed. The first three perhaps take the lead. The corn and velvet beans are planted together, in rows from four to six feet apart. The beans grow very rank, producing an abundance of good hay, and beans which are high in feeding value. The beans may be left on the vines for pasturage, or gathered and ground into bean meal, which is excellent for cattle feeding. Japanese cane resembles our Texas ribbon cane. It makes good silage, keeps well and is highly relished by cattle. The Florida beggar-weed grows as a volunteer in old fields of a light sandy soil. If cut at the right time it makes good hay, and, while it is rather bulky for silage alone, it is said to add greatly to the fattening value of silage. Corn and cow peas need no introduction to our readers. The most common grasses are several varieties of paspalum or carpet grass, switch grass, wire grass, little blue maiden cane and Bermuda. Crab and Natal grass are volunteers which follow crops on sandy soils. Both Guinea and Para grasses thrive in South Florida, where less liable to injury by frost. Fort Thompson grass, which resembles giant Bermuda, with larger joint, stem and leaf, is a native of Florida, which will some day be recognized as one of their very best pasture grasses. With their open range and native cattle--a poorer grade than our old-time longhorn--the cattle business of Florida today may be compared to that of Texas twenty years ago. What they need is more bulls and experienced cattlemen who will apply the intelligence, energy and persistence that know not failure. Leaving Kenansville at 8:15, we were soon out on the Kissimmee prairie of thousands and thousands of acres of open range. Here, where the grass was very luxuriant, resembling a hay meadow, we saw several hundred more of the small native cattle, followed by the common scrubby bulls. The fat four-year-old steers weighed around 550 pounds, and are valued at $30 per head. The cows weighed around 500 pounds. The range herds of mixed ages and classes are valued at $20 per head. We soon left the public highway, circling marshes and dodging palmettos. Our next stop was on Gum Slough Ranch, where we were told that on a pasture of 10,000 acres there were 6,000 cattle. The ground was well covered with carpet and a variety of other grasses, and did not show the effects of close grazing. The cattle were in good condition and of better quality than most of the others which we had inspected.--_From The Cattleman, September, 1917._ 
37041	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: | | | | * Transcription used in this e-text: | | _text_ indicates italics; | | =text= indicates bold-face text; | | ^{text} indicates superscript text; | | _{text} indicates subscript text. | | * Lettered footnotes (with anchors [A], [B], etc.), explaining | | the text, have been moved to directly below the paragraph or | | table they refer to. Footnotes with anchors [1], [2], etc. | | refer to references, that are listed towards the end of the | | text. | | * The original text has not been modified, except that some minor| | typographical errors have been corrected silently. | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ PRESERVATION OF BULL SEMEN AT SUB-ZERO TEMPERATURES By N. L. VanDemark W. J. Miller W. C. Kinney, Jr. Carlos Rodriguez M. E. Friedman Bulletin 621 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION CONTENTS Page EARLY WORK ON FREEZING SEMEN 5 SELECTION OF SEMEN FOR FREEZING 6 Predicting freezability 6 Freezability of first and second ejaculates 7 Freezability of several consecutive ejaculates 7 Freezability of epididymal sperm 9 Freezability of washed sperm 10 EXTENDERS FOR FREEZING BULL SEMEN 10 Proportion of egg yolk in final diluent 10 Citrate level in final diluent 11 Storing and freezing diluent 12 Other diluents 13 DILUTION RATES 14 Effect of further dilution and refreezing 14 GLYCEROL ADDITIONS 17 Effect of glycerol on sperm survival at 5° C. 17 Glycerol levels for freezing semen 18 Rate, temperature, and method of adding glycerol 18 Allowing sperm to equilibrate with glycerol 20 Sugar additions and equilibration time 20 Substitutes for glycerol 22 FREEZING RATE 22 Effect of freezing rate on sperm survival 22 Rate of cooling in plastic and in glass 23 STORAGE TEMPERATURE 24 Storage at -23° to -79° C. 24 Use of higher glycerol levels and storage at -20° C. 25 THAWING 26 Comparison of thawing at 5° C. and at 38° C. 27 Thawing rate in plastic and in glass 29 EFFECTS OF FREEZING PROCEDURES ON METABOLIC ACTIVITY OF SPERM 30 Effect of glycerol additions on oxygen uptake of diluted semen at 37° C. 30 Effect of glycerol-plus-catalase on oxygen uptake of diluted semen 32 Effect of freezing procedures on oxygen utilization 33 Effect of freezing procedures on methylene-blue reduction time 33 PRACTICAL FREEZING PROCEDURE 35 Collection of semen 35 Preparation of extender 35 Dilution after collection 36 Adding the glycerol 36 Equilibration 36 Freezing 37 Thawing 37 LITERATURE CITED 38 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TABLE 39 Urbana, Illinois October, 1957 Publications in the Bulletin series report the results of investigations made or sponsored by the Experiment Station ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance given to the Department of Dairy Science in support of these investigations by the Southern Illinois Breeding Association of Breese, Illinois, and the Northern Illinois Breeding Co-op of Hampshire, Illinois, through the Illinois Dairy Breeding Federation. THE PRESERVATION OF BULL SEMEN AT SUB-ZERO TEMPERATURES By N. L. VANDEMARK, W. J. MILLER, W. C. KINNEY, JR., CARLOS RODRIGUEZ, and M. E. FRIEDMAN[A] [A] This publication was prepared by N. L. VANDEMARK, Professor of Dairy Physiology. Research reported herein was carried out cooperatively by the senior author and W. J. MILLER, W. C. KINNEY, JR., CARLOS RODRIGUEZ, and M. E. FRIEDMAN, formerly members of the Department of Dairy Science. The first announcement in 1951 of the successful impregnation of a cow with bull semen that had been frozen stimulated much interest and research in freezing as a method of preserving bull semen. Research during the years following 1951 resulted in considerable progress and success in using freezing as a means of holding semen for long periods of time without loss of fertility. Between 1952 and 1957, research on many aspects of the preservation of bull semen at sub-zero temperatures was carried out in the Department of Dairy Science at the University of Illinois. Many of these investigations have aided in perfecting the freezing technique that has been adapted for practical use. Some of these findings have been published, but many items have gone unreported except for general references at scientific meetings. It is the purpose of this bulletin to bring together the results of several experiments carried out in connection with the freezing of bull semen and to present a practical freezing procedure based on the results of these experiments and findings at other institutions. Persons interested in the development of the procedures and the reasons why certain steps are necessary in freezing semen will find the details in the first part of this bulletin. Those interested only in the freezing procedure may turn to page 35 where a practical method of freezing semen is described. EARLY WORK ON FREEZING SEMEN While it has been known for a long time that various types of tissues and organisms can withstand freezing and are even preserved by freezing, the first attempts at freezing sperm cells were made before the turn of the century. In 1897, Davenport[1][B] found that human sperm would withstand freezing. For thirty to forty years after that, little attention was paid to freezing as a possible means of preserving semen. An excellent review of the early attempts to freeze sperm has been assembled by Polge and Parkes.[2] These investigators also gave a good account of their work at the British National Institute of Medical Research in London, where in 1949 they demonstrated that glycerol would protect fowl sperm so that it would survive freezing. The next year they found that bull sperm and the sperm of several other species were protected by glycerol during freezing. During the same year, Emmens and Blackshaw[3] showed that ram and bull sperm would survive freezing. In 1951 frozen semen was used to produce a calf in England and a lamb in Australia. [B] These numbers refer to literature citations on page 38. The highlights in the development of frozen semen have been covered by other reviews and reports. Interested persons will find the articles of Polge and Parkes[2] and Smith[4] especially good on the early history and theoretical aspects of freezing sperm. Later progress on the freezing procedure has been reviewed and covered in a number of detailed reports.[5],[6],[7] Many items not covered in those articles have been assembled here. SELECTION OF SEMEN FOR FREEZING One of the first considerations in freezing semen is that of deciding which semen samples are to be frozen. Since preservation of the semen--the maintenance of the potential motility and especially the fertility of the sperm--is the primary aim, some attention should be directed to the kind of semen sample that will withstand freezing. Do the initial characteristics of the sample indicate whether the sperm will withstand freezing? Does maturity of the sperm affect their freezability? =Predicting freezability.= Estimates of semen quality in the past have been based in part on the numbers of sperm present in a fresh sample and on the percentage and rate of motility shown by the sperm. These characteristics were used to determine the relationship between the original concentration of sperm (in the fresh, undiluted sample), the percentage and rate of sperm motility in the diluted samples just prior to freezing, and the percentage and rate of sperm motility following freezing and thawing. From data collected before and after freezing and thawing 54 ejaculates, it was found that there was not a significant correlation between the number of sperm present in the original sample and the percent of motile sperm present after freezing and thawing (r = 0.03). A highly significant correlation (r = 0.45) was found, however, between the percentages before freezing and after thawing. While this correlation coefficient was highly significant, its magnitude indicates that only about one fifth of the variation in percentage of motile sperm observed after freezing was accounted for by the motility of the sperm prior to freezing. =Freezability of first and second ejaculates.= In the early days of artificial breeding in this country, it was commonly believed that a second ejaculate collected a few minutes after the first resulted in a larger ejaculate containing more sperm. With the development of the procedure of stimulating sexual excitement by restraint prior to collecting semen, this difference between first and second ejaculates has been greatly reduced. Still it was noted that second ejaculates frequently withstood freezing better than first ejaculates, even though restraint and stimulation of the bull occurred prior to collection of the first ejaculate. During the course of a number of experiments, it was possible to compare the freezability of 2 ejaculates that were collected a few minutes apart from the same bull. Two consecutive ejaculates were obtained one or more times from 24 bulls so that a total of 58 comparisons could be made. The mean prefreezing and post-thawing percentages of motile sperm in first and second ejaculates are presented in Table 1. An analysis of variance showed that in this comparison the differences between first and second ejaculates in sperm survival during freezing were highly significant. A later comparison of 27 first and second ejaculates from 26 bulls did not show as great a difference between first and second ejaculates in their ability to withstand freezing (Table 1). Table 1.--Comparison of the Freezability of First and Second Ejaculates Taken a Few Minutes Apart From the Same Bull ===================================================================== Number Number Prefreezing Post-thawing of of Ejaculate motility motility Survival bulls ejaculates (percent) (percent) (percent) --------------------------------------------------------------------- 24 58 1st 60 39 65 2d 62 45 74 26 27 1st 60 36 60 2d 65 40 61 --------------------------------------------------------------------- =Freezability of several consecutive ejaculates.= The fact that second ejaculates sometimes withstood freezing better than first ejaculates suggested that the maturity of the sperm might be a factor affecting freezability. An opportunity to check this idea came when 20 consecutive ejaculates were collected from each of 6 bulls within a 4-hour period. The sperm in samples collected in this manner might be expected to be less mature with each additional collection. The results obtained in freezing several consecutive ejaculates are shown in Figure 1 as averages for the ejaculates from 6 bulls. In same instances, there was an insufficient quantity of semen available to test the freezability. (Procedure: Diluted to 30 × 10^{6} sperm per ml. with 1:1 yolk-citrate, then cooled and glycerolated with an equal volume of 14 percent glycerol (percent by volume) in 2.9 percent sodium citrate. Final sperm concentration, 15 × 10^{6}. Equilibration time, 15 hours. Freezing rate, 2° C. per minute from +5° to -19° C. then 4° C. per minute from -19° to -79° C. Held frozen for 5 or more hours then thawed in water at 5° C. and checked for motility.) [Illustration: Percent of motile sperm before and after freezing consecutive ejaculates collected within a 4-hour period from each of 6 bulls (Fig. 1)] In general, the motility before freezing improved slightly from the first to the fourth to sixth ejaculate and then declined until about the 12th or 14th ejaculate, at which point the prefreezing motility seemed to level off through the 20th ejaculate (Fig. 1). The percentage of motile sperm found after freezing and thawing followed the same trend at an average level 10 to 15 percent lower than the prefreezing level. As is readily seen from the trend lines in Fig. 1, the difference between the prefreezing motility and the post-thawing motility increased gradually after about the fifth ejaculate. Although the absolute difference did not increase greatly, the percentage of survival after freezing dropped from 81 percent on the first 5 ejaculates to 26.5 percent on the last 5 (Table 2). Table 2.--Comparison of the Freezability of 20 Consecutive Ejaculates Collected Within a 4-Hour Period (Weighted averages for 6 bulls) =================================================================== Number Prefreezing Post-thawing Ejaculate of motility motility Survival ejaculates (percent) (percent) (percent) ------------------------------------------------------------------- 1st to 5th 29 53.3 43.2 81.0 6th to 10th 26 43.8 30.2 69.0 11th to 15th 23 28.6 14.5 50.7 16th to 20th 19 18.1 4.8 26.5 ------------------------------------------------------------------- =Freezability of epididymal sperm.= Since the freezability of bull semen seemed to be better in second than in first ejaculates and some improvement in freezability was evident through the first 4 to 6 ejaculates taken consecutively, the question of whether epididymal sperm would withstand freezing seemed to be important. Although when 20 collections were made, the later ejaculates no doubt contained fewer mature sperm, the lowered freezability could have been due to accessory gland secretions rather than changes in the sperm themselves. Removing sperm directly from the epididymis would eliminate any effect that the accessory gland secretions could be exerting. Further, if epididymal sperm could be frozen, obtaining and using semen from a bull shortly after his death should be possible. Table 3.--Freezability of Sperm in Samples Taken From the Epididymides ================================================= Prefreezing Post-thawing Bull motility motility Survival (percent) (percent) (percent) ------------------------------------------------- 1 50 40 80 2 40 13 32 3 60 15 25 4 30 15 50 5+6 40 25 62 Average 44 22 50 ------------------------------------------------- To determine whether epididymal sperm would withstand freezing, the 12 epididymides (cauda only) of 6 slaughtered bulls were flushed with saline (0.9 percent) and the sperm obtained were frozen using the same procedure as was used with the 20 consecutive ejaculates discussed earlier. Averages of the 2 epididymides from each bull are given in Table 3; the samples from bulls 5 and 6 were combined. From the data in Table 3, it is obvious that motile sperm were present after freezing and thawing epididymal samples. It is likely that further experience in handling epididymal sperm may lead to improved results. Using frozen epididymal sperm from 2 bulls, Canadian workers have produced confirmed pregnancies in 8 out of 12 cows.[8] =Freezability of washed sperm.= In the laboratory it is frequently desirable to study sperm free of the seminal plasma in which they are ejaculated. Sperm can be separated from the seminal plasma by centrifugation, removal of the supernatant plasma, and resuspension in a salt solution of known composition. Sometimes it is desirable to repeat the process. This tends to wash the sperm with the salt solution and sperm handled in this way are called washed sperm. Sperm cells centrifuged three times and washed twice in 0.9 percent sodium chloride solution withstood freezing well when finally resuspended and frozen in yolk-citrate diluent. The percentage of survival in three samples subjected to this treatment was 60 percent. Thus it appears that the seminal plasma itself is not essential for ejaculated sperm to survive the rigors of freezing. This is not surprising, since it had already been found that epididymal sperm, which also are free of accessory gland secretions, can withstand freezing and thawing. EXTENDERS FOR FREEZING BULL SEMEN Both of the extenders that are widely used in routine storage of bull semen at 5° C. are used for freezing semen. These are the egg yolk-sodium citrate and whole or skimmilk extenders. Most of the research with extenders for freezing bull semen in this laboratory has been done with the yolk-citrate diluents. =Proportion of egg yolk in the final diluent.= Some early experiences with a diluent consisting of one part yolk and one part 2.9 percent sodium citrate dihydrate in distilled water showed poor sperm survival following freezing. The final mixture with this diluent consisted of about 45 percent yolk. In other attempts at adding glycerol in order to freeze semen, the final proportion of yolk was diminished and better sperm survival was obtained. Several experiments were carried out to test the effect of varying levels of egg yolk. In the first efforts to find the optimum level of egg yolk, the level of yolk in the final frozen mixture was varied from about 6 to 46 percent. These levels were obtained by varying the proportion of yolk to 2.9 percent citrate solution in the original extending media and also in the media added in glycerolating the samples. Split portions of 20 semen samples were frozen in each of the extender combinations indicated in Table 4. The mean percentages of motile sperm found before and after freezing and thawing are shown also. The highest percentages were found with extenders containing 23 and 24 percent yolk. The highest percentage of yolk, resulting when a 1:1 (yolk to citrate) extender was used for both extending and glycerolating, proved to be most detrimental to sperm survival during freezing. The lowest percentage of yolk used (6 percent) was not as effective in protecting sperm during freezing as the intermediate levels tested (Fig. 2). Table 4.--Effect of Egg-Yolk Level in Diluent on Freezability of Semen (Average of 20 semen samples) ========================================================================= Medium Yolk in Pre- Post- Sur- ---------------------------- final freezing thawing vival Diluent Extending Glycerolating[C] mix- motility motility (per- ------------ ---------------- ture[D] (percent) (percent) cent) yolk:citrate yolk:citrate (percent) ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 1:1 1:1 45.7 65 5 8 2 1:1 1:3 34.9 64 27 42 3 1:3 1:1 33.6 63 33 52 4 1:1 0:1 24.2 64 39 61 5 1:3 1:3 22.8 63 37 59 6 1:3 0:1 12.1 59 33 56 7 1:7 1:7 11.4 56 35 62 8 1:7 0:1 6.0 52 26 50 9 1:15 1:15 5.7 49 25 51 ------------------------------------------------------------------------- [C] This mixture included 14 percent glycerol. [D] The average initial sperm concentration was 900 × 10^{6}/ml. Sufficient extender was added to give 30 × 10^{6}/ml. at the first extension. Thus the final concentration was 15 × 10^{6} sperm/ml. after glycerolization. Since rather large changes in the percentages of yolk were used in this experiment, two further trials were conducted in which 16, 24, and 32 percent yolk in the final mixture were compared, with the final citrate percentages held constant. In these tests, 16 and 24 percent yolk maintained sperm better at all citrate levels tried than 32 percent yolk. The 16 percent level was slightly better at most of the levels of citrate tested (Fig. 3). =Citrate level in the final diluent.= The early work of the British indicated that a final citrate level near 2 percent in the diluent was satisfactory for freezing bull sperm. Later, in a personal communication, Polge of the British group suggested that a citrate level of about 2.35 percent might be best with a final glycerol concentration of 7 percent. Some of the first attempts in this laboratory at establishing the optimum yolk-to-citrate ratios are shown in Fig. 3. In these experiments, the optimum levels of citrate appeared to be lower than anticipated from the British work. Thus a more complex experiment was set up to test a wider range of citrate levels using 16 and 24 percent egg yolk in the final freezing mixture. The average percentages of motile sperm found after freezing 10 semen samples at each of the citrate and yolk levels in this experiment are shown also in Fig. 3. Little difference in freezability was found between citrate percentages of 1.55 and 1.95. When the rate of sperm motility following freezing and thawing was considered along with the percent of motile sperm, a slight advantage was found with 16 percent yolk and a citrate concentration of 1.55 percent. [Illustration: Percent of motile sperm after freezing and thawing semen in diluents containing various levels of egg yolk (Fig. 2)] From the results of these experiments, and from several reports in the literature,[5],[6],[7],[9],[10] it appears that a diluting medium resulting in a final concentration of 16 to 25 percent yolk and 1.55 to 2.2 percent sodium citrate dihydrate is highly satisfactory for freezing. =Storing and freezing diluent.= In some instances it would be advantageous to have prepared diluent on hand for use at any time. The suitability of stored diluent was tested with a yolk-citrate (equal parts yolk and citrate without antibiotics added) diluent prepared and stored at 5° C. for 0, 2, 5, 7, and 9 days. Seven semen samples were diluted and frozen in these diluents. No difference was noted in the survival of sperm that could be attributed to the age of the diluent. [Illustration: Percent of motile sperm after freezing and thawing semen in diluents containing various levels of egg yolk and various percentages of sodium citrate (Fig. 3)] In another trial, a similar diluent (1:1 yolk to citrate with 1000 units of penicillin and 5000 units of streptomycin) was prepared and stored in the freezer compartment of a refrigerator at -15° C. Upon thawing, it was whitish in color and more viscous than freshly prepared diluent. Except for the fact that the viscosity seemed to reduce the rate of sperm motility, this frozen diluent stored for 65 days compared favorably with freshly prepared diluent for freezing semen. =Other diluents.= Without the protective action of egg yolk or milk, few bull sperm will survive freezing. Several diluents were compared on a limited scale for freezing bull sperm. The results of these trials are compiled in Table 5. In this trial the yolk-citrate extender served best in maintaining sperm motility during freezing. Yolk-phosphate and homogenized whole milk were slightly less protective and yolk-saline seemed to furnish the least protection to sperm during freezing. A number of investigations in other laboratories have now proven that milk can be used as effectively as the yolk-citrate diluent for freezing bull sperm.[6],[7] Table 5.--Comparison of the Freezability of 4 Semen Samples in Different Extenders ====================================================================== Dilution Pre- Post- Motility Extender rate freezing thawing Survival after (semen: motility motility (percent) storage[E] extender) (percent) (percent) (percent) ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Yolk-citrate 1:1 60 49 82 46 1:10 53 45 85 36 Yolk-saline 1:1 57 29 51 28 1:10 60 31 52 24 Yolk-phosphate 1:1 55 33 64 25 1:10 60 43 72 25 Whole milk 1:1 60 40 67 35 1:10 60 35 58 16 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- [E] Stored at 5° C. for 7 hours after thawing. DILUTION RATES The first trials by the British at freezing bull semen were made with samples containing many millions of sperm cells. In routine artificial breeding, it is common to add extenders to semen so that one milliliter of diluted semen may contain only 10 million living sperm cells. (This number still insures optimal fertility.) Frequently the addition of 100 or more parts of the yolk extender to each part of the original semen sample is possible without reducing the sperm numbers below 10 million per milliliter. No one knew if this process of dilution would affect the resistance of bull sperm to freezing. The effect of various rates of dilution on the freezability of bull sperm was tested with 10 semen samples. The results, presented in Table 6, show that the numbers of sperm between 10 and 90 million per milliliter did not influence the percentage of sperm that survived freezing. In a later trial it was found that sperm survival was slightly better at lower dilution rates than in the same samples frozen following dilution to 15 million sperm per milliliter. However, field trials with frozen semen carried out by others, using sperm numbers as low as 15 million per milliliter of semen inseminated or even lower, have been highly satisfactory.[11],[12] During the early studies in the Illinois laboratory, the effects of glycerol level were also tested.[13] These effects are discussed in the section on glycerol additions beginning on page 17. =Effect of further dilution and refreezing after the initial freezing.= Under some circumstances it might be advantageous to freeze semen with a high concentration of sperm cells and then extend it further after thawing. With such a procedure less storage space is needed than when dilution is carried to the maximum before freezing. Two experiments were conducted to test the effects of dilution and storage at 5° C. and dilution and refreezing following an initial freezing of concentrated samples. Table 6.--Effect of Sperm Numbers and Glycerol Level in Final Mixture on Freezability of Bull Sperm at -79° C. (Average of 10 ejaculates) ================================================================ Post-thawing motility (percent)[F] --------------------------------------------- Glycerol level Number of sperm (millions/ml.) (percent) -------------------------------- 90 30 10 Average ---------------------------------------------------------------- 5 36.0 34.0 36.0 35.0 10 22.0 24.0 23.0 23.0 15 3.2 0.9 0.2 1.4 Average 20.3 19.8 19.9 20.0 ---------------------------------------------------------------- [F] Mean initial motility of sperm before freezing was 55 percent. Four semen samples were split and extended at rates of 1:1 (semen to extender) and 1:10. These were frozen, then thawed and halved. One half was further extended to a level of 15 million sperm per milliliter; the sperm numbers in the other remained unchanged. Each of these halves was split again, and one portion of each was stored at 5° C. for 3 to 7 hours. The other two portions were refrozen. Table 7.--Effect of Further Dilution and Refreezing on Sperm Motility After the Initial Freezing of Bull Semen ======================================================================== Post-thawing motility Dilution Pre- --------------------------------------------------- of freezing After After storage[G] After refreezing[H] semen motility first ------------------- -------------------- (semen: (percent) freezing No Diluted No Diluted extender) further to 15 further to 15 dilution million/ml dilution million/ml ------------------------------------------------------------------------ First trial: 4 samples 1:1 60 49 46 34 31 6 1:10 53 45 36 30 25 5 Second trial: 7 samples 1:9 67 47 41 35 28 11 15 million/ml 67 30 32 .. 18 .. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ [G] Stored at 5° C. for 3 to 7 hours after first thawing. [H] Refrozen following first thawing. Table 8.--Effect of Glycerol Level and Storage at 5° C. on Motility of Sperm in Yolk-Citrate Extender ==================================================================== Sperm motility -------------------------------------------------------- Post- After storage at 5° C. Glycerol thawing ---------------------------- Average level 1 day 3 days 7 days (percent) --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- per- rate per- rate per- rate per- rate per- rate cent cent cent cent cent -------------------------------------------------------------------- Control[I] 56 2.5 55 1.9 46 1.8 38 1.4 48 1.90 0 54 2.4 44 1.9 46 1.8 36 1.4 45 1.87 5 52 2.2 50 1.9 46 1.7 32 1.4 45 1.80 10 52 2.3 46 1.8 42 1.7 28 1.6 42 1.85 20 52 2.1 50 1.7 44 1.6 38 1.1 46 1.62 30 50 0.7 44 0.5 42 0.4 30 0.4 42 0.51 Average 53 2.03 47 1.62 44 1.50 34 1.22 .. .... -------------------------------------------------------------------- [I] The control differed from the 0-glycerol treatment in that no additional citrate or glycerol solution was added. A similar trial was carried out with seven samples; one portion was diluted 1:9; the other was extended at the outset to 15 million sperm per milliliter. Results for both tests are summarized in Table 7. From Table 7 it can be seen that refreezing following an initial freezing further reduced the number of surviving sperm. The second freezing was more detrimental to the portion of the samples extended to 15 million sperm per milliliter than to the portion that was refrozen at a higher sperm concentration. The percentage of motile sperm remained fairly high in the portions that were diluted to 15 million sperm and stored at 5° C. However, in all cases, survival was best in the samples at the lower dilution levels. GLYCEROL ADDITIONS When the British procedure for freezing bull semen was first tried in this country, many of the refinements of the technique still had not been defined. It was known that glycerol worked well in protecting sperm during freezing. The effects of glycerol on sperm at 5° C., the appropriate levels to use in freezing, and the manner of adding it were not well established. Therefore, a number of trials were conducted in an attempt to establish the best procedures. =Effect of glycerol on sperm survival at 5° C.= Since early work indicated the need for adding glycerol to diluted semen in order to protect the sperm during freezing, it was considered important to determine the levels of glycerol that sperm would tolerate at 5° C. Ten semen samples were extended 1:9 (semen to diluent) in a 1:1 yolk-citrate diluent (yolk to 2.9 percent sodium citrate dihydrate). Each sample was then split into 6 portions and an equal volume of citrate solution containing glycerol was added slowly to each to bring the glycerol in the final mixture to 0, 5, 10, 20, or 30 percent (by volume). These samples were stored at 5° C. and examined for motile sperm after 1, 3, and 7 days. The effects of glycerol levels on the percentage of sperm surviving and the rate (or speed) of their forward motion (0 = no forward motion; 4 = extremely rapid progressive motility) are presented in Table 8. The percentage of motile sperm decreased slightly at the higher levels of glycerol. The most noticeable effect of the increase in glycerol level was the reduction in the rate of forward motion of the sperm. At the 30-percent level, the sperm moved slowly and could be seen to rotate as they moved forward. Some samples were checked after slowly bringing the diluent up to a level of 40 percent glycerol; the sperm seemed to be immobilized completely in this solution. =Glycerol levels for freezing semen.= The British procedure called for the use of 10 percent glycerol in the final mixture of semen and extender prior to freezing. Yet, as shown in Table 6, in our laboratory 5 percent glycerol resulted in the survival of a higher percentage of sperm than did 10 or 15 percent. In order to define more clearly the optimum glycerol level, several ejaculates of semen were subsampled and portions were frozen after the addition of yolk-citrate extender and glycerol in varying quantities. From Table 9 it can be seen that glycerol levels of 6 and 8 percent in the final mixture resulted in maximum sperm survival during freezing. These results were confirmed in tests on the survival of sperm at 5° C. storage for 3 days following freezing and thawing with varying glycerol levels (see Table 10). The results shown in Tables 9 and 10 were confirmed also in later experiments. Thirty-six samples were subjected to various levels of glycerol and no significant difference in freezability was found between 6 and 8 percent. Based on these findings, a glycerol level of 7 percent was adopted for use in all experiments described in this bulletin, unless otherwise indicated. Results in a number of other laboratories have agreed with our findings regarding the use of approximately 7 percent glycerol with the yolk-citrate diluent.[5],[6],[7],[9],[10] With milk as the extender, 10 to 13 percent glycerol has been preferred by some.[5],[6],[7] Table 9.--Effect of Glycerol Level on Sperm Motility After Freezing to -79° C. and Thawing ========================================================== Glycerol Number Pre- Post- Survival level of freezing thawing (percent) (percent) samples motility motility (percent) (percent) ---------------------------------------------------------- 2 10 53 2 4 4 19 55 29 53 6 19 55 34 62 8 19 55 35 64 10 19 55 24 44 12 10 53 13 25 ---------------------------------------------------------- Table 10.--Effect of Glycerol Level and Storage at 5° C. After Thawing on Sperm Motility (Average of 13 ejaculates) ================================================ Sperm motility (percent) Glycerol ---------------------------------- level Post- After storage at 5° C. (percent) thawing ----------------------- 1 day 3 days ------------------------------------------------ 4 29 22 20 6 38 34 24 8 42 33 17 10 33 18 6 ------------------------------------------------ Table 11.--Effects of Temperature, Rate of Addition of Glycerol, and Equilibration Time on Sperm Motility (Average of 12 ejaculates) =================================================================== Temperature Post-thawing motility (percent) during Equilibration ---------------------------------- addition time Glycerol additions of glycerol (hours) ---------------------------------- (° C.) 5 3 1 Average ------------------------------------------------------------------- 4.5 2 48 48 45 47.4 6 49 51 47 48.8 18 46 47 46 46.3 Average 47.8 48.6 46.0 47.5 10.0 2 44 43 45 43.9 6 48 50 46 47.9 18 43 46 42 44.0 Average 45.0 46.5 44.3 45.3 15.5 2 41 38 38 39.1 6 42 45 43 43.6 18 42 43 42 42.5 Average 42.0 41.8 41.4 41.7 ------------------------------------------------------------------- =Rate, temperature, and method of adding glycerol.= Closely associated with the question of how much glycerol should be added is that of how the additions should be made. Originally it was believed that the glycerol should be added in stages so that changes would occur gradually. However, there would be a saving in time if the entire amount could be added at once. Also, if the glycerol addition could be made soon after the dilution with egg yolk-citrate extender at room temperature, time would be gained in processing the semen for use. Since aging _in vitro_ is known to reduce the fertilizing ability of sperm, every effort should be made to keep the processing time at a minimum. The results of an experiment involving these items, along with that of how much time should be allowed after the additions before freezing (equilibration time), are presented in Table 11. One can see that sperm survived freezing better when the diluted semen was cooled to 4.5° C. before the glycerol was added. The survival at 10° and 15.5° C. was reduced with each rise in temperature. Thus, it appears that cooling to refrigerator temperature (4-5° C.) before adding the glycerol should be a part of the routine procedure. A comparison of the results from adding the glycerol in 5, 3, and 1 equal portions is given also in Table 11. Little difference in survival during freezing was noted between the three rates of addition. Using 3 equal additions resulted in slightly better results, but the advantage was not statistically significant. While little difference was evident from adding the glycerol in 3 portions as compared to 1, many still use 3 additions in the hope of obtaining a slightly better sperm survival. In fact, some have gone to a procedure of adding the glycerol dropwise with constant gentle agitation. This method has not been tested in this laboratory. =Allowing sperm to equilibrate with the glycerol.= Allowing sperm to stand in the presence of glycerol is considered by some to be necessary in order that the glycerol penetrate the sperm heads before freezing. From the first successful attempts at freezing bull sperm came the practice of allowing 12 to 20 hours for this process of equilibration. A long equilibration time results in aging the sperm. Data from a number of sources indicate that a drop of approximately 5 percent in fertility in the field occurs with each 24 hours of aging in the test tube. Thus it would seem desirable to reduce the equilibration time to a minimum commensurate with good freezability in order to reduce the effects of aging (at 5° C.). Results of attempting to reduce equilibration time are given in Table 11. At 4.5° C., little variation in motility following freezing and thawing was found after equilibration times of 2, 6, and 18 hours. At the higher temperatures of 10° and 15.5° C., the shortest equilibration time--2 hours--was slightly more detrimental with the differences significant at the 5-percent level at 15.5° C. For all temperatures combined, 6 hours was significantly better than 2 or 18 hours. =Sugar additions and equilibration time.= Early in their experiences in freezing semen, the Australian workers found a short equilibration time--30 minutes--to be satisfactory if sugars were added to the diluent.[5] This protective action of sugars during the equilibration period was confirmed in our investigations. The results of one phase of this study are shown in Table 12. From these data it can be seen that the presence of glucose or rhamnose at a level of 1.25 percent improved sperm survival during the period of equilibration. In another trial these sugars and two others, arabinose and xylose, were tested for their protective action in freezing semen. The percentages of surviving sperm remaining after the various steps in the freezing procedure with and without the presence of these sugars are shown in Table 13. Table 12.--Effect of Adding Sugars to Yolk-Citrate Diluent on Sperm Motility During Equilibration With Glycerol[J] ============================================================ Sperm motility (percent) ------------------------------------- Stage when observed Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol only and glucose and rhamnose ------------------------------------------------------------ Fresh diluted semen 56 56 56 After glycerolization 54 54 54 After equilibration 2 hours 51 53 53 6 hours 48 52 53 12 hours 46 50 51 18 hours 40 46 46 ------------------------------------------------------------ [J] Glycerol level in the final frozen mixture was 7 percent. Sugars were added to a level of 1.25 percent. Three of the sugars--glucose, arabinose, and rhamnose--protected the sperm during equilibration and freezing. Xylose was less effective, but its addition resulted in slightly better sperm survival than glycerol alone. It was found also that the methylene-blue reduction time (metabolic test for semen quality) was faster in samples to which the sugars had been added--after glycerolization, after equilibration, and after freezing the samples. This is confirming evidence for the presence of more living and actively metabolizing sperm in the portions to which sugars had been added. Table 13.--Effect of Adding Sugars to Yolk-Citrate Diluent on Sperm Motility During the Freezing Procedures[K] (Average of 10 ejaculates) ====================================================================== Sperm motility (percent) ------------------------------------------------- Stage of Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol observation only and and and and glucose arabinose xylose rhamnose ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Fresh diluted semen 63 63 63 63 63 After glycerolization 54 55 54 57 60 After 18 hours equilibration 39 43 44 39 46 After freezing to -79° C. and immediate thawing 28 34 34 29 24 After 4 days at -79° C. 23 26 26 25 27 ----------------------------------------------------------------------- [K] Glycerol level in the final frozen mixture was 7 percent. Sugars were added to a level of 1.25 percent. =Substitutes for glycerol.= Since glycerol was so effective in protecting sperm during freezing, many have assumed that related compounds might be even better. Several compounds, some related to glycerol and some not, have been tried as substitutes for glycerol in the freezing procedure. They include ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, trimethylene glycol, mannitol, sorbitol, dextrans, and seminal-plasma proteins. None of these materials has been as effective as glycerol in protecting sperm during freezing. In fact, several of the materials proved to be injurious to sperm prior to attempts to freeze the samples. While the work in our laboratory with these substances as glycerol substitutes was by no means finally conclusive, because of the many possible interactions of experimental conditions, sufficient data were gathered to lead us to abandon further study until greater promise of success might be evident. FREEZING RATE =Effect of freezing rate on sperm survival.= Reports by one group of British workers in early trials on freezing bull semen indicated that the rate of cooling in freezing should not exceed 2° C. per minute between +5° and -15° C., although below -15° C. the rate could be faster. Another group expressed the view that semen could be plunged into dry ice at -79° C. after it had been cooled to -15° C. To clarify this part of the freezing procedure, 11 samples of semen were subdivided and portions of each were frozen at rates of 0.25°, 0.5°, 1.0°, 2.0°, and 4.0° C. drop per minute between +5° and -20° C. and then twice these rates between -20° and -79° C. Vials of each ejaculate at +5° C. were also plunged directly into an alcohol bath at -79° C. The samples which were cooled at the rates of 0.25°, 0.5°, 1.0°, 2.0°, and 4.0° C. per minute had the following percentages of motile sperm after thawing: 30, 40, 46, 44, and 44. A mean of 32 percent of the sperm in the samples that were plunged directly into an alcohol bath at -79° C. were motile after thawing. There were no statistically significant differences among the samples frozen at 1.0°, 2.0° or 4.0° C. per minute. All of the others had significantly lower survival rates. Thus, it is obvious that too slow a cooling rate and plunging the samples directly into a -79° C. bath from a temperature of +5° C. cause greater harm to the sperm than cooling at a rate between 1.0° and 4.0° C. per minute. Some investigators have suggested that rapid cooling below -20° C. is not detrimental to frozen semen. This idea was tested in conjunction with other experiments. Twenty-five samples cooled slowly (2° C. per minute to -28° C., then 4° C. per minute to -79° C.) showed 62 percent sperm survival compared with only 45 percent when cooled rapidly below -28° C. (2° C. per minute to -28° C. then plunged into bath at -79° C.). Thus, rapid cooling was detrimental even after the critical temperature range of +5° C. to -20° C. had been passed. [Illustration: Cooling rates of diluted semen samples in plastic vials and in glass ampules (Fig. 4)] =Rate of cooling in plastic and in glass.= Plastic vials do not conduct the cold as rapidly as glass ampules do. The temperature in both glass and plastic containers tends to lag behind the change in the bath in which they are immersed as is shown in Figure 4. Temperatures in the immersion bath were recorded in a 2-milliliter glass ampule containing 1 milliliter diluted semen and in an 8-milliliter plastic vial containing 2.5 milliliters of diluted semen. A second plastic vial and glass ampule filled to capacity with diluted semen showed a cooling rate almost identical to that shown in Figure 4. It was obvious from the comparison that samples in the plastic vials cooled slower than those in glass and that the volume of semen (at least the small volumes used) in the vials had little effect on the rate of cooling. In another experiment, it was shown that the volume of diluted semen in the ampule to be frozen (0.2, 1.0 or 5.0 ml.) had little or no effect on the survival of the sperm. STORAGE TEMPERATURE In freezing and storing bull sperm, an alcohol bath containing dry ice at a temperature of -79° C. has been used as a cooling agent. In many areas, the availability of dry ice is limited and the cost is rather high. Mechanical means are available for obtaining temperatures as low as, or lower than, -79° C. but for the most part they are expensive. If warmer temperatures were suitable for storing frozen semen, the ordinary deep-freeze, which operates at -15° to -25° C., might be used. =Storage at temperatures from -23° to -79° C.= In testing the effects of storage temperatures on the survival of frozen bull sperm (in a diluent containing 7 percent glycerol), 9 ejaculates were frozen and kept at -23°, -37°, -51°, -65°, and -79° C. The desired temperatures were maintained by dropping pieces of dry ice into ethyl alcohol baths as needed. Samples were thawed after 1 hour, 1 day, 3 days, and 5 days. After 1 hour, the samples maintained at the various temperatures exhibited approximately equal motility (Fig. 5). [Illustration: Effect of freezing and storing bull sperm at various temperatures on the sperm motility at thawing (average of 9 ejaculates) (Fig. 5)] At the end of 1 day, samples stored at -79° C. exhibited approximately the same motility as did similar samples stored for 1 hour. The samples stored at -65° C. had declined slightly in motility and those maintained at -51° C. had only one-third the motility which they had displayed at 1 hour. The samples at -23° and -37° C. exhibited practically no motility after 1 day in storage. After 5 days, only 3 of the 8 ejaculates stored at -51° C. showed motility upon thawing. Apparently detrimental changes take place more rapidly when the samples are stored at temperatures warmer than -65° C. The nature of these changes has not been determined. Reports from other laboratories indicate that storage temperatures much lower than -79° C. are just as satisfactory as -79° C. No tests of the effects of storage at -79° C. for periods longer than 51 days have been conducted in this laboratory. Portions of 12 ejaculates were frozen and stored at -79° C. for various periods. One portion of each of these was examined on the second, ninth, 16th and 51st day of storage. The percent of motile sperm and rate of motility at each of these examinations were as follows: Day 2 9 16 51 Percent of motile sperm 49 46 40 38 Rate of motility 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.2 The average prefreezing motility percentage for the above samples was 58, with an average rate of motility of 2.9. It is apparent from these results that the loss in motility was greatest due to the initial freezing, and after that the drop was most pronounced during the first 16 days of storage. The British and the Australians have both reported the successful maintenance of fertility in frozen semen stored at -79° C. for over two years.[5] =Use of higher glycerol levels and a -20° C. storage temperature.= In 1953, a report from Arkansas suggested that warmer storage temperatures could be used if a high percentage of glycerol were included in the freezing mixture.[7] To test the effectiveness of various glycerol levels on protecting sperm stored at deep-freeze temperatures, glycerol levels of 3.5, 5.5, 7.5, and 9.5 percent were used with portions of 4 semen samples. Survival in the portions frozen and stored at -20° C. was poor compared with the portions reduced and held at -79° C. In a second experiment, 4 samples were subdivided and frozen with a final concentration of 7, 11, 15, and 19 percent glycerol in the semen-diluent mixture. In this trial, poor results were obtained at -20° C. except that glycerol at a level of 19 percent protected the sperm more effectively than at lower levels. Maximal survival at -79° C. was obtained at the 7-percent glycerol level. A final trial was run, using glycerol levels of 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, and 31 percent. The percentages of motile sperm present after storage at -79° C. and -20° C. are shown in Table 14. Table 14.--Effect of Glycerol Level and Storage Temperature on Freezability of Semen (Average of 8 ejaculates) ================================================================ Storage Glycerol Sperm motility after storage (percent) temperature level -------------------------------------- (°C.) (percent) 18 hours 42 hours ---------------------------------------------------------------- -79 7 61 61 -20 7 2 1 11 3 1 15 14 10 19 30 22 23 29 19 27 25 18 31 21 12 ---------------------------------------------------------------- While survival was fair over a short period of time with 19 percent glycerol at -20° C., deterioration was rapid during storage. After 18 hours of storage, the samples at -20° C. (19 percent glycerol) contained only one half as many motile sperm as were still present in the samples at -79° C. (7 percent glycerol). After 42 hours of storage, the best samples at -20° C. contained only one-third the number of motile sperm still present in the samples stored at -79° C. These trials leave little doubt that under the present system of freezing and storing, storage at ordinary deep-freeze temperatures is far inferior to storage at dry-ice temperatures. THAWING The importance of carefully controlled cooling and storage has been emphasized in the foregoing sections. The need for controlling thawing rates and the temperature of thawing was not clearly defined in the early work on freezing bull semen. The British used a thawing temperature of 40° C., which was satisfactory. If there is a need to hold the semen for a time after thawing, then a lower thawing temperature might be more desirable so that cooling again will not be necessary. =Comparison of thawing temperatures of 5° C. and 38° C.= The effects of thawing at temperatures of 38° (body temperature) and 5° C. (refrigerator temperature) were investigated. The first trial involved thawing as rapidly as possible by dropping glass ampules of frozen semen into water baths at the two temperatures. The frozen semen samples contained glycerol levels of 4, 6, 8, and 10 percent. The mean percentages of motile sperm found after thawing thirteen diluted semen samples treated in this manner are shown in Figure 6. [Illustration: Effect of glycerol percentage and thawing temperature on sperm motility after freezing and thawing (Fig. 6)] The 5° C. thawing temperature resulted in a higher percentage of sperm survival at all the glycerol levels than 38° C., with the difference in favor of 5° C. becoming greater as the glycerol level increased. The reason for the interaction between glycerol level and thawing temperature is not known. It may be that the presence of the higher levels of glycerol at 38° C. brought about harmful metabolic activity. The difference in survival of sperm in semen thawed at 5° C. and at 38° C. continued during storage at 5° C. (Table 15). It was also evident that the interaction between glycerol level and thawing temperature continued during storage (Fig. 7). [Illustration: Effect of thawing temperature on sperm motility during storage at 5° C. following freezing and thawing (Fig. 7)] Table 15.--Effect of Glycerol Level, Thawing Temperature, and Storage at 5° C. After Thawing on Sperm Motility (Average of 13 ejaculates) ===================================================================== Thawing Glycerol Sperm motility (percent) temperature level ------------------------------------------- (° C.) (percent) Post- After storage at 5° C. thawing ---------------------- Average 1 day 3 days --------------------------------------------------------------------- 38 4 28.5 17.3 5.1 17.0 6 31.5 22.4 9.2 21.1 8 33.1 15.0 4.6 17.6 10 19.5 3.6 0.8 8.0 Average 28.2 14.6 4.9 12.2 5 4 29.2 21.7 19.8 23.9 6 37.7 33.8 23.5 31.7 8 41.5 33.1 17.3 30.6 10 33.1 18.5 6.0 19.2 Average 35.4 26.8 16.6 20.6 --------------------------------------------------------------------- It is obvious that motility falls off rapidly after the semen is thawed. In a field trial in which the initial intent was to test the effect of glycerol levels on fertility of frozen semen, the semen was thawed in the morning and used during the same day. Survival of the sperm with 4 percent glycerol was so poor that only a few breedings were made with these samples. Even at 7 and 10 percent, the fertility results were much lower than with semen that had not been subjected to freezing. At that time it was felt that thawing the samples and using them throughout the day may have caused the low fertility results. Since then, a large-scale experiment by Cornell University investigators, in cooperation with the New York Artificial Breeders' Cooperative, has shown definitely that thawing should be delayed until a few minutes prior to breeding.[11] If the semen is used immediately, a thawing temperature of either 5° or 38° C. appears to be suitable. However, there is less danger of cold shock due to recooling if 5° C is used. =Thawing rate in plastic and in glass.= Glass ampules transmit cold or heat more readily than plastic ones. The temperature rise is rapid in both glass and plastic when samples are taken from the storage box at -79° C. and placed in water at 5° C. However, complete thawing occurs more rapidly in glass than in plastic ampules. The changes in temperature that occurred when glass and plastic ampules were thawed in a water bath at 5° C. are shown in Figure 8. The initial temperature rise for the first minute or two was about the same, then the rate of warming in the plastic slowed and actual melting of the frozen sample occurred a little over a minute later in the plastic than it did in the glass. Both were thawed in less than four minutes. [Illustration: Warming rates of diluted semen samples in plastic vials and in glass ampules (Fig. 8)] EFFECTS OF FREEZING PROCEDURES ON METABOLIC ACTIVITY OF BULL SPERM By finding how methods of handling affect the sperm cells, one can sometimes improve the procedures to avoid harmful effects. Some attempts have been made in this laboratory to determine the effects of the freezing procedures on the metabolic activity of bull spermatozoa. These investigations have been limited in scope, involving the measurement of oxygen-consumption and estimates of sperm motility during and after incubation at 37° C. in a Warburg apparatus. =Effect of glycerol additions on oxygen uptake of diluted semen at 37° C.= The effect of adding glycerol to diluted semen on oxygen consumption of the sperm was tested in a Warburg apparatus, using semen diluted with an extender consisting of one part egg yolk and one part 2.9 percent sodium citrate dihydrate. The yolk-citrate extender was added to the semen at a rate which brought the sperm concentration in 0.5 milliliter to 200 million to 500 million. An exact count was used to calculate the oxygen uptake per 10^{8} sperm per hour (ZO_{2}). [Illustration: Effect of glycerol additions on oxygen consumption of sperm at 37° C. (Fig. 9)] Glycerol in various percentages in 2.9 percent sodium citrate dihydrate solution was placed in the sidearm of the Warburg flasks. The diluted semen was held in the main compartment. After a 60-minute preliminary run, in which the rate of oxygen uptake of the sperm in yolk-citrate diluent was determined, the contents of the sidearm were tipped into the main compartment. The resulting glycerol percentages after mixing the sidearm and main compartment contents were 0, 4, 8, and 12 percent. Ten samples of semen were subsampled and the oxygen uptake of each was determined at all four levels of glycerol. Oxygen uptake was increasingly stimulated during the first 20-minute interval by each increase in the amount of glycerol added (Fig. 9). After the first 20 minutes, the rate of oxygen utilization decreased at the two higher levels of glycerol but persisted at 4 percent. The rate of oxygen consumption for the first 20-minute period at the 4-percent glycerol level was 130 percent that of the control to which only sodium citrate had been added. At 8 and 12 percent the values for the period were 144 and 192 percent, respectively, of the control rate. [Illustration: Effect of glycerol and glycerol-plus-catalase additions on sperm motility during incubation at 37° C. (Fig. 10)] With each increase in glycerol level, motility was reduced during the incubation period. This is shown in Figure 10 along with the effect on motility of adding catalase, which is discussed in the next section. =Effect of glycerol-plus-catalase on oxygen uptake of diluted semen.= Certain bacteria have been shown to break glycerol down, forming hydrogen peroxide as follows: Glycerol + oxygen --> lactic acid + hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is known to be detrimental to sperm. The addition of glycerol to diluted semen first increased oxygen uptake and then reduced it. Since a reduction in sperm survival followed, some harmful action must have taken place with the addition of glycerol at 37° C. To test whether this action could be due to the release of hydrogen peroxide as occurs in certain bacteria, glycerol with catalase--the enzyme which breaks down hydrogen peroxide--was added to a portion of 8 diluted semen samples and the oxygen uptake was recorded. Comparison of the resulting oxygen uptake with glycerol and with glycerol plus catalase is shown in Figure 11. [Illustration: Effect of additions of glycerol-plus-catalase on oxygen consumption of sperm at 37° C. (Fig. 11)] Oxygen consumption was increased by the presence of added catalase at all glycerol levels and in the control. Sperm survival during the 3-hour period at 37° C. also was improved by the presence of catalase (Fig. 10). However, the general trend in oxygen consumption produced by the addition of glycerol was not changed greatly. The higher levels of glycerol still stimulated oxygen uptake during the first 20-minute period after the additions and then slowed the rate of oxygen utilization. The rate of utilization was generally higher during the test period in the presence of catalase than without added catalase. It appeared that a part of the harmful effect of glycerol might be due to the formation of hydrogen peroxide. Still, the detrimental effects of the higher levels of glycerol were not completely removed. Table 16.--Effect of Freezing Procedures on Oxygen Utilization of Bull Sperm in Yolk-Citrate Extender (Average of 5 ejaculates) ===================================================================== Microliters of oxygen Semen sample tested utilized per 10^{8} sperm -------------------------- First hour Second hour --------------------------------------------------------------------- Fresh diluted semen 10.3 8.1 Fresh diluted semen glycerol tipped in at end of first hour 9.7[L] 12.9[L] Aged 20 to 24 hours at 5° C. 11.2 8.3 Aged 20 to 24 hours at 5° C. glycerol tipped in at end of first hour 11.8[L] 12.9[L] After 20 hours equilibration with glycerol 11.7[L] 7.8[L] After freezing and thawing 9.7 6.3 -------------------------------------------------------------------- [L] Average of 3 ejaculates. =Effect of freezing procedures on oxygen utilization by sperm.= Limited data have been obtained on the effects of some of the freezing procedures on the oxygen utilization of bull sperm. The results obtained in these experiments confirmed the earlier findings that tipping glycerol directly into the diluted semen at 37° C. caused an increase in oxygen consumption (Table 16). All other steps in the freezing procedure had little effect on oxygen consumption by the sperm. Except where glycerol was added during the determination, the rate of oxygen utilization was lower the second hour than during the first. The oxygen uptake of semen that had been frozen and thawed seemed to drop faster than that of unfrozen samples. =Effect of freezing procedures on methylene-blue reduction time.= The methylene-blue reduction test has been used as a means of measuring semen quality and is dependent on the metabolic activity of the sperm. The effects of various freezing procedures on the ability of samples to decolorize methylene blue were determined with 10 semen samples. Sperm numbers were standardized to 300 × 10^{6} cells per milliliter and the time required for these cells to reduce a 1:40,000 solution of methylene blue was determined on freshly diluted semen, after the addition of glycerol, after equilibration, and after freezing and thawing. Portions of each diluted sample were tested at these stages of the procedure with glycerol alone added and with glycerol and various sugars added. A marked increase in the time required for the sperm to reduce methylene blue occurred when the glycerol was added (Table 17). This increase was greatest in the portions with glycerol alone and with glycerol and glucose. The time increase was less pronounced in the presence of the three pentose sugars used. Following equilibration, the samples regained the ability to reduce methylene blue at a rate only slightly slower than when they were fresh. Freezing and storage of semen resulted in slower reduction of the methylene blue than was shown after equilibration with glycerol. Since freezing usually kills some of the sperm, a slowing of the reduction time after freezing would be expected. Table 17.--Effect of Freezing Procedures on the Methylene-Blue Reduction Time of Bull Semen With and Without the Addition of Sugars[M] (Average of 10 ejaculates) ====================================================================== Methylene-blue reduction time (minutes) ------------------------------------------------ Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol only and and and and glucose arabinose xylose rhamnose ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Fresh semen 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 After glycerolization 26.4 25.2 17.3 14.3 19.4 After 18 hours equilibration 7.4 6.5 6.4 5.3 6.2 Thawed immediately after freezing 11.5 10.5 9.4 9.0 9.4 Thawed 48 hours after freezing 14.3 10.2 11.3 10.1 9.5 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- [M] Glycerol level in the final frozen mixture was 7 percent. Sugars were added to a level of 1.25 percent. PRACTICAL FREEZING PROCEDURE Good results usually can be obtained in freezing bull semen if care is taken in collecting, diluting and processing the semen. Occasionally the semen from certain bulls will not withstand freezing well. The reason for this is not understood at present. However, carefully following the directions and suggestions given below will usually produce satisfactory results with semen samples that are of good quality at the start. Experience in the field has shown that fertility results with frozen semen are usually slightly lower during the first few months than with liquid semen stored at 5° C. (41° F.). Most units that have worked with frozen semen over a period of a few months are able to improve and do get fertility results as good as, or better than, obtained in their liquid semen program. =Collection of the semen.= In order to obtain the best possible semen for freezing, care and cleanliness should be exercised in making the collection. The artificial vagina, and the glassware used should be clean and dry. The underline of the bull should also be clean and dry. The bull should be restrained near the teaser cow for a minute or two prior to collection in order to excite the flow of secretions prior to ejaculation. Allowing the bull to mount the teaser once without serving the artificial vagina is a good practice to use in properly stimulating the bull before collection of the semen. If the bull has not been used for three or four days, the collection of a second ejaculate for freezing may be advisable. The second ejaculate seems to withstand freezing better than the first in many instances. A clean, dry artificial vagina should be used for each ejaculate collected. Repeated collections in the same artificial vagina may result in contamination of the semen with bacteria, lubricating jelly and minute particles of dirt. The semen sample should be protected from contamination and from sudden temperature drops (cold shock). =Preparation of extender.= A suitable egg yolk-citrate extender for freezing bull semen can be prepared by the following procedure. One part egg yolk (free of egg white and the membrane surrounding the yolk) is mixed with 4 parts 2.4 to 2.9 percent sodium citrate dihydrate solution. The citrate is prepared with distilled water and then boiled or autoclaved. The citrate solution should be cooled before it is mixed with the egg yolk. After the egg and citrate are mixed, 1000 units of penicillin and 1000 micrograms of streptomycin are added per milliliter of extender. Sulfanilamide should not be added. This extender can be prepared 12 to 24 hours before use if it is stored at refrigerator temperature. The portion of the extender needed for the original dilution of the semen should be warmed to room temperature before it is mixed with the semen. =Dilution after collection.= As soon as possible after collection, the semen sample should be diluted with the extender. The extender must be at the same temperature as the semen (room temperature) when the two are mixed together. At this time the semen can be partially diluted (1 part semen to 4 parts of extender) or diluted to a sperm concentration twice the final desired concentration (later in adding the glycerol for freezing, the semen is diluted further with an equal volume of glycerol containing extender). The diluted semen is slowly cooled (1-1/2 to 2-1/2 hours) to 5° C. (41° F.). Some units using frozen semen now allow the semen to stand at 5° C. for 5 to 6 hours before glycerolization to allow the antibiotics to be more effective against any vibrio fetus organisms that may be present. This step is taken because it has been shown that glycerol inhibits the effectiveness of the antibiotics.[6] After cooling, semen can be further diluted to twice the desired sperm concentration if that were not done at the start. (Caution: Be sure semen and diluent are at the same temperature.) =Adding the glycerol.= The glycerol solution is prepared by adding 14 volumes of glycerol (reagent grade) to 86 volumes of yolk-citrate diluent (same as yolk-citrate used for original dilution). This solution may be added dropwise with constant gentle mixing to the already diluted semen, or one-third at a time at 10-minute intervals with gentle mixing during each addition. Either method should take about 20 to 30 minutes. The total volume of glycerol-yolk-citrate solution added should be equal to the volume of the original diluted semen. In this way a concentration of 7 percent glycerol is obtained in the final mixture that is to be frozen. Care must be taken to keep the temperature at 5° C. (41° F.) during the time the glycerol is being added. (A cold room is best for maintaining a temperature of 5° C., but with care the operation can be carried out at room temperature by using pans of ice water and a refrigerator.) =Equilibration.= The results presented in this bulletin suggest that little or no time need be allowed after the glycerol is added before freezing. However, results obtained by other workers show improved fertility with at least 12 hours equilibration. Some units getting good fertility results with frozen semen also are allowing the semen to stand at 5° C. for 12 to 18 hours before freezing. After the semen has equilibrated with the glycerol, 1-milliliter portions of the mixture are placed in 1.2- to 2-milliliter vials or ampules which are then sealed. Ampuling can be done with an automatic syringe or pipette, provided a large gage needle is used. Also, it is important not to force the fluid mixture rapidly through the syringe or the sperm may be injured. =Freezing.= The vials or ampules of diluted semen are placed in a bath of isopropyl alcohol which has been cooled to 5° C. (41° F.). This bath can be a wide-mouth thermos bottle or an insulated container of almost any sort with a large opening at the top. The size needed depends on the number of ampules being frozen. Some sort of convenient tray for holding the ampules in an orderly fashion and enabling the samples to be completely submerged is desirable. A few ampules can be kept together easily by placing them in a polyethylene freezer bag that has had many small holes cut in it to let the alcohol of the bath contact the ampules. The ampules must be completely covered by the alcohol to insure uniform cooling. The alcohol of the bath and the ampules of semen are cooled by adding chipped or ground dry ice in sufficient amounts to lower the temperature of the bath 2° C. (3.6° F.) per minute from +5° to -20° C. From -20° down to -79° C., the rate of cooling can be doubled (4° C. or 7.2° F.). Electrical equipment that regulates the cooling rate to the desired temperatures is available commercially, but the cost may be too high for some small operations. The samples should be held at -79° C. (-110° F.) until they are thawed. This can be done by using an alcohol bath and dry ice or by special mechanical refrigerating equipment. At no time prior to thawing should the samples be exposed to warmer temperatures. =Thawing.= The ampules of frozen semen can be thawed by removing them from the dry ice storage box and dropping them into a water bath at 5° C. (41° F.). Thawing temperatures up to body temperature, 38° C. (100° F.), can be used but extreme care must then be taken not to pass the semen through a cold inseminating tube; for this would subject the sperm to cold shock. The semen should be used for breeding within a few minutes after thawing. LITERATURE CITED [1] DAVENPORT, C. B. Effect of chemical and physical agents upon protoplasm. Macmillan and Co., New York. 1897. [2] POLGE, C., and PARKES, A. S. Possibilities of long-term storage of spermatozoa at low temperatures. Anim. Breeding Abs. =20=:1-5. 1952. [3] EMMENS, C. W., and BLACKSHAW, A. W. The low temperature storage of ram, bull, and rabbit spermatozoa. Austral. Vet. Jour. =26=:226. 1950. [4] SMITH, AUDREY W. Effects of low temperatures on living cells and tissues. In biological applications of freezing and drying. Ed. R. J. C. Harris. Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1954. [5] EMMENS, C. W., and BLACKSHAW, A. W. Artificial insemination. Physiol. Rev. =36=:277-306. 1956. [6] Proceedings of the National Association of Artificial Breeders, 1953, 1954, and 1955. [7] Proceedings of the American Dairy Science Association, 1953, 1954, and 1955. Published in the June issue of the Journal of Dairy Science for each year. [8] BARKER, C. A. V. Low temperature preservation of bovine epididymal spermatozoa. Canad. Jour. Comp. Med. =18=:390-393. 1954. [9] SAROFF, JACK, and MIXNER, J. P. The relationship of egg yolk and glycerol content of diluters and glycerol equilibration time to survival of bull spermatozoa after low temperature freezing. Jour. Dairy Sci. =38=:292-297. 1955. [10] CRAGLE, R G., MYERS, R. M., WAUGH, R. K., HUNTER, J. S., and ANDERSON, R. L. The effects of various levels of sodium citrate, glycerol, and equilibration time on survival of bovine spermatozoa after storage at -79° C. Jour. Dairy Sci. =38=:508-514. 1955. [11] BRATTON, R. W., FOOTE, R. H., and CRUTHERS, JOAN C. Preliminary fertility results with frozen bovine spermatozoa. Jour. Dairy Sci. =38=:40-46. 1955. [12] HAFS, H. D., and ELLIOTT, F. I. The effects of methods of adding egg yolk and monosaccharides on the survival of frozen bull spermatozoa. Jour. Dairy Sci. =38=:811-815. 1955. [13] MILLER, W. J., and VANDEMARK, N. L. The influence of glycerol level, various temperature aspects, and certain other factors on the survival of bull spermatozoa at sub-zero temperatures. Jour. Dairy Sci. =37=:45-51. 1954. TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS °C. °F. +38 +100 +35 +95 +30 +86 +25 +77 +20 +68 +15 +59 +10 +50 +5 +41 0 +32 -5 +23 -10 +14 -15 +5 -18 0 -20 -4 -25 -13 -30 -22 -35 -31 -40 -40 -45 -49 -50 -58 -55 -67 -60 -76 -65 -85 -70 -94 -75 -103 -79 -110 
27975	----	(This file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University.) DELINEATIONS OF THE OX TRIBE. [Illustration: THE SANGA OR GALLA OX OF ABYSSINIA, _v._ p. 120.] DELINEATIONS OF THE OX TRIBE; OR, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BULLS, BISONS, AND BUFFALOES. EXHIBITING ALL THE KNOWN SPECIES AND THE MORE REMARKABLE VARIETIES OF THE GENUS BOS. BY GEORGE VASEY. ILLUSTRATED BY 72 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD, BY THE AUTHOR. LONDON: PUBLISHED BY G. BIGGS, 421, STRAND. 1851. C. AND J. ADLARD, PRINTERS, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE. * * * * * TO WILLIAM YARRELL, Esq., F.L.S., F.Z.S., WHOSE SCIENTIFIC WORKS ON ZOOLOGY PLACE HIM IN THE FIRST RANK OF NATURALISTS; AND, MOREOVER, WHOSE UNOSTENTATIOUS KINDNESS IN CONSULTING THE FEELINGS AND ADVANCING THE INTERESTS OF OTHERS IS RARELY EQUALLED, This Volume is inscribed, BY HIS SINCERE FRIEND AND ADMIRER, THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. The primary object of the present work, is to give as correct and comprehensive a view of the animals composing the Ox Tribe, as the present state of our knowledge will admit, accompanied by authentic figures of all the known species and the more remarkable varieties. Although this genus (comprising all those Ruminants called Buffaloes, Bisons, and Oxen generally,) is as distinct and well characterised as any other genus in the animal kingdom, yet the facts which are at present known respecting the various species which compose it, are not sufficiently numerous to enable the naturalist to divide them into sub-genera. This is abundantly proved by the unsuccessful result of those attempts which have already been made to arrange them into minor groups. Nor can we wonder at this want of success, when we consider that even many of the species usually regarded as distinct are by no means clearly defined. The second object, therefore, of this treatise, is (by bringing into juxta-position all the most important facts concerning the various individual specimens which have been described, and by adding several other facts of importance which have not hitherto been noticed,) to enable the naturalist to define, more correctly than has yet been done, the peculiarities of each species. A third object is to direct the attention of travellers more particularly to this subject; in order that, by their exertions, our information upon this class of animals may be rendered more complete. A new and important feature in the present Monograph, is the introduction of a Table of the Number of Vertebræ, carefully constructed from an examination of the actual skeletons, by which will be seen at a glance the principal osteological differences of species which have hitherto been confounded with each other. A Table of the Periods of Gestation is likewise added, which presents some equally interesting results. Several of the descriptions have been verified by a reference to the living animals, seven specimens of which are at present (1847) in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, Regent's Park. The several Museums in the Metropolis have likewise been consulted with advantage. I am indebted to Judge FURNAM, of the United States, for some original information respecting the American Bison; and also to the late Mr. COLE, who was forty years park-keeper at Chillingham, for answers to several questions which I proposed to him on the subject of the Chillingham Cattle. I beg to acknowledge my obligation to Mr. CATLIN for kindly allowing me, not only to make extracts, but also to copy some of the outlines from his 'Letters and Notes on the North American Indians,' a work which I do not hesitate to pronounce one of the most curious and interesting which the present century has produced,--whether we regard the graphic merits of its literary or pictorial department. To Professor OWEN and the Officers of the Royal College of Surgeons, to the Officers of the Zoological Society, and to the Officers of the Zoological Department of the British Museum, my sincere thanks are due for the kindness and promptness with which every information has been given, and every facility afforded to my inquiries and investigations. With respect to the engraved figures, I have striven to produce correct delineations of form and texture, rather than to make pretty pictures by sacrificing truth and nature for the sake of ideal beauty and artistic effect. I cannot conclude this Preface without expressing my thanks to Messrs. ADLARD for the first-rate style in which this volume has been printed; particularly for the successful manner in which the impressions of the engravings have been produced, superior, in general, to India-proof impressions. _King Street, Camden Town;_ _May, 1851._ ADDENDUM. PENNANT--BUFFON--GOLDSMITH--BEWICK--BINGLEY. In addition to the critical remarks on the writings of others, on this subject, which the reader will find in the following pages, I have further to observe that, although Pennant and Buffon have held a very high character, for many years, as scientific naturalists, the portion of their works which treats of the _Genus Bos_, appears to have been the result of the most careless and superficial observation. With the exception of the facts and observations furnished by such men as Daubenton and Pallas, Buffon's works are little more than flimsy speculations. As to Pennant's history of the Ox Tribe, it is calculated rather to bewilder than to inform; it is, in fact, an incoherent mass of dubious statements, huddled together in a most inextricable confusion: as a piece of Natural History it is absolutely worse than nothing. Goldsmith, Bewick, and Bingley, three of our most popular writers on Natural History, appear to have done little more than compile from Pennant and Buffon, and consequently are but little deserving of credit. These strictures apply exclusively to such portions of their works as relate to the Ox Tribe. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page Introduction 1 American Bison 21 Aurochs 40 Yak 45 Gyall 51 Gayal 57 Domestic Gayal 68 Jungly Gau 71 Buffalo 75 Italian Buffalo 76 Manilla Buffalo 81 Condore Buffalo 84 Cape Buffalo 86 Pegasse 95 Gaur 97 Arnee 105 Zamouse 112 Musk Ox 115 Galla Ox 120 Zebu, or Brahmin Bull 125 Backeley Ox 133 African Bull 137 Chillingham Cattle 140 Kyloe, or Highland Ox 150 Table of the Number of Vertebræ 152 Table of the Periods of Gestation 153 Note on the Skeleton of the American Bison 154 APPENDIX. Page Free Martin 155 Short-nosed Ox 159 On the utility of the Ox Tribe to Mankind 160 Account of Alpine Cowherds --Notice of Ranz des Vaches 164 Table of Habitat 168 ---- Mode of Life 169 Indefinite Definitions of Col. H. Smith 170 Mr. Swainson's Transcendental Attempt at Classification 176 On Species and Variety 181 Banteng (_Bos Bantiger_) 185 British Domestic Cattle 186 Influence of Colour in Breeding ib. Influence of Male in Breeding 187 Generative Precocity ib. Milk 188 Butter 189 Mr. Youatt's Philosophy of Rabies 190 Statistics 192 LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. (_The Engravings not otherwise acknowledged are from original Drawings._) Page 1. Frontispiece.--The Sangu, or Abyssinian Ox i 2. Stomach of Manilla Buffalo 4 3. Gastro-duct (Oesophagean Canal), after Flourens 6 4. Stomach of a young Calf 12 5. Stomach of a full-grown Cow 13 6. Skull of Domestic Ox 17 7. Skeleton of Domestic Ox 20 8. American Bison 21 9. Young Female Bison 23 10. Wounded Bison 24 11. Indian shooting a Bison 29 12. Bison surrounded by Wolves 32 13. Bison Calf, after Cuvier 33 14. Skin Canoes of the Mandan Indians 36 15. Head of young Male Bison 39 16. Aurochs, or European Bison 40 17. Yak, from Asiatic Transactions 45 18. Yak, from Oriental Annual 49 19. Gyall (_Bos Frontalis_) 51 20. Head of Gyall 53 21. Gayal, from Asiatic Transactions 58 22. Head of Asseel Gayal 67 23. Domestic Gayal 68 24. Skull of Domestic Gayal 69 25. Occipital View of the same Skull ib. 26. Head of Domestic Gayal ib. 27. Jungly Gau, after Cuvier 71 28. Syrian Ox, anon. 74 29. Italian Buffalo--Brandt and Ratzeburg 76 30. Herefordshire Cow, after Howitt 80 31. Manilla Buffalo 81 32. Outlines of Buffaloes Backs 82 33. Head of Manilla Buffalo 83 34. Pulo Condore Buffalo 84 35. Short-horned Bull, after Howitt 85 36. Cape Buffalo 86 37. Young Cape Buffalo, after Col. Smith 90 38. Head of Cape Buffalo 94 39. Pegasse, from a Drawing in the Berlin Library 95 40. Horns of Cape Buffalo 96 41. Gaur, from Specimen in British Museum 97 42. Horns of Gaur, Edin. Phil. Trans. 103 43. Head of Gaur 104 44. Arnee, from Shaw's Zoology 105 45. Horns of Young Arnee, from 'The Bee' 107 46. Horns of Arnee, from Mus. Coll. Surg. 108 47. Horns of Arnee, from British Museum ib. 48. Arnee from Indian Painting 111 49. Zamouse, or Bush Cow 112 50. Head of Zamouse 114 51. Musk Ox 115 52. Foot of Musk Ox, Griff., Cuv. 117 53. Head of Musk Ox 119 54. Horns of Galla Ox, Mus. Coll. Surg. 123 55. Horns of Hungarian Ox, Brit. Mus. 124 56. Brahmin Bull, Harvey, Zool. Gar. 125 57. Zebu (var. beta), after Cuvier 128 58. Zebus (var. gamma) and Car, anon. 129 59. Zebu (var. delta), anon. 132 60. African Bull, Harvey 137 61. Eyes of African Bull, Harvey 139 62. Lateral Hoofs of African Bull, Harvey ib. 63. Dewlap of African Bull, Harvey 139 64. Chillingham Bull 140 65. Heads of Chillingham Cattle 148 66. Kyloe, or Highland Ox, Howitt 150 67. Free Martin, Hunter's Animal Economy 156 Skull of Domestic Ox, (repetition of fig. 6) 158 68. Skull of Short-nosed Ox of the Pampas 159 69. Outlines of Manilla Buffalo 174 70. Hungarian Ox, from British Museum 175 71. Banteng, from a Specimen in Brit. Mus. 185 72. Alderney Cow, after Howitt 189 INTRODUCTION. Ruminantia is the term used by naturalists to designate those mammiferous quadrupeds which chew the cud; or, in other words, which swallow their food, in the first instance, with a very slight mastication, and afterwards regurgitate it, in order that it may undergo a second and more complete mastication: this second operation is called ruminating, or chewing the cud. The order of animals which possess this peculiarity, is divided into nine groups or genera, namely:-- CAMELS. LLAMAS. MUSKS. DEER. GIRAFFES. ANTELOPES. GOATS. SHEEP. OXEN. The last named forms the subject of the following pages, and is called, in zoological language, the _Genus Bos_, in popular language, the OX TRIBE. One of the most interesting occupations which the wide field of Zoology offers to the naturalist, is the investigation of those remarkable adaptations of organs to functions, and of these again to the necessities and well-being of the entire animal. Nor does it in the least diminish our interest in the investigation of individual adaptations, or our admiration on becoming acquainted with them, that we know, _à priori_, this universal truth, that all the constituents of every organised body, be that organisation what it may, are invariably adapted, in the most perfect manner, to each other, and to the whole. It is by a knowledge of this exact harmony in the animal economy, that the comparative anatomist can determine, with almost unerring precision, the genus, or even species of an animal, by an examination of any important part of its organisation, as the teeth, stomach, bones, or extremities. In some cases, a single bone, or even the fragment of a bone, is sufficient to convey an idea of the entire animal to which it belonged. In illustration of this:--if the viscera of an animal are so organised as only to be fitted for the digestion of recent flesh, we find that the jaws are so contracted as to fit them for devouring prey; the claws for seizing and tearing it to pieces; the teeth for cutting and dividing its flesh; the entire system of the limbs, or organs of motion, for pursuing and overtaking it; and the organs of sense for discovering it at a distance. Moreover, the brain of the animal is also endowed with instincts sufficient for concealing itself, and for laying plans to catch its necessary prey. Again, we are well aware that all _hoofed_ animals must necessarily be herbivorous, or vegetable feeders, because they are possessed of no means of seizing prey. It is also evident, having no other use for their fore-legs than to support their bodies, that they have no occasion for a shoulder so vigorously organised as that of carnivorous animals; owing to which they have no clavicles, and their shoulder-blades are proportionally narrow. Having also no occasion to turn their forearms, their radius is joined by ossification to the ulna, or is at least articulated by gynglymus with the humerus. Their food being entirely herbaceous, requires teeth with flat surfaces, on purpose to bruise the seeds and plants on which they feed. For this purpose, also, these surfaces require to be unequal, and are, consequently, composed of alternate perpendicular layers of enamel and softer bone. Teeth of this structure necessarily require horizontal motions to enable them to triturate, or grind down the herbaceous food; and accordingly the condyles of the jaw could not be formed into such confined joints as in the carnivorous animals, but must have a flattened form, correspondent to sockets in the temporal bones. The depressions, also, of the temporal bones, having smaller muscles to contain, are narrower and not so deep; and so on, throughout the whole organisation. The digestive system of the ruminantia is more complicated in structure than that of any other class of animals; and, owing to this complexity, and the consequent difficulty of investigating it, its nature and functions have been less perfectly understood. The stomach of the Manilla Buffalo, which will serve as an example of all the other species, is divided into four cavities or ventricles, which are usually (but improperly) considered as four distinct stomachs. The following figure represents the form, relative size, and position of these four cavities when detached from the animal, and fully inflated. [Illustration: _a._ First cavity, called the paunch. _b._ Second ditto, the honeycomb bag. _c._ Third ditto, the many-plies. _d._ Fourth ditto, the reed, or rennet. _e._ A portion of the oesophagus, showing its connection with the stomach. _f._ The pylorus, or opening into the intestines.] The interior of those cavities present some remarkable differences in point of structure, which, in the present work, can only be alluded to in a very general manner. For a particular account of the internal anatomy of these complicated organs, the reader is referred to the interesting work on 'Cattle,' by W. Youatt. The paunch is lined with a thick membrane, presenting numerous prominent and hard papillæ. The inner surface of the second cavity is very artificially divided into angular cells, giving it somewhat the appearance of honeycomb, whence its name "honeycomb-bag." The lining membrane of the third cavity forms numerous deep folds, lying upon each other like the leaves of a book, and beset with small hard tubercles. These folds vary in breadth in a regular alternate order, a narrow fold being placed between each of the broader ones. The fourth cavity is lined with a velvety mucous membrane disposed in longitudinal folds. It is this part of the stomach that furnishes the gastric juice, and, consequently, it is in this cavity that the proper digestion of the food takes place; it is here, also, that the milk taken by the calf is coagulated. The reed or fourth cavity of the calf's stomach retains its power of coagulating milk even after it has been taken from the animal. We have a familiar instance of its operation in the formation of curds and whey. The first and second cavities (_a_ and _b_) are placed parallel (or on a level) with each other; and the oesophagus (_e_) opens, almost equally, into them both. On each side of the termination of the oesophagus there is a muscular ridge projecting, so that the two together form a sort of groove or channel, which opens almost equally into the second and third cavities (_b_ and _c_). [As there has not been, as far as I am aware, any appropriate name given to this very remarkable part of the stomach of ruminants, I here take the liberty of suggesting the term _Gastro-duct_, by which epithet this muscular channel will be designated in the following pages.] [Illustration: View of Gastro-duct, after Flourens. _a._ A portion of the oesophagus cut open, showing the internal folds of the mucous membrane. _b._ The opening of the oesophagus into the paunch. _c, c._ The gastro-duct. _d, d._ Muscular fibres passing completely round the edge of the gastro-duct, and forming a sort of sphincter. _e._ The opening from the gastro-duct into the third cavity.] All these parts, namely, the oesophagus, the gastro-duct, and the first three cavities, not only communicate with each other, but they communicate by one common point, and that point is the gastro-duct. At the extremity of the third cavity, opposite to that at which the gastro-duct enters it, is an aperture which communicates immediately with the fourth cavity (_d_). Such is a very brief description of the complicated stomach of the Ox Tribe. In what manner the food passes through this curious arrangement of cavities is a problem which has engaged the attention of naturalists from a very early period. A host of great men might be cited who have failed to solve it. The French physiologist, M. Flourens, by his recent experiments, has done more than any or all of his predecessors to give clearness and precision to this intricate subject. The following is an abstract of the most important of his experiments:-- A sheep having been fed on fresh trefoil, was killed and opened immediately,--that is, before the process of rumination had commenced. He (M. Flourens) found the greatest part of this herb (easily recognised by its leaves, which were still almost entire,) in the paunch; but he also found a certain portion (_une partie notable_) of those leaves (in the same unmasticated state) in the honeycomb. In the other two cavities, (the many-plies and the reed,) there was absolutely none. M. Flourens repeated this experiment a great many times, with herbs of various kinds, and the result was constantly the same: from which it appears, that herbaceous food, on its first deglutition, enters into the honeycomb, as well as into the paunch; the proportion, however, being considerably greater into the paunch than into the honeycomb. It appears equally certain that, in the first swallowing, this kind of food _only_ enters into the first two cavities, and never passes into the many-plies or the reed. Having ascertained this fact with respect to _herbs_, he instituted a similar series of experiments, in which the animals were fed upon various kinds of _grain_,--rye, barley, wheat, oats, &c. The animals were killed and examined, as in the former experiments, immediately after being fed. He found the greater part of the grain unmasticated (_tout entier_) in the paunch; but, as in the case of the herbs, he also found a certain portion, in the same unmasticated state, in the honeycomb. Neither the many-plies nor the reed contained a single grain. He repeated these experiments many times, and always with the same result. He then tried the effect of carrots cut into pieces, from half an inch to an inch in length; and in order that the animals might not chew them, he passed them into the pharynx by means of a tube. In one of these sheep he found all the morsels in the paunch; but, in the other two, some of the morsels were in the honeycomb, and some in the paunch. In all the three cases, there was none either in the many-plies or in the reed. He then proceeded to ascertain the effect of substances previously comminuted. He caused a certain quantity of carrots to be reduced to a kind of mash, with which he fed two sheep, and opened them immediately afterwards. He found the greatest part of this mash in the paunch and in the honeycomb; but he likewise found a certain portion in the many-plies and in the reed. His next experiments were made upon plain fluids. It is the opinion of the generality of authors on this subject that fluids pass immediately and _entirely_, along the gastro-duct, into the third and fourth cavities. But, according to the experiments of M. Flourens, this is not the case. He found, by making artificial openings (_anus artificiel_) in the stomachs of various sheep, that, as the animals drank, the fluid came directly out at the opening, in whatever cavity it might have been made. It is clear, then, that fluids pass, in part, into the first and second cavities, and, in part, into the third and fourth; and they pass as directly into the former as into the latter. The following is the result of some experiments which M. Flourens made respecting the formation of the pellets. In the first place, after the animal has swallowed a certain quantity of food the first time, successive pellets are formed of this food, which remount singly to the mouth; secondly, there is a particular apparatus, which forms these pellets; and, thirdly, this apparatus consists of the two closed apertures (_ouvertures fermées_) of the many-plies, and of the oesophagus. Thus, the first two cavities, in contracting, push the aliments which they contain between the edges of the gastro-duct; and the gastro-duct, contracting in its turn, draws together the two openings of the many-plies and oesophagus; and these two openings, _closed_ at this moment of their action, seize a portion of the food, detach it, and form it into a pellet. The chief utility of rumination, as applicable to all the animals in which it takes place, and the final purpose of this wonderfully-complicated function in the animal economy, are still imperfectly known; what has been already suggested on these points is quite unsatisfactory. Perrault and others supposed that it contributed to the security of those animals, which are at once voracious and timid, by showing the necessity of their remaining long employed in chewing in an open pasture; but the Indian buffalo ruminates, although it does not fly even from the lion; and the wild goat dwells in Alpine countries, which are inaccessible to beasts of prey. Whatever may be our ignorance of the cause or the object of rumination, it is certain that the nature of the food has a considerable influence in increasing or diminishing the necessity for the performance of that function. Thus, dry food requires to be entirely subjected to a second mastication, before it can pass into the many-plies and reed; whilst a great portion of that which is moist and succulent passes readily into those cavities, on its first descent into the stomach. It has already been shown by the illustration, (p. 4,) that the paunch is the largest of the four cavities; but this is not the case with the stomach of the young calf, which, while it continues to suck, does not ruminate; in this case the _reed_, which is the true digestive cavity, is actually larger than the other three taken together. When the calf begins to feed upon solid food, then it begins to ruminate; and as the quantity of solid food is increased, so does the size of the paunch increase, until it attains its full dimensions. In this latter case, the _paunch_ has become considerably larger than the other three cavities taken together. A curious modification of an organ to adjust itself to the altered condition of the animal is beautifully shown in the instance now under consideration, the nature of which will be easily understood by a reference to the following diagrams, giving the exact relative proportions of the different cavities of the stomach to each other in the young calf and in the full-grown cow. [I am informed by Professor Symonds, of the Royal Veterinary College, that the two following sketches should be placed in the page so as to be viewed with the oesophagus to the right, and the pylorus to the left, instead of being, as they now are, at the top and the bottom; but as the present object is only to show the relative sizes of the different cavities, the error is not of much consequence.] The letters refer to the same parts in each figure: _a_, the paunch; _b_, the honeycomb bag; _c_, the many-plies; _d_, the reed. [Illustration: Outline of the Stomach of a Calf about a fortnight old.] [Illustration: Outline of the Stomach of a full-grown Cow.] [These engravings, illustrative of the comparative sizes of the different stomachal cavities, are copied from original drawings taken from preparations of the stomachs which I made expressly for this purpose.] In all herbivorous animals, and especially those of the ruminating kind, the alimentary canal is of an enormous length; measuring in a full grown ox, as much as sixty yards. The paunch, in such an animal, will hold from fifteen to eighteen gallons. Blumenbach observes, that the process of rumination supposes a power of voluntary motion in the oesophagus; and, indeed, the influence of the will throughout the whole process is incontestible. It is not confined to any particular time, since the animal can delay it according to circumstances, even when the paunch is quite full. It has been expressly stated of some men, who have had the power of ruminating, that it was quite voluntary with them. Blumenbach knew four men who ruminated their food, and they assured him they had a real enjoyment in doing it: two of them had the power of doing or abstaining from it at their pleasure. A case of human rumination occurred some years ago at Bristol, the particulars of which are minutely recorded in the 'Philosophical Transactions.' It seemed, in this instance, to have been hereditary, as the father of the individual was subject to the same habit. The young man usually began to chew his food over again, within a quarter of an hour after eating. His ruminating after a full meal generally lasted about an hour and a half; nor could he sleep until this task was completed. The victuals, upon its return, tasted even more pleasantly than at first; and seemed as if it had been beaten up in a mortar. If he ate a variety of things, that which he ate first, came up again first; and if this return was interrupted for any length of time, it produced sickness and disorder; nor was he ever well till it returned. These singular cases are caused, no doubt, by some abnormal structure of the interior of the stomach. No account has yet been given of the dissection of an individual so constituted. When cattle are at rest, or not employed in grazing or chewing the cud, they are observed frequently to lick themselves. By this means they raise up the hair of their coats, and often swallow it in considerable quantities. The hair thus swallowed gradually accumulates in the stomach, where it is formed into smooth round balls, which, in time, become invested with a hardish brown crust, composed, apparently, of inspissated mucilage, that, by continual friction from the coats of the stomach, becomes hard and glossy. It is generally in the paunch that these hair-balls are found. They vary in weight from a few ounces to six or seven pounds. Mr. Walton, author of an 'Account of the Peruvian Sheep,' makes mention of one that he had in his possession which weighed eight pounds and a quarter. This hair-ball had been taken from a cow that fed on the Pampas of Buenos Ayres. It was of a flat circular shape, and measured two feet eleven inches and a half in circumference; two feet eight inches round the flat part; nine inches diameter also in the flat part; eleven inches diameter in the cross part; and, on immersing it in water, it displaced upwards of eight quarts, which made its bulk correspond to 462 cubic inches. The digestive functions are sometimes seriously impaired by these concretions; a loss of appetite ensues, and general debility. In the Museum of Daniel Crosthwaite, there is a very extraordinary ball of hair, taken from a fatted calf only seven weeks old. The ball of hair, when taken out of the animal's stomach, and full of moisture, weighed eleven ounces. The calf was fatted by Daniel Thwaite, of Dale Head Hall, within six miles of Keswick; and slaughtered by John Fisher, butcher, Keswick. The calf was a particularly healthy animal. Before closing this brief sketch of the digestive apparatus of the ox, it may not be uninteresting to quote some of the quaint speculations of Nathaniel Grew on this subject, from his 'Comparative Anatomy of Stomachs and Guts.' He says: "The _voluntary_ motion of the stomach is that only which accompanies rumination. That it is truly voluntary, is clear, from the command that ruminating animals have of that action. For this purpose it is, that the muscules of their venters are so thick and strong; and have several duplicatures, as the bases of those muscules, whereupon the stress of their motion lies. By means whereof they are able with ease to rowl and tumble any part of the meat from one cell of the same venter to another; or from one venter to another; or from thence into the gullet, whensoever they are minded to do it; so that the ejectment of the meat, in rumination, is a voluntary eructation. "The pointed knots, like little papillæ, in the stomachs of ruminating beasts, are also of great use, namely, for the tasting of the meat. The inner membrane of the first three venters is fibrous (like the gustatory papillæ of the tongue) and not glandulous; the fourth only being glandulous, as in a man. Of the fibres of this membrane, and the nervous, are composed those pointed knots, which are, both in substance and shape, altogether like to those upon the tongue. Whence I doubt not, but that the said three ventricles, as they have a power of voluntary motion, so, likewise, that they are the seat of taste, and as truly the organs of that sense, as is the tongue itself." [Illustration: Skull of Domestic Ox, from a specimen in the Royal College of Surgeons.] The mouth of animals of the Ox Tribe contains, when full, thirty-two teeth. Six molars in each jaw, above, below, and on either side; and eight incisors in the lower jaw. In the upper jaw there are no incisors; but instead thereof a fibrous and elastic pad, or cushion, which covers the convex extremity of the anterior maxillary bone, and which is well worthy of observation. The final cause of this pad (which stands in the place of upper incisor teeth) and the part it plays in the procuring of food, is thus described by Youatt. "The grass is collected and rolled together by means of the long and moveable tongue; it is firmly held between the lower cutting teeth and the pad, the cartilaginous upper lip assisting in this; and then by a sudden nodding motion of the head, the little roll of herbage is either torn or cut off, or partly both torn and cut. "The intention of this singular method of gathering the food, it is somewhat difficult satisfactorily to explain. It is peculiar to ruminants, who have one large stomach, in which the food is kept as a kind of reservoir until it is ready for the action of the other stomachs. While it is kept there it is in a state of maceration; it is exposed to the united influence of moisture and warmth, and the consequence of this is, that a species of decomposition sometimes commences, and a vast deal of gas is extricated. "That this should not take place in the natural process of retention and maceration, nature possibly established this mechanism for the first gathering of the food. It is impossible that half of that which is thus procured can be fairly cut through; part will be torn, and no little portion will be torn up by the roots. If cattle are observed while they are grazing, it will be seen that many a root mingles with the blades of grass; and these roots have sometimes no inconsiderable quantity of earth about them. The beast, however, seems not to regard this; he eats on, dirt and all, until his paunch is filled. "It was designed that this earth should be gathered and swallowed; it was the meaning of this mechanism. A portion of absorbent earth is found in every soil, sufficient not only to prevent the evil that would result from occasional decomposition, by neutralizing the acid principle as rapidly as it is evolved; but, perhaps, by its presence, preventing that decomposition from taking place. Hence the eagerness with which stall-fed cattle, who have not the opportunity of plucking up the roots of grass, evince for mould. It is seldom that a cow will pass a newly-raised mole hill without nuzzling into it, and devouring a considerable portion of it. This is particularly the case where there is any degree of indigestion." The general disposition of animals of this class, when unmolested, is inoffensive and retiring; but when excited and irritated, they are fierce and courageous, and extremely dangerous to encounter. It is a remarkable circumstance in their history, that they are generally provoked to attack at the sight of red, or any very bright and glaring colour. [Illustration: _a._ Cervical vertebræ. _b._ Dorsal vertebræ. _c._ Lumbar vertebræ. _d._ Sacrum. _e._ Caudal vertebræ, or coccygeal bones. _f._ Ribs. _g._ Costal cartilages. _h._ Scapula. _i._ Humerus, _k._ Radius. _l._ Ulna _m._ Carpus, or knee. _n._ Large metacarpal, or cannon. _pp._ Sesamoid bones. _qq._ Phalanges. _r._ Pelvis. _s._ Femur. _t._ Patella. _u._ Tibia. _v._ Rudimentum fibulæ. _w._ Hock and tarsals. _x._ Large metatarsal. _y._ Small metatarsal. 1. Inferior maxilla (lower jaw). 2. Superior maxilla (upper jaw). 3. Anterior maxilla 4. Nasal bone. 5. Frontal. 6. Parietal. 7. Occipital. Skeleton of Domestic Ox, from a specimen in the Royal College of Surgeons.] THE OX TRIBE OR _Genus_ BOS, Is distinguished from other Genera of Ruminantia by possessing hollow persistent horns, growing on a bony core; the tail long, terminated by a tuft of hair; and four inguinal mammæ. THE AMERICAN BISON. _Bos Americanus._ [Illustration: THE BISON. ] The head of this animal is enormously large; larger, in fact, in proportion to the size of its body, than that of any other species of the Ox Tribe. This huge head is supported by very powerful muscles, attached to the projecting spinous processes of the dorsal vertebræ; and these muscles, together with a quantity of fat, constitute the hump on the shoulders. The horns are short, tapering, round, and very distant from each other, as are also the eyes, which are small and dark. The head, neck, shoulders, and fore-legs, to the knee-joints, are covered with long woolly hair, which likewise forms a beard under the mouth. The rest of the body is clothed only by short, close hair, which becomes rather woolly in the depth of winter. The colour is of a deep brown, nearly black on the head, and lighter about the neck and shoulders. The legs are firm and muscular; the tail is short, with a tuft at the end. The female is, in every respect, much smaller than the male; her horns are more slender, and the hair on her neck and shoulders is not so thick or long, nor the colour so dark. She brings forth in the spring, and rarely more than one. The calves continue to be suckled nearly twelve months, and follow the cows for a much longer period. It is said that the cows are not unfrequently followed by the calves of two, or even three, breeding seasons. These animals, both male and female, are timid and shy, notwithstanding their fierce appearance; unless they are wounded, or during the breeding season, when it is dangerous to approach. Their mode of attack is to throw down, by pushing, as they run with their head; then to crush, by trampling their enemy under their fore-feet, which, surmounted as they are, by their tremendous head and shoulder, form most effectual weapons of destruction. [Illustration: Young female Bison, after Cuvier.] The following account, by Dr. Richardson, affords an instance of the danger to be apprehended from these powerful animals, when wounded, and not disabled: "Mr. Finnan M'Donald, one of the Hudson's Bay Company's clerks was descending the Saskatchewan in a boat; and one evening, having pitched his tent for the night, he went out in the dusk to look for game. It had become nearly dark when he fired at a Bison bull, which was galloping over an eminence; and as he was hastening forward to see if this shot had taken effect, the wounded beast made a rush at him. He had the presence of mind to seize the animal by the long hair on the forehead, as it struck him on the side with its horn, and being a remarkably tall and powerful man, a struggle ensued, which continued until his wrist was severely sprained, and his arm was rendered powerless; he then fell, and after receiving two or three blows, became senseless. Shortly afterwards he was found by his companions, lying bathed in his blood, being gored in several places, and the Bison was couched beside him, apparently waiting to renew the attack, had he shown any signs of life. Mr. M'Donald recovered from the immediate effects of the injuries, but he died a few months afterwards. Many instances might be mentioned of the tenaciousness with which this animal pursues its revenge; and I have been told of a hunter being detained for many hours in a tree, by an old bull, which had taken its post below, to watch him." [Illustration: Wounded Bison, after Catlin.] The capture of the Bison is effected in various ways, chiefly with the rifle, and on foot. Their sense of smelling, however, is so acute, that they are extremely difficult of approach, scenting their enemy from afar, and retiring with the greatest precipitation. Care, therefore, must be taken to go against the wind, in which case they may be approached very near, being almost blinded by the long hair hanging over their foreheads. The hunters generally aim at the shoulder, which, if effectually hit, causes them to drop at once; otherwise they are infuriated, and become dangerous antagonists, as was proved in the result of Mr. M'Donald's adventure. When flying before their pursuers, it would be in vain for the foremost to halt, or attempt to obstruct the progress of the main body, as the throng in the rear, still rushing onwards, the leaders must advance, although destruction await the movement. The Indians take advantage of this circumstance to destroy great quantities of this favorite game; and certainly no method could be resorted to more effectually destructive, nor could a more terrible devastation be produced, than that of forcing a numerous herd of these large animals to leap from the brink of a dreadful precipice upon a rocky and broken surface, a hundred feet below. When the Indians determine to destroy Bisons in this way, one of their swiftest-footed and most active young men is selected, who is disguised in a Bison skin, having the head, ears, and horns adjusted on his own head, so as to make the deception very complete; and thus accoutred, he stations himself between the Bison herd and some of the precipices, which often extend for several miles along the rivers. The Indians surround the herd as nearly as possible, when, at a given signal, they show themselves, and rush forward with loud yells. The animals being alarmed, and seeing no way open but in the direction of the disguised Indian, run towards him, and he, taking to flight, dashes on to the precipice, where he suddenly secures himself in some previously ascertained crevice. The foremost of the herd arrives at the brink,--there is no possibility of retreat, no chance of escape; the foremost may, for an instant, shrink with terror, but the crowd behind, who are terrified by the approaching hunters, rush forward with increasing impetuosity, and the aggregate force hurls them successively into the gulf, where certain death awaits them. Sometimes they are taken by the following method:--A great number of men divide and form a vast square; each band then sets fire to the dry grass of the savannah, where the herds are feeding; seeing the fire advance on all sides, they retire in great consternation to the centre of the square; the men then close and kill them without the least hazard. Great numbers are also taken in pounds, constructed with an embankment of such an elevation as to prevent the return of the Bisons when once they are driven into it. A general slaughter then takes place with rifles or arrows. The following vivid sketch is from the narrative of John Tanner, who, when about seven or eight years of age, was stolen from his parents by the Indians, and remained with them during a period of thirty years. "By the end of the second day after we left Pembinah we had not a mouthful to eat, and were beginning to be very hungry. When we laid down in our camp (near Craneberry River) at night, and put our ears close to the ground, we could hear the tramp of the buffaloes, but when we sat up we could hear nothing; and on the following morning nothing could be seen of them; though we could command a very extensive view of the prairie. As we knew they must not be far off in the direction of the sounds we had heard, eight men, of whom I was one, were selected and dispatched to kill some, and bring the meat to a point where it was agreed the party should stop next night. The noise we could still hear next morning, by applying our ears to the ground; and it seemed about as far distant, and in the same direction, as before. We started early, and rode some hours before we could begin to see them; and when we first discovered the margin of the herd, it must have been at least ten miles distant. It was like a black line drawn along the edge of the sky, or a low shore seen across a lake. The distance of the herd from the place where we first heard them could not have been less than twenty miles. But it was now the rutting season, and various parts of the herd were all the time kept in rapid motion by the severe fights of the bulls. To the noise produced by the knocking together of the two divisions of the hoof, when they raised their feet from the ground, and of their incessant tramping, was added the loud and furious roar of the bulls, engaged, as they all were, in their terrific and appalling conflicts. We were conscious that our approach to the herd would not occasion the alarm now, that it would at any other time, and we rode directly towards them. As we came near we killed a wounded bull, which scarcely made an effort to escape from us. He had wounds in his flanks, into which I could put my whole hand. As we knew that the flesh of the bulls was not now good to eat, we did not wish to kill them, though we might easily have shot any number. Dismounting, we put our horses in the care of some of our number, who were willing to stay back for that purpose, and then crept into the herd to try to kill some cows. I had separated from the others, and advancing, got entangled among the bulls. Before I found an opportunity to shoot a cow, the bulls began to fight very near me. In their fury they were totally unconscious of my presence, and came rushing towards me with such violence, that in some alarm for my safety, I took refuge in one of those holes which are so frequent where those animals abound, and which they themselves dig to wallow in. Here I found they were pressing directly upon me, and I was compelled to fire to disperse them, in which I did not succeed until I had killed four of them. By this firing the cows were so frightened, that I perceived I should not be able to kill any in this quarter; so regaining my horse, I rode to a distant part of the herd, where the Indians had succeeded in killing a fat cow. But from this cow, as is usual in similar cases, the herd had all moved off, except one bull, who, when I came up, still kept the Indians at bay. 'You are warriors,' said I, as I rode up, 'going far from your own country, to seek an enemy, but you cannot take his wife from that old bull, who has nothing in his hands.' So saying, I passed them directly towards the bull, then standing something more than two hundred yards distant. He no sooner saw me approach, than he came plunging towards me with such impetuosity, that, knowing the danger to my horse and myself, I turned and fled. The Indians laughed heartily at my repulse, but they did not give over their attempts to get at the cow. By dividing the attention of the bull, and creeping up to him on different sides, they at length shot him down. While we were cutting up the cow, the herd were at no great distance; and an old cow, which the Indians supposed to be the mother of the one we had killed, taking the scent of the blood, came running with great violence towards us. The Indians were alarmed and fled, many of them not having their guns in their hands; but I had carefully reloaded mine, and had it ready for use. Throwing myself down close to the body of the cow, and behind it, I waited till the other came up within a few yards of the carcase, when I fired upon her; she turned, gave one or two jumps, and fell dead. We had now the meat of two fat cows, which was as much as we wanted; accordingly we repaired, without delay, to the appointed place, where we found our party, whose hunger was already somewhat allayed by a deer one of them had killed." In hunting the Bison, the spear and the arrow are still much in use among the Indians. The following sketch (after Catlin) represents an Indian in the act of shooting a Bison with the arrow:-- [Illustration] In the 'Letters and Notes on the North-American Indians,' by Catlin, there are a great many interesting details of the Bison (or Buffalo, as it is there called). "Six days of severe travelling have brought us from the Camanchee village to the north bank of the Canadian, where we are snugly encamped on a beautiful plain, and in the midst of countless numbers of buffaloes; and halting a few days to recruit our horses and men, and dry meat to last us the remainder of our journey. "The plains around this, for many miles, seem actually speckled, in distance and in every direction, with herds of grazing buffaloes; and for several days, the officers and men have been indulged in a general license to gratify their sporting propensities; and a scene of bustle and cruel slaughter it has been, to be sure! From morning till night, the camp has been daily almost deserted. The men have dispersed in little squads, in all directions, and are dealing death to these poor creatures to a most cruel and wanton extent, merely for the pleasure of destroying, generally without stopping to cut out the meat. During yesterday and to day, several hundreds have undoubtedly been killed, and not so much as the flesh of half a dozen used. Such immense swarms of them are spread over this tract of country, and so divided and terrified have they become, finding their enemies in all directions where they run, that the poor beasts seem completely bewildered, running here and there, and, as often as otherwise, come singly advancing to the horsemen, as if to join them for their company, and are easily shot down. In the turmoil and confusion, when their assailants have been pushing them forward, they have galloped through our encampment, jumping over our fires, upsetting pots and kettles, driving horses from their fastenings, and throwing the whole encampment into the greatest consternation and alarm." Speaking of the attacks made upon them by the Wolves, he says, "When the herd is together the Wolves never attack them, as they instantly gather for combined resistance, which they effectually make. But when the herds are travelling, it often happens that an aged or wounded one lingers at a little distance behind, and when fairly out of sight of the herd, is set upon by the voracious hunters, which often gather to the number of fifty or more, and are sure at last to torture him to death, and use him up at a meal. The Buffalo, however, is a huge and furious animal, and when his retreat is cut off, makes desperate and deadly resistance, contending to the last moment for the right of life, and oftentimes deals death by wholesale to his canine assailants. "During my travels in these regions, I have several times come across such a gang of these animals surrounding an old or wounded bull, where it would seem, from appearances, that they had been for several days in attendance, and at intervals desperately engaged in the effort to take his life. But a short time since, as one of my hunting companions and myself were returning to our encampment, with our horses loaded with meat, we discovered at a distance a huge bull, encircled with a gang of white wolves. We rode up as near as we could without driving them away; and being within pistol-shot, we had a remarkably good view, where I sat for a few moments and made a sketch in my note-book. After which we rode up, and gave the signal for them to disperse, which they instantly did, withdrawing themselves to the distance of fifty or sixty rods, when we found, to our great surprise, that the animal had made desperate resistance, until his eyes were entirely eaten out of his head; the gristle of his nose was mostly gone; his tongue was half eaten off, and the skin and flesh of his legs torn almost literally into strings. In this tattered and torn condition the poor old veteran stood bracing up in the midst of his devourers, who had ceased hostilities for a few minutes, to enjoy a sort of parley, recovering strength to resume the attack in a few moments again. In this group, some were reclining to gain breath, whilst others were sneaking about, and licking their chaps in anxiety for a renewal of the attack; and others, less lucky, had been crushed to death by the feet or the horns of the bull. I rode nearer to the pitiable object, as he stood bleeding and trembling before me, and said to him,--"Now is your time, old fellow, and you had better be off." Though blind, and nearly destroyed, he straightened up, and, trembling with excitement, dashed off at full speed upon the prairie, in a straight line. We turned our horses, and resumed our march; and when we had advanced a mile or more, we looked back, and again saw the ill-fated animal surrounded by his tormentors, to whose insatiable voracity he unquestionably soon fell a victim." [Illustration: Bison surrounded by Wolves, after Catlin.] It has frequently been noticed, that whenever a female Bison, having a calf, is slain, the young one remains by its fallen dam, with signs of strong natural affection, and instinctively follows the inanimate carcase of its parent to the residence of the hunter. In this way many calves are secured. According to Mr. Catlin's account these young animals are induced to follow any one who merely breathes in their nostrils. "I have often," says he, "in concurrence with a known custom of the country, held my hands over the eyes of the calf, and breathed a few strong breaths into its nostrils; after which I have, with my hunting companions, rode several miles into our encampment, with the little prisoner busily following the heels of my horse the whole way, as closely as its instinct would attach it to the company of its dam. [Illustration: Bison Calf, about three weeks old.] "This is one of the most extraordinary things that I have met with in the habits of this wild country; and although I had often heard of it, and felt unable exactly to believe it, I am now willing to bear testimony to the fact, from the numerous instances which I have witnessed since I came into the country. During the time that I resided at this post (Teton River) in the spring of the year, on my way up the river, I assisted in bringing in, in the above manner, several of these little prisoners, which sometimes followed for five or six miles close to our horse's heels, and even into the Fur Company's Fort, and into the stable where our horses were led. In this way, before I left for the head waters of the Missouri, I think we had collected about a dozen, which Mr. Laidlaw was successfully raising with the aid of a good milch cow, and which were to be committed to the care of Mr. Chouteau, to be transported, by the return of the steamer, to his extensive plantation in the vicinity of St. Louis." The uses which are made of the various parts of the Bison are numerous. The hide, which is thick and rather porous, is converted by the Indians into mocassins for the winter; they also make their shields of it. When dressed with the hair on, it is made into clothing by the natives, and most excellent blankets by the European settlers; so valuable, indeed, is it esteemed, that three or four pounds sterling a piece are not unfrequently given for good ones in Canada, where they are used as travelling cloaks. The fleece, which sometimes weighs eight pounds, is spun and wove into cloth. Stockings, gloves, garters, &c., are likewise knit with it, appearing and lasting as well as those made of the best sheep's wool. In England it has been made into remarkably fine cloth. "There are," says Catlin, "by a fair calculation, more than 300,000 Indians who are now subsisting on the flesh of the buffaloes, and by these animals supplied with, all the luxuries of life which they desire, as they know of none others. The great variety of uses to which they convert the body and other parts of that animal, are almost incredible to the person who has not actually dwelt amongst these people, and closely studied their modes and customs. Every part of their flesh is converted into food, in one shape or other, and on it they entirely subsist. The skins of the animals are worn by the Indians instead of blankets; their skins, when tanned, are used as coverings for their lodges and for their beds; undressed, they are used for constructing canoes, for saddles, for bridles, l'arrêts, lasos, and thongs. The horns are shaped into ladles and spoons; the brains are used for dressing the skins; their bones are used for saddle-trees, for war-clubs, and scrapers for graining the robes; and others are broken up for the marrow fat which is contained in them. The sinews are used for strings and backs to their bows, for thread to string their beads and sew their dresses. The feet of the animals are boiled, with their hoofs, for the glue they contain, for fastening their arrow points, and many other uses. The hair from the head and shoulders, which is long, is twisted and braided into halters, and the tail is used for a fly-brush." Again (vol. ii, p. 138), he says, "I have introduced the skin canoes of the Mandans (of the Upper Missouri), which are made almost round like a tub, by straining a buffalo's skin over a frame of wicker-work, made of willow or other boughs. The woman, in paddling these awkward tubs, stands in the bow, and makes the stroke with the paddle, by reaching it forward in the water, and drawing it to her, by which means she pulls the canoe along with considerable speed. These very curious and rudely-constructed canoes are made in the form of the Welsh coracle; and, if I mistake not, propelled in the same manner, which is a very curious circumstance; inasmuch as they are found in the heart of the great wilderness of America, where all the surrounding tribes construct their canoes in decidedly different forms, and of different materials." [Illustration: Skin Canoes of the Mandan Indians.] It is generally agreed by travellers, that the flesh of the Bison is little inferior to the beef of our domestic oxen. The tongue is considered a delicacy, and the hump is much esteemed. A kind of potted-beef, called _pemmican_, is made of the flesh of the Bison, in the following manner:--The flesh is spread on a skin, dried in the sun, and pounded with stones; then all the hair is carefully sifted out of it, and melted fat kneeded into it. This, when properly made and kept dry, will keep good for twelve months. The tallow of the Bison forms an important article of commerce; one fat bull yielding sometimes as much as 150 pounds weight. Mr. Turner, a gentleman long resident in America, is of opinion, that the Bison is superior even to our domestic cattle for the purposes of husbandry, and has expressed a wish to see this animal domesticated on the English farms. He informs us, that a farmer on the great Kenhawa broke a young Bison to the plough; and having yoked it with a steer, taken from his tame cattle, it performed its work to admiration. But there is another property in which the Bison far surpasses the Ox, and this is his strength. "Judging from the extraordinary size of his bones, and the depth and formation of the chest, (continues this gentleman,) I should not think it unreasonable to assign nearly a double portion of strength to this powerful inhabitant of the forest. Reclaim him, and you gain a capital quadruped, both for the draught and for the plough; his activity peculiarly fits him for the latter, in preference to the ox." As there are no Game Laws in America, (except in a very few confined instances on the Atlantic border,) the consequence is that the Bison is fast disappearing before the approach of the white settlers. At the commencement of the eighteenth century these wild cattle were found in large numbers all throughout the valley of the Ohio, of the Mississippi, in Western New York, in Virginia, &c. In the beginning of the present century they were still existing in the extreme western or southwestern part of the State of New York. As late as 1812 they were natives of Ohio, and numerous in that State. And now they are not to be seen in their native state in any part of the United States, east of the Mississippi River; nor are they now to be found in any considerable numbers west of that great river, until you have travelled some eighty or a hundred miles into the interior of the country. There were no Bisons west of the Rocky Mountains, when Lewis and Clarke travelled there in 1805. On their return from the Columbia, or Oregon River, in July of that year, the first Bison they saw was on the day after they commenced their descent of the Rocky Mountains towards the east. On the second day after that, they saw immense herds of them on the banks of the Medicine River. One collection of these animals which they subsequently saw, on the borders of the Missouri River, they estimated as being at least 20,000 in number. In 1823 it was discovered that the Bisons had crossed the Rocky Mountains, and some were to be seen in the vallies to the west of that range. East of that range of mountains, these animals migrate from the uplands or mountains to the plains, and from north to south, about the beginning of November; and return from the south to the north, and from the plains to the uplands, soon after the disappearance of the snow in the spring. The herds of Bisons wander over the country in search of food, usually led by a bull remarkable for strength and fierceness. While feeding, they are often scattered over a great extent of country; but when they move, they form a dense and almost impenetrable column, which, when once in motion, is scarcely to be impeded. Their line of march is seldom interrupted, even by considerable rivers, across which they swim, without fear or hesitation, nearly in the order in which they traverse the plains. The Bisons which frequent the woody parts of the country form smaller herds than those which roam over the plains, but are said to be individually of a greater size. The rutting takes place the latter part of July and the beginning of August, after which the cows separate from the bulls in distinct herds. They bring forth their young in April: from which it appears that the term of gestation is about nine months. The pair of American Bisons in the Zoological Gardens produced a calf in 1849; from the observations made in that instance, the period of gestation was calculated at 270 days. The most important anatomical difference between the American and the European is, that the American has fifteen pairs of ribs, whereas the European has but fourteen. The following are the dimensions of a large specimen:-- Ft. In. From the nose to the insertion of the tail 8 6 Height at the shoulder 6 0 " at the croup 5 0 Length of the head 2 1 Their weights vary from 1200 to 2000 pounds. [Illustration: Head of young male Bison.] THE AUROCHS, OR EUROPEAN BISON. _Bos Bison._ [Illustration] In this, as in the American species, the head is very broad, and the forehead arched; but the horns are longer, more curved, and end in a finer point than those of the American Bison. The eyes are large and dark; the hair on the forehead is long and wavy; under the chin and on the breast it forms a sort of beard. In winter, the whole of the neck, hump, and shoulders are covered with a long woolly hair of a dusky brown colour, intermingled with a short soft fur of a fawn colour. The long hair is gradually cast in the summer, to be again renewed as the inclemency of winter comes on. The legs, back, and posterior portions are covered with short, dark brown hair. The tail is of a moderate length, is covered with hair, and terminates in a large tuft. The females are not so large as the males, neither are they characterised by that abundance of hair on the anterior parts, which is so conspicuous in the bulls. These animals have never been domesticated, although calves have sometimes been caught, and confined in an enclosed pasture. An instance of this kind is recorded by Mr. Gilibert, who, while in Poland, had the opportunity of observing the character of four young ones thus reared in captivity. They were suckled by a she-goat, obstinately refusing to touch a common cow. This antipathy to the domestic cow, which they manifested so early, maintained its strength as they advanced in years; their anger was sure to be excited at the appearance of any domestic cattle, which, whenever introduced to them, they vigorously expelled from their pasture. They were, however, sufficiently tame to acknowledge the voice of their keeper. The geographical range of this animal is now comparatively very limited, being confined to the forests of Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and some of the Caucasian mountain forests; yet there can be no doubt that, at an early period, they roamed at large over a great part of both Europe and Asia. Although they have never been, strictly speaking, domesticated, yet herds of them are kept in certain localities in the forest of Bialowieza, under the special protection of the Emperor of Russia, and under the immediate superintendence of twelve herdsmen, each herdsman keeping the number allotted to his charge in a particular department of the forest, near some river or stream. The estimated number of the twelve herds is about 800. They feed on grass and brushwood; also on the leaves and bark of young trees, particularly the willow, poplar, ash, and birch. In autumn they likewise browse on heath, and the lichens which cover the bark of trees. In winter, when the ground is covered with snow, fodder is provided for them. Their cry is quite peculiar, resembling a groan, or a grunt, more than the lowing of an ox. They do not attain their full stature until after the sixth year, and live till between thirty and forty. "The strength of the Zubr," says Dr. Weissenborn, "is enormous; and trees of five or six inches diameter cannot withstand the thrusts of old bulls. It is neither afraid of wolf nor bear, and assails its enemies both with its horns and hoofs. An old Zubr is a match for four wolves; packs of the latter animal, however, sometimes hunt down even old bulls when alone; but a herd of Zubrs has nothing to fear from any rapacious animal. "Notwithstanding the great bulk of its body, the Zubr can run very swiftly. In galloping, its hoofs are raised above its head, which it carries very low. The animal has, however, but little bottom, and seldom runs farther than one or two English miles. It swims well, and is very fond of bathing. "The zubr is generally exceedingly shy, and avoids the approach of man. They can only be approached from the leeward, as their smell is extremely acute. But when accidentally and suddenly fallen in with, they will passionately assail the intruder. In such fits of passion the animal thrusts out its tongue repeatedly, lashes its sides with its tail, and the reddened and sparkling eyes project from their sockets, and roll furiously. Such is their innate wildness, that none of them have been completely tamed. When taken young they become, it is true, accustomed to their keepers, but the approach of other persons renders them furious; and even their keepers must be careful always to wear the same sort of dress when going near them. Their great antipathy to the Bos Taurus, which they either avoid or kill, would render their domestication, if it were practicable, but little desirable. The experiments made with a view of obtaining a mixed breed from the Zubr and Bos Taurus have all failed, and are now strictly prohibited." The rutting season is in August, and continues for about a fortnight; the calves are produced in May; thus, the period of gestation is between nine and ten months. The calves continue to suckle nearly twelve months, and the cows seldom calve oftener than once in three years. The European Bison differs internally from the common ox in having fourteen pairs of ribs, whereas the common ox has but thirteen. The external differences between the two animals are too obvious to require pointing out. In 1845, the Emperor of Russia presented to the British Museum a very fine stuffed specimen of this animal, from which the figure at the head of this chapter was taken. The following are its dimensions:-- Ft. In. Length from the nose to the insertion of the tail 9 10 Height at the withers 5 6 " at the rump 4 11 Length of head 1 8 " of tail 3 0 M. Dimitri de Dolmatoff, Master of the Imperial Forests in the Government of Grodno, in his note of the capture of the Aurochs, (written in 1847,) alludes to the statement (made by every writer who has treated of these animals), that the calves, although taken young, invariably refuse to be suckled by the Domestic Cow. This he contradicts in the most explicit manner, on the testimony of his own experience, having had several instances come under his observation, in which the young calves of the Aurochs were suckled and reared by cows of the common domestic species. Cæsar, in his account of the "Sylva Hercynia"--the Black Forest--thus mentions the Urus, amongst other animals, there found: "A third kind [of animals] are those called Uri. They are but little less than Elephants in size, and are of the species, colour, and form of a bull. Their strength is very great, and also their speed. They spare neither man nor beast that they see. They cannot be brought to endure the sight of men, nor be tamed, even when taken young. The people who take them in pit-falls, assiduously destroy them; and young men harden themselves in this labour, and exercise themselves in this kind of chase; and those who have killed a great number--the horns being publicly exhibited in evidence of the fact--obtain great honour. The horns, in amplitude, shape, and species, differ much from the horns of our oxen. They are much sought after; and after having been edged with silver at their mouths, they are used for drinking vessels at great feasts." (_De Bello Gallico_, lib. vi.) THE YAK, OR SOORA-GOY. _Bos Grunniens._ [Illustration] The following interesting and circumstantial account of this curious species of Ox, is from the pen of Lieut. Samuel Turner. (_Asiatic Researches_, vol. iv.) "The Yak of Tartary, called Soora-Goy in Hindostan, and which I term the Bushy-tailed Bull of Tibet, is about the height of an English Bull, which he resembles in the figure of the body, head, and legs. I could distinguish between them no essential difference, except only that the Yak is covered all over with a thick coat of long hair. The head is rather short, crowned with two smooth round horns, that, tapering from the setting on, terminate in sharp points, arch inwardly, and near the extremities are a little turned back. The ears are small; the forehead appears prominent, being adorned with much curling hair; the eyes are full and large; the nose smooth and convex; the nostrils small. The neck is short, describing a curvature nearly equal both above and below; the withers high and arched; the rump low. Over the shoulders rises a bunch, which at first sight would seem to be the same kind of exuberance peculiar to the cattle of Hindostan; but in reality it consists in the superior length of the hair only, which, as well as that along the ridge of the back to the setting on of the tail, grows long and erect, but not harsh. The tail is composed of a prodigious quantity of long flowing glossy hair, descending to the hock; and is so extremely well furnished, that not a joint of it is perceptible; but it has much the appearance of a large bunch of hair artificially set on. The shoulders, rump, and upper part of the body are clothed with a sort of thick soft wool, but the inferior parts with straight pendent hair that descends below the knee; and I have seen it so long in some cattle, which were in high health and condition, as to trail along the ground. From the chest, between the fore-legs, issues a large pointed tuft of hair, growing somewhat larger than the rest. The legs are very short. In every other respect, hoofs, &c., he resembles the ordinary Bull. There is a great variety of colours among them, but black and white are the most prevalent. It is not uncommon to see the long hair upon the ridge of the back, the tail, the tuft upon the chest, and the legs below the knee white, when all the rest of the animal is jet black. "These cattle, though not large boned, from the profuse quantity of hair with which they are provided, appear of great bulk. They have a down heavy look, but are fierce, and discover much impatience at the near approach of strangers. They do not low loud (like the cattle of England) any more than those of Hindostan; but make a low grunting noise, scarcely audible, and that but seldom, when under some impression of uneasiness. These cattle are pastured in the coldest part of Tibet, upon short herbage, peculiar to the tops of mountains and bleak plains. That chain of lofty mountains situated between lat. 27° and 28°, which divides Tibet from Bootan, and whose summits are most commonly covered with snow, is their favourite haunt. In this vicinity the Southern glens afford them food and shelter during the severity of the winter; in milder seasons the Northern aspect is more congenial to their nature, and admits a wider range. They are a very valuable property to the tribes of illiterate Tartars, who live in tents, and tend them from place to place, affording their herdsmen a mode of conveyance, a good covering, and subsistence. They are never employed in agriculture, but are extremely useful as beasts of burden; for they are strong, sure-footed, and carry a great weight. Tents and ropes are manufactured of their hair, and I have seen, though amongst the humblest ranks of herdsmen, caps and jackets worn of their skins. Their tails are esteemed throughout the East, as far as luxury or parade have any influence on the manners of the people; and on the continent of India are found, under the denomination of Chowries, in the hands of the meanest grooms, as well as, occasionally, in those of the first ministers of state. Yet the best requital with which the care of their keepers is at length rewarded for selecting them good pastures, is in the abundant quantity of rich milk they give, yielding most excellent butter, which they have a custom of depositing in skins or bladders, and excluding the air; it keeps in this cold climate all the year, so that after some time tending their flocks, when a sufficient stock is accumulated, it remains only to load their cattle, and drive them to a proper market with their own produce, which constitutes, to the utmost verge of Tartary, a most material article of commerce." The soft fur upon the hump and shoulders is manufactured by the natives of Tibet into a fine but strong cloth; and, if submitted to the test of European skill, might no doubt be made to produce a very superior fabric. The herdsmen commonly convert the hides into a loose outer garment that covers the whole of their bodies, hanging down to the knees; and it proves a sufficient protection against the lowest temperature of the cold and desolate region which they inhabit. It furnishes at once a cloak by day and a bed by night. The Yak is not generally fierce, but, if intruded upon by strangers, it sometimes manifests very formidable symptoms of impatience, stamping its feet, whisking its tail aloft, and tossing its head. When excited, it is not easily appeased, and is exceedingly tenacious of injury, always showing great fierceness whenever any one approaches who has chanced to provoke it. The cow is called _Dhe_, of which the wandering Tartars possess great numbers, having no means of subsistence but those supplied by their flocks and herds. A fine male specimen of this Ox was brought to England by Warren Hastings, and several attempts were made to procure a cross between it and the common English Cow, but without success. He invariably refused to associate with ordinary cattle, and exhibited a decided antipathy to them. His portrait was painted, and is now in the Museum of the College of Surgeons, London. The following figure (taken from the 'Oriental Annual') is so much like the portrait of Warren Hastings's Yak, that it might almost be taken for a copy of it. [Illustration] There is the skin of a Yak in the Zoological Museum, which coincides pretty nearly with the foregoing description. There is also a stuffed specimen of a female in the British Museum. Like the European Bison, the skeleton of the Yak has fourteen pairs of ribs. Period of gestation not recorded. THE GYALL, (_Bos Frontalis_ of Lambert;) THE GAYAL, (_Bos Gavæus_ of Colebrooke;) THE JUNGLY GAU, (_Bos Sylhetanus_ of F. Cuvier.) Of the animals named in the foregoing list, we have had several very interesting accounts; but none of these have been sufficiently precise to enable us to determine the specific character of the animals described. Are they, as some affirm, merely different names for the same animal; or do they designate animals which are really and truly distinct? Nothing short of an appeal to structure can satisfactorily settle this or any other disputed point of a similar nature; but, unfortunately for zoology, the opportunities for such appeals are rare, and, when they do occur, are seldom taken advantage of. Let us hope that this hint will not be lost on some of our intelligent countrymen in the East; and that before long we may be favoured with the result of their researches. In the meantime, and in order to facilitate as much as possible the endeavours of those who may have opportunities for such inquiries, the following epitome is given of the various papers which have already appeared on the subject, but which, in their present scattered form, are of very little general utility. THE GYALL. The earliest descriptive notice we have of the Gyall was that given in a paper read before the Linnean Society, in 1802, by Mr. Lambert, on the occasion of a bull of this species arriving in London from India. "_Bos Frontalis._ "General colour a blueish-black; the frontal fascia gray; the horns short, thick, and distant at their bases, the tail nearly naked, slender, and with a tuft at the end. The Gyall has no mane; its coat is soft; the edge of the under lip is white, and is fringed with bristling hair. The horns are pale, with their bases included in the frontal fascia." [Illustration: The Gyall, reduced--from the Linnean Transactions.] The animal of which this description is given, appeared to be between two and three years old, very tame, and inoffensive. A drawing was taken of it, which was engraved and published in the Linnean Transactions. The following are its dimensions: Ft. In. From tip of nose to end of tail 9 2 " tip of hoof of fore foot to top of the rising of back 4 1-1/2 Girth of largest part of abdomen 5 7 From the tip of the hoof of the hind leg to the highest part of the rump 4 0-1/2 " the tip of forehead to end of nose 1 9 Girth of head over the angle of the jaws 2 11-1/2 Between tips of horns 1 8-1/2 Length of horn, externally 0 8-1/2 Girth of horn at largest part 1 1 In reply to some inquiries respecting this animal which he made of a gentleman, (Mr. Harris,) resident in India, Mr. Lambert received the following: "DEAR SIR,--I have before me your note, with the drawing, which undoubtedly appears to me to be the figure of the animal I mentioned to have in my possession. Some parts of the drawing seem to be rather too much enlarged, as in the base of the horns, and the rising between the fore shoulders. "The animal I described to you, and which I have kept and reared these last seven years, and know by the name of the Gyall, is a native of the hills to the north east and east of the Company's province of Chittagong, in Bengal, inhabiting that range of hills which separates it from the country of Arracan. "The male Gyall is like our Bull in shape and appearance, but I conceive not quite so tall; it is of a blackish-brown colour; the horns short, but thick and strong towards the base, round which, and across the frons, the hair is bushy, and of a dirty white colour; the chest and forehead are broad and thick. He is naturally very bold, and will defend himself against any of the beasts of prey. "The female differs a little in appearance; her horns are not quite so large, and her make is somewhat more slender. She is very quiet, and is used for all the purposes of the dairy; as also, (I have been informed by the natives,) for tilling the ground, and is more tractable than the Buffalo. The milk which these cows give has a peculiar richness in it, arising, I should conceive, from their always feeding on the young shoots and branches of trees in preference to grass. [Illustration: (Head of Gyall, from Linnean Transactions.)] "I constantly made it a practice to allow them to range abroad, amongst the hills and jungles at Chittagong, during the day, to browse; a keeper attending to prevent their straying so far as to endanger losing them. They do not thrive so well in any part of Bengal as in the afore-mentioned province, and in the adjoining one, Pipperah, where, I believe, the animal is also to be found. I have heard of a female Gyall breeding with a common Bull. I wish it were in my power to give you more particulars, but I am describing entirely from memory." In February, 1804, Mr. Lambert again addressed the Linnean Society on the same subject. He says, "Since I presented to the Society the last account of the Bos Frontalis, or Gyall of India, Mr. Fleming, a gentleman who has just returned from that country, has very obligingly communicated to me the following further particulars. This account was transmitted to Mr. Fleming by Mr. Macrae, resident at Chittagong, in a letter, dated March 22, 1802, and was accompanied with a drawing, by which it appears that the animal from which my figure was taken was full grown." (See the figure, p. 51.) MR. MACRAE'S ACCOUNT. The Gyall is a species of cow peculiar to the mountains, which form the eastern boundary of the province of Chittagong, where it is found running wild in the woods; and it is also reared as a domestic animal by the Kookies, or Lunclas, the inhabitants of those hills. It delights to live in the deepest jungles, feeding on the tender leaves and shoots of the brushwood; and is never met with on the plains below, except when brought there. Such of them as have been kept by the gentlemen at Chittagong, have always preferred browsing among the thickets on the adjacent hills to feeding on the grass of the plains. It is of a dull heavy appearance, yet of a form that indicates both strength and activity; and approaches nearly to that of the wild Buffalo. Its head is set on like the Buffalo's, and it carries it much in the same manner, with the nose projecting forward; but in the shape of the head it differs materially from both the Buffalo and the Cow, the head of the Gyall being much shorter from the crown to the nose, but much broader between the horns than that of either. The withers and shoulders of the Gyall rise higher in proportion than those of Buffalo or Cow, and its tail is small and short, seldom falling lower than the bend in the ham. Its colour is in general brown, varying from a light to a deep shade; it has at times a white forehead, and _white legs_, with a white belly and brush. The hair of the belly is invariably of a lighter colour than that of the back and flanks. The Gyall calf is of a dull red colour, which gradually changes to a brown as it advances in age. The female Gyall receives the bull at three years of age; her term of gestation is eleven months, when she brings forth, and does not again admit the male until the second year thereafter, thus producing a calf once in three years only. So long an interval between each birth must tend to make the species rare. In the length of time she goes with young, as well as in that between each conception, the Gyall differs from the Buffalo and Cow. The Gyall does not give much milk, but what she yields is nearly as rich as the cream of other milk. The calf sucks its dam for eight or nine months, when it is capable of supporting itself. The Kookies tie up the calf until he is sufficiently strong to do so. The Gyalls live to the age of from fifteen to twenty. They lose their sight as they grow old, and are subject to a disease of the hoof, which often proves fatal at an early age. When the Kookies consider the disease beyond the hope of cure, he kills the animal and eats the flesh, which constitutes his first article of luxury. The Kookies have a very simple method of catching the wild Gyalls, which is as follows:--On discovering a herd of wild Gyalls in the jungles, they prepare a number of balls, of the size of a man's head, composed of a particular kind of earth, salt, and cotton. They then drive their tame Gyalls towards the wild ones, when the two herds soon meet, and assimilate into one; the males of the one attaching themselves to the females of the other, and _vice versâ_. The Kookies now scatter their balls over such parts of the jungle as they think the herd most likely to pass, and watch its motions. The Gyalls, on meeting these balls as they pass along, are attracted by their appearance and smell, and begin to lick them with their tongues; and relishing the taste of the salt, and the particular earth composing them, they never quit the place until all the balls are consumed. The Kookies having observed the Gyalls to have once tasted their balls, prepare a sufficient supply of them to answer the intended purpose; and as the Gyalls lick them up, they throw down more; and it is to prevent their being so readily destroyed that the cotton is mixed with the earth and the salt. This process generally goes on for three changes of the moon, or for a month and a half, during which time the tame and the wild Gyalls are always together, licking the decoy balls; and the Kookie, after the first day or two of their being so, makes his appearance, at such a distance as not to alarm the wild ones. By degrees he approaches nearer and nearer, until at length the sight of him has become so familiar that he can advance to stroke his tame Gyalls on the back and neck, without frightening away the wild ones. He next extends his hand to them, and caresses them also, at the same time giving them plenty of his decoy balls to lick. Thus, in the short space of time mentioned, he is able to drive them, along with the tame ones, to his parrah, or village, without the least exertion of force; and so attached do the Gyalls become to the parrah, that when the Kookies migrate from one place to another, they always find it necessary to set fire to the huts they are about to abandon, lest the Gyalls should return to them from the new grounds. It is worthy of remark that the new and full moon are the periods at which the Kookies in general commence their operations of catching the wild Gyalls, from having observed that at these changes the two sexes are most inclined to associate. The same observation has been made with respect to Elephants. THE GAYAL. About four years after the publication of Mr. Macrae's account of the Gyall (namely in 1808,) there appeared, in the Eighth volume of 'Asiatic Researches,' a description of a species of Ox, named Gayal, communicated by H. T. Colebrooke. He commences by observing, that "the Gayal was mentioned in an early volume of the 'Researches of the Asiatic Society,' (vol. ii, p. 188, 1790,) by its Indian name, which was explained by the phrase "Cattle of the mountains." It had been obscurely noticed (if indeed the same species of Ox be meant) by Knox, in his historical relation of Ceylon (p. 21), and it has been imperfectly described by Captain Turner, in his journey through Bootan, ('Embassy to Tibet,' p. 160). "Herds of this species of cattle have been long kept by many gentlemen in the eastern districts of Bengal, and also in other parts of this province; but no detailed account of the animal and of its habits has been yet published in India. To remedy this deficiency, Dr. Roxburgh undertook, at my solicitation, to describe the Gayal, from those seen by him in a herd belonging to the Governor-General. Dr. Buchanan has also obligingly communicated his observations on the same cattle; with information obtained from several gentlemen at Tipura, Sylhet, and Chatgaon, relative to the habits of the animal. The original drawing from which the plate has been taken was drawn by a native artist." [Illustration: Reduced copy of the Plate just referred to.] This representation does not appear to have been taken from a specimen of the animals here described: it bears a much stronger resemblance to our figure of the Gaur, which was taken from the stuffed specimen in the British Museum (see p. 97), than it does to the Gyall (_Bos frontalis_ of Lambert, see p. 51), or to the Gayal, which died in the Zoological Gardens in 1846, from which our figure was taken, which is given on p. 68. Dr. Roxburgh, who undertook, at the solicitation of Mr. Colebrooke, to describe the Gayal, appears to have done so by the very simple method of copying Mr. Macrae's description of the Gyall, which appeared in the 'Linnean Transactions,' in 1804, to which he has added, that the dewlap is deep and pendant; and this, according to every other account, is not the fact. With respect to the account given by Dr. Buchanan, I have thought it best to quote it in full; because (although it repeats several of the characteristics already given,) it appears to flow from the pen of one who really observed what he describes. He says: "The Gayal generally carries its head with the mouth projecting forward, like that of a Buffalo. The head, at the upper part, is very broad and flat, and is contracted suddenly towards the nose, which is naked, like that of the common cow. From the upper angle of the forehead proceed two thick, short, horizontal processes of bone, which are covered with hair; on these are placed the horns, which are smooth, shorter than the head, and lie nearly in the plane of the forehead. They diverge outward, and turn upward with a gentle curve. At the bases they are very thick, and are slightly compressed, the flat side being toward the front and the tail. The edge next the ear is rather the thinnest, so that a transverse section would be somewhat ovate. Toward their tips the horns are rounded, and end in a sharp point. The eyes resemble those of the common Ox; the ears are much longer, broader, and blunter than those of that animal. "The neck is very slender near the head, at some distance from which a dewlap commences, but this is not so deep, nor so much undulated as in the Zebu or Indian Ox. The dewlap is covered with strong longish hairs, so as to form a kind of mane on the lower part of the neck; but this is not very conspicuous, especially when the animal is young. "In place of the hump (which is situated between the shoulders of the Zebu) the Gayal has a sharp ridge, which commences on the hinder part of the neck, slopes gradually up till it comes over the shoulder-joint, then runs horizontally almost a third part of the length of the back, where it terminates with a very sudden slope. The height of this ridge makes the neck appear much depressed, and also adds greatly to the clumsiness of the chest, which, although narrow, is very deep. The sternum is covered by a continuation of the dewlap. The rump, or os sacrum, has a more considerable declivity than that of the European Ox, but less than that of the Zebu. "The tail is covered with short hair, except near the end, where it has a tuft like that of the common Ox; but in the Gayal the tail descends no lower than the extremity of the tibia. "The legs, especially the fore ones, are thick and clumsy. The false hoofs are much larger than those of the Zebu. The hinder parts are weaker in proportion than the fore; and, owing to the contraction of the belly, the hinder legs, although in fact the shortest, appear to be the longest. "The whole body is covered with a thick coat of short hair, which is lengthened out into a mane on the dewlap, and into a pencil-like tuft on the end of the tail. From the summit of the head there diverges, with a whirl, a bunch of rather long coarse hair, which lies flat, is usually lighter-coloured than that which is adjacent, and extends towards the horns and over the forehead. The general colour of the animal is brown, in various shades, which very often approaches to black, but sometimes is rather light. Some parts, especially about the legs and belly, are usually white; but in different individuals these are very differently disposed." The following is the measurement of a full-grown cow:-- Ft. In. From nose to summit of head 1 6 Between roots of horns 0 10 From horns to shoulder 3 3 From shoulder to insertion of tail 4 3 Height at shoulder 4 9 Height at loins 4 4 Depth of chest 2 9 Circumference of chest 6 7 Circumference at loins 5 10 Length of horns 1 2 Length of ears 0 10 "The different species of the Ox kind may be readily distinguished from the Gayal by the following marks; the European and Indian oxen by the length of their tails, which reach to the false hoofs; the American Ox, by the gibbosity on its back; the _Bovis moschatus_, Caffer, and _pumilus_, by having their horns approximated at their bases; the _Bos grunniens_ by it's whole tail being covered with long silky hairs; the _Bos bubalus_,(at least the Indian buffalo,) by having the whole length of its horns compressed, and by their being longer than the head, and wrinkled--also by its thin coat of hair, by its want of a dewlap, and above all by its manners; the _Bos barbatus_, by the long beard on its chin. "The cry of the Gayal has no resemblance to the grunt of the Indian Ox, but a good deal resembles that of the Buffalo. It is a kind of lowing, but shriller, and not near so loud as that of the European Ox. To this, however, the Gayal approaches much nearer than it does to the Buffalo." Mr. Macrae, who furnished the account in 1804, is again consulted; and from his second account, the following additional particulars have been gleaned. [Now, however, as the reader will observe, the name is Gayal, and not Gyall; although, according to Mr. Macrae's own derivation of the word, it would appear to be more correctly Gyall.] "The Gayal is found wild in the range of mountains that form the eastern boundary of the provinces of Aracan, Chittagong (Chatgaon), Tipura, and Sylhet. "The Cucis, or Lunclas, a race of people inhabiting the hills immediately to the eastward of Chatgaon, have herds of the Gayal in a domesticated state. By them he is called Shial, from which, most probably, his name of Gayal [Gyall] is derived; as he is never seen on the plains, except when he is brought there. It appears, however, that he is an animal very little known beyond the limits of his native mountains, except by the inhabitants of the provinces above mentioned. "His disposition is gentle: even when wild in his native hills, he is not considered to be a dangerous animal; never standing the approach of man, much less bearing his attack. "To avoid the noon-day heat, he retires to the deepest shade of the forest; preferring the dry acclivity of the hill to repose on, rather than the low swampy ground below; and never, like the Buffalo, wallowing in mud. "Gayals have been domesticated among the Cucis from time immemorial; and without any variation in their appearance from the wild stock. No difference whatever is observed in the colour of the wild and tame breeds; brown of different shades being the general colour of both. "The wild Gayal is about the size of the wild Buffalo of India. The tame Gayals among the Cucis, being bred in nearly the same habits of freedom, and on the same food, without ever undergoing any labour, grow to the same size with the wild ones. "The Cucis makes no use whatever of the milk, but rear the Gayals entirely for the sake of their flesh and skins; they make their shields of the hides of these animals. The flesh of the Gayal is in the highest estimation among the Cucis; so much so, that no solemn festival is ever celebrated without slaughtering one or more Gayals, according to the importance of the occasion. "The domesticated Gayals are allowed by the Cucis to roam at large during the day, through the forest, in the neighbourhood of the village; but as evening approaches, they all return home of their own accord; the young Gayal being early taught this habit, by being regularly fed every night with salt, of which he is very fond; and from the occasional continuance of this practice, as he grows up, the attachment of the Gayal to his native village becomes so strong, that when the Cucis migrate from it, they are obliged to set fire to the huts which they are about to leave, lest their Gayals should return thither from their new place of residence, before they become equally attached to it, as to the former, through the same means. "The wild Gayal sometimes steals out from the forest in the night, and feeds in the rice fields bordering on the hills. The Cucis give no grain to their cattle. With us (at Chatgaon) the tame Gayals feed on Caláï _(phaseolus max_); but as our hills abound with shrubs, it has not been remarked what particular kind of grass they prefer. "The Hindus in this province will not kill the Gabay (or Gayal) which they hold in equal veneration with the cow. But the As'l Gayal, or Seloï, they hunt and kill, as they do the wild Buffalo. The animal here alluded to is another species of Gayal found wild in the hills of Chatgaon. He has never been domesticated, and is in appearance and disposition very different from the common Gayal which has just been described. The natives call him the As'l Gayal, in contra-distinction to the Gabay. The Cucis distinguish him by the name of Seloï; and the Mugs and Burmas by that of P'hanj, and they consider him, next to the tiger, the most dangerous and fiercest animal of their forests." Mr. Elliot, in writing from Tipura, says,--"I have some Gayals at Munnamutty, and from their mode of feeding I presume that they keep on the skirts of the vallies, to enable them to feed on the sides of the mountain, where they can browse; they will not touch grass, if they can find shrubs. "While kept at Camerlah, which is situated in a level country, they used to resort to the banks, and eat on the sides; frequently betaking themselves to the water, to avoid the heat of the sun. However, they became sickly and emaciated, and their eyes suffered much; but, on being sent to the hills, they soon recovered, and are now (1808) in a healthy condition. They seem fond of the shade, and are observed in the hot weather to take the turn of the hills, so as to be always sheltered from the sun. They do not wallow in mud, like Buffaloes, but delight in water, and stand in it during the greatest heat of the day, with the front of their heads above the surface. "Each Cow yields from two and a half to about four sérs [from five to eight pounds] of milk, which is rich, sweet, and almost as thick as cream; it is of a high flavour, and makes excellent butter." We learn from Mr. Dick that the Gayal is called Gaujangali in the Persian language, Gavaya in Sanscrit, and Mat'hana by the mountaineers; but others name the animal Gobay-goru. The tame Gayals, however long they may have been domesticated, do not at all differ from the wild ones, unless in temper, for the wild ones are fierce and untractable. The colour of both is the same, namely, that of the Antelope, but some are white and others black, none are spotted or piebald. They graze and range like other cattle, and eat rice, mustard, chiches, and any cultivated produce, as also chaff and chopped straw. According to this gentleman the Gayal lives to the age of twenty or twenty-five years, and reaches its full growth at five years. The female is generally higher than the male. She receives the bull in her fifth year, and bears after ten months. In reference to the case of Mr. Bird's Gayal breeding with the common Zebu, I may observe that this proves nothing beyond the bare fact stated; no inference whatever of an identity of species can be drawn from a thousand such cases. It is pretty well known that animals of perfectly distinct species will, when artificially brought together, produce hybrids, as in the familiar examples of the Horse and the Ass, the Canary and the Goldfinch; but a hybrid is neither a species nor (zoologically speaking) a variety. In a paper on the Gour, by General Hardwicke, ('Zoological Journal,' Vol. III,) he introduces the following observations on the Gayal: "Of the Gayal (_Bos Gavæas_ of Colebrooke) there appears to be more than one species. The provinces of Chatgong and Sylhet produce the wild, or, as the Natives term it, the Asseel Gayal, and the domesticated one. The former is considered an untameable animal, extremely fierce, and not to be taken alive. It rarely quits the mountain tract of the south-east frontier, and never mixes with the Gobbay, or village Gayal of the plains. I succeeded in obtaining the skin, with the head, of the Asseel Gayal, which is deposited in the Museum of the Hon. East-India Company, in Leadenhall Street." [A drawing was taken of this head, of which the engraving on the opposite page is a copy.] "I may notice another species of Gayal, of which a male and female were in the Governor General's park, at Barrackpore. This species differs in some particulars from the domesticated Gayal, and also from the Asseel, or true Gayal; first, in size, being a larger animal than the domestic one; secondly, in the largeness of the dewlap, which is deeper and more undulated than in either the wild or tame species; and, thirdly, in the size and form of the horns." Thus, according to the opinion of General Hardwicke, there are three distinct species of the Gayal; but in this matter nothing can be decided without further evidence, which we hope will soon appear in the shape of complete skeletons, and accurate drawings and descriptions. [Illustration] THE TAME OR DOMESTIC GAYAL. [Illustration] The representation of the Gayal here given was taken from a living specimen in the Zoological Gardens, 1846. The scanty information I was able to glean concerning it, consists in its having been procured at Chitagong, and shipped, as a commercial speculation, from Calcutta for London, in January 1844, when about two years and a half old. It remained in the Zoological Gardens till the summer of 1846, when it died from inflammation of the bowels, brought on chiefly by eating too much green food. I had the above particulars from Mr. Bartlett, naturalist, &c., who had been commissioned to dispose of it. He preserved the skeleton, which he kindly allowed me to examine, and from which I made the sketches of the skull and horns, which appear on the following page. The skeleton has fourteen pairs of ribs. [Illustration: Skull of Domestic Gayal, viewed in front, with Section of Horn.] Inches. Distance from tip to tip (_a_ to _a_) 39 Length of horn (_a_ to _b_) 16 Circumference of horn at base 17 Distance of bases (_b_ to _b_) 11 Length of skull (_c_ to _c_) 19 Fig. _d_, section of the horn, at the base. [Illustration: Occipital view of the same Skull.] [Illustration: Head of Domestic Gayal.] In concluding these details of the Gayal and Gyall, let it be remarked that, when we hear one animal called Gayal and another Gyall, we are not, _on that account merely_, to set them down as of the same species. It is hardly necessary to say, that similarity or even identity of name, is not the slightest criterion of identity of species. The name Elephant is popularly applied to that animal, whether brought from Africa or Asia; they are, nevertheless, anatomically distinct. The same observation may be made respecting the Lions of those countries, and various other animals. It may further be observed, that the value of external characters in determining a species is very different when applied to ascertain the distinctions of domestic races, to what it is when applied to ascertain the distinctions of animals living in a natural state. In domestication, varieties ramify to an indefinite extent, and under such circumstances external characters are comparatively valueless. But wild animals retain their external characters with undeviating exactness; exceptional cases may indeed occur, but so very rarely, that they are not worth taking into the account; consequently, external forms, and in some cases even colours, become of importance in ascertaining specific distinction. THE JUNGLY GAU. _Bos Sylhetanus._ (Cuv.) [Illustration] Further information is requisite to decide the specific character of this animal. According to the opinion of Col. Smith, (see 'Synopsis of the Species of Mammalia' in Griffith's Translation of Cuvier's Animal Kingdom,) it is a mere variety of the Gayal (_Bos Gavæus_); and Mr. J. E. Gray, in his 'List of the Specimens of Mammalia in the Collection of the British Museum,' classes it as a domestic variety of the same animal, but Mr. Fred. Cuvier regards it as an entirely new species. The following account of the Jungly Gau (which is the only one that has been published), is a translation from the splendid folio work of Messrs. St. Hilaire and F. Cuvier. This species of Ox, which is entirely new, appears to be the most nearly allied to our domestic cattle. Those ruminants which are classed under the generic name of Ox, may be very naturally divided into two distinct groups. The first includes the Buffaloes, animals in some measure aquatic, living in low, swampy localities, or near rivers, in which they remain half immersed a great part of the day; having broad-based horns, partly spreading over their foreheads, flat on their internal side, and round on their external; tongue soft, &c. The second is that of the Ox, properly so called. These are distinguished from the first by their dwelling on more elevated lands, or in the vicinity of forests; having smooth round horns, without enlargement at their base; tongue covered with horny papillæ, &c. It is to this second family, consisting of the American Bison, the Aurox, the Yak, and the domestic Ox, with its varieties, that the Jungly Gau undoubtedly belongs. It however differs from the first two in being entirely destitute of the thick shaggy mane; and, instead of the long silky hair of the third, it is clothed with close, short hair, equal in uniformity of texture to the sleekest of our domestic cattle. To judge from its general appearance, we might be even tempted to take it for a mere variety of the domestic species, so close is the resemblance. But the information furnished by M. Alfred Duvaucel, in the only description which has been given, leaves no doubt as to its being a new species. The following is M. Duvaucel's account:--"The horns of the Jungly Gau rise from the sides of the occiput, first outward, then forward, with a slight inclination backward of the upper extremity, forming a double lunation, and separated by a space which gradually diminishes as the animal grows older; standing equally apart in every individual of the same age and sex; are round, except at their base, which is slightly compressed; and they become smoother as the animal advances in age. "The hump, which is characteristic of the generality of Indian oxen, is reduced in this to a slight prominence, extending to the middle of the back, and is covered with a grayish, woolly hair, rather longer than that on the other parts of the body, which spreads likewise over the occiput and the front. The rest of the hair is black except the legs, which are white from the knees downwards. The tail terminates in a large tuft of hair; and, in bulls of two or three years old, the under part of the neck is slightly furnished with long, black, silky hair. "The female is smaller than the male, with horns of a still less proportionate size. The front of the head, instead of being convex, as in the male, appears to be slightly depressed, in consequence of the superior elevation of the muzzle. The colour of the female is not so deep a black; the gray on the top of the neck and the shoulders extends to the sides, and the inferior part of the muzzle is white. "I have long entertained the opinion," continues M. Duvaucel, "that these oxen were essentially the same as the domestic--that they were both varieties of the same species; but this opinion was formed on the inspection only of such specimens as I had seen in the menagerie at Barracpour. Since that time, I have pursued them myself near the mountains of Sylhet; and I have likewise learned from various sources that they are as numerous and as generally diffused as the common Buffalo; but they appear to be wilder than the Buffalo, and not so bold, never approaching where man has established his dominion. Nevertheless, when caught, they are easily subdued, and become quite domesticated in a few months. The milk of this species is said to be more abundant and nourishing than that of any other." From all that is at present known respecting this animal, it is regarded by M. F. Cuvier as a new species added to the genus _Bos_; and, from the circumstance of its having been first seen in a wild state near the mountains of Sylhet, he has given it the specific name of _Sylhetanus_. The animal represented in the following vignette is the Syrian Ox, which is considered as a variety of _Bos Taurus_. [Illustration] THE BUFFALO. The animal generally known under the name of the _Common_ Buffalo is evidently a different species from the _Cape_ Buffalo. Much confusion, however, prevails in the accounts, both of travellers and naturalists, on the subject of these two animals. Descriptions of the one are mingled with descriptions of the other, and anecdotes are related of the one which, there is good reason for believing, ought to be referred to the other. It is highly probable that future and more accurate observations will show that more than one species has been confounded under the general epithets of "the common Buffalo," "the domestic Buffalo," "the tame Buffalo," or, more indeterminate still, "_the_ Buffalo." The accounts furnished by travellers of the various animals in Asia and Africa, described by them as Buffaloes, are altogether vague and unsatisfactory, and frequently erroneous; not from any desire on the part of the authors to deceive, but merely because their observations have been made in the most careless and indifferent manner; and, in many instances, their information is obtained from the verbal communications of ignorant natives. In those descriptions which are confined to the Buffalo, as it at present exists in Italy and the south of Europe, tolerable reliance may be placed, as their character and habits are there well known, being of every day observation; yet, even in this case, little or nothing is known of the anatomy of the animal, and its period of gestation has never been precisely stated. The following information on this latter point is given in Griffith's 'Cuvier,' (vol. iv, p. 383,) "Gestation _is said_ to last twelve months, but _it appears_ not to exceed ten." THE ITALIAN BUFFALO. _Bos Bubalus._ [Illustration] This animal is more bulky than the domestic Ox, and its limbs are stouter. The head is larger, in proportion to the size of the body, than that of the domestic Ox, and is generally carried with the muzzle projecting; the forehead is rather convex, and higher than broad; the horns are large, slightly compressed, and recline towards the neck, with the points turned up; dewlap of a moderate size. Throughout the whole range of the Italian peninsula Buffaloes are used as beasts of burden, and their immense strength renders their services invaluable in the marshy and swampy districts, where the services of horses, or ordinary oxen, would be totally unavailing. The roads through which they are obliged to pass are frequently covered to a depth of two or three feet, through which they work their way with wonderful perseverance. On the great plain of Apulia the Buffalo is the ordinary beast of draught; and at the annual fair held at Foggia, at the end of May, immense droves of almost wild Buffaloes are brought to the town for sale. Fearful accidents occasionally happen; enraged animals breaking from the dense mass, in spite of all the exertions of their drovers, and rushing upon some object of their vengeance, whom they strike down, and trample to death. It is dangerous to overwork or irritate the Buffalo, and instances have been known in which, when released by the brutal driver from the cart, they have instantly turned upon the man and killed him on the spot. The following part of their history is remarkable: They appear to be most numerous, and to thrive best in those districts which are most infected with malaria. In the Pontine marshes they find a favorite retreat, and in the pestilential Maremma scarcely any other animals are to be seen. In the northern portions of Italy, where malaria is much less frequent than in the south. Buffaloes are to be found in the greatest numbers precisely in those localities where malaria is the most prevalent. They are particularly fond of the long rank herbage, which springs up in moist and undrained lands. In their habits they are almost amphibious, lying for hours half submerged in water and mud. When travellers make use of the name "common Buffalo," they are usually understood to mean an animal identical with the Italian species; if this really be the case, its geographical range must be very extensive. It is said to inhabit the extensive regions of Hindostan, China, Cochin-China, Malabar, Coromandel, Persia, and the Crimea; also Abyssinia, Egypt, and the south of Europe; to which may be added, most of the large islands in the Indian Sea. As an article of food, the flesh of this animal is inferior to the beef of the domestic Ox, but the milk of the female is particularly rich and abundant; the semi-fluid butter, called _ghee_ in India, is made from it. According to the testimony of Colonel Sykes, the long-horned variety is reared in vast numbers in the Mawals, or hilly tracts lying along the Ghauts:--"In those tracts much rice is planted, and the male Buffalo, from his superior hardihood, is much better suited to resist the effects of the heavy rains, and the splashy cultivation of the rice than the bullock. The female is also infinitely more valuable than the cow, from the very much greater quantity of milk she yields." The hide is also much valued for its strength and durability. In India they are used as beasts of burden; but the nature of the goods they carry must be such as will not suffer from being wet, as they have an invincible propensity to lie down in water. The native princes use them to fight with tigers in their public shows; and from their fierce and active nature, when excited, they frequently prove more than a match for their formidable assailants. With the native herdsman, however, they are generally docile: these men ride on their favorites, and spend the night with them in the midst of jungles and forests, without fear of wild beasts. When driven along, the herds keep close together, so that the driver, if necessary, walks from the back of one to the other, perfectly at his ease. In the south of Europe they are managed by means of a ring passed through the cartilage of the nose, but in India it is a mere rope. Their fierceness and courage are well exemplified in the following anecdote, related by Mr. D. Johnson in his interesting 'Sketches of Indian Field Sports:' "Two Biparies, or carriers of grain and merchandise on the backs of bullocks, were driving a loaded string of these animals from Palamow to Chittrah: when they were come within a few miles of the latter place, a tiger seized on the man in the rear, which was seen by a Guallah (herdsman), as he was watching his Buffaloes grazing. He boldly ran up to the man's assistance, and cut the tiger severely with his sword; upon which he dropped the Biparie, and seized the herdsman. The Buffaloes observing it, attacked the tiger, and rescued the herdsman; they tossed him about from one to the other, and, to the best of my recollection, killed him. Both the wounded men were brought to me; the Biparie recovered, and the herdsman died." Speaking of the Buffalo at Malabar, Dillon says, "It is an ugly animal, almost destitute of hair, goes slowly, but carries very heavy burdens. Herds may be seen, as of common cows; and they afford milk, which serves to make butter and cheese. Their flesh is good, though less delicate, than that of the ox: the animal swims perfectly well, and traverses the broadest rivers. Besides the tame ones, there are wild Buffaloes, which are extremely dangerous, tearing men to pieces, or crushing them with a single blow of the head; they are less to be dreaded in woods than elsewhere, because their horns often catch in the branches, and give time for the persons pursued to escape by flight. The skins of these animals serve for an infinity of purposes, and even cruses are made of them for holding water or liquors. The animals on the coast of Malabar are all wild, and strangers are not prevented from hunting them for their flesh." Whether the animals alluded to, in all these cases, constitute only one species, or consist of several, the accounts which have been given of them (from their vagueness and want of precision) afford no means of deciding. The following tail-piece is a representation of the Herefordshire Cow, _Bos Taurus_. [Illustration] The Manilla Buffalo. _Bos Bubalis?_ [Illustration] The animal which is represented in the above engraving, was living in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, in 1846, at which time the sketch was taken. In size the Manilla Buffalo is about equal to the Kyloe Ox. The horns are of a similar shape, and take nearly the same direction, as those of the Italian Buffalo. They differ, however, from the horns of the Italian Buffalo in three particulars: first, in not being above half so thick or bulky; second, in having a much larger curve; and third, in being considerably more compressed, which compression exists throughout their entire length: the colour of the upper surface of the horn is lightish, on the lower side nearly black. The head is narrow, and the muzzle fine; the ears are long and nearly naked; the eyes large and bright, with a peculiarly timid and suspicious expression. The limbs are slender, and indeed the whole frame is slight, and seems to betoken greater speed than strength. We have a notable example of the uncertainty of framing generic characters, before the peculiar attributes of each species are known, in Griffiths' work, already referred to (vol. iv, p. 382). "Buffaloes _in general_" are there said to possess _strong and solid_ limbs, _large_ head, _broad_ muzzle, _long_ and slender tail, back _rather_ straight. Here we have an animal (a Buffalo by universal consent) whose limbs are _slender_, head _small_, muzzle _fine_; whose tail is _not_ long, and whose back is any thing but straight. The Cape Buffalo, also, (see p. 86,) has _rather_ a small head, its tail is absolutely _short_, and its back has very considerable curvature. [Illustration] The preceding outline of the backs of four Buffaloes will show how inappropriate the character of a _straight back_ is, when applied to "Buffaloes _in general_." The lowest outline (5), inserted by way of contrast, represents the back of the Domestic Ox, to which the character of straight might very properly be applied. (1) Italian Buffalo. (2) Manilla Buffalo. (3) Pulo Condore Buffalo. (4) Cape Buffalo. Generic characters should be such (and such _only_) as will apply to every species included in the genus. The period of gestation of the Manilla Buffalo is between forty-eight and forty-nine weeks. In two actual cases of a female now living in the Zoological Gardens, the periods were, in the one case, 340 days, in the other, 341 days; being 70 days longer than the ordinary term of the domestic Cow. [Illustration: Head of Manilla Buffalo--female.] PULO CONDORE BUFFALO. _Bos Bubalus?_ [Illustration] Not much is known of the Buffalo which is found in the island of Pulo Condore. It is related by those navigators who completed the voyage to the Pacific Ocean, begun by Captain Cook, that when at Pulo Condore, they procured eight Buffaloes, which were to be conducted to the ships by means of ropes put through their nostrils and round their horns; but when they were brought within sight of the sailors, they became so furious that some of them tore out the cartilage of their nostrils, and set themselves at liberty. All attempts to get them on board would have proved fruitless, had it not been for some children, whom the animals would suffer to approach them, and by whose puerile management their rage was quickly appeased; and when the animals were brought to the beach, it was by their assistance, in twisting ropes around their legs, that the men were enabled to throw them down, and by that means get them into the boats. And what appears to have been no less singular than this circumstance was, that they had not been a day on board before they became perfectly gentle. Whether this be a distinct species, or merely a variety, we have not, at present, the least means of ascertaining. Osteology unknown. Period of gestation unknown. The tail-piece below represents a short-horned Bull of the Domestic species, _Bos Taurus_. [Illustration] THE CAPE BUFFALO. _Bos Caffer._ [Illustration] This species of ox is only to be found in Africa, and is chiefly confined to the wooded districts lying north of the Cape of Good Hope. What Lavater endeavours to prove of the human being, namely, that the face is the index of the mind or disposition, may be applied, with at least equal truth, to the Cape Buffalo. His broad, projecting muzzle, lowering eyebrows, shaggy pendulous ears, surmounted by a pair of huge horns, give a look of bold determination to this animal, which forms a tolerably correct index of his character; his firm-set limbs and bulky body convey a no less adequate idea of his enormous strength. These animals are gregarious, living in small herds in the brushwoods or open forests, of Caffraria, occasionally uniting in large droves. Old bulls are often met with alone; but though they are fiercer than the young ones, they are less dangerous, because less active, and less inclined to exertion. It is worthy of observation, that the males of every species of the Genus Bos are remarkably bold and courageous, as are likewise the females when they have calves. It is not, therefore, surprising that the hunting of this animal should be attended with danger, and frequently with fatal consequences. The European colonists generally pursue the sport on horseback; but the Caffers and other natives, who are more active, and accustomed to the intricacies of the forest, prefer following the game on foot. Professor Thunberg, whilst investigating the interior of Caffraria, in 1772, in company with a sergeant and a European gardener, who had resided in the colony some time, and who acted as guide on the occasion, met with the following perilous adventure:-- "We had not advanced far into the wood," says the traveller, "before we had the misfortune of meeting with a large old male Buffalo, which was lying down quite alone, in a spot that was free from bushes for the space of a few square yards. He no sooner discovered Auge, the gardener, who went first, than, roaring horribly, he rushed upon him. The gardener turning his horse short round, behind a large tree, by that means got in some measure out of the Buffalo's sight, which now rushed straight forward towards the sergeant, who followed next, and gored his horse in the belly in such a terrible manner, that it fell on its back that instant, with its feet turned up in the air, and all its entrails hanging out, in which state it lived almost half an hour. The gardener and the sergeant, in the meantime, had climbed up into trees, where they thought themselves secure. The Buffalo, after this first achievement, still appeared to take his course in the same direction, and, therefore, could not have failed in his way to pay his compliments to me, who all the while was coming towards him, and, in the narrow pass formed by the boughs and branches of the trees, and on account of the rustling noise these made against my saddle and baggage, had neither seen nor heard anything of what had passed; as in my way I frequently stopped to take up plants, and put them into my handkerchief, I generally kept behind my companions. "The sergeant had brought two horses with him for the journey. One of them had already been despatched, and the other now stood just in the way of the Buffalo, who was going out of the wood. As soon as the Buffalo saw this second horse, he became more outrageous than before, and he attacked it with such fury, that he not only drove his horns into the horse's breast, and out again through the very saddle, but also threw it to the ground with such violence, that it died that very instant, and most of its bones were broken. Just at the moment that he was occupied with this latter horse, I came up to the opening, where the wood was so thick that I had neither room to turn my horse, nor to get on one side; I was, therefore, obliged to abandon him to his fate, and take refuge in a tolerably high tree, up which I climbed. "The Buffalo, having finished this his second exploit, suddenly turned round, and shaped his course the same way which we had intended to take. "From the height of my situation in the tree, I could plainly perceive one of the horses quite dead; the other sprawling with his feet, and endeavouring to rise, which it had not strength to do; the other two horses shivering with fear, and unable to make their escape; but I could neither see nor hear anything of my fellow-travellers, which induced me to fear that they had fallen victims to the first transports of the Buffalo's fury. I, therefore, made all possible haste to search for them, to see if I could, in any way, assist them; but not discovering any trace of them in the whole field of battle, I began to call out after them, when I discovered these magnanimous heroes sitting fast, like two cats, on the trees, with their guns on their backs, loaded with fine shot, and unable to utter a single word. "I encouraged them as well as I could, and advised them to come down, and get away as fast as possible from such a dangerous place, where we ran the risk of being once more attacked. The sergeant at length burst out into tears, deploring the loss of his two spirited steeds; but the gardener was so strongly affected, that he could scarcely speak for some days after." Speaking of a small settlement in the interior, he says: "Buffaloes were shot here by a Hottentot, who had been trained to the business by the farmer, and in this manner found the whole family in meat, without having recourse to the herd. The balls were counted out to him every time he went a shooting, and he was obliged to furnish the same number of dead Buffaloes as he received of balls. Thus the many Hottentots that lived here were supported without expense, and without the decrease of the tame cattle which constitute the whole of the farmer's wealth. The greatest part of the flesh of the Buffalo falls to the share of the Hottentots, but the hide to that of the master." [Illustration: Young Cape Buffalo.] The Caffres, who at that time (1772) did not possess fire-arms, were, nevertheless, dextrous in the use of their javelins. When a Caffre has discovered a spot where several Buffaloes are assembled, he blows a pipe, made of the thigh-bone of a sheep, which is heard at a great distance. In consequence of this, several of his comrades run up to the spot, and surrounding the Buffaloes, at the same time approaching them by degrees, throw their javelins at them. In this case, out of ten or twelve Buffaloes, it is very rare for one to escape. It sometimes happens, however, that while the Buffaloes are running off, some one of the hunters, who stands in the way of them, is tossed and killed, which, by the people of this nation, is not much regarded. When the chase is over, each one takes his share of the game. Since the introduction of fire-arms by the Europeans, the natives, as well as the colonists, bring down the Buffalo by means of the gun. Nevertheless, great circumspection is required in following the sport, as the animal is sometimes capable of revenging himself even after being severely wounded. On one occasion a party of huntsmen discovered a small herd of Buffaloes grazing on a piece of marshy ground. As it was impossible to get near enough without crossing a marsh, which did not afford a safe footing for their horses, they left them in charge of the Hottentots, and proceeded on foot, thinking, that if the Buffaloes should turn upon them, it would be easy to retreat by crossing the quagmire, which, though firm enough to support a man, would not bear the weight of a Buffalo. They advanced accordingly, and, under shelter of the bushes, approached with such advantage, that the first volley brought down three of the fattest of the herd, and so severely wounded the great bull leader, that he dropped on his knees, bellowing most furiously. Supposing him mortally wounded, the foremost of the huntsmen issued from the covert, and began reloading his musket as he advanced, to give him a finishing shot; but no sooner did the enraged animal see his enemy in front of him than he sprang up, and ran furiously upon him. The man, throwing down his gun, fled towards the quagmire; but the beast was so close upon him, that, despairing to escape in that direction, he suddenly turned round a clump of copsewood, and began to ascend a tree. The raging animal, however, was too quick for him, and bounding forward with a tremendous roar, he caught the unfortunate man with his terrible horns, just as he had nearly escaped his reach, and tossed him into the air with such force, that the body fell dreadfully mangled into the cleft of a tree. The Buffalo ran round the tree once or twice, apparently looking for the man, until weakened with loss of blood, he again sank on his knees. The rest of the party, recovering from their confusion, then came up and despatched him, though too late to save their comrade, whose body was hanging in the tree quite dead. The length of a full-grown Buffalo is about eight feet from horns to root of tail, and the height five feet and a half. The horns are massive and heavy, measuring from six to nine feet, following the curve from tip to tip. They are broad at the base, and very nearly meet on the centre of the forehead. Hamilton Smith says, they are "in contact at the base;" but this is not the case in the several specimens which I have examined, namely, three in the College of Surgeons, four in the British Museum, and two in the Zoological Gardens. In the living specimen in the Zoological Gardens, from which the figure at the head of this article was taken, there is a good deal of hair of a dark brown colour on the neck and shoulders, and some small tufts on the fore-legs, but the rest of the body is almost naked. The tail is short, with a tuft at the end. The individual here referred to is by no means a large specimen, being only four feet ten inches high at the shoulders; probably he is young, and not yet full-grown. He is so active, as to be able to clear a four-feet fence, and he frequently leaps over the half-door (about three feet high,) which separates his little enclosure from his dormitory. His intelligence is much superior to that of ordinary cattle: the entrance to his apartment is furnished with four doors, two on each door-post; and when closed, they of course meet in the middle of the entrance. When he is outside, (as the doors all open inwardly,) a mere push with his horns sends them open. But when he is inside, it requires four distinct operations to shut them, and these he performs with the greatest adroitness, going from one to the other, until all are closed. He opens them also from within with equal skill, by applying the tip of one of his horns to each separately, and retiring a step or two to allow them room to open. The flesh of the Cape Buffalo is reckoned excellent eating, especially that of the young calf, which is equal to the veal of the domestic calf. The horns are made into various articles, having a fine close grain, and taking a beautiful polish. But the hide is the most valuable part of this animal, being so thick and tough, that shields, proof against a musket-shot, are formed of it; and it affords the strongest and best thongs for harness and whips. The skin of the living Buffalo is so dense that it is impenetrable, in many parts, to an ordinary musket-ball; the balls used by the huntsmen are, therefore, mixed with tin, and even these are often flattened by the resistance. In examining the skeleton of this Buffalo, the ribs are found to be remarkably strong and wide--measuring from three inches to three inches and seven-tenths in width, and overlapping each other like the scales of a fish: the difficulty of wounding this animal may be partly owing to this arrangement of the ribs. Since the increase of the settlements about the Cape of Good Hope, the Buffalo has become rather a rare animal in the colony; but, on the plains of Caffraria, they are so common that herds of a hundred and fifty, or two hundred, may be frequently seen grazing together towards the evening, but during the day they lie retired among the woods and thickets. They range along the eastern side of Africa, to an unknown distance in the interior. Sparrman says that the period of gestation is twelve months. [Illustration: Head of Cape Buffalo.] THE PEGASSE. _Bos Pegasus._ [Illustration] The above figure is copied from an engraving in the fourth volume of Griffiths' 'Cuvier,' of which the following account is given: "In the collection of drawings, formerly the property of Prince John Maurice of Nassau, now in the Berlin library, there is the figure of a ruminant with the name Pacasse written under it. Judging from the general appearance of the painting, it represents a young animal, although the horns are already about as long as the head. They are of a darkish colour, with something like ridges passing transversely, commencing at the sides of the frontal ridge, turned down and outwards, with the points slightly upwards; the head is short, thick, abrupt at the nose; the forehead wide; the eyes large and full, dark, with a crimson canthus; the neck maned with a dense and rough mane; the tail descending below the hough, entirely covered with dark, long hair, appearing woolly; the carcass short, and the legs high and clumsy; but the most remarkable character appears to consist in pendulous ears, nearly as long as the head. The mane and tail are dark; the head, neck, body, and limbs dark brown, excepting the pastern joints, which are white; this figure cannot be referred to a known species, and is sufficiently curious to merit an engraving." Swainson says that this animal only occurs in the interior of Western Africa; but he does not mention on what authority. As the exploration of the interior of Africa is becoming an object of increasing importance and interest, we may expect, before long, to be furnished with some authentic details of the Pegasse, if such an animal really exist. [Illustration: Occipital View of Horns of _Bos Caffer_, from a Specimen in the Zoological Society's Museum.] THE GAUR, OR GOUR. _Bos Gaurus._ [Illustration] The above representation of this animal was sketched from a stuffed specimen in the British Museum, the dimensions of which are given on p. 102. The following interesting particulars are taken from Mr. T. S. Traill's paper on the Gour, in the 'Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,' October, 1824. "The Gaur is considered by the Indians as of a species totally distinct from either the Arna or the common Buffalo. The only animal with which it appears to have affinity is the Gayal, or Bos Gavæus, described by Mr. Colebrook, in the 'Asiatic Researches,' vol. viii. That animal is said to exist, both wild and domestic, in the hilly countries of Upper India, and to have a high dorsal ridge, somewhat similar to what we shall immediately find in the Gaur; but the very different form of its head, _the presence of a distinct dewlap_, and the general habit of the Gayal, appear sufficient to distinguish it from the Gaur. The Gaur occurs in several mountainous parts of central India, but is chiefly found in Myn Pat, or Mine Paut, (Pat or Paut, in Hindostanee, signifies table-land,) a high, insulated mountain, with a tabular summit, in the province of Sergojah, in South Bahar. This table-land is about 36 miles in length, by 24 or 25 in medial breadth, and rises above the neighbouring plains probably 2000 feet. The sides of the mountain slope with considerable steepness, and are furrowed by streams that water narrow valleys, the verdant banks of which are the favorite haunts of Gaurs. On being disturbed, they retreat into the thick jungles (of saul-trees), which cover the sides of the whole range. The south-east side of the mountain presents an extensive mural precipice from 20 to 40 feet high. The rugged slopes at its foot are covered by impenetrable green jungle, and abound with dens formed of fallen blocks of rock, the suitable retreats of Tigers, Bears, and Hyænas. The western slopes are less rugged, but the soil is parched, and the forests seem withered by excess of heat. The summit of the mountain presents a mixture of open lawns and woods. There were once twenty-five villages on Myn Pat, but they have long been deserted, on account of the number and ferocity of the beasts of prey. On this mountain, however, the Gaur maintains his seat. The Indians assert that even the Tiger has no chance in combat with the full-grown Gaur, though he may occasionally succeed in carrying off an unprotected calf. The wild Buffalo abounds in the plains below the mountains; but he so much dreads the Gaur, according to the natives, that he rarely attempts to invade his haunts. The forests which shield the Gaur abound, however, in Hog-deer, Saumurs, and Porcupines. The size of the Gaur is its most striking peculiarity. The following measurement of one not fully grown will show the enormous bulk of the animal:-- Ft. In. Height from the hoof to the withers 5 11-3/4 Length from nose to end of tail 11 11-3/4 The form of the Gaur is not so lengthened as that of the Arna. Its back is strongly arched, so as to form a pretty uniform curve from the nose to the origin of the tail, when the animal stands still. This appearance is partly owing to the curved form of the nose and forehead, and still more to a remarkable ridge, of no great thickness, which rises six or seven inches above the general line of the back, from the last of the cervical to beyond the middle of the dorsal vertebræ, from which it gradually is lost in the outline of the back. This peculiarity proceeds from an unusual elongation of the spinous processes of the dorsal column. It is very conspicuous in the Gaurs of all ages, although loaded with fat; and has no resemblance to the hunch which is found on some of the domestic cattle of India. It bears some resemblance, certainly, to the ridge _described_ as existing in the Gayal; but the Gaur is said to be distinguished from that animal by the remarkable peculiarity of a _total want of a dewlap._ Neither the male nor female Gaur, at any age, has the slightest trace of this appendage, which is found on every other known animal of this genus. The colour of the Gaur is a very deep brownish black, almost approaching to blueish black, except a tuft of curling dirty white hair between the horns, and rings of the same colour just above the hoof. The hair over the skin is extremely short and sleek, and has somewhat of the _oily_ appearance of a fresh seal-skin. The character of the head differs little from that of the domestic Bull, excepting that the outline of the face is more curved--the os-frontis more solid and projecting. The horns are short, thick at the base, considerably curved towards the tip, slightly compressed on one side, and in the natural state are rough. They are, however, capable of a good polish, when they are of a horn gray colour, with black solid tips. A pair in my possession measure one foot eleven inches along their convex sides; one foot from the centre of the base to the tip, in a straight line; and one foot in their widest circumference; but as they are cut and polished, a portion of their length and thickness has been lost. They are of a very dense substance, as their weight indicates, for even in their dressed state the pair weigh 5 lbs. 11 oz. avoirdupois. [Illustration] The limbs of the Gaur have more of the form of the deer than any other of the bovine genus. This is particularly observable in the acuteness of the angle formed by the tibia and tarsus, and in the slenderness of the lower part of the legs. They give the idea, however, of great strength combined with fleetness; and the animal is observed to _canter_ with great velocity. The form of the hoof, too, is longer, neater, and stronger than in the ox, and the whole foot appears to have greater flexibility. When wounded the Gaur utters a short bellow, which may be best imitated by the syllable--ugh-ugh. It is said that the Gaur will not live in a state of captivity; even when taken very young, the calf soon droops and dies. The bull-calf of the first year is called, by the natives, Purorah; the female, Pareeah; and when full-grown the cow is called Gourin. Gaurs associate in herds consisting usually of from ten to twenty animals. So numerous are they on Myn Pat, that, in one day hunting, the party computed that not less than eighty had passed through the station occupied by the sportsmen. The Gaurs browse on the leaves and tender shoots of trees and shrubs, and also graze on the banks of the streams. During the cold season they remain concealed in the _saul_ forests, but in hot weather come out to feed in the green vallies and lawns, which occur on the mountain of Myn Pat. They show no disposition to wallow in mire or swamps, like the Buffalo; a habit, indeed, which the sleekness of their skins renders not at all probable. The period of gestation is said to be twelve months, and they bring forth usually in August." To the preceding observations of Dr. Traill, I have to add the important fact (which of itself will be sufficient to constitute a specific difference between the Gaur and the Gayal), namely, that in the skeleton of the Gaur there are only thirteen pairs of ribs, whilst the skeleton of the Gayal possesses fourteen pairs. This fact I have ascertained from an examination of both the skeletons; that of the Gaur in the museum of the Zoological Society, and that of the Gayal, in the possession of Mr. Bartlett, Russell Street, Covent Garden. (See p. 68.) The skeleton of the Gaur just referred to, strikingly confirms Dr. Traill's account of the elevated dorsal ridge of this animal; several of the dorsal vertebræ measuring, with their spinous processes, upwards of seventeen inches each, the longest being twenty inches and a half. The Gaur, from which this skeleton was taken, was killed at Nicecond, November 8, 1843. There is another fine specimen of the skull and horns of the Gaur, in the Museum of the Zoological Society, taken from an animal killed by Lieut. Nelson, on the Neilsburry Hills, Salem district. This animal measured nineteen hands and half an inch at the shoulder. Dimensions of the Figure in the British Museum:-- Ft. In. Length from nose to insertion of tail, measuring over the forehead and along the back 11 0 Height at the highest part of the dorsal ridge 5 7-1/2 Height at the croup 5 4 Length of the tail 3 1 In Mr. D. Johnson's Sketches, the Gaur is described as a kind of wild bullock, of prodigious size, residing in the Ramghur district, not well known to Europeans. Mr. Johnson says: "I have never obtained a sight of them, but have often seen the print of their feet, the impression of one of them covering as large a space as a common china plate. According to the account I received from a number of persons they are much larger than the largest of our oxen; light brown colour, with short horns, and inhabit the thickest covers. They keep together in herds, and a herd of them is always near the Luggo-hill; they are also in the heavy jungles between Ramghur and Nagpoor. I saw the skin of one that had been killed by Rajah Futty Narrain; its exact size I do not recollect, but I well remember that it astonished me, having never seen the skin of any animal so large. Some gentlemen at Chittrah have tried all in their power to procure a calf without success. The Shecarries and villagers are so much afraid of these animals, that they cannot be prevailed on to go near them, or to endeavour to catch any of their young. It is a prevailing opinion in the country, that if they are in the least molested, they will attack the persons disturbing them, and never quit them until they are destroyed; and should they get into a tree, they will remain near it for many days." The word Gau, or Ghoo, as it is sometimes spelled by European writers, appears to be used both as a generic and specific term, in Persia and Hindostan; and as it has the same meaning, and nearly the same sound, as the German word _Kuh_, and the English _Cow_, it is highly probable that its origin is the same. As the word _ur_, in Hindostan, appears to have the meaning of _wild_, or _savage,_ the name Gaur, or Gau-ur, literally signifies the _wild cow._ Should the prefix _aur_, in the German word _Aurochs_, be merely a form, or different mode of spelling the prefix _ur,_ then the name _Aurochs_ would be precisely synonymous with the Hindostanee _Gau-ur_. That _aur_ is, in this instance, merely a different spelling of the prefix _ur_, would appear to be corroborated by the circumstance that the term _Urus_ is the latinized form of the German _Aurochs_.--_From a MS. Note by Mr. W. A. Chatto._ [Illustration: Head of Gaur, from the stuffed Specimen in the British Museum.] THE ARNEE, OR ARNA. [Illustration] It does not appear, that the Arnee had been noticed by Europeans until the year 1792, when the following detailed account appeared in a weekly Miscellany, called '_The Bee_,' conducted by Dr. J. Anderson. This animal is hitherto unknown among the naturalists of Europe. It is a native of the higher parts of Hindostan, being scarcely ever found lower down than the Plains of Plassy, above which they are found in considerable numbers, and are well known by the natives. The figure, which is given at the end of this article, is copied from a curious Indian painting, in the possession of Gilbert Innes, of Stow. It forms one of a numerous group of figures, represented at a grand Eastern festival. There are two more of them in the same painting. In this and both the others, the horns bend inwards in a circular form; and it would seem, too, that if a transverse section of the horn was made at any place, that also would be circular. But this is a defect in the painting, for although all the horns of the Arnee tribe bend in a circular form, yet if the horn be cut transversely, the section is not circular, but rather of a triangular shape. The horns of the Arnee rise in a curve upwards, nearly in the same plane with the forehead, neither bending forward nor backward. That part of the horn which fronts you when the animal looks you in the face, is nearly flat, having a ridge projecting a little forward all along, nearer the outer curvature of the horn; from that ridge outward it goes backward, not at right angles, but bending a little outward; and near the back part there is another obtuse rounded ridge, where it turns inward, so as to join another obtuse, rounded angle, at the inner curvature of the horn. Along the whole length, especially toward the base of the horn, there are irregular transverse dimples, or hollows and rugosities, more nearly resembling those of a ram, than that of a common ox's horn, but no appearance of rings, denoting the age of the animal, as in the horns of our cattle. This description of the horns is taken from a pair of real horns of the animal, now in the possession of Mr. James Haig, merchant in Leith, that were sent home to him this year (1792) by his brother, Mr. W. Haig, of the 'Hawkesbury' East-Indiaman, and of which the following cut represents a front view. The little figure marked _a_, represents a section of the horn near its base. [Illustration: (1).--Horns of young Arnee--Scale of Half an Inch to a Foot.] In this young specimen (1) the length of the skull is exactly two feet, and the distance between the tops of the horns thirty-five inches. In the following sketch (2) from the Museum of the College of Surgeons, the length of the skull is likewise two feet, and the distance between the tips of the horns three feet four inches and a half. The young animal just referred to, was found in a situation near which no other animal of this sort had ever before been discovered: it was killed by the crew of the 'Hawkesbury,' in the river Ganges, about fifty miles below Calcutta, at the place where the ships usually lie. The flesh was eaten by the ship's company, by whom it was considered very good meat. Although conjectured to be only two years old, it weighed, when cut up, 360 lbs. the quarter, which is 1440 lbs. the carcase, exclusive of head, legs, hide, and entrails. [Illustration: (2).--Horns of Arnee.--Scale of Half an Inch to a Foot.] [Illustration: (3).--Horns of Arnee.--Scale of Half an Inch to a Foot.] This last sketch (3) is from a pair of horns in the British Museum, of which the following are the dimensions:-- Ft. In. The horn _a_, from tip to base, along the outer curve 6 6 The horn _b_ ditto ditto 6 3 Circumference at the base of horn _a_ 1 5 Ditto ditto of horn _b_ 1 6[A] The Arnee is by far the largest animal of the Ox tribe yet known. In its native country _it is said_ to measure usually twelve, sometimes fourteen, feet from the ground to the highest part of the back! The one in the vignette, p. 111, comparing it with the man on its back, would not seem to be quite so tall. From the appearance of the three Arnees in the painting before mentioned, it would seem that they are quite docile, and easily tamed; for they are all standing quietly, with a person on their back, who guides them by means of a rein, formed of a cord fastened to the gristle of the nose, in the Eastern manner. The colour of the animal, in all the three figures, is a pure black, except between the horns, where there is a small tuft of longish hair of a bright red colour. From the accounts of more recent travellers, there seem to be two or three varieties of this animal, which exist, both in a wild and domestic state, in China as well as India. According to Major Smith, the gigantic or Taur-elephant Arnee, appears to be rare; found only single, or in small families, in the upper eastern provinces and forests at the foot of the Himalaya. A party of officers of the British Cavalry, stationed in the north of Bengal, went on a three months' hunting expedition to the eastward, and destroyed in that time forty-two Tigers, and numerous wild Buffaloes, but only one Arnee. When the head of this specimen rested perpendicularly on the ground, it required the out-stretched arms of a man to hold the points of the horns. These are described as angular, with the broadest side to the rear; the two others anterior and inferior; they are of a brownish colour, and wrinkled; standing outwards, and not bent back; straight for near two thirds of their length, then curving inwards, with the tips rather back. The face is nearly straight, and the breadth of the forehead is carried down with little diminution to the foremost grinder. There is a spirited figure of a long-horned Buffalo in Captain Williamson's 'Oriental Field Sports,' which Major Smith considers to be a representation of the great Arnee; and of which Captain Williamson relates the following anecdote:-- "The late Dr. Baillie, who was a very keen and capable sportsman, used, in my idea, to run many very foolish risks among Buffaloes. I often remonstrated with him on his temerity, but he was so infatuated, that it was all to no purpose. One morning, as we were riding on the same elephant to the hunting-ground, to save our horses as much as possible, we saw a very large Buffalo lying on the grass, which was rather short and thin; as usual, the doctor would have a touch at him, and, heedless of my expostulation, dismounted with his gun. The Buffalo, seeing him approach, rose and shook his head as a prelude to immediate hostilities. My friend fired, and hit him on the side. The enraged brute came thundering at the doctor, who lost no time in running round to the opposite side of the elephant; the _mohout_, at the same time, pushed forward, to meet and screen him from the Buffalo, which absolutely put his horns under the elephant's belly, and endeavoured to raise him from the ground. We had no other gun, and might, perhaps, have felt some more severe effects from the doctor's frolic, had not the Buffalo, from loss of blood, dropped at our side. The Buffalo was upwards of six feet high at the shoulder, and measured nearly a yard in breadth at the chest. His horns were above five feet and a half in length." In systems of classification, even of very recent date, the Arnee is considered merely as a variety of the Buffalo. It appears to me, however, that our information on the subject is not yet sufficiently precise to determine this point. [Illustration] FOOTNOTES: [A] In Shaw's 'Zoology,' it is mentioned that a Mr. Dillon saw some horns in India which were ten feet long. THE ZAMOUSE, OR BUSH COW. _Bos Brachyceros._ [Illustration] [The following extract, from the 'Annals of Nat. Hist.,' vol. ii, p. 284, is from the pen of Mr. J. E. Gray.] "Captain Clapperton and Colonel Denham, when they returned from their expedition in Northern and Central Africa, brought with them two heads of a species of Ox, covered with their skins. These heads are the specimens which are mentioned in Messrs. Children and Vigors' accounts of the animals collected in the expedition, as belonging to the Buffalo, _Bos Bubalus_, and they are stated to be called _Zamouse_ by the natives; but, as no particular locality is given for the head, this name is probably the one applied to the common Buffalo, which is found in most parts of North Africa. "Having some years ago compared these heads with the skull of the common Buffalo, _Bos Bubalus_, and satisfied myself, from the difference in the form and position of the horns, that they were a distinct species, in the 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' for 1837 (new series, vol. i, p. 589), I indicated them as a new species, under the name of _Bos Brachyceros_. "In the course of this summer (1838), Mr. Cross, of the Surrey Zoological Gardens, received from Sierra Leone, under the name of the _Bush Cow_, a specimen which serves more fully to establish the species. It differs from the Buffalo and all other oxen in several important characters, especially in the large size and particular bearding of the ears, and in being totally deficient in any dewlap. It also differs from the Buffalo in its forehead, being flatter and quite destitute of the convex form which is so striking in all the varieties of that animal. "Mr. Cross's cow is, like the head in the Museum, of a nearly uniform pale chesnut colour. The hair is rather scattered, and nearly perpendicular to the surface of the body. The legs, about the knees and hocks, are rather darker. The ears are very large, with two rows of very long hairs on the inner side, and a tuft of long hairs at the tips. The body is short and barrel-shaped, and the tail reaches to the hocks, rather thin and tapering, with a tuft of long hairs at the tip. The chest is rounded and rather dependent, but without the least appearance of a dewlap; and the horns nearly resemble those of the Museum specimen, but are less developed, from the sex and evidently greater youth of the animal. The Rev. Mr. Morgan informs me that the animal is not rare in the bush near Sierra Leone. "I have added a slight sketch of Mr. Cross's animal, which I hope will enable any person to distinguish this very distinct and interesting addition to the species of this useful genus." The engraving at the head of this article is a reduced copy of Mr. Gray's figure just alluded to. The following representation of the head is from a specimen in the British Museum. [Illustration] THE MUSK OX. _Bos Moschatus._ [Illustration] The Musk-ox, in its external appearance, more nearly resembles the Yak of Thibet than any other member of the Bos genus; and they both inhabit mountainous districts near regions of perpetual snow. The horns of the Musk Bull are remarkably broad at their bases, which are closely united; they bend down on each side of the head, with an outward curve turning upwards towards their ends, which taper to a sharp point. They are two feet long measured along the curvature, and two feet in girth at the base; the weight of a pair of these horns is sometimes sixty pounds. The broad base of the horn is hollow on the inside, and of a form approaching to a square; when this is separated from the head and the other part of the horn, it forms a convenient dish, which is very generally used by the native Esquimaux for many domestic purposes. The horns of the cow are nine inches distant from each other at the base, and are placed exactly on the sides of the head; they are thirteen inches long, and eight or nine inches round at the base. The head and the body generally is covered with very long silky hairs of a dark colour; some of which are seventeen inches long; on the middle of the back (which is broad and flat), the hair is lighter and not so long. Beneath the long hairs, in all parts, there is a thick coat of cinereous wool of exquisite fineness. M. Jeramie brought some to France, of which stockings were made more beautiful than silk. The tail is only three inches long, and completely covered with very long hairs, so as to be undistinguishable to the sight. Of this tail, the Esquimaux of the northwest side of Hudson's Bay, make a cap of a most horrible appearance, for the hairs fall all round their heads, and cover their faces; yet it is of singular service in keeping off the musquitoes, which would otherwise be intolerable. The ears are only three inches long, quite erect, and sharp pointed, but dilate much in the middle; they are thickly lined with hair of a dusky colour, marked with a stripe of white. The frog in the hoof is soft, partially covered with hair, and transversely ribbed. The following sketch represents the under surface of the foot of the Musk-ox, the external hoof being rounded, the internal pointed. [Illustration] The foot-marks of the Musk-ox and those of the rein-deer are so much alike, that it requires the eye of an experienced hunter to distinguish them. The mark of the Musk-ox's hoof, however, is a little narrower. The food of the Musk-ox is the same with that of the rein-deer--lichens and grass; and sometimes twigs and shoots of willow, birch, and pine. At present this animal is not found in a lower latitude than 66°; but formerly they came much further to the south; and their flesh used to be brought by the natives to Fort Churchill in latitude 58°. It would appear that they are retiring northward, probably owing to the alarm created by the attacks made upon them by fire-arms. It is worthy of remark, that the American Bison has also retreated considerably to the north. According to Dr. Richardson, the Musk-ox inhabits the North Georgian Islands in the summer months. They arrive in Melville Island in the middle of May, crossing the ice from the southward, and quit it on their return towards the end of September. The Musk-oxen, like the Bison, herd together in bands, and generally frequent barren grounds during the summer months, keeping near the rivers; but retire to the woods in winter. They seem to be less watchful than most other wild animals; and when feeding are not difficult of approach, provided the hunters go against the wind. When two or three men get so near a herd as to fire at them from different points, these animals, instead of separating or running away, huddle closer together, and in this case they are easily shot down; but if the wound is not mortal, they become enraged, and dart in the most furious manner at the hunters, who must be very dexterous to evade them; for, notwithstanding the shortness of their legs, they can run with great rapidity, and climb hills and rocks, with great ease. They can defend themselves by their powerful horns against wolves and bears, which, as the Indians say, they not unfrequently kill.--(Capt. Franklin's 'Journey to the Polar Sea.') They are hunted in their winter retreats by the Esquimaux only, the Indian tribes never visiting the barren grounds at that season. When the Musk-ox is fat, its flesh is well tasted, and it is then preferred by the Copper Indians to the rein-deer. The flesh of bulls is high-flavoured; but both bulls and cows smell strongly of musk, their flesh at the same time being very dark and tough. The contents of the paunch, and other intestinal parts, are relished as much by the Indian as the similar parts of the rein-deer.--(Appendix to Capt. Parry's 'Second Voyage.') The weight of the bulls killed during Capt. Parry's Second Voyage was, on an average about 700 lbs., yielding about 400 lbs. of meat. Their height, at the withers, was about ten hands and a half. They were observed by Capt. Franklin's party to rut in the end of August and beginning of September; and Hearne says, that they bring forth one calf in the latter end of May, or beginning of June; thus the period of gestation is about nine months. The figure at the beginning of this article, as well as the following cut of the head, are from the beautiful specimen of the Musk Ox, in the British Museum. [Illustration: Head of Musk Ox.] THE SANGA, OR GALLA OX. _(See Frontispiece). Bos ----?_ This singular animal is only found in Abyssinia, and is famous on account of its horns, which are of an almost incredible size. Bruce the traveller, in speaking of these horns, says, "The animal furnishing these monstrous horns is a cow or bull which would be considered of a middling size in England. This extraordinary size of its horns proceeds from a disease that the cattle have in these countries, of which they die, and is probably derived from their pasture and climate. When the animal shows symptoms of this disorder, he is set apart in the very best and quietest grazing place, and never driven or molested from that moment. His value lies then in his horns, for his body becomes emaciated and lank, in proportion as the horns grow large; at the last period of his life, the weight of his head is so great that he is unable to lift it up, or at least for any space of time. The joints of his neck become callous at last, so that it is not any longer in his power to lift his head. In this situation he dies, with scarcely flesh to cover his bones, and it is then his horns are of the greatest value. I have seen horns that would contain as much as a common sized water-pail, such as they make use of in the houses in England."[B] So far Mr. Bruce. Mr. Salt, who visited Abyssinia some years afterwards, gives a somewhat different account. He says: "Here [_i. e._ at Gibba], for the first time, I was gratified by the sight of the Galla Oxen, or Sanga, celebrated throughout Abyssinia for the remarkable size of its horns. Three of these animals were grazing among the other cattle in perfect health, which circumstance, together with the testimony of the natives, 'that the size of the horns is in no instance occasioned by disease,' completely refutes the fanciful theory given by Mr. Bruce respecting this creature. It appears by the papers annexed to the last edition of Mr. Bruce's work, that he never met with the Sanga; but that he made many attempts to procure specimens of the horns, through Yanni, a Greek, residing at Adowa. This old man very correctly speaks of them, in his letters, as being only brought by the Cafilas from Antalo; and I have now ascertained that they are sent to this country as valuable presents, by the chiefs of the Galla, whose tribes are spread to the southward of Enderta. So far, then, as to the description of the horns, and the purposes to which they are applied by the Abyssinians, Mr. Bruce's statements may be considered as correct; but with respect to 'the disease which occasions their size, probably derived from their pasture and climate,' 'the care taken of them to encourage this disease,' 'the emaciation of the animal,' and 'the extending of the disorder to the spine of the neck, which at last becomes callous, so that it is not any longer in the power of the animal to lift its head,' they all prove to be mere ingenious conjectures, thrown out by the author solely for the exercise of his own ingenuity. "I should not venture to speak so positively upon this matter, had I not indisputably ascertained the facts; for the Ras having subsequently made me a present of three of these animals alive, I found them not only in excellent health, but so exceedingly wild, that I was obliged to have them shot. The horns of one of these are now deposited in the Museum of the Surgeons' College, and a still larger pair are placed in the collection of Lord Valentia, at Arley Hall. The length of the largest horn of this description was nearly four feet, and its circumference at the base twenty-one inches. "It might have been expected that the animal, carrying horns of so extraordinary a magnitude, would have proved larger than others belonging to the same genus; but in every instance which came under my observation, this was by no means the case. The etching on the following page, which was copied from an original sketch (taken from the life), may serve to convince the reader of this fact; and it will convey a better idea of the animal than any description in writing I can pretend to give. I shall only further observe, that its colour appeared to vary as much as in the other species of its genus, and that the peculiarity of the size of the horns was not confined to the male, the female being very amply provided with this ornamental appendage to her forehead." Notwithstanding the bold and confident tone of Mr. Salt's counter-statement, it must be confessed, that the figure which he himself gives from the life (and of which the frontispiece to this volume is an exact copy), seems rather to coincide with Mr. Bruce's account, being, to all appearance, both "lank and emaciated." Engraving of the horns presented by Mr. Salt to the Museum of the College of Surgeons. [Illustration: Horns of Galla Ox.] Ft. In. Length of each round the outer curve 3 10-1/2 Distance between the tips 3 4 Circumference at the base 1 3 Distance between the bases at the forehead 0 3-1/2 The Sanga is usually considered as a mere variety of _Bos Taurus_. This may possibly be the fact; but we have no proof whatever that it is so: no information on this point has been presented beyond mere conjecture. This being the case, and in the absence of direct anatomical evidence, we may be pardoned in considering it, at least, as doubtful; especially as there are so many points of external dissimilarity. The principal differences are: 1st, in the shoulder, upon which there is a hump; 2d, in the back, which descends (as in the Buffaloes and Zebus), abruptly towards the tail; 3d, in the greater length of the legs; and 4th, in the forehead, which is only three inches and a half between the bases of the horns, whilst in the Common Ox it is nine inches. The horns represented in the following sketch, are those of the Hungarian Ox (a variety of _Bos Taurus_), and are almost as remarkable for their length and expansion as those of the Abyssinian Sanga. The length of each horn is three feet four inches and a half, and the distance between the tips is five feet one inch. The sketch is from a specimen in the British Museum. [Illustration] FOOTNOTES: [B] Jerom Lobo, in his account of Abyssinia, mentions that some of the horns of the Buffaloes of that country will hold ten quarts. INDIAN DOMESTIC CATTLE. _Bos ----?_ THE ZEBU, OR BRAHMIN OX.--(_Var. alpha._) [Illustration] The opinions expressed in the following extract from Mr. Bennett's description of the Indian Ox (Gardens and Menag. of the Zool. Soc.), may be taken as a correct exposition of the views of naturalists generally on the subject:-- "There can be little doubt that the Zebu, or Indian Ox, is merely a variety of the Common Ox, although it is difficult to ascertain the causes by which the distinctive characters of the two races have been in the process of time gradually produced. But whatever the causes may have been, their effects rapidly disappear by the intermixture of the breeds, and are entirely lost at the end of a few generations. This intermixture and its results would alone furnish a sufficient proof of identity of origin; which, consequently, scarcely requires the confirmation to be derived from the perfect agreement of their internal structure, and of all the more essential particulars of their external confirmation. These, however, are not wanting; not only is their anatomical structure the same, but the form of their heads, which affords the only certain means of distinguishing the actual species of this genus from each other, presents no difference whatever. In both the forehead is flat, or more properly slightly depressed; nearly square in its outline, its height being equal to its breadth; and bounded above by a prominent line, forming an angular protuberance, passing directly across the skull between the bases of the horns. The only circumstances in fact in which the two animals differ, consists in the fatty hump on the shoulders of the Zebu, and in the somewhat more slender and delicate make of its legs." In a scientific work, it is not sufficient for the author merely to make an assertion; it is not even sufficient for him to say that he has made an experiment or observation, and merely give the result; he should, in every case where it is practicable, describe the nature of his experiment,--the _when_, the _where_, the _how_;--and the means and opportunity he had of making his observations, that the curious or sceptical inquirer may be enabled to perform the experiment, or make the observation for himself. Mr. Bennett tells us, that the differences observable in the Indian Ox and the Common Ox "_rapidly_ disappear by the intermixture of the breeds, and are entirely lost at the end of a few generations;" but he does not refer to a single instance of this, authentic or otherwise; nor are we aware that any such instance ever occurred. Again, he states that "their anatomical structure is the same;" but he does not inform us when, or where, or how, the comparison was made which enabled him to arrive at that conclusion. Wishing to satisfy myself, as far as possible, on this point, I have examined the skeleton both of the British Domestic Ox and the Zebu; and the following is the result of that examination:-- NUMBER OF VERTEBRÆ. Cerv. Dors. Lumb. Sac. Caud. Total. In the Zebu 7 13 6 4 18 = 48 In the Common Ox 7 13 6 5 21 = 52 The skeletons may still be seen in the Museum of the College of Surgeons. Furthermore, the period of gestation of the Brahmin Cow (according to the MS. records of the Zoological Society), is 300 days, while that of the Common Cow is only 270 days. Whether the differences here pointed out are sufficient to constitute specific distinction, is left for the umpires to decide. [Illustration: THE ZEBU.--(_Var. beta._)] These Indian Cattle are extremely gentle, and admirably adapted to harness. Some of the eastern princes attach them to their artillery; but generally they employ the finest to draw their light carriages, which in form are very similar to those of the ancients. In mountainous countries, they have them shod. Their pace is a kind of amble, and they are able to sustain a journey of about twenty leagues a day. Guided by a cord which passes through the nasal cartilage, they obey the hand with as much precision as a horse. In the same provinces are seen a race of dwarf Bisons, which are scarcely as tall as our calves of two months old, generally described under the name of _Zebu_. They are lively, well proportioned, and trained to be mounted by children, or to draw a light car. In both cases their pace is a sort of amble, the same as that of the larger species. [Illustration: Zebus (_Var. gamma_) and Car.] The curious Hindoo customs in relation to this animal have been recorded by almost every traveller. Neither the horse, the sheep, nor the goat, have any peculiar sanctity annexed to them by the Braminical superstition; it is otherwise with the cow, which in India is everywhere regarded with veneration, and is an object of peculiar worship. Representations of objects are made upon the walls with cow-dung, and these enter deeply into their routine of daily observances. The same materials are also dried, and used as fuel for dressing their victuals; for this purpose the women collect it, and bake it into cakes, which are placed in a position where they soon become dry and fit for use. The sacred character of the cow probably gives this fuel a preference to every other in the imagination of a Hindoo, for it is used in Calcutta, where wood is in abundance. On certain occasions it is customary for the Hindoos to consecrate a bull as an offering to their deities; particular ceremonies are then performed, and a mark is impressed upon the animal, expressive of his future condition to all the inhabitants. No consideration will induce the pious Bengalee to hurt or even control one of these consecrated animals. You may see them every day roaming at large through the streets of Calcutta, and tasting rice, grain, or flour in the Bazar, according to their pleasure. The utmost a native will do, when he observes the animal doing too much honour to his goods, is to urge him, by the gentlest hints, to taste of the vegetables or grain of his neighbour's stall. (_Tennant's 'Indian Recreations.'_) One of the doctrines of the Brahmins is to believe that kine have in them somewhat of sacred and divine; that happy is the man who can be sprinkled over with the ashes of a cow, burnt by the hand of a Brahmin; but thrice happy is he who, in dying, lays hold of a cow's tail and expires with it between his hands; for thus assisted, the soul departs out of the body purified, and sometimes returns into the body of a cow. That such a favour, notwithstanding, is not conferred but on heroic souls, who contemn life, and die generously, either by casting themselves headlong from a precipice, or leaping into a kindled pile, or throwing themselves under the holy chariot wheels, to be crushed to death by the Pagods, when they are carried in triumph about the town.--(_Life of St. Francis Xavier, translated by Dryden, 1688._) AFRICAN AND OTHER VARIETIES. In Shaw's Zoology, the following species or varieties are noticed:-- LOOSE-HORNED OX. This is said to be found in Abyssinia and in Madagascar, and is distinguished by pendulous ears, and horns _attached only to the skin, so as to hang down on each side_! THE BOURY. Of the size of a camel, and of a snowy whiteness, with a protuberance on the back, is a native of Madagascar and some other islands. THE TINIAN OX. Of a white colour, with black ears. Inhabits the island of Tinian. Bewick mentions that in Persia there are many oxen entirely white, with small blunt horns and humps on their backs. They are very strong, and carry heavy burdens. When about to be loaded, they drop down on their knees like the Camel, and rise again when their burdens are properly fastened. THE BORNOU OX, which Col. Smith considers a distinct species, is likewise white, of a very large size, with hunched back, and very large horns, which are couched outwards and downwards, like those of the African Buffalo, with the tip forming a small half-spiral revolution. The corneous external coat is very soft, distinctly fibrous, and at the base not much thicker than a human nail; the osseous core full of vascular grooves, and inside very cellular, the pair scarcely weighing four pounds. The skin passes insensibly to the horny state, so that there is no exact demarcation where the one commences or the other ends. The dimension of a horn are:--length measured on the curve, three feet seven inches; circumference at base, two feet; circumference midway, one foot six inches; circumference two thirds up the horn, one foot; length in a straight line, from base to tip, one foot five inches and a half. The species has a small neck, and is the common domestic breed of Bornou, where the Buffalo is said to have small horns. Leguat, in his 'Voyages in 1720,' states that the oxen are of three sorts at the Cape of Good Hope, all of a large size, and very active; some have a hump on the back, others have the horns long and pendent, while others have them turned up and well shaped, as in English cattle. [Illustration: Zebu.--(_Var. delta._)] THE DOMESTIC OXEN OF THE HOTTENTOTS, CALLED BACKELEYS, BACKELEYERS, OR BAKELY-OSSE. _Bos ----?_ The following particulars relating to these Oxen are taken from the highly interesting work '_The Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_,' by Peter Kolben, who visited that colony in 1705, and remained there during a period of eight years. "The Hottentots have a sort of oxen they call Backeleyers, or fighting oxen; they use them in their wars, as some nations do elephants; of the taming and farming of which last creatures upon the like discipline the Hottentots as yet know nothing. They are of great use to them, too, in the government of their herds at pasture; for, upon a signal from their commanders, they will fetch in stragglers, and bring the herds within compass. They will likewise run very furiously at strangers, and therefore are of good defence against the Buschies, or robbers who steal cattle. They are the stateliest oxen of the herd: every Kraal has half-a-dozen of these oxen at the least. When one of them dies, or grows so old, that, being unfit for business, his owner kills him, a young one is chosen out of the herd to succeed him, by an ancient Hottentot, who is judged best able to discern his capacity for instruction. This young ox is associated with an old Backeleyer, and taught, by blows and other means, to follow him. At night they tie them together by the horns; and for some part of the day they fasten them together in the same manner, till at length, by this and I know not what other means, the young ox is fully instructed, and becomes a watchful guardian of the herds, and an able auxiliary in war. "The Backeleyers (so called from the Hottentot word Backeley for war) know every inhabitant of the Kraal they belong to, men, women, and children, and pay them all just the same respect that is paid by a dog to every person who dwells in his master's house. Any of the inhabitants may, therefore, at any time present themselves very safely on any side of the herds; the Backeleyers will in nowise offend them. But if a stranger, especially a European, shall approach the herds, without the company of a Hottentot of the Kraal they belong to, he must look sharp to himself; for these Backeleyers, which generally feed at the skirts of the herds, quickly discover him, and make at him upon a full gallop. And if he is not within hearing of any of the Hottentots who keep the herds, or has not a fire-arm, or a light pair of heels, or there is not a tree at hand which he can immediately climb, he is certainly demolished. The Backeleyers mind not sticks or the throwing of stones at them. This is one great reason why the Europeans always travel the Hottentot countries with fire-arms. But the first thing a European does, upon the appearance of such an enemy, is to shout and call to the Hottentots that look to the herds. The Hottentot that hears him hastens to his assistance, making all the way a very shrill whistling through his fingers. The Backeleyers no sooner hear the whistling of their keepers, which they very well know, than they stop, turn about, and return leisurely to the herds. "But if a European, in such a case, does not (upon his shouting and calling to the keepers), hear the whistle, before the Backeleyers come up with him, he discharges his fire-arm,--frightened with the report of which, the Backeleyers run away. "I have been often run at by the Backeleyers myself. As soon as I saw them sallying out upon me, I shouted and called to the keepers. But I could not often make them hear before the Backeleyers came up with me, when I have been obliged to discharge my fire-arm (for I always carried one about with me), upon which they always turned about and left me. "In the wars of the Hottentots with one another, these Backeleyers make very terrible impressions. They gore, and kick, and trample to death, with incredible fury. Each army has a drove of them, which they take their opportunity to turn upon the enemy. And if an army, against which the Backeleyers are sent, is not alert and upon all its guard, these creatures quickly force their way through it, tearing, shattering, and confounding all the troops that oppose them, and paving for their masters an easy way to victory. The courage of these creatures is amazing; and the discipline upon which they are formed does not a little honour to the Hottentot genius and dexterity. "The Hottentots have likewise great numbers of oxen for carriage. These, too, are very strong and stately creatures, chosen out of the herds, at about the age of two years, by old men, well skilled in cattle. When they have destined an ox to carry burdens, they take and throw him on his back on the ground; and fastening his head and feet with strong ropes to stakes firmly fixed in the ground, they make a hole with a sharp knife through his upper lip, between his nostrils. Into this hole they put a stick, about half an inch thick, and a foot and a half long, with a hook at top to prevent its falling through. By this hooked stick they break him to obedience and good behaviour; for if he refuses to be governed, or to carry the burdens they lay upon him, they fix his nose by this hooked stick to the ground, and there hold it till he comes to a better temper. "It is an exquisite torture to an Ox to be fastened to the ground by the nose in this manner. He is not, therefore, long exercised this way, before he gets a notion of his duty, and becomes tractable. After which, the very sight alone of the stick, when he is wanton or refractory, will humble and reduce him to the will of his driver. The terror of this stick, likewise makes the carriage oxen so attentive to the words of command the Hottentots use to them, that they quickly conceive and, ever while they live, afterwards retain the intention of them. I have a thousand times been surprised at the ready obedience the carriage oxen have paid to a Hottentot's bare words. They are as quick at apprehending, and as exact in performing the orders of their driver, as is any taught dog in Europe at conceiving and accomplishing the orders of his master. The stick--the terrible stick--makes them all attention and diligence." AFRICAN BULL. The following notice, which will explain itself, appeared in Loudon's 'Magazine of Natural History,' for July, 1828. "Some Account of a particular Variety of Bull (_Bos Taurus_), now exhibiting in London. By Mrs. Harvey. "Sir,--Agreeably to your request, Mr. Harvey has taken a portrait of this animal; and as he has made the drawing on the wood himself, the engraving will be a very perfect resemblance.[C] I have, on my part, drawn up the following particulars, from what my husband told me, and I shall be happy if they prove of any interest to you or your readers:-- [Illustration] "This animal belongs to a French woman, who says he was brought from Africa to Bordeaux when a calf; and, after having been shown in different parts of the Continent, was taken to London, and exhibited at the Grand Bazaar in King's Street, Portman Square, last autumn. He is at present five years old, four feet high at the shoulder and seven feet in length, from the horns to the insertion of the tail. The length of his face is one foot eight inches, and the girth round the collar seven feet six inches. His hair is short and silky, and the colour a cream or yellowish white, except two black tufts which appear on each foot. On the back of the neck there is a hump or swelling, which seems confined to this variety. The general aspect of the animal is mild and docile; but, when irritated, his expression is very remarkable, exhibiting itself principally in the eye. This, in its ordinary state, is very peculiar, (fig. 1, _a_,) rising more than one-half above the orbit, and bearing a resemblance to a cup and ball, thus enabling the animal to see on all sides with equal ease. The iris is naturally of a pale blue colour; but, when the animal is irritated, it varies from a very pale blue or lilac to a deep crimson. Its form is also very remarkable, being a small oval, or rather a parallelogram, with the ends cut off, and lying transversely across the ball, (fig. 1, _b_.) [Illustration: Fig. 1. Eyes of African Bull.] [Illustration: Fig. 2.] "The black tufts, mentioned above, are the lateral hoofs (fig. 2), which the animal sheds annually, and which grow to the length of five or six inches. They are not shed together, or at stated periods; for those of the fore-feet, (_a_, _b_,) in this example, are at present of different ages, and, consequently, of different lengths; the difference between them being exactly that represented in the sketch. "On the hump or collar, the hair grows much longer than on the other parts of the body, forming a sort of curled mane, resembling, I should imagine, that of the Bison. It is perfectly white, growing to the length of one foot six inches, and adding greatly to the height of the rising part behind the horns. At present the hair is only beginning to grow; but it will be in full beauty at the approach of the winter months, and will fall off gradually again in the early part of the succeeding spring. [Illustration: Fig. 3. Dewlap of African Bull.] "The keeper pointed out to Mr. Harvey, as a remarkable peculiarity, that the dewlap (fig. 3), in passing between the fore-legs (_a_), and under the body (_b_), seemed to divide itself into three parts, which they called the three stomachs, (1, 2, 3,) from their being very much acted on in the progress of digestion." I remain. Sir, &c. M. HARVEY. FOOTNOTES: [C] The engraving here given as well as those of the eyes, hoofs, and dewlap, have been carefully copied from Mr. Harvey's originals. CHILLINGHAM WHITE CATTLE. _Bos Taurus.--Restricted Variety._ [Illustration] Considerable interest has always been connected with the history of those herds of white cattle which have been kept secluded, apparently from time immemorial, in the parks of some of our aristocracy.[D] It has been, and still is, a matter of lordly pride to their noble owners, that these cattle are held to be of a distinct and untameable race. Feeling a full share of the interest attached to them, and anxious to gain the most accurate and circumstantial information, I was induced to pay a visit, during the summer of 1845, to the beautifully wooded and undulating Park of Chillingham, in which a herd of these cattle is preserved; and, although I have not been able to gather material for a perfect history of these animals, I think it will not be difficult to show that matters respecting them have been set forth as facts which are fictions; and that from some points of their history which have been correctly detailed, inferences have been drawn, which are by no means warranted by the facts. In endeavouring to point out these errors and false reasonings, it will be necessary to make quotations from the old history of the white cattle, in Culley's 'Observations on Live Stock,' which has been so often repeated in works on natural history, and is, moreover, so thoroughly accredited, that it may now appear something like presumption to call it in question. To what extent it is called in question on the present occasion, and the reasons for so doing, will be seen in the running commentary which accompanies these quotations. Culley says: "The Wild Breed, from being untameable, can only be kept within walls or good fences; consequently very few of them are now to be met with, except in the parks of some gentlemen, who keep them for ornament, and as a curiosity: those I have seen are at Chillingham Castle, in Northumberland, a seat belonging to the Earl of Tankerville." The statement of their being untameable is a mere assertion, founded upon no evidence whatever. But so far is it from being the fact, that, notwithstanding every means are used to preserve their wildness, such as allowing them to range in an extensive park--seldom intruding upon them--hunting and shooting them now and then--notwithstanding these means are taken to preserve their wildness, they are even now so far domesticated as voluntarily to present themselves every winter, at a place prepared for them, for the purpose of being fed. From which it may reasonably be concluded, that were they restricted in their pasture, gradually familiarised with the presence of human beings, and in every other respect treated as ordinary cattle, they would, in the course of two or three generations, be equally tame and tractable. Whilst writing the foregoing I was not aware that any attempt had been made to domesticate these so-called untameable oxen; but on reading an account of these cattle by Mr. Hindmarsh, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, (bearing date about 1837,) I find the following paragraph. "By taking the calves at a very early age, and treating them gently, the present keeper succeeded in domesticating an ox and a cow. _They became as tame as domestic animals_, and the ox fed as rapidly as a short-horned steer. He lived eighteen years, and when at his best was computed at 8 cwt. 14 lbs. The cow only lived five or six years. She gave little milk, but the quality was rich. She was crossed by a country bull, but her progeny very closely resembled herself, being entirely white, excepting the ears, which were brown, and the legs, which were mottled." These facts speak for themselves. Culley, in giving their distinguishing characteristics, says: "Their colour is invariably of a creamy white; muzzle black; the whole of the inside of the ear, and about one third of the outside, from the tips downwards, red; horns white, with black tips, very fine, and bent upwards; some of the bulls have a thin upright mane, about an inch and a half, or two inches long." That their colour is invariably white is simply owing to the care that is taken to destroy all the calves that are born of a different description. It is pretty well known to the farmers about Chillingham (although pains are taken to conceal the fact,) that the wild cows in the park not unfrequently drop calves variously spotted. With respect to the redness of the ears, this is by no means an invariable character, many young ones having been produced without that distinctive mark; and Bewick records, that about twenty years before he wrote, there existed a few in the herd with _black_ ears, but they were destroyed. So far from the character here given of the horns being confined to those white cattle, it is precisely the description of the horns of the Kyloe oxen, or black cattle. The investiture of some of the bulls with a mane is equally gratuitous; Cole, who was park-keeper for more than forty years, and of course had ample means of observation, distinctly informed me that they had no mane, but only some curly hair, about the neck, which is likewise an attribute of the Kyloe Oxen. Culley goes on to say: "From the nature of their pasture, and the frequent agitation they are put into by the curiosity of strangers, it is scarce to be expected that they should get very fat; yet the six years old oxen are generally very good beef, from whence it may be fairly supposed, that in proper situations they would feed well." It would naturally be inferred from this, that the park in which they are kept is visited by strangers every day, who are allowed to drive them about, and disturb them in their feeding and ruminating, as boys hunt geese or donkeys on a common. This, however, is so far from being the case, that it frequently happens that the park is not visited for many weeks in succession, and certainly on an average it is not visited once a week. What is here meant by "the nature of their pasture," and "in proper situations they would feed well," it is difficult to say. The fact is, their pasture is both good and extensive, and they feed as well as animals always do who are left to themselves with plenty of food. Their behaviour to strangers is thus described: "At the first appearance of any person, they set off at full speed, and gallop a considerable distance, when they make a wheel round, and come boldly up again, tossing their heads in a menacing manner; on a sudden, they make a full stop, at a distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the object of their surprise; but upon the least motion being made, they turn round again, and gallop off with equal speed; but forming a shorter circle, and, returning with a bolder and more threatening aspect, they approach much nearer, when they make another stand, and again gallop off. This they do several times, shortening their distance, and approaching nearer, till they come within a few yards, when most people think it prudent to leave them." In the instance in which I had an opportunity of witnessing their method of receiving visitors, the fashion was somewhat different. The park-keeper who accompanied me described, as we rode through the park in quest of them, what would be their mode of procedure on our approach. This he did from observations so repeatedly made, as to warrant him in saying that it was their invariable mode. It was perfectly simple, and I found it precisely as he had described it. When we came in sight of them, they were tranquilly ruminating under a clump of shady trees, some of the herd standing, others lying. On their first observing us, those that were lying rose up, and they all then began to move _slowly_ away, not exactly to a greater distance from us, but in the direction of a thickly wooded part of the park, which was as distant on our left as the herd was on our right. To reach this wooded part they had to pass over some elevated ground. They continued to walk at a gradually accelerating pace, till they gained the most elevated part, when they broke out into a trot, then into a canter, which at last gave way to a full gallop, a sort of "devil-take-the-hindmost" race, by which they speedily buried themselves in the thickest recesses of the wood. What they may have done in Mr. Culley's time, we must take upon that gentleman's word; but at present, and for so long as the present park-keeper can recollect, they have never been in the habit of describing those curious concentric circles of which Mr. Culley makes mention in the last quotation. The late mode of killing them is described as "perhaps the only modern remains of the grandeur of ancient hunting. On notice being given, that a wild bull would be killed on a certain day, the inhabitants of the neighbourhood came mounted and armed with guns, &c., sometimes to the amount of a hundred horse, and four or five hundred foot, who stood upon walls or got into trees, while the horsemen rode off the bull from the rest of the herd until he stood at bay, when a marksman dismounted and shot. At some of these huntings twenty or thirty shots have been fired before he was subdued. On these occasions the bleeding victim grew desperately furious, from the smarting of his wounds, and the shouts of savage joy that were echoing from every side. But from the number of accidents that happened, this dangerous mode has been little practised of late years, the park-keeper alone generally shooting them with a rifled gun at one shot." This vivid portraiture of a scene, which the writer is pleased to consider _grand_, does not appear to have much relation to the history of the _Genus Bos_: it however, exhibits the brutal and ferocious habits of two varieties of _Genus Homo_, namely _Nob_ility and _Mob_ility--two varieties which, although distinguished by some external marks of difference, possess in common many questionable characteristics. Culley proceeds:--"When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or ten days in some sequestered situation, and go and suckle them two or three times a day. If any person come near the calves, they clap their heads close to the ground, and lie like a hare in form, to hide themselves; _this is a proof of their native wildness_, and is corroborated by the following circumstance that happened to Mr. Bailey, of Chillingham, who found a hidden calf, two days old, very lean and very weak. On stroking its head it got up, pawed two or three times like an old bull, bellowed very loud, stepped back a few steps, and bolted at his legs with all its force; it then began to paw again, bellowed, stepped back, and bolted as before; but knowing its intention, and stepping aside, it missed him, fell, and was so very weak that it could not rise, though it made several efforts. But it had done enough: the whole herd were alarmed, and, coming to its rescue, obliged him to retire; for the dams will allow no person to touch their calves without attacking them with impetuous ferocity." It seems almost unnecessary to remind the reader that all animals are naturally wild; and that even those animals that have been the longest under the dominion of man, are born with a strong tendency to the wild state, to which they would immediately resort, if left to themselves: it appears, therefore, rather gratuitous to tell us that the NATURAL _actions of young animals_ (whose parents have been allowed to run wild), _are proofs of their native mildness_! The concluding paragraph requires no observation:--"When a calf is intended to be castrated, the park-keeper marks the place where it is hid, and, when the herd are at a distance, takes an assistant with him on horseback; they tie a handkerchief round the calf s mouth, to prevent its bellowing, and then perform the operation in the usual way. When any one happens to be wounded, or is grown weak and feeble through age or sickness, the rest of the herd set upon it, and gore it to death." The following engraving exhibits the effects of castration on the curvature and length of the horns. [Illustration: 1. Head of the perfect animal. 2, 3. Heads of the emasculated animal.] We learn, on the authority of the present Lord Tankerville, that during the early part of the life-time of his father, the bulls in the herd had been reduced to three; two of them fought and killed each other, and the third was discovered to be impotent; so that the means of preserving the breed depended on the accident of some of the cows producing a bull calf. In 1844 I wrote to Mr. Cole, the late park-keeper at Chillingham, requesting information on the following queries, to which he returned the answers annexed; and although they are not so explicit as might be wished, they embody facts both interesting and important. _List of the Queries with their Answers._ 1. How many pairs of ribs are there in the skeleton of the Chillingham Ox? _Thirteen pairs._ 2. How many vertebræ are there (from the skull to the end of the tail)? _Thirty in the back-bone, twenty in the tail._ 3. Will the wild cattle breed with the domestic cattle? _I have had two calves from a wild bull and common cow._ 4. What is the precise time the wild cow goes with young? _The same as the domestic cow._ 5. At what age does the curly hair appear which constitutes the mane of the wild bull? _They have no mane, but curly hair on their neck and head; more so in winter, when the hair is long._ 6. In what month does the rutting take place among the wild cattle? _At all times,--no particular time._ J. COLE. Here we have precise information on the following points:--namely, the number of ribs; the period of gestation; their having no mane; their not being in heat at any particular period; in all which points, they perfectly agree with the ordinary domestic cattle; and it is important to observe, that in the last point, namely, that of not being in heat at any particular time, they differ from every known _wild_ species of cattle, among which the rutting season invariably occurs at a particular period of the year. FOOTNOTES: [D] Formerly these cattle were much more numerous, both in England and Scotland, than they are at present. Scanty herds are still preserved at the following places:--Chillingham Park, Northumberland; Wollaton, Nottinghamshire; Gisburne, in Craven, Yorkshire; Lime-hall, Cheshire; Chartley, Staffordshire; and Cadzow Forest, at Hamilton, Lanarkshire. At Gisburne they are perfectly white, except the inside of their ears, which are _brown_. From Garner's 'Natural History of Staffordshire,' we learn that the Wild Ox formerly roamed over Needwood Forest, and in the thirteenth century, William de Farrarus caused the park of Chartley to be separated from the forest, and the turf of this extensive enclosure still remains almost in its primitive state. Here a herd of wild cattle has been preserved down to the present day, and they retain their wild characteristics like those at Chillingham. They are cream-coloured, with _black muzzles and ears_; their fine sharp horns are also tipped with black. They are not easily approached, but are harmless, unless molested. THE KYLOE, OR HIGHLAND OX. _Bos Taurus._ [Illustration] The Chillingham Cattle are _white_, and the Highland Cattle or Kyloes are generally _black_; but with this exception the same description might almost serve for both breeds. In their natural and unimproved state, the Highland cattle are frequently well formed; their fine eyes, acute face, and lively countenances, give them an air of fierceness, which is heightened by their white, tapering, black-tipped, and sharp horns. The Kyloe Oxen are very small (another respect in which they resemble the Chillingham Oxen). They likewise partake much of the nature of wild animals, which might be expected from the almost unlimited extent of their pasture, and their being but little subject to artificial treatment. Upon a close comparison of these two breeds, there appears not to be so much difference between the Highland cattle and the cattle of Chillingham as there is between any two breeds or varieties of British cattle. Indeed so great is the similarity, that the Kyloe appears to be only a black variety of the Chillingham Ox, and the Chillingham Ox only a white variety of the Kyloe. Dr. Anderson speaks of having seen a kind of Highland cattle which had a mane on the top of the head, of considerable length, and a tuft between the horns that nearly covered the eyes, giving them a fierce and savage aspect. He likewise mentions another kind which have hair of a pale lead colour, very beautiful in its appearance, and in its quality as glossy and soft as silk. The Kyloe Oxen are natives of the Western Highlands and Isles, and are commonly called the Argyleshire breed, or the breed of the Isle of Skie, one of the islands attached to the county of Argyle. They are generally of a dark brown colour, or black, though sometimes brindled. The Cows of the Isle of Skie (as is recorded by Martin, in his 'Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,') are exposed to the rigour of the coldest seasons, and become mere skeletons in the spring, many of them not being able to rise from the ground without help; but they recover as the season becomes more favorable, and the grass grows up; then they acquire new beef, which is both sweet and tender; the fat and lean is not so much separated in them as in other cows, but as it were larded, which renders it very agreeable to the taste. A cow in this isle may be twelve years old, when at the same time its beef is not above four, five, or six months old. TABLE OF THE NUMBER OF VERTEBRÆ IN THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF THE GENUS BOS. | Cerv. | Dors. | Lumb. | Sacr. | Caud. | Total. American Bison | 7 | 14 | 5 | 5 | 12+ | European Bison, | | | | | | or Aurochs | 7 | 14 | 5 | 5 | 19 | 50 Yak | 7 | 14 | 5 | 5 | 14 | 45 Gayal (Domestic) | 7 | 14 | 5 | 5 | 16 | 47 Gayal (Asseel). | | | | | | Gyall | | | | | | Jungli Gau | | | | | | Italian Buffalo. | | | | | | Indian Buffalo. | | | | | | Skeleton of Buffalo | | | | | | in Surg. Coll. | | | | | | (locality unknown) | 7 | 13 | 6 | 5 | 16 | 47 Gaur | 7 | 13 | 6 | 5 | 19 | 50 Domestic Ox | 7 | 13 | 6 | 5 | 21 | 52 Condore Buffalo | | | | | | Manilla Buffalo | 7 | 13 | 6 | | | Pegasse | | | | | | Arnee | | | | | | Cape Buffalo | 7 | 13 | 6 | 4 | 19 | 49 Zamouse (_Bos_ | | | | | | _Brachyceros_) | 7 | 13 | 6 | 4 | 20 | 50 Banteng of Java | | | | | | (_Bos Bantinger_) | 7 | 13 | 6 | 4 | 18 | 48 Zebu, or Brahmin Ox | 7 | 13 | 6 | 4 | 18 | 48 Galla Ox. | | | | | | Backeley | | | | | | (_Caffraria_). | | | | | | Musk Ox | | | | | | The osteological details in the above Table (except those of the Yak, which are given on the authority of Pallas) are from the Author's own observations. TABLE OF THE PERIODS OF GESTATION OF THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF THE GENUS BOS. | Periods | American Bison. | 270 days.--Zool. Proc., 1849. European Bison. | Between 9 and 10 months. | Gayal (Domestic) | Over 10 months | Gyall | 11 months | Indian Buffalo | 10 months 10 days. | Gaur | 12 months Domestic Ox. | 270 days | Manilla Buffalo. | 340 days | Arnee | 12 months Cape Buffalo | 12 months | Zebu, or Brahmin Cow | 300 days | Musk Ox | 9 months To supply the deficiencies in the foregoing Tables, the results of original observations are respectfully solicited. Address the Author or Publisher. NOTE ON THE AMERICAN BISON. It was Cuvier, I believe, who first made the statement, that the American Bison is furnished with _fifteen_ pairs of ribs. In this particular he has been implicitly followed by every subsequent writer on the subject. Not being able to refer to a skeleton, and, moreover, never suspecting any inaccuracy in the statement, I followed the received account. But since this work has gone to press, I have had the opportunity of examining two skeletons, by which I find that-- _The American Bison has only_ FOURTEEN _pairs of ribs._ I have, therefore, in the "Table of the Number of Vertebræ," (see p. 152,) set this species down as possessing only that number. Of the two skeletons referred to (both of which are now in the British Museum), one is from a female Bison, some years a living resident in the Zoological Gardens; and the other is from a male, late in the possession of the Earl of Derby, at Knowsley, in Lancashire. A corroborative circumstance (amounting, indeed, to a complete proof of the accuracy of these observations,) is presented by the fact, that, in both the cases _the number of lumbar vertebræ is precisely_ FIVE; thus making the true vertebræ to consist of nineteen, which Professor Owen[E] has shown to be the invariable number possessed by all ruminants. FOOTNOTES: [E] See, in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, Professor Owen's 'Account of his Dissection of the Aurochs.' APPENDIX THE FREE MARTIN. Cows usually bring forth but one calf at a birth; occasionally, however, they produce twins. John Hunter, in his 'Observations on the Animal Economy,' says: "It is a fact known, and I believe almost universally understood, that when a cow brings forth two calves, one of them a bull-calf, and the other to appearance a cow, that the cow-calf is unfit for propagation; but the bull-calf grows up into a very proper bull. Such a cow-calf is called, in this country, a FREE MARTIN, and is commonly as well known among the farmers as either cow or bull. It has all the external marks of a cow-calf, namely, the teats, and the external female parts, called by farmers the bearing. It does not show the least inclination for the bull, nor does the bull ever take the least notice of it. In form it very much resembles the Ox, or spayed heifer, being considerably larger than either the bull or the cow, having the horns very similar to the horns of an Ox. The bellow of the Free Martin is similar to that of an Ox, having more resemblance to that of the cow than that of the bull." Free Martins are very much disposed to grow fat with good food. The flesh, like that of the Ox or spayed heifer, is generally much finer in the fibre than either the bull or cow; is even supposed to exceed that of the Ox and heifer in delicacy of flavour, and bears a higher price at market. However this superiority of the flavour does not appear to be universal, for Mr. Hunter was informed of a case which occurred in Berkshire, in which the flesh of a Free Martin turned out nearly as bad as bull beef. This circumstance probably arose from the animal having more the properties of a bull than a cow. Mr. Hunter, having had many opportunities of dissecting Free Martins, has satisfactorily shown that their incapacity to breed, and all their other peculiarities, result from their having the generative organs of both sexes combined, in a more or less imperfect state of development, in some cases the organs of the male preponderating, in others those of the female. [Illustration] The above, which is copied from an engraving in Hunter's work on the 'Animal Economy,' is a representation of a Free Martin, five years old; it shows the external form of that animal, which is neither like the bull nor cow, but resembling the Ox or spayed heifer. Although, as Hunter observes, "it is almost universally understood, that when a cow brings forth two calves, one of them a bull-calf, and the other to appearance a cow, that the cow-calf is unfit for propagation," it is by no means universally the fact, as instances of such twins breeding were known even in Hunter's time, and have been witnessed more recently. The following is recorded in Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. History,' and occurred a few years previous to 1826: Jos. Holroyd, of Withers, near Leeds, had a cow which calved twins, a bull-calf and a cow-calf. As popular opinion was against the cow-calf breeding, it being considered a Free Martin, Mr. Holroyd was determined to make an experiment of them, and reared them together. They copulated, and in due time the heifer brought forth a bull-calf, and she regularly had calves for six or seven years afterwards. "If," says Hunter, "there are such deviations as of twins being perfect male and female, why should there not be, on the other hand, an hermaphrodite, produced singly, as in other animals? I had the examination of one which seemed, upon the strictest inquiry, to have been a single calf; and I am the more inclined to think this true, from having found a number of hermaphrodites among black cattle, without the circumstance of their birth being ascertained." If Hunter had carried this reasoning a little further, he might have asked,--Why should there not be a Free Martin, or hermaphrodite, produced in the case of twins, when they are both apparently males, or both apparently females? Had he done this, he would not, probably, have made the following observation: "I need hardly observe, that if a cow has twins, and they are both bull-calves, they are in every respect perfect bulls; or if they are both cow-calves, they are perfect cows." What is this but saying that a bull-calf is a bull-calf, and a cow-calf is a cow-calf? For a Free Martin, or hermaphrodite, is not, in any case, either a bull or a cow. There does not appear to be anything known of the peculiar circumstances under which, what is termed a Free Martin is produced. [Illustration: Skull of Domestic Ox.] The most general observation that can be made on the subject appears to be, that cows sometimes produce calves, which, by reason of their imperfectly developed generative system, are incapable of procreating. THE SHORT-NOSED OX. [Illustration: Skull of short-nosed Ox of the Pampas.] The common Ox, originally taken over to America by the early Spanish settlers, now runs wild in immense herds on the Pampas, where it is hunted and slain for its hide. Some idea may be formed of the immensity of these herds, from the circumstance that nearly a million of hides are annually exported from Buenos Ayres and Monte Video to Europe. Some of the herds in these wild regions have undergone a most singular modification of the cranium, consisting in a shortening of the nasal bones, together with the superior and inferior maxillaries. There is a skull of this variety in the Museum of the College of Surgeons, of which the above is a sketch. ON THE UTILITY OF THE OX TRIBE TO MANKIND. How eminently serviceable to man these animals are, is shown in the following table, in which are set forth the most important uses to which their various parts are applied: SKIN.--The skin has been of great use in all ages. The ancient Britons constructed their boats with osiers, and covered them with the hides of bulls; and these boats were sufficiently strong to serve for short coasting voyages. Similar vessels are still in use on the Irish lakes, and in Wales on the rivers Dee and Severn. In Ireland they are called _curach_, in England _coracles_, from the British _cwrwgl_, a word signifying a boat of that structure. Boots, shoes, harness, &c. for horses, and various kinds of travelling trunks are made from hides when tanned. The skin of the calf is extensively used in the binding of books, and the thinnest of the calf skins are manufactured into vellum. The skin of the Cape Buffalo is made into shields and targets, and is so hard that a musket ball will scarcely penetrate it. HAIR.--The short hair is used to stuff saddles and other articles; also by bricklayers in the mixing up of certain kinds of mortar. It is likewise frequently used in the manuring of land. The _long_ hair from the tail is used for stuffing chairs and cushions. The hair of the Bison is spun into gloves, stockings, and garters, which are very strong, and look as well as those made of the finest sheep's wool; very beautiful cloth has likewise been manufactured from it. The Esquimaux convert the skin covering the tail into caps, which are so contrived that the long hair falling over their faces, defends them from the bites of the mosquitoes. HORNS.--The horns of cattle consist of an outside horny case, and an inside conical-shaped substance, somewhat between hardened hair and bone. The horny outside furnishes the material for the manufacture of a variety of useful articles. The first process consists in cutting the horn transversely into three portions. 1. The _lowest_ of these, next the root of the horn, after undergoing several operations by which it is rendered flat, is made into combs. 2. The _middle_ of the horn, after being flattened by heat, and its transparency improved by oil, is split into thin layers, and forms a substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind. [The merit of the invention of these horn plates, and of their application to lanterns, is ascribed to King Alfred, who is said to have first used lanterns of this description to preserve his candle time-measurers from the wind.] 3. The _tips_ of the horns are generally used to make knife-handles; the largest and best are used for crutch-stick heads, umbrella handles, and ink-horns, and the smallest and commonest serve for the tops and bottoms of ink-horns. Spoons, small boxes, powder flasks, spectacle frames, and drinking horns are likewise made of the outer horny case. The interior or core of the horn is boiled down in water, when a large quantity of fat rises to the surface; this is sold to the makers of yellow soap.--The liquid itself is used as a kind of glue, and is purchased by the cloth-dressers for stiffening.--The bony substance which remains behind, is ground down, and sold to the farmers for manure. Besides these various purposes to which the different parts of the horn are applied, the chippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the farmer for manure, at about one shilling a bushel. In the first year after they are spread over the soil they have comparatively little effect; but during the next four or five their efficiency is considerable. The shavings, which form the refuse of the lantern-maker, are of a much thinner texture. Some of them are cut into various figures, and painted and used as toys; for they curl up when placed in the palm of a warm hand. But the greater part of these shavings are sold also for manure, which from their extremely thin and divided form, produce their full effect upon the first crop. FEET.--An oil is extracted from the feet of oxen--hence called Neat's-foot-oil--of great use in preparing and softening leather. SKIN, _horns_, _hoofs_, and _cartilages_ are used to make glue. BLOOD is used in the formation of mastic; also in the refining of sugar, oil, &c.; and is an excellent manure for fruit trees. _Blood_, _horns_, and _hoofs_ in the formation of Prussian blue. _Gall_ is used to cleanse woollen garments, and to obliterate greasy and other stains. SUET, FAT, TALLOW are chiefly manufactured into candles; they are also used to precipitate the salt that is drawn from briny springs. INTESTINES, when dried, are used as envelopes for German and Bologna sausages; in some countries to carry butter to market. By gold-beaters, in the process of making gold-leaf. Gold-beater's skin, as it is called, forms the most innocent sticking plaster for small cuts on the hands or fingers. The STOMACHS vulgarly called _inwards_, after being washed and boiled, are sold as an article of food under the name of _tripe_. The EXCREMENTITIOUS MATTERS are used to manure the land. The BONES are used as a substitute for ivory in the manufacture of a variety of small articles of a common kind; also for manuring land. "When calcined they are used as an absorbent to carry off the baser metals in refining silver. From the tibia and carpus is procured an oil much used by coach-makers and others in dressing and cleaning harness, and all trappings belonging to carriages." FLESH, both fresh and salted, is generally esteemed as an article of food. _Pemmican_ is made of the flesh of the American Bison: this is dried in the sun by the Indians, spread on a skin, and pounded with stones. When the Indians have got it into this state, they sell it to the different forts, where all the hair is carefully sifted out of it, and melted fat kneaded into it. If it be well made, and kept dry, it will not spoil for a year or two. MILK, a nutritious beverage, _per se_, is used in the composition of innumerable articles of diet; from milk is obtained cream, butter, and cheese. SOME ACCOUNT OF THE ALPINE COWHERDS, WITH A NOTICE OF THE CELEBRATED SWISS AIR _The Ranz des Vaches._ In the Alps, fine cattle are the pride of their keeper, who, not being satisfied with their natural beauty, also gratifies his vanity by adorning his best cows with large bells, suspended from broad thongs. Every _Senn_, or great cow-keeper, has a harmonious set of bells, of at least two or three, chiming in accordance with the famous _Ranz des Vaches_. The finest black cow is adorned with the largest bell, and those next in appearance wear the two smaller ones. It is only on particular occasions that these ornaments are worn, namely, in spring, when they are driven to the Alps, or removed from one pasture to another; or in their autumnal descents, when they travel to the different farmers for the winter. On such days the Senn, even in the depth of winter, appears dressed in a fine white shirt, with the sleeves rolled above the elbows; neatly embroidered red braces suspend his yellow linen trowsers, which reach down to the shoes; he wears a small leather cap on his head, and a new and skilfully carved wooden milk-bowl hangs across his left shoulder. Thus arrayed, the Senn proceeds, singing the _Ranz des Vaches_, followed by three or four fine goats; next comes the finest cow, adorned with the great bell; then the other two with the smaller bells; and these are succeeded by the rest of the cattle, walking one after another, and having in their rear the bull, with a one-legged milking-stool on his horns; the procession is closed by a _traineau_, or sledge, bearing the dairy implements. When dispersed on the Alps, the cattle are collected together by the voice of the Senn, who is then said to allure them. How well these cows distinguish the voice of their keeper, appears from the circumstance of their hastening to him, although at a great distance, whenever he commences singing the _Ranz des Vaches_. This celebrated air is played on the bagpipes, as well as sung by the young Swiss cowherds while watching their cattle on the mountains. The astonishing effects of this simple melody on the Swiss soldier, when absent from his native land, are thus described by Rousseau: "Cet air, se chéri des Suisses qu'il fut défendu sous peine de mort de le jouer dans leurs troupes, parce qu'il faisait fondre en larmes, déserter, ou mourir, ceux qui l'entendaient, tant il excitait en eux l'ardent desir de revoir leur pays. On chercherait en vain dans cet air les accens énergetiques capables de produire de si étonnans effets. Ces effets, qui n'ont aucun lieu sur les étrangers, ne viennent qui de l'habitude, des souvenirs de mille circonstances qui, retracées par cet air à ceux que l'entendent, et leur rappellant leur pays, leurs anciens plaisirs, leur jeunesse, et toutes leur façons de vivre, excitent en eux une douleur amère d'avoir perdu tout cela. La musique alors n'agit point précisément comme musique, mais comme signe memoratif. Cet air, quoique toujours le même, ne produit plus aujourd'hui les mêmes effets qu'il produisait ci-devant sur les Suisses, parce qu'ayant perdu le gôut de leur première simplicité, ils ne la regrettent plus quand on la leur rappelle. Tant il est vrai que ce n'est pas dans leur action physique qu'il faut chercher les plus grand effets des sons sur le coeur humain." For the delectation of the musical reader, the notes of this celebrated air are here introduced, with the words, and an English imitation: AIR SUISSE Appellé le RANZ DES VACHES. [Illustration: Musical notation] The words are as follows:-- Quand reverai-je en un jour, Tous les objets de mon amour, Nos clairs ruisseaux, Nos hameaux, Nos côteaux, Nos montagnes, Et l'ornament de nos montagnes, La si gentille Isabeau? Dans l'ombre d'un ormeau, Quand danserai-je au son du Chalameau? Quand reverai-je en un jour, Tous les objets de mon amour, Mon père, Ma mère, Mon frère, Ma soeur, Mes agneaux, Mes troupeaux, Ma bergère? IMITATED. When shall I return to the Land of the Mountains-- The lakes and the Rhone that is lost in the earth-- Our sweet little hamlets, our villages, fountains, The flour-clad rocks of the place of my birth? O when shall I see my old garden of flowers, Dear Emma, the sweetest of blooms in the glade, And the rich chestnut grove, where we pass'd the long hours With tabor and pipe, while we danced in the shade? When shall I revisit the land of the mountains, Where all the fond objects of memory meet: The cows that would follow my voice to the fountains, The lambs that I called to the shady retreat: My father, my mother, my sister, and brother; My all that was dear in this valley of tears; My palfrey grown old, but there's ne'er such another; My dear dog, still faithful, tho' stricken in years: The vesper bell tolling, the loud thunder rolling, The bees that humm'd round the tall vine-mantled tree: The smooth water's margin whereon we were strolling When evening painted its mirror for me? And shall I return to this scenery never? These objects of infantine glory and love,-- O tell me, my dear Guardian Angel, that ever Floats nigh me,--safe guide to the regions above. SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF HABITAT Buffalo--_Bos Bubalus_ Asia, North Africa, and South Europe. Manilla Buffalo Island of Manilla. Condore Buffalo Island of Pulo Condore. Cape Buffalo South Africa. Pegasse Congo, Angola, Central Africa. Arnee India and China. Gaur India. American Bison North America. Aurochs Lithuania. Yak Tartary and Hindustan. Musk Ox North America. Zamouse, or Bush Cow Gambia, Sierra Leone. Banteng Island of Java. Gyall India. Gayal India. Sanga, or Galla Ox Abyssinia. Zebu--Brahmin Ox Southern Asia, Eastern Africa. Domestic Ox Generally diffused. AND MODE OF LIFE. Mode of Life. Partial to water and mud, swampy localities. Semi-aquatic in its habits,--sometimes called the Water Buffalo. Fond of wallowing in mire, and swims well. Lives much in the water, and feeds on aquatic plants. Ranges in mountain forests, and feeds on leaves and buds of trees. Migratory in its habits--fond of bathing in marshy swamps. Lives chiefly on the woody banks of rivers--feeds on bark of trees, lichens, and herbaceous plants. Feeds on the short herbage peculiar to the tops of mountains and bleak plains. Lives chiefly on rocky mountains. Delights in the deepest jungles--feeds on leaves and shoots of brushwood. Lives entirely on woody-mountains--feeds on shoots and shrubs. Half domesticated. Domesticated, and artificially fed. So completely domesticated, as to be subject to an endless variety of diseases, and generally requires medical attendance. THE INDEFINITE DEFINITIONS OF COL. HAMILTON SMITH. On commencing this Monograph of the _Genus Bos_, I entertained the confident expectation, that in the voluminous work of Cuvier's 'Animal Kingdom,' translated and enlarged by Griffith and others, I should find all that related to generic and specific distinction so clearly exhibited, and so systematically arranged, that I should have no hesitation in adopting the classification there set forth, and no difficulty in determining the place of any new species or variety. With this expectation I diligently studied that portion of Col. H. Smith's volume on the Ruminantia, which treat of the _Genus Bos_, and I here subjoin (verbatim) the generic and subgeneric characters there given of that Genus, by which it will be seen how far they fall short of the clearness and precision which are indispensable to a scientific work. GENERIC CHARACTERS. "_Genus BOS._--Skull very strong, dense about the frontals, which are convex, nearly flat, or concave; horns invariably occupying the crest, projecting at first laterally; osseous nucleus throughout porous, even cellular; muzzle _invariably broad_, naked, moist, _black_; ears, _in general_, _middle sized_; body _long_; legs _solid_; stature _large_." Generic characters should be such as will apply to every species in the genus; they should likewise be such as will distinguish the genus described from every other genus. From such observations as I have been enabled to make, the five last-mentioned characters do not appear to accord with either of these conditions. 1st. The muzzle is stated to be _black_; but in the Yak, and in domestic cattle (as may be observed by any one), the muzzle is very frequently _white_; and granting that it was invariably black, other genera of the ruminantia have the muzzle black: and therefore it cannot be said to be a distinguishing mark of the _Genus Bos_. 2d. The ears are stated to be _in general middle-sized_. To pass over the extreme vagueness of the terms "_in general_" and "_middle-sized_," I may state that having measured the ears of several species, I find them to be of all lengths, varying from 5 inches to nearly 18 inches. Such a term as "_middle-sized_" may be applied "_in general_" to the ears of a vast variety of animals; and therefore it cannot be applied _in particular_ to the _Genus Bos_. 3d. The body is said to be _long_. They are, indeed, of all lengths, from 4 ft. 6 in. to nearly 11 ft. Can the term long be equally applicable to animals of such different lengths? 4th. The legs are said to be _solid_. In some species the legs are very slender, as the Zebu, Manilla Buffalo, and Domestic Ox. 5th. The stature is said to be _large_. From actual measurement I find the stature to vary from 2 ft. 8 in. to upwards of 6 ft.; the smaller species weighing not more than 100 lbs., the larger weighing as much as 2000 lbs. Can the term large be equally applicable to animals of such different sizes? SUB-GENERIC CHARACTERS. "_Sub-genus_ I.--_Bubalus._--Animals low in proportion to their bulk; limbs very solid; head large, forehead narrow, very strong, convex; chaffron straight; muzzle square, horns lying flat, or bending laterally with a certain direction to the rear; eyes large; ears mostly funnel-shaped; no hunch; a small dewlap; _female udder with four mammæ_; _tail long_; slender." This sub-genus comprises Cape Buffalo, Pegasse, Arnee, Domestic Buffalo. "_Sub-genus_ II.--BISON.--Forehead slightly arched, much broader than high; horns placed before the salient line of the frontal crest; the plane of the occiput forming an obtuse angle with the forehead and semicircular in shape; fourteen or fifteen pairs of ribs; the shoulders rather elevated; the _tail shorter_; the legs more slender; the tongue blue; the hair soft and woolly." This sub-genus comprises Aurochs, Gaur, American Bison, Yak, Gayal. "_Sub-genus_ III.--TAURUS.--Forehead square from the orbits to the occipital crest, somewhat concave, not convex, or arched as in the former; the horns rising from the sides of the salient edge or crest of the frontals; the plane of the occiput forming an acute angle with the frontal, and of quadrangular form; the curve of the horns outwards, upwards, and forwards; no mane; a deep dewlap; _thirteen pairs of ribs_; _tail long_; _udder four teats in a square_." This sub-genus comprises the Urus and the Domestic Ox. Subgeneric characters should be such as will clearly distinguish the animals of one sub-genus from those of another. But here we have set down, in the sub-genus Bubalus, tail _long_, slender; in the sub-genus Taurus, tail _long_; and although the epithet slender is not added in the latter case, yet in truth it ought to be, as the tail of Taurus is quite as slender as that of Bubalus. The udder of Bubalus is said to have four mammæ; they are not stated to be in a square, but, on examination, I find they are so; the udder of Taurus has likewise four teats in a square. Thirteen pairs of ribs are set down as a distinguishing character of the sub-genus Taurus; but the Cape Buffalo, Domestic Buffalo, and the Manilla Buffalo (in the sub-genus Bubalus), and the Gaur (in the sub-genus Bison), all possess thirteen pairs of ribs. In the sub-genus Bison the tail is said to be _shorter_ than the tail of Bubalus; but on subjecting them to the infallible test of feet and inches, I find the tails of the Aurochs, Gaur, Yak, and Gayal, to be decidedly _longer_ than those of the Cape or the Manilla Buffalo. The legs of Bisons are stated to be more slender than those of Buffaloes,--the reverse of this is the fact in the instances which I have had an opportunity of observing. SPECIFIC DETAILS. The details of a system of scientific classification should be precise, methodical, and consistent; but the method observed by Col. Smith, in describing the lengths of animals, can scarcely be called either precise or consistent; for example, he states:-- 1st. That the Cape Buffalo is nine feet from _nose to ROOT of tail_. 2d. That the Gaur is twelve feet long _to the END of tail_. 3d. That the Aurochs is ten feet three inches _from nose to tail_. 4th. That the Domestic Buffalo is eight feet six inches long, _without mentioning either nose or tail_. In none of these cases can we be even proximately certain of the length of the animal. In the first instance we may err to the amount of the length of the head; as it is not stated whether the measure was taken when the head was extended in a line with the back, or in a position at right angles with the back, or in any intermediate position. The following outline will illustrate this:-- [Illustration] It is obvious that the length of a line from the nose to the tail will vary according to the different positions of the head of the animal. In the second instance (taking it for granted that the measure was taken from the nose), the same difficulty exists with respect to the head, and another difficulty presents itself in our being left to guess the length of the tail, which might be eighteen inches, or it might be four feet. In the third instance, the same difficulty exists with respect to the head, and the difficulty is further complicated by our being left to guess whether the ROOT or the END of the tail is meant. In the fourth we are completely "_at sea_." The true value of these characteristic distinctions, definitions, or descriptions, are left to the appreciation of the judicious reader. Colonel Smith may doubtless be, what he has been styled, "an indefatigable naturalist," and "in general" an exact one; but in this special instance of the _Genus Bos_, his warmest admirers must allow that his accuracy and precision have not kept pace with his industry. [Illustration: Hungarian Ox, _Bos Taurus_, from a specimen in the British Museum.] MR. SWAINSON'S TRANSCENDENTAL ATTEMPT AT CLASSIFICATION. The following very laboured attempt to arrange the various species of _Genus Bos_ into groups, according to the Quinary or Circular System of M'Leay, is from the pen of Mr. Swainson--the precise and fastidious Swainson--who, from the number and boldness of his hypothetical views in every department of Zoology, may be truly regarded as the beau-ideal of a speculative naturalist--one of those, in short, so well described by Swift, "whose chief art in division hath been to grow fond of some proper mystical number, which their imaginations have rendered sacred to a degree, that they force common reason to find room for it in every part of nature; _reducing_, _including_, and _adjusting_, every _genus_ and _species_ within that compass, by coupling some against their wills, and banishing others at any rate." After describing the various members of the Bovine Family according to the Procrustean method of stretching and chopping, Mr. Swainson continues in his peculiarly dogmatic style "The types of form of the _Genus Bos_, above enumerated, _we shall now demonstrate_ to be a natural group. We have seen that the first represented by the _Bos Scoticus_, or Scotch Wild Ox, is an untameable savage race, which preserves, even in the domestication of a park, all that fierceness which the ancient writers attributed to the Wild Bulls of Britain and of the European Continent. Let those who imagine that the influence of civilization, of care, and of judicious treatment, will alter the natural instincts of animals, look to this as a palpable refutation of their doctrine. Where is that boasted power of man over nature? Where the fruits of long-continued efforts and fostering protection? The _Bos Scoticus_ is as untameable now as it was centuries ago, simply for this reason, that it is in accordance with an unalterable law of nature; a law by which one type in every circular group is to represent the worst passions of mankind--fierceness, or cruelty, or horror. In the _Urus_ we consequently have the type of the wild and untameable _Feræ_ among quadrupeds, the eagles among birds, and the innumerable analogies which all the subordinate groups of these two great divisions present. Following this is the typical Ox--a god among the ancients, and that animal above all others, which, from its vital importance to man, we should naturally expect such a nation as the ancient Egyptians would exalt above all others. It is, in short, the typical perfection of the whole order of Ruminants, and consequently represents the _Quadrumana_ among quadrupeds, and the _Incessores_ among birds. The third type is no less beautiful; but it cannot be illustrated without going into details which it is not our present intention to make public: suffice it, however, to say, that in the prominent hump upon the shoulders we have a perfect representation of the Camel, one of the most striking types of the order, while it reminds us at the same time of the Buffalo, the genus _Acronatus_ among the large Antelopes, and numerous other representations of the same form. The fourth type is our _Bos Pusio_: here we find the horns, when present, remarkably small, but in many cases absent; and the size is diminutive to an extreme. These also are distinguishing marks of the groups it is to represent: the _Tenuirostres_ among birds, and the _Glires_, or mice, among quadrupeds, are the smallest of their respective classes; and both are typically distinguished by wanting all appendages to the head, either in the form of crests or horns. The fifth type is, perhaps, the most extraordinary of all; it should represent not only the order _Rasores_ among birds, but also the _Camelopardalis_ among ruminating quadrupeds. Hence we find that, in accordance with the first of these analogies, it is a peaceful domesticated race, and that it has horns of an unusually large size, even in its own group; while, at the same time, those horns have that peculiar structure which can only be traced in the Camelopardalis; they are covered with skin, which passes so imperceptibly to the horny state, that, as Captain Clapperton observes, "there is no exact demarcation where the one commences and the other ends." The five leading types of quadrupeds and birds being now represented, and in precisely the same order, _we demonstrate_ the groups to be natural by the following table:-- GENUS _BOS_--_the Natural Types._ 1. _Bos Scoticus._ Fierce, untameable. FERÆ. RAPTORES. 2. ---- _Taurus._ Pre-eminently typical. PRIMATES. INCESSORES. {Appendages on the head} 3. ---- _Dermaceros._ {greatly developed } UNGULATA. RASORES. {Stature remarkably } 4. ---- _Pusio._ {small. } GLIRES. GRALLATORES. {Fore-part of the shoulders} 5. ---- _Thersites._ {elevated } CETACEA. NATATORES. In regard to the last type, the analogies can only be traced through the animals or types of other groups; but should the habits of _Thersites_ lead it to frequent the water (like the Buffaloes) more than any other species of true oxen--a supposition highly probable--the analogy to the _Cetacea_ and the _Natatores_ would be direct. When we find in all the other four types such a surprising representation of the same peculiarities, we are justified in believing that want of information alone prevents this analogy from being so complete as the others. These analogies, in point of fact, may be traced through the whole of the principal groups in this order, the most important, and the most numerous of ungulated animals." Our luminous classifier then triumphantly winds up:--"_Having now demonstrated_, in one of the very lowest groups of quadrupeds, the validity of those principles of natural classification we have so often illustrated," &c. Let us not be confounded with high-sounding terms; let us rather endeavour to ascertain the meaning of them, if indeed they possess a meaning. Here we have, under the head of "_Genus_ Bos--the Natural Types"--(see p. 178), certain words arranged in regular columns, which, at a first glance, appear as though they were intended to bear some relation to each other. But let us ask the most ordinary observer, or the most profound observer, or the observer of any grade or shade between these two extremes, what resemblance--what relation--what analogy--can be discovered between an ordinary bull (_Taurus_) and a man, a monkey, or a bat (_Primates_); or between Taurus and the _Incessores_ (Perching Birds)? Or between Buffaloes, whose horns are partially covered with skin (_Dermaceros_), and cocks and hens (_Rasores_)? Can any one say wherein consists the similarity between a dwarf Zebu and a Mouse, or a Flamingo? Yet this is the material of which the columns are composed. But one of the most unhappy of Mr. Swainson's speculations is that wherein he represents the _Bos Scoticus_, or wild ox, as the type of "an _untameable savage_ race, which preserves, even in the domestication of a park, all that fierceness which the ancient writers attributed to the wild bulls of Britain and the European continent. Let those who imagine that the influence of civilization, of care, and of judicious treatment, will alter the natural instinct of animals, look to this as a palpable refutation of their doctrine. [!] Where is that boasted power of man over nature? Where the fruits of long-continued efforts and fostering protection? [!!] The _Bos Scoticus_ is as untameable now as it was centuries ago, simply for this reason, that it is in accordance with an unalterable law of nature; a law by which one type in every group is to represent the worst passions of mankind--fierceness, or cruelty, or horror." [!!!] Who would for a moment imagine that all this grandiloquence is bestowed upon an animal, which is so far from being fierce and untameable, that young ones, taken and reared with ordinary cattle, become, even in the first generation, as tame as domestic animals? [See account of Chillingham White Cattle, p. 140.] For a more complete satisfaction of his thought, the reader is referred to Mr. Swainson's volume "On the Natural History and Classification of Quadrupeds," p. 274, where he has given us an incoherent abstract of Colonel Smith's article on the _Bovinæ_, without, however, making the least attempt to verify the statements there recorded. The descriptions and characteristics are avowedly Colonel Smith's; but, in justice to the latter gentleman, it must be added, that the disquisitions on the circular succession of forms, and the analogical relations, are entirely Mr. Swainson's. ON SPECIES AND VARIETY. What constitutes a species? And how far do the limits of varieties extend? Cuvier, who is, perhaps, the best authority we can have upon this subject, in defining a species, says:--_A species comprehends all the individuals which descend from each other or from a common parentage, and those which resemble them as much as they do each other._ Thus, the different races which they have generated from them are considered as varieties but of one species. Our observations, therefore, respecting the differences between the ancestors and the descendants, are the only rules by which we can judge on this subject; all other considerations being merely hypothetical, and destitute of proof. Taking the word _variety_ in this limited sense, we observe that the differences which constitute this variety depend upon determinate circumstances, and that their extent increases in proportion to the intensity of the circumstances which occasion them. Upon these principles it is obvious, that the most superficial characters are the most variable. Thus colour depends much upon light; thickness of hair upon heat; size upon abundance of food, &c. In wild animals, however, these varieties are greatly limited by the natural habits of the animal, which does not willingly migrate from the places where it finds, in sufficient quantity, what is necessary for the support of its species, and does not even extend its haunts to any great distances, unless it also finds all these circumstances conjoined. Thus, although the Wolf and the Fox inhabit all the climates from the torrid to the frigid zone, we hardly find any other differences among them, through the whole of that vast space, than a little more or less beauty in their furs. The more savage animals, especially the carnivorous, being confined within narrower limits, vary still less; and the only difference between the Hyæna of Persia and that of Morocco, consists in a thicker or a thinner mane. Wild animals which subsist upon herbage, feel the influence of climate a little more extensively, because there is added to it the influence of food, both in regard to its abundance and its quality. Thus the Elephants of one forest are larger than those of another; their tusks also grow somewhat longer in places where their food may happen to be more favorable for the production of the substance of ivory. The same may take place in regard to the horns of Stags and Rein-deer. Besides, the species of herbivorous animals, in their wild state, seem more restrained from migrating and dispersing than the carnivorous species, being influenced both by climate, and by the kind of nourishment which they need. We never see, in a wild state, intermediate productions between the Hare and the Rabbit, between the Stag and the Doe, or between the Martin and the Weasel. Human artifice contrives to produce all these intermixtures of which the various species are susceptible, but which they would never produce if left to themselves. The degrees of these variations are proportional to the intensity of the causes that produce them, namely, the slavery or subjection under which these animals are to man. They do not proceed far in half-domesticated species. In the domesticated herbivorous quadrupeds, which man transports into all kinds of climates, and subjects to various kinds of management, both in regard to labour and nourishment, he procures certainly more considerable variations, but still they are all merely superficial: greater or less size; longer or shorter horns, or even the want of these entirely; a hump of fat, larger or smaller, on the shoulder; these form the chief differences among particular races of the _Bos Taurus_, or domestic Black Cattle; and these differences continue long in such breeds as have been transported to great distances from the countries in which they were originally produced, when proper care is taken to prevent crossing. Nature appears also to have guarded against the alterations of species which might proceed from mixture of breeds, by influencing the various species of animals with mutual aversion. Hence all the cunning and all the force that man is able to exert is necessary to accomplish such unions, even between species that have the nearest resemblance. And when the mule-breeds that are thus produced by these forced conjunctions happen to be fruitful, which is seldom the case, this fecundity never continues beyond a few generations, and would not probably proceed so far, without a continuance of the same causes which excited it at first. This being the case, it is quite clear that the fact of two animals producing an intermediate race is no proof whatever of their specific identity; for it is well known, and has been already alluded to, that several animals. Birds as well as Mammalia, produce offspring, and are nevertheless distinct, both as it regards anatomical structure and external form. Neither does it constitute the species identical if either or both the hybrids be even capable of fruitful intercourse with the original or parent species. Hamilton Smith goes so far as to say, that "if it even were proved that a prolific intermediate race exist, produced by the intermixture of both, it would not fully determine that both form only one original species: what forms a species, and what a variety, is as yet far from being well understood." It is, however, pretty generally agreed, that animals are of the same species, that is to say, have been derived from one common stock, when their offspring have the power, _inter se_, of indefinitely continuing their kind; and conversely, that animals of distinct species, or descendants of stocks originally different, cannot produce a mixed race which shall possess the capability of perpetuating itself. To conclude, it must be obvious, that permanent anatomical differences are the only true criteria of distinctions of species. THE BANTENG OF JAVA. _Bos Bantinger, or Bantiger. Bos Sondaicus?_ [Illustration] The above figure was drawn from a stuffed specimen in the British Museum. In colour, shape, and texture of horns, and apparent want of dewlap, it bears some resemblance to the Gaur; but in the skeleton of the Gaur the sacrum consists of _five_ vertebræ, and the tail of _nineteen_; while in the skeleton of the Banteng, the sacrum consists of but _four_ vertebræ, and the tail of _eighteen_. BRITISH DOMESTIC CATTLE. It does not come within the scope of the present work to give the varieties of Domestic Cattle; for these the reader is referred to the many excellent works already published on the subject. It will be sufficient in this place to notice a few interesting facts--statistical, anecdotal, &c.--in relation to their domestic history. INFLUENCE OF COLOUR IN BREEDING. The following remarkable fact, respecting the colour of the offspring being influenced by that of the external objects surrounding the Cow at the time of copulation, is stated by John Boswell, of Balmuto and Kingcaussie, in an essay upon the breeding of Live Stock, communicated to the Highland Society in 1825. He says:--"One of the most intelligent breeders I have ever met with in Scotland, Mr. Mustard, an extensive farmer on Sir James Carnegie's Estate in Angus, told me a singular fact, with regard to what I have now stated. One of his cows happened to come into season while pasturing on a field which was bounded by that of one of his neighbours, out of which field an Ox jumped, and went with the Cow, until she was brought home to the Bull. The Ox was white with black spots, and horned. Mr. Mustard had not a horned beast in his possession, nor one with any white on it. Nevertheless, the produce of the following spring was a black and white calf, _with horns_." Another fact, which shows the great care required in keeping pure this breed--(the Angus doddies)--is related of the Keillor Stock, where, two different seasons, a dairy cow of the Ayrshire breed, red and white, was allowed to pasture with the black doddies. In the first experiment, from pure black Bulls and Cows, there appeared _three_ red and white calves; and on the second trial, _two_ of the calves were of mixed colours. Since that time care has been taken to have almost every animal on the farm, down to the Pigs and Poultry of a black colour. INFLUENCE OF THE MALE IN BREEDING. An ordinary Cow, and a Bull without horns, will produce a calf resembling the male in appearance and character, without horns and without that particular prominence of the transverse apophysis of the frontal bone. The milk of the female from this cross, also, proves the influence of the male: it has the peculiar qualities of the hornless breed--less abundant, containing less whey, but more cream and curd. GENERATIVE PRECOCITY. A Mr. Gordon relates the following singular instance of fecundity and early maturity in the Aberdeen Cattle. "On the 25th of Sept., 1805, a calf of five months old, of the small Aberdeenshire breed, happening to be put into an enclosure among other Cattle, admitted a male that was only one year old. In the month of June following, at the age of fourteen months, she brought forth a very fine calf, and in the Summer of 1807, another equally good. The first calf, after working in the Winter, Spring, and Summer of 1809, was killed in January, 1810, and weighed 6 _cwt._ 3 _qrs._ 16 _lb._ The second was killed December 16, 1810, aged three years six months, and weighed exactly 7 _cwt._; and on Dec. 30, 1807, the mother, after having brought up these calves, was killed at the age of two years and eight months, and weighed 4 _cwt._ 1 _qr._ the four quarters, sinking the offal." MILK. Cows are usually milked three times a day over the greatest part of Scotland, from the time of calving till the milk begins to dry up during the Winter season, when the Cows are for the most part in calf; nor is it found that they suffer by that practice in any degree: and it is the general opinion of all who adopt it, that nearly one third more milk is thus obtained than if they were milked only twice. A Cow, mentioned by Dr. Anderson in his 'Recreations,' (vol. v, p. 309,) was milked three times a day for ten years running, during the space of nine months, at least, every year; and was never seen, during all that period, but in very excellent order, although she had no other feeding than was given to the rest of the Cows, some of which were very low every winter, when they gave no milk at all. A farmer of the name of Watkinson had a Cow that, for seventeen years, gave him from ten to twenty quarts of milk every day; was in moderate condition when taken up, six months in fattening, and being then twenty years old, was sold for more than £18. Mr. John Holt, of Walton, in Lancashire, had a healthy Cow-calf presented to him, whose dam was in her thirty-second year, and could not be said to have been properly out of milk for the preceding fifteen years. Yorkshire Cows, which are those chiefly used in the London Dairies, give a very great quantity of milk. It is by no means uncommon for them, in the beginning of the Summer, to yield thirty quarts a day; there are rare instances of giving thirty-six quarts; but the average measure may be estimated at twenty-two or twenty-four quarts. [Illustration: Alderney Cow, after Howitt.] BUTTER. The Alderney Cow, considering its voracious appetite, yields very little milk; that milk, however, is of an extraordinary excellent quality, and gives more butter than can be obtained from the milk of any other cow. John Lawrence states that an Alderney Cow that had strayed on the premises of a friend of his, and remained there three weeks, made 19 lbs. of butter each week; and the fact was held so extraordinary, as to be thought worthy of a memorandum in the parish books. The milk of the Alderney Cow fits her for the situation in which she is usually placed, and where the excellence of the article is regarded, and not the expense. Lord Hampden, of Glynde, had a cow which in the height of the season yielded ten pounds of butter and twelve pounds of cheese every week, and yet her quantity of milk rarely exceeded five gallons per day. The next year the same cow gave nine pounds and a half of butter per week for several weeks, and then for the rest of the summer between eight and nine pounds per week; and until the hard frost set in, seven pounds; and four pounds per week during the frost. Yet as a proof of the quality of the milk, she at no time gave more than five gallons in the day. To this may be added that, "four or five years before, the same person had a fine black Sussex Cow from Lord Gage, which also gave, in the height of the season, five gallons per day, but no more than five pounds of butter were ever made from it." This is accounted for in a singular way; for there is a common opinion in the east of Sussex, that "the milk of a black cow never gives so much butter as that of a red one." MR. YOUATT'S PHILOSOPHY OF RABIES, OR MADNESS. In treating of Rabies, Youatt says:--"When a rabid or mad dog is wandering about, labouring under an irrepressible disposition to bite, he seeks out first of all his own species; but if his road lies by a herd of cattle, he will attack the nearest to him; and if he meet with much resistance, he will set upon the whole herd, and bite as many as he can.... If the disease is to appear at all, it will be about the expiration of the _fifth week_, although there will be no absolute security in less than the double number of months," After making these remarks, our author reasons himself into the sapient conclusion, that the poison in all rabid animals resides in the saliva, and does not affect any other secretion. "The knowledge that the virus is confined to the saliva," he opines, "will settle a matter that has been the cause of considerable uneasiness. A cow has been observed to be ailing for a day or two, but she has been milked as usual; her milk has been mingled with the rest, and has been used for domestic purposes, as heretofore. She is at length discovered to be rabid. Is the family safe? Can the milk of a rabid cow be drunk with impunity? Yes, perfectly so, for the poison is confined to the saliva. The livers of hundreds of rabid dogs have been eaten in days of ignorance, dressed in all manners of ways, but usually fried as nicely as possible, as a preventive against madness. Some miscreants have sent the flesh of rabid cattle to the market, and _it has been eaten without harm_; and so, although not very pleasant to think about, _the milk of the rabid cow may be drunk without the slightest danger_." Is it, indeed, possible for any of the secretions of an animal to be in a healthy state, and fit for human food, after it has had the virus of a rabid dog circulating in its system for at least _five weeks_? Furthermore, is it consistent in Mr. Youatt to call those _miscreants_ who send the flesh of rabid cattle to market, when he acknowledges, in the same breathy that it can be eaten without harm? According to Mr. Youatt's philosophy, a cow in a rabid state is actually as good as a cow in a healthy state; for its milk may be drunk with impunity--the family is _perfectly safe_ who uses it for domestic purposes; and, moreover, _the flesh of rabid cattle may be eaten without harm_. What more can be predicated of cattle in the purest state of health? STATISTICS. The number of cattle in Great Britain was estimated by Youatt (1838) at upwards of eight millions. 160,000 head of cattle are annually sold in Smithfield alone, without including calves, or the _dead market_, i.e., the carcases, sent up from various parts of the country. 1,200,000 sheep, 36,000 pigs, and 18,000 calves, are also sent to Smithfield in the course of a year. A tenth part of the sheep and lambs die annually of disease (more than 4,000,000 perished by the rot alone in the winter of 1829-30), and at least a fifteenth part of the neat cattle are destroyed by inflammatory fever and milk fever, red water, hoose, and diarrhoea. If a tithe of the sheep and lambs, and a fifteenth of the neat cattle _die of disease_, what proportion are _slaughtered and sent to market in the earlier stages of disease_; and, in fact, in all the stages antecedent to those which are the immediate cause of death? THE END. 
22520	----	produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) CATTLE AND CATTLE-BREEDERS BY WILLIAM M'COMBIE, M.P. TILLYFOUR SECOND EDITION, REVISED WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCLXIX Transcriber's Note: The advertisements and reviews that preceded the title page have been moved to the end of this text. CONTENTS. CHAP. PAGE I. THE FEEDING OF CATTLE, ETC. 1 II. REMINISCENCES, 34 III. THE CATTLE TRADE, THEN AND NOW, 67 IV. BLACK POLLED ABERDEEN AND ANGUS CATTLE AND SHORTHORNS, 86 V. HINTS ON THE BREEDING AND CARE OF CATTLE, 99 CATTLE AND CATTLE-BREEDERS. I. THE FEEDING OF CATTLE, ETC. (_Read before the Chamber of Agriculture._) As my friend Mr Stevenson and some other members of the Chamber of Agriculture have expressed a desire that I should read a paper on my experience as a feeder of cattle, I have, with some hesitation, put together a few notes of my experience. I trust the Chamber will overlook the somewhat egotistical form into which I have been led in referring to the subject of dealing in cattle. My father and my grandfather were dealers in cattle. The former carried on a very extensive business: he had dealings with several of the most eminent feeders in East Lothian; among others, with the late Adam Bogue, Linplum, John Rennie of Phantassie, Mr Walker, Ferrygate, &c. I cannot express how much I reverence the memory of the late Adam Bogue, as one of the finest specimens of a kind-hearted gentleman I have ever met. Other friends of my father and of myself in East Lothian I also recall with the greatest respect; among these let me mention William Brodie, John Brodie, William Kerr, John Slate, Archibald Skirving, and Mr Broadwood, farmers, all eminent as feeders of stock. My father's chief business-connection was with East Lothian; but he had also a connection with Mid-Lothian and the county of Fife, and a large trade with England. At one of the Michaelmas Trysts of Falkirk he sold 1500 cattle. He wished to give all the members of his family a good education. I was kept at school, and was afterwards two years at college; but to this day I regret my inattention when at school. My father was very unwilling that I should follow his business, knowing that it was a very precarious one; but what could he do with me? I would do nothing else, and he was obliged to yield. I worked on the farm for years, when not away at the fairs, with the servants, and shared their diet. I cut two harvests, and during the season took charge of the cattle. My first speculation was a £12 grass-field. In this I had a partner, an excellent man, who had been a servant to my father for twenty years. It was a good year, and we divided £15 of profit. This gave me encouragement. I yearly increased my speculations, and gradually got into my father's business at the Falkirk markets and Hallow Fair. My father was very indulgent, and sent me away to a fair when a very young man, giving me authority to buy, and money to pay for, half-a-dozen beasts. I exceeded my commission and bought three little lots--about fifteen in all. The owners trusted me the money I was short. I drove them home myself--about sixteen miles--feeling very proud of my drove. My father examined them next morning, and remarked, "They have not the countenance of beasts." Of course, this chagrined me very much. This was about my first appearance as a buyer of cattle, and some of the beasts I remember to this day. I believe there is no better way to train a young man than to put him to market without assistance. If a man cannot back himself, he is unfit for the trade of a butcher, a jobber, or grazier. My father retired with a good name, and I retained his old customers. On one occasion only did Adam Bogue buy a beast from any dealer except from my father or myself, and he declared he was no gainer by the transaction. He purchased 120 cattle yearly. The late Mr Broadwood always bought about eighty beasts at the Michaelmas Fair. I put up the number and the size he wanted, and he bought them from me and my father for many years, always choosing middle-sized three and four year olds, and never going beyond £11 per head. The highest figure at that time for feeding-cattle at Falkirk Tryst was about £13. On Tuesday morning he came to my cattle, and inspected them first of any he looked at, and asked their price. With such a customer as Mr Broadwood I asked close. To some parties it is necessary to give halter. He then went away and examined the cattle of other dealers, but always came back in about an hour; and I think he never once failed to deal with me. He was a good judge, and did not require any assistance in selecting his stock; he came alone. I had also several dealings with Mr Broadwood's son, but only occasionally, and he did not hold so close to me as his father had done. I also retained the friendship of Robert Walker, the Messrs Brodie, and Archibald Skirving, and secured for myself that of Mr Buist, the late William Kerr, the late John Slate, and John Dudgeon, Almondhill. My father and I always had about the best cattle at Falkirk Tryst. There was then a great trade with Cumberland at the Michaelmas Tryst for horned Aberdeen cattle. The animals were sent from Cumberland to Barnet in spring, and sold off the marshes fat in July and August. My best sixty generally commanded the highest price. The late Mr William Thom was my great opponent in the horned-cattle trade, and sometimes beat me despite all my efforts. When we saw it for our interest we went in company, and attended all the great fairs in the north; and in conjunction with each other we secured a good proportion of the best cattle. Our grazing cattle were always sold separately. Mr Thom must still be remembered by many. He was a giant in strength: an honester man never lived; perhaps a little decided in his manner, but of great ability and perseverance. As copartners we were not very regular book-keepers, and our accounts got confused. At the wind-up at Hallow Fair, as we had the accounts of the Falkirk Trysts likewise to settle, we worked at them for days, and the longer we worked the more confused they became. To this day I do not know in whose favour the balance was. For the future we resolved to act separately. It was a bad Hallow Fair for large cattle. I have doubled stirks at Hallow Fair, buying them at from £2 to £4, and, to use an Aberdeen expression, turning them heels over heads. But I never could make a shilling of profit out of large cattle. At Hallow Fair Mr Thom and I had unfortunately sixty very large cattle left over unsold from the Michaelmas, many of which had cost £13 and £14 in Aberdeenshire. Mr Thom had the selling of them. He had just one offer in the shape of three gentlemen--one from East Lothian, one from Fife, and one from Perth, who likewise joined. They were sold the next day at £12, 5s. a-head. After the bargain was struck, the gentlemen requested Mr Thom to divide them. His answer was, with a sarcastic look to his customers, "Well, gentlemen, you have been good and great friends for two days, it would be a great pity for me to make you quarrel now." Mr Thom, who was thoroughly "awake," turned upon his heel and went away. I divided the beasts for the gentlemen; and to divide a lot of beasts equally is not such an easy matter as some might suppose. I have often been puzzled in dividing, say, forty beasts into four tens (I had often to divide lots of cattle for my customers when I was in the lean-cattle trade). The cattle are first cut through as equally as possible; the two divisions are then cut through again, and you have thus four tens. They are then examined, and a good beast is exchanged for a bad from the best to the worst side, and so on alternately until you bring them as equal as it is possible to make them. But with all my experience, I have often been unable to satisfy myself of the equality of the four tens; and when this was the case, I had to decide what was the difference and tell the buyers. If you draw, say, No. 1, being the most valuable lot, you must pay to the gentleman drawing No. 2, an inferior lot, the sum of £2, £3, or £5, as the case may be, &c. This may seem strange to a good judge of cattle, but let him be called on himself to decide in such a case. He may naturally think a change of a beast will make all right, but he will find that in some cases no exchange will rectify the matter to his satisfaction. In connection with this let me offer my friends a piece of advice:--if they buy a cut of cattle from a dealer, say twenty out of sixty, a neutral party and a good judge ought to divide the cattle: it should not be the buyer, and much less ought it to be the dealer, because the seller knows the beasts individually; and however well you drive sixty cattle round the circle, there will always be a better and a worse side. The dealer sees this at a glance, and, if so inclined, can make the cut much as he likes. The buyer, again, if he is as good a judge as the jobber (which is seldom the case), if allowed to cut them, would be likely to make a good cut for himself, and not a fair one for the seller; but the difference will not be so glaring, as he cannot know the beasts as the dealer does. I am speaking always of a fair cut as sold from the sixty. It is not easy to explain in writing how this division is made; but as there is no doubt many a one has been bitten, I shall do my best to describe the process. Suppose the sixty beasts are well driven through one another, which is always done before a cut is attempted, and suppose the dealer is to cut the cattle, he merely gives the lot a glance; he can see in a moment the strong and the weak side, for there will be a difference. He will run off the twenty from the worst side of the sixty, and he will run the number off to a beast or two. It is very quickly done; the stick is used sharply, and in running off the twenty he can easily put six or eight of the best in the line to any side he may think fit. I do not mean to say this is often done, but I wish to show that it can be managed. In selling lean cattle there is a great deal to be gained by choosing a favourable stance and showing them off properly to the buyers. Cattle look best on the face of a moderate sloping bank, and worst of all at a dead wall. The larger the number shown in a lot, especially of polled cattle, as they stand close together, they look the better. I never liked to show less than forty in a lot, but sixty will look better than forty, and eighty better still. I never would break a lot of beasts except for a consideration in price, as the cattle left behind never have the same appearance. The dealer likewise knows that cattle look largest on the off-side. Many buyers like to see every beast in a lot go past them; and if the dealer can get the buyer to inspect them on the off-side, it is to his own advantage. Cattle and sheep are the better of a good rouse-up when the buyer is inspecting them. I have often seen quarrelling between the buyers and the drovers, the buyers insisting on the drovers letting them alone, while the drovers will not let them stand. I have seen a clever man keep some of the best beasts always in view of the buyers, a stick with a whipcord being used for the purpose. Many were the long rides, the late nights, and early mornings that Thom and I had together in the North buying drove cattle. In the end of October and beginning of November the nights get very dark. At Skippy Fair of New Deer we nearly came to grief two or three years in succession; it is held in the end of October. There was a decent man, Abel, and his wife, who lived in Inverurie, and attended all the fairs. Their conveyance was a cart. They were honest hard-working people, and good judges of cows. They knew very well what they were about; and they required to do so, for Mrs Abel brought up, I believe, nineteen of a family: she was a very stout, "motherly" woman. They drove home likewise in the cart, always buying two cows, which they led with ropes behind the cart. A cart with a cow attached by a rope at each side will take up the greater part of a narrow road. It was very dark, and near the old Castle of Barra. Thom rode a very fast horse he had hired from Richard Cruickshank, a celebrated judge of horses, who was at that time a horse-hirer in Aberdeen. I rode an old steady pony of my own which had been sixteen years in our family. Thom was going before at a dashing pace, I considerably in the rear, when bang he came against the ropes attaching the cows to the cart. His horse was thrown into the ditch; he recovered himself, but fell again, coming down heavily upon Thom, who was very much hurt, and had to go home instead of going to Potarch Market next day. I escaped, Thom's mishap warning me of the danger. At the same fair next year we had bought, as we found on comparing our books, ninety-nine cattle, mostly stirks. It was dark before we got the animals settled for, and we had to watch them on the market-stance. While crossing the lonely moor between New Deer and Methlick, Thom was as usual a little in advance, I following on the same old pony the best way I could close at his heels, when all at once a man took hold of his horse by the reins and asked him the road to New Deer. I observed another man and a box or two lying on the road, such as are used by travelling hawkers. Thom struck at the man's head with his stick with all his might, saying at the same time, "_Cattle of your description cannot be far out of your road anywhere_." The man let go his hold, and Thom galloped off, calling to me to follow, which I was nothing loath to do. Thom's horse was white, and mine was a bay. The vagabonds might have seen a white horse coming on in the dark, while they did not observe the bay, and may thus have been led to suppose there was only one man. As the boxes were laid aside, I have no doubt they intended a robbery, though this did not strike me at the time. But our troubles were not yet at an end; at the same old Castle of Barra, Thom, still in advance, called out, "_The wife, the cows, and the ropes again!_" He had just time to save his distance, and save me too. The ninety-nine beasts turned out to be only ninety-five (they were no great spec after all, leaving only £45 of profit). Thom had booked four he had never bought; and when the lot was counted to be joined to the drove, they would not number more than ninety-five. I advertised for them, and had a man in Buchan a week searching for them; and when I told Thom in Edinburgh that they could not be found, he confessed he had never bought them. I am not sure if it was the same year we had come up to Edinburgh the Saturday night before Hallow Fair. We were rather late in getting ready to go to church. I had heard a great deal about Dr Muir as a preacher, and we went to hear him; but not being very certain of the church, we inquired at a gentleman's servant, dressed in splendid livery, very civilly, the way to Dr Muir's church. Instead of giving a civil reply, "Oh," he said, "Aberdeen awa'!" Thom, who was very impulsive, came across the side of the fellow's head with his umbrella, and laid him flat on his back in the middle of the street, with his heels in the air. I made no remark, Thom said as little, but walked on as if nothing had happened. We heard our friend calling after us he would have his revenge; I hope it was a lesson to him to be civil in future. I sent for many years sixty horned cattle in spring to Mr Buist, Tynninghame. They were grazed in Tynninghame Park, and he also required other forty or sixty during the season for house-feeding. I only gave up the commission business when I could carry it out no longer to my satisfaction and to the advantage of my employers. For years after I went to the Falkirk markets there was not a white beast to be seen; but by-and-by Irish-bred cattle appeared, and then the Shorthorns. The business of dealing in north-country cattle came to be worthless. I bade Falkirk adieu, and turned my attention entirely to the rearing and fattening of cattle at home. I gave up the fascinating business of a lean-cattle jobber, seeing it was done for, and I have never regretted my resolution. The lean-cattle trade was difficult to manage, and in fact was most dangerous. Many a day, when attending Hallow Fair, I have got up by four or five o'clock in the morning, breakfasted, and not tasted food till six o'clock at night. The weather was so bad on one occasion that man and beast were up to the knees in mud. I had my beasts standing near one of the gates. Mr Archibald Skirving never got further than them; he bought forty, sent them away, and returned home. As he bade me good morning, he remarked, "I would not like to be in your place to-day." I have stood many a bad Hallow Fair, but the worst was about twenty years ago. I never was so much in want of assistance from my friends. The price of cattle had fallen very much after the Michaelmas Tryst. Turnips were bad in East Lothian. I had been on a visit to Mr Buist, and met Mr Kerr, Mr Slate, Mr Walker, &c. Both buyers and sellers anticipated a bad fair, and it turned out the worst I ever saw; it is generally either a very good or very bad market. Tuesday came, and with it a perfect storm of wind and rain--the worst market-day I ever encountered. You could hardly know the colour of the cattle, which were standing up to their bellies in a stubble-field. My friends got to the market; there were Mr Buist, Mr Walker, Ferrygate, Mr Kerr, Mr Slate, and one or two more. They gave my cattle what examination it was possible to give animals in such a stormy day. Out of about two hundred which I had, they wanted about one hundred and seventy. Mr Walker said to me, "I think you might give us a glass of brandy;" and accordingly we retired to a tent, from which we did not move for an hour, as one wanted forty, another thirty, another twenty, &c.; and of course it took a good deal of time to talk over the different lots. At last we rose. I had, while seated, drawn them as to the price as far as they would come. The weather was dreadful. I was very unwilling, and they were not very anxious, to face the storm. I was in the middle of my customers. I did what I could to get an advance on their offers, but I could not extract another farthing; and when all was settled, I gave the accustomed clap of the dealer on the hand all round, and I did not see them again till night, except Mr William Kerr, who, with a struggle, got the length of my remaining thirty beasts, and bought ten. I think I hear the triumphant howls of the men to this day, as they started the nine score of cattle for their destinations, one lot after another, through the astonished dealers, whose cattle at that hour, I believe, were never priced. There were few sold on the first day. I could not sell my twenty remaining cattle, and could not even get a bid for them. Of all the good turns my friends did for me, this was the best. I came out with a small profit, while the losses sustained by other parties at the market were heavy. A great many cattle were sent farther south, and returned back to the north. One respectable dealer told me that no one had ever asked the price of his cattle, and coolly added, "I have taken turnips from ----, and sent the cattle home." I never lost a shilling in East Lothian, or by a bad debt, as a lean-cattle dealer. To be a good judge of store cattle is exceedingly difficult. We have many judges of fat cattle among our farmers and butchers, and a few good judges of breeding stock; but our really good judges of store cattle are exceedingly few. A judge of store cattle ought to be able to say at a glance how much the animal will improve, how much additional value you can put upon him on good, bad, or indifferent land, and on turnips, in three, six, or twelve months. Unless a grazier is able to do this, he is working in the dark, and can never obtain eminence in his profession. Since my first speculation, already referred to--the half of the £12 field--I have bought and grazed store cattle for nearly fifty years. No one has been able to put upon paper a clear definition, such as can be understood by the reader, of the characteristics of a good store beast. It is only practice and a natural gift that can enable any one to master the subject. There are a few rules, however, that the buyer of store cattle should be acquainted with. He ought to know how they have been kept for the previous six months, otherwise their keep may be entirely thrown away. I make it an almost universal rule (and I have never departed from the rule except with a loss), that I will graze no cattle except those that have been kept in the open strawyard, and have been fed exclusively on turnips and straw. If you can get them off yellow turnips it will be decidedly to your advantage. I have seen this proved by dividing twenty beasts, and keeping one half on yellow turnips, and one half on swedes, both lots getting full turnips. Those on the swedes shot far ahead in the strawyard of those upon the yellows. When taken up from grass, however, the cattle fed upon the yellows were equal to those fed on the swedes. They were grazed together. The difference of improvement in different lots of cattle must have often struck every observer. I am well acquainted with the different strawyards in Morayshire, and know how the cattle are kept, and how they thrive. There are some farms on which they thrive better than others, even when their keep is in other respects the same. There are farms in Morayshire which are not breeding farms, and where the young stock does not thrive, and the calves have to be sold, and even old cattle only thrive for a certain length of time. Some farms are apt to produce cancer on the throat and side of the head. I pay little attention to this, as change of air cures the complaint. For the first two or three weeks after a beast is attacked with this disease, it will go back in condition; but I have seldom seen much loss by it. If in warm weather, the beast may have to be taken up to avoid the flies; if the disease is inside the throat, it may interfere with the breathing, and the animal may have to be killed. I bought from the late Mr David Sheriffs, Barnyards of Beauly, in spring, ten Highlanders, every one of which had cancer in different stages. I grazed them until October, when the cancers had all disappeared, and the beasts did well (for Highlanders) at grass. If you put upon grass cattle which have been fed through the winter upon cake, corn, brewers' wash, grains, or potatoes, and kept in hot byres or close strawyards, and look to them to pay a rent, you will find that they will soon make a poor man of you. This mode of feeding is unnatural. Before the animals begin to improve, three months will have passed. If half-fat cattle are bought, which have been kept close in byres or strawyards, and put to grass in April or the first two weeks of May, and cold stormy weather sets in, with no covering to defend them, they will fall off so much that the purchaser will scarcely believe they are the beasts he bought. Thus he not only loses all his grass, but the beasts will be lighter at the end of three months than when they were put into the field. Let me not, however, be misunderstood. I do not mean to say that a few weeks of a little cake or corn will ruin a beast for grazing; but you may depend upon it, that the less artificial food given during winter the better. When kept upon the food I have specified for months and months, they are perfectly unfit for grazing. I regard cake as the safest substitute for turnips; and corn, potatoes, brewers' wash, and grain, as the worst. But my ambition is to graze a bullock that has never been forced, and has never tasted cake, corn, or potatoes. The store cattle I winter for grazing are all kept in open strawyards, with a sufficient covering for bad weather, and as dry a bed as the quantity of straw will permit. This is indispensable for the thriving of the cattle. They receive as many turnips as they can eat. Beasts must always be kept progressing; if they are not, they will never pay. My store cattle never see cake, corn, or potatoes. I would rather throw potatoes to the dunghill than give them to a store bullock, though I would give them to my fatting bullocks.[1] If I can get the bullocks for grazing that I want, I will not lose one mouthful of grass upon them. They will not go on, however, without proper care and superintendence. It requires a practised eye. If a grazier has a number of fields and many cattle, to carry out the treatment of his cattle properly, shifting and fresh grass once in ten or fourteen days should, if possible, be adopted. This has always been my practice. In one day I have observed a marked difference in the improvement of animals after the shift. [1] As to giving potatoes to store cattle, since writing the above, I wish to modify the opinion I have expressed to a certain extent. I had a conversation with Mr Hope on the subject, and he states that his belief is, that potatoes are not prejudicial to the growth of store cattle when put to grass, and that his practice is to give them potatoes. I will admit that a few potatoes may not do a store beast much harm; but in my experience in Aberdeenshire I have found that in cattle which have been fed with potatoes the black colour changes to a dusty brown; they are also bad thrivers. A beast that sports that colour is never doing well. I shall, however, prosecute the inquiry. The grazier must always consider the quality of his grass-land, and buy cattle adapted for it. It would be very bad policy to buy fine cattle for poor or middling lands. You must always keep in view how the cattle have been kept. If they have been kept improperly for your purpose, their size, whether large or small, will not save you from loss. If the cattle are kept on cake, corn, potatoes, or brewers' wash or grain, during the previous winter, it will be ruin to the grazier. Let it not be supposed, however, that I recommend buying lean, half-starved beasts. What I wish to impress on you is, that you must keep the cattle always full of flesh; and, as a breeder, you must be careful not to lose the calf flesh. If you do so by starving the animal at any time of his growth, you lose the cream--the covering of flesh so much prized by all our best retail butchers. Where do all the scraggy, bad-fleshed beasts come from that we see daily in our fat markets, and what is the cause of their scragginess? It is because they have been stinted and starved at some period of their growth. If the calf flesh is once lost, it can never be regained. A great deal of tallow may be got internally by high feeding, but the animal can never again be made one that will be prized by the great retail butcher. Our Aberdeen working bullocks carry little good meat. Draught as well as starvation takes off the flesh. They are generally only fit for ship beef. Let me now offer a few observations as to the breeds of cattle best adapted for paying a rent--the great object of our cattle rearing and feeding. I have grazed the pure Aberdeen and Angus, the Aberdeen and North-country crosses, the Highland, the Galloways, and what is termed in Angus the South-country cattle, the Dutch, and the Jutland. Except the two latter, all the others have got a fair trial. I am aware that the merits of the pure Aberdeen and Angus form a difficult and delicate subject to deal with. I know that the breeders of Shorthorns will scrutinise my statements carefully. But my only object is to lay down my own experience, and I trust that I have divested myself of prejudice as much as possible. If store cattle of the Aberdeen and Angus breed out of our best herds can be secured, I believe _no other_ breed of cattle will pay the grazier more money in the north for the same value of keep. But there is a race of starved vermin which is known by some in the north by the name of "Highland hummlies," which I consider the worst of all breeds. No keep will move them much. At the top of these I must place those with the brown ridge along the back. They can be made older, but it takes more ability than I ever had to make them much bigger. Keep is entirely thrown away upon such animals. As regards good Aberdeen or North-country crosses, they are rent-payers. He would be very prejudiced indeed who would not acknowledge their merits. I graze more cross-bred cattle than pure-bred polled. The Highlanders on our land are not profitable; they are of such a restless disposition that they are unsuitable for stall-feeding, however well they are adapted for grazing purposes in certain localities and under certain conditions. But, I repeat, for stall-feeding they are unsuitable; confinement is unnatural to their disposition. The last Highlanders I attempted to feed were bought at a cheap time. In the month of June they were most beautiful animals, and they grazed fairly. I tied them up; but they broke loose again and again, and ran three miles off to the glen where they had been grazed. There was one of them that his keeper never dared to approach, and the stall had to be cleaned out with a long crook. They consumed few turnips, and did not pay sixpence for what turnips they did consume. No other description of cattle, however, is so beautiful for noblemen's and gentlemen's parks. As to the Galloway cattle, they also have had a fair trial with me. I was in the habit of buying for years from one of the most eminent judges of store Galloways in Britain--Captain Kennedy of Bennane--a lot of that breed. He selected them generally when stirks from all the eminent breeders of Galloway cattle, and bought nearly all the prize stirks at the different shows. In fact, he would not see a bad Galloway on his manors. The Galloway has undoubtedly many and great qualifications. On poor land they are unrivalled, except perhaps by the small Highlanders. Captain Kennedy's cattle always paid me; they were grazed on a 100-acre park of poor land--so poor, indeed, that our Aberdeens could not subsist upon it. I had ultimately to break it up for cropping. If I had not been obliged to do this, I should not have liked to have missed Captain Kennedy's Galloways. Although the Galloways are such good cattle to graze--and this goes to prove the truth of my remarks as to the forcing system, the Galloways at Glenapp being wintered out--they are not so easily finished as our Aberdeen and Angus or cross-bred cattle. They have too much thickness of skin and hair, too much timber in their legs; they are too thick in their tails, too deep in their necks, too sunken in the eye, for being very fast feeders. It is difficult to make them ripe. You can bring them to be three-quarters fat, and there they stick; it is difficult to give them the last dip. If, however, you succeed in doing so, there is no other breed worth more by the pound weight than a first-class Galloway. As to what we term the South-country cattle, I have also given them a trial. My experience is that they are great beasts to grow; that they consume an immense deal of food, but that they are difficult to finish; and when finished they are very indifferent sellers in the London market. They generally carry a deal of offal along with them; but those who have patience, and keep them for many months, they may pay for keep. I have had a few German and Jutland cattle through my hands, but not in sufficient numbers to enable me to say anything about them worthy of your notice. After trying all the breeds of cattle I have specified, I have come to the conclusion that the Aberdeen and Angus polled, and the Aberdeen and North-country crosses, are the cattle best adapted, under ordinary circumstances, in the north of Scotland, for paying the feeder. Our cross-bred cattle, and especially the South-country cattle, are greater consumers of food than the pure Aberdeens. This is a part of the subject which has never got the consideration it deserves. When the cross and South-country cattle are two or three years old, and when the day lengthens out, they consume a fearful quantity of food. The age of cattle ought also to be taken into consideration. No doubt a young two-year-old will grow more than a three-year-old, and for a long keep may pay as well. But I have been always partial to aged cattle; and if you want a quick clearance, age is of great consequence. The great retail London butchers are not partial to "the two teeths," as they call them; and I have seen them on the great Christmas-day examining the mouths of cattle before they would buy them. They die badly as to internal fat, and are generally light on the fore-rib. I have always given a preference to aged cattle, as they get sooner fat, are deep on the fore-rib, and require less cake to finish them. Aged cattle, however, are now difficult to be had, and every year they will be scarcer with the present demand for beef. A perfect breeding or feeding animal should have a fine expression of countenance--I could point it out, but it is difficult to describe upon paper. It should be mild, serene, and expressive. The animal should be fine in the bone, with clean muzzle, a tail like a rat's, and not ewe-necked; short on the legs. He should have a small well-put-on head, prominent eye, a skin not too thick nor too thin; should be covered with fine silky hair--to the touch like a lady's glove; should have a good belly to hold his meat; should be straight-backed, well ribbed up, and well ribbed home; his hook-bones should not be too wide apart. A wide-hooked animal, especially a cow after calving, always has a vacancy between the hook-bone and the tail, and a want of the most valuable part of the carcass. I detest to see hooks too wide apart; they should correspond with the other proportions of the body. A level line should run from the hook to the tail. He should be well set in at the tail, free of patchiness there and all over, with deep thighs, that the butcher may get his second round and prominent brisket deep in the fore-rib, with a good purse below him, which is always worth £1 to him in the London market; well fleshed in the fore-breast, with equal covering of fine flesh all over his carcass, so valuable to the butcher. His outline ought to be such that if a tape is stretched from the fore-shoulder to the thigh, and from the shoulder along the back to the extremity there, the line should lie close, with no vacancies; and without a void, the line should fill from the hook to the tail. From the shoulder-blade to the head should be well filled up--as we say, good in the neck vein. I am aware that the preceding remarks as to the quality and proportions a beast should possess must be very unsatisfactory to you, as they are to myself; scarcely any one animal has possessed them all, and to look for the half of them in a good commercial beast would be vain. I have consulted no writer upon the subject; they are set down, and not in good order, just as they struck me at the time. Thick legs, thick tails, sunken eyes, and deep necks, with thick skin and bristly hair, always point to sluggish feeders. In cold weather in the month of May, the old silky coat of the strawyard bullock is of great advantage. If we could get the qualities and proportions I have specified in animals, it would not be difficult to make them fat. It would be difficult only to make them lean, when once in condition. A high standing, want of ribbing-up and ribbing home, with the tucked-up flank, always denote a worthless feeder. You must all have observed how difficult it is to bring such cattle into a state for killing. It will take a deal of cake and corn to make them ripe. A great many can never be made more than fresh; it is only a waste of time and money to keep them on. I have adverted to the way cattle should be treated in winter as stores. The earlier you can put cattle upon grass so much the better. Cattle never forget an early bite of new grass. A week's new grass in Aberdeenshire at the first of the season is worth at least two and a half upon old grass; and it is wonderful what improvement a good strawyard bullock will make in four or five weeks at the first of the season. If kept on straw and turnips alone in winter, he may add a third or at least a fourth to his live weight. But much depends on the weather. I have never known cattle make much improvement in April, or even up to the 12th of May, because the weather is so unsteady, and the cold nights when they are exposed in the fields take off the condition the grass puts on. The grazier will find it of great advantage to house his cattle at night during this season. In Aberdeenshire the 10th of May is about the earliest period cattle should be put to grass. Where there is new grass, first year, it is a most difficult matter to get the full advantage of it. There is no other grass to be compared with it for putting on beef in Aberdeenshire. You must be careful at the first of the season, if much rain falls, not to allow the cattle to remain on the young grass. They must be shifted immediately; and no one can get the proper advantage of such grass who is deprived of the power of shifting the cattle into a park of older grass till the land again becomes firm for the cattle. I have seen a small field of new grass in the month of May or the beginning of June utterly ruined in one night, when heavily stocked with cattle. When wet and cold the cattle wander about the whole night, and in the morning the fields are little better than ploughed land. In fact, the field so injured will never recover until broken up again. In regard to my own farms, I cut scarcely any hay. I pasture almost all my new grass, and the moment the cattle's feet begin to injure the grass, they are removed. If cattle are changed to an old grass field, so much the better; but they will be safe on second or third year's grass, provided the land is naturally dry. By the 1st July, the new grass land gets consolidated, and you are safe. New grass fields are bad to manage in another respect. The grass comes very rapidly about the 10th June, and if you are not a very good judge of what you are about, it will get away in a few days, become too rank, and will lose its feeding qualities during the remainder of the season. By the middle of July it will be nothing but withered herbage. Young grass ought to be well eaten down, and then relieved for two or three weeks; then return the cattle, and the grass will be as sweet as before. It requires practice to know the number of cattle, and the proper time to put on these cattle, to secure the full benefits of new grass. Three days' miscalculation may cause a heavy loss. I have been bit so often, and found the difficulty so great, that I fear to extend my observations on this part of the subject, when I am addressing gentlemen many of whom make their young grass into hay, or sell the grass to the cowfeeders. The pasturing of new grass, in which the farmers of Aberdeenshire and the north of Scotland have a deep interest, may not apply to many other parts of Scotland. I come now to the way cattle should be treated after being taken from their pastures and put on turnips. The earlier you put them up, the sooner they will be ready for the butcher. The practice of tying the cattle early up in Aberdeenshire is now almost universal; the success of the feeder depends upon it, for a few weeks may make a difference of several pounds. I recollect tying up a lot of cattle at Ardmundo, thirty in number--a fair cut of ten being left in the field at home on fine land and beautiful grass. The thirty were tied up by the 1st of September, the ten on the 1st of October. The weather was cold, wet, and stormy; and between the improvement the thirty had made and the deterioration upon the ten, there was by my computation, however incredible it may appear, £5 a-head of difference. Mr Knowles of Aberdeen happened to see the cattle, and when he came upon the ten he asked what was the matter with them. He could scarcely credit the facts; their hair was so bad that they actually looked like diseased animals, and it was long before they took a start. I shall state the method I adopt. I sow annually from twelve to sixteen acres of tares, and about the middle of June save a portion of the new grass full of red clover, and from the 1st to the 20th of August both tares and clover are fit for the cattle. I have for many years fed from three hundred to four hundred cattle; and if I was not to take them up in time, I could pay no rent at all. A week's house-feeding in August, September, and October, is as good as three weeks' in the dead of winter. I begin to put the cattle into the yards from the 1st to the middle of August, drafting first the largest cattle intended for the great Christmas market. This drafting gives a great relief to the grass parks, and leaves abundance to the cattle in the fields. During the months of August, September, and October, cattle do best in the yards, the byres being too hot; but when the cold weather sets in there is no way, where many cattle are kept, in which they will do so well as at the stall. You cannot get loose-boxes for eighty or a hundred cattle on one farm. I generally buy my store cattle in Morayshire. They have all been kept in the strawyard, never being tied. When the cattle are tied up on my farms, a rope is thrown over the neck of the bullock; the other end of the rope is taken round the stake; two men are put upon it, and overhaul the bullock to his place. When tightened up to the stall the chain is attached to the neck, and the beast is fast. We can tie up fifty beasts in five hours in this way. When tied, you must keep a man with a switch to keep up the bullocks. If you did not do this you would soon have every one of them loose again. They require to be carefully watched the first night, and in three days they get quite accustomed to their confinement, except in the case of some very wild beast. I never lost a bullock by this method of tying up. This system is like other systems--it requires trained hands to practise it. I never give feeding cattle unripe tares; they must be three parts ripe before being cut. I mix the tares when they are sown with a third of white pease and a third of oats. When three parts ripe, especially the white pease, they are very good feeding. Fresh clover, given along with tares, pease, &c., forms a capital mixture. I sow a proportion of yellow Aberdeen turnips early to succeed the tares and clover. I find the soft varieties are more apt to run to seed when sown early than yellow turnips. It is indispensable for the improvement of the cattle that they receive their turnips clean, dry, and fresh. When obliged to be taken off the land in wet weather, the hand should be used to fill the turnips from the land to the carts. The turnips should be pulled and laid in rows of four or six drills together on the top of one drill, with the tops all one way and the roots another; but it is better that parties should follow the carts and pull the turnips from the drills, and throw them into the carts at once. It is an invariable rule with me that the turnips are filled by hand in wet weather. Advantage should be taken of fine weather to secure a good stock of turnips, and a good manager will always provide for a rainy day. A very considerable proportion of turnips should be stored, to wait the severe winters very often experienced on the north-east coast. If I had sufficient command of labour, I would store the greater part of my Swedish turnips (if ripe). I would, however, store only a proportion of the Aberdeen yellow, as they lose the relish, and cattle prefer them from the field; but I require a proportion of them for calving cows in frost. Frosted turnips make cows with calf abort, and rather than give calving cows such turnips I would order them straw and water. Fresh Swedish turnips are indispensable to feeding cattle during the winter. It is a sorrowful sight to see a gang of men with picks taking up turnips in a frosty day, leaving a third of the produce on the land, and the turnips going before your bullocks as hard as iron. We have almost every year a week or ten days' fine weather about Christmas, and this should be taken advantage of to store turnips, if not stored previously. I have tried all the different modes of storing recommended. I shall not enter on the minutiæ of the subject, as it is now generally so well understood; and I need only urge here that the roots should not be bled in any way, that the tops should not be taken off too near to the bulbs, that the tails be only switched, and that they be pitted and secured _every_ night to keep them free from frost and rain. I have adopted my friend Mr Porter of Monymusk's plan (in a late climate and where Swedish turnips in some years never come to full maturity) of pitting them upon the land where they grow, from one to two loads together; and, although not quite ripe, I have never seen a turnip go wrong when stored in this manner. The land also escapes being poached, as the turnips are carted in frost, and at a time when the other operations of the farm are not pressing. A foot of earth will keep them safe, and they are easily covered by taking a couple of furrows with a pair of horses on each side of the line of pits. In a week or ten days after the first lot of cattle is taken up from grass, a second lot is taken up. This is a further relief to the pastures, and the cattle left in the fields thrive better. This taking up continues every week or ten days to the end of September. At this period all feeding cattle ought to be under cover that are intended to be fattened during the succeeding winter. The stronger cattle are drafted first, and the lesser ones left until the last _cull_ is put under cover. It would be of no use to attempt to feed cattle, unless you can command a staff of experienced men to take charge of them. However faithful in other respects, these men must have a taste and a strong liking to cattle--they must be their hobby. Even with men of the greatest experience, the difference in the thriving of the different lots upon the same keep is great. They must not be oppressed with having too many in charge, or the owner will suffer by his ill-judged parsimony. From August till November a man may take care of, and pull turnips for, thirty cattle very well, or a few more, if the cattle are loose; but when the day gets short, twenty to twenty-five is as many as one man can feed, to do them justice, if tied up. Good cattlemen are invaluable. They must not only know what to give the cattle; but the great secret, especially when cattle are forced up for show purposes, is to know _what not to give them_. An inexperienced man amongst a lot of feeding cattle must be a great loss to his employer. Like everything else, the proper management of the animals cannot be learned in a day--the cattleman must be always learning. For myself, I can only say that, long as I have traded in cattle, have studied their treatment, have considered their symmetry, I am learning something new every other day. As regards the treatment of cattle when put upon tares or cut clover, there is no danger; but with turnips an ignorant man may injure the cattle in one week so much that they may not recover it during the season. The cattle must be gradually brought on, giving them a few turnips at first, and increasing the quantity daily, till in from ten to fourteen days they may get a full supply. When improperly treated the cattle scour and hove, the stomach getting deranged. It is a long time before they recover, and some never do well. We generally cure hove by repeated doses of salts, sulphur, and ginger. Occasionally a beast will hove under the best treatment; but if you find a lot of them blown up every day, it is time to change their keeper. In cattle which are being forced for exhibition, hove is generally the first warning that the constitution can do no more. I have seen cases so obstinate that they would swell upon hay or straw without turnips. Putting the animal out to grass for a couple of months will generally renovate the constitution and remove the tendency to hove; and after being taken up from grass, with a man in charge who knows what to give and _what not to give_, the animal may go on for a few months longer, and with great attention may at last prove a winner. Occasionally an animal may be found whose digestion no amount of forcing will derange, but such cases are very rare. Cattle feeding in the stall should be kept as clean as the hunter or valuable race-horse, and their beds should be carefully shaken up. I change the feeding cattle from tares and clover on to Aberdeen yellow turnips, and afterwards to swedes, if possible by the middle of October. I do not like soft turnips for feeding cattle. The cattle that I intend for the great Christmas market have at first from 2 lb. to 4 lb. of cake a-day by the 1st of November. In a week or two I increase the cake to at least 4 lb. a-day, and give a feed of bruised oats or barley, which I continue up to the 12th or 14th of December, when they leave for the Christmas market. The cake is apportioned to the condition of the different animals, and some of the leanest cattle get the double of others which are riper. The cattle being tied to the stall places this quite in your power, while in the strawyard it could not be done. When ten or twenty beasts in the strawyard stand together, the strongest take the greatest share, and these are very often the animals that least require it. I consider the stall a great advantage over the strawyard in this respect, as you can give each beast what you wish him to have. My men are told the quantity of cake and corn which I wish every beast to receive. You must all have observed the inequality in the improvement of cattle in the strawyard when ten, fifteen, or twenty beasts are fed together. I have seen the best beast in a lot when put up, the worst when taken out. The first three weeks after the cattle are put upon cake along with their turnips, they will put on as much meat as they will do with an equal quantity of cake for the next five. It is absolutely necessary to increase the quantity of cake and corn weekly to insure a steady improvement; and if cattle are forced upon cake and corn over two or three months, it will, in my opinion, pay no one. To give unlimited quantities for years, and to say it will pay, is preposterous. To give fat cattle the finishing dip, cake and corn, given in moderation and with skill for six weeks before the cattle are sent to the fat market, will pay the feeder; but to continue this for more than two months will never pay in Aberdeenshire. This is no doubt a bold assertion, but I believe it to be correct. The cake and corn given to cattle day by day loses its effect, till at last you bring the beast almost to a standstill, and week after week you can perceive little improvement. Cake, and still more corn, appear to injure their constitution; grass, turnips, and straw or hay are their only healthy food. For commercial cattle, and for commercial purposes, two months is the utmost limit that cake and corn will pay the Aberdeenshire feeder. There can be no substitute for grass, straw, and turnips, except for a very limited period; though in times of scarcity, and to give the last dip to fat cattle, the other feeding materials are valuable auxiliaries. I have kept on a favourite show bullock for a year, thinking I would improve him, and given him everything he would take; and when that day twelvemonth came round, he was worse than a twelvemonth before. You can only torture nature so far; and if you force a yearling bullock, he will never come to the size that he will attain if kept on common fare. If you wish to bring a bullock to size for exhibition, give him as much grass and turnips as he can eat. Begin to force only when he is two and a half to three years old, and by the time he is four years he will not only be a neater but a larger animal than if he had been forced earlier: forcing in youth deteriorates the symmetry of the animal as well as diminishes his size. I am speaking only of Aberdeen and Angus cattle, but I believe the breeders of Highlanders are also well aware of this fact. I am not speaking of pounds, shillings, and pence, or of the profit to the farmer; for who would think of keeping beasts bred to himself older than rising three years old? Calves dropped early should go to the fat market at the age of two years. A word as to show bullocks. I believe they are the most unprofitable speculation an agriculturist can interfere with. To keep a show bullock as he ought to be kept will cost from 12s. to 15s. a-week, which amounts to about £40 a-year. The method I adopt as to using cake and corn is the following:--On the different farms where I feed the cattle, I put a fourth part of their number only upon cake and corn at one time, and six weeks (which is about my limit of time for cake and corn, &c., paying the feeder) before they are to be sent to the fat market. When the six weeks are expired they are sent away; another fourth part of the original number take their place, and get their six weeks' cake. When they leave, the other cattle in succession get the same treatment. When turnips are plentiful the system works very well. The cattle draw beautifully, week by week, from the different farms, and come out very ripe. I may mention that almost all the cattle I graze are generally kept during the previous winter upon as many turnips as they can eat, and are in high condition when put to grass. I believe, however, that in the south of Scotland, where there is more corn and less grass land, this method would not be suitable. Large bills for cake are not easily paid, and when paid swallow up our profits. When cattle are fed almost exclusively upon the produce of the farm, the feeders know what they are about; but this method of feeding requires time and patience, and there is a long outlay of capital. Still, if the system is adopted and judiciously managed, upon medium or high-lying and low-rented land, the cattle treated as above ought to pay the rent and leave a fair profit to the feeder. There is no doubt that in the north, and especially in Aberdeenshire, there is a rage for fine cattle; and on my part it has almost amounted to a "craze." I would have been a richer man to-day if I had not been so fastidious in my selections; but I cannot endure to look at, and never will tolerate, a bad beast on my land. The gentlemen I buy from know my weakness, and they say, if they are anxious to sell, We must let M'Combie have a "pull." Many are the lots of beasts I have bought and culled, and I had to pay for it. Sellers have served me right. Still there is a fatality follows me that I fear it is hopeless now to endeavour to get over. A good bullock will always be a good one, and will easily be made ripe--requiring little cake or corn--and come right out at last. The following is the system I have adopted in the selection of the cattle I have wintered. I buy the best lots I can find during the summer, fit for wintering and keeping on to the following Christmas. I then cull the worst of the different lots, feeding the culls and wintering the tops. By this method I secure a lot of wintering cattle for the great Christmas market of the ensuing year, without one bad or indifferent beast among them. The price I have obtained for several years, with the exception of the culls of my winterers, has been £35 a-head. In Aberdeenshire I consider that a large bullock ought to pay 25s. to 30s. a-month for keep, if he is properly treated. We often get less, and sometimes a little more, owing in some measure to the way in which the cattle are bought, the price of beef at the time, the season of the year the cattle are bought, and the time they are sold. Before we were threatened with the cattle plague I always made a point of buying my beasts early in the season, beginning in January and buying monthly up to May. I had thus a chance of the best lots, whereas, if I deferred making my selections, these went into other hands. II. REMINISCENCES. Fifty years ago, and for many a long year thereafter, there were no shorthorns in the north. There were few turnips grown, and few cattle fed. The great firm of the Williamsons, who rented St John's Wells, Bethelnie, and Easter Crichie; James Allardyce of Boyndsmill; the Harveys of Beidlestone and Danestone, and a few others, were almost the only parties who attempted the feeding of cattle. Mr Harvey of Ardo, who was then tenant of Danestone, died only the other day, aged ninety. Messrs Williamson and Reid were the great Aberdeen butchers at that period, and the feeders had either to sell to them or send their cattle on to Barnet Fair on their own account, or in the hands of the jobber. The journey occupied a month, and hay was their food. The cattle stood the road best upon hay, and it was surprising how fresh and sound the drovers took them up. Disease was unknown; the lung disease, the foot-and-mouth disease, are comparatively recent importations. I was in the lean-cattle trade when foot-and-mouth disease first broke out, and got a sad fright when I came up to Falkirk and found my drove affected. When it got into a drove on their transit, the loss was heavy. At that time the cattle were not made more than half fat, else they could never have performed their journeys. I was well acquainted with the Messrs Williamson, and, when a boy, was the guest of the late George Williamson, St John's Wells; of the late James Williamson, Bethelnie; and of William Williamson, Easter Crichie. George Williamson was a great wit, and many are the anecdotes I have heard him tell. One of these I recollect. He was passing through Perth with a large drove of cattle, the bells were ringing a merry peal for the peace--St John's Wells said it was a sorrowful peal to him, for it cost him £4000. He told that the Messrs Williamson and Reid came to buy a lot of cattle at Bethelnie, and they were not like to agree, when Bethelnie's grieve volunteered the statement--much to the chagrin of James Williamson, but to the delight of Messrs Williamson and Reid--that there were turnips to put over to-morrow and no longer. Messrs Williamson and Reid did not advance their offer under these circumstances. James Williamson was a smarter man in some respects than George; he had great taste as a farmer, but lacked the wit of his brother; while William of Easter Crichie, St John's Wells' eldest son, and a member of the great firm, took matters more coolly than either, but was a capital judge, and a good buyer of drove and store cattle. They have all gone to their rest, but have left a name behind them which will not soon be forgotten in Aberdeenshire. As a firm they were the largest cattle-dealers in Scotland of their day. William Williamson was most hospitable, and many were the happy evenings I have spent at Easter Crichie. It was a great treat to hear him when he became eloquent upon the Haycocks, the great Leicestershire graziers, and the bullock he bought from Mr Harvey and sold to Mr Haycock that gained the prize against all comers at Smithfield. The Williamsons were the largest buyers in spring, not only in Aberdeenshire and the north, but in Forfar and Fife, shires. At one time they had little opposition in the spring trade, and old St John's Wells' advice to the members of the firm, when they went to Forfar and Fife, was to "bid little and lie far back." The Williamsons generally brought down from Fifeshire on their spring visits a lot of the best Fife cows, and no doubt their blood are in many of the Aberdeen cattle to this day. The Williamsons also bought largely at the Falkirk Trysts. Although they had the spring trade mostly to themselves, it must not be supposed that the summer trade was equally in their hands. For a time, however, it was doubtful if they would not concentrate the whole business in their own firm; as when they had heavy stocks on hand, and prices showed a downward tendency, they adopted the daring expedient of buying up almost all the cattle for sale, that they might become the exclusive owners. This might have succeeded so far, but it was a dangerous expedient, and could not continue; and other energetic men, both in the north and south, began to oppose them. My own father became their greatest opponent, and, though single-handed, for years conducted as large a business in summer as themselves. Mr James Anderson, Pitcarry, who is still alive and tenant of Pitcarry, was also an extensive dealer, and sent large droves to England--a man who through life has enjoyed the respect of all classes, of great coolness, and proverbial for his rectitude. The writer was sleeping with him at Huntly the night of an Old Keith market; and in the morning Mr Anderson was in the middle of a deep discussion, when his topsman knocked at the door. On being asked what he wanted, he said he had lost four cattle. "Go and find them," was Mr Anderson's answer, and he immediately resumed the discussion. My father often told how Mr Anderson and he were at a dinner at Haddington, given by the East Lothian Farmers' Club, on the day of the cattle market, when Mr Rennie of Phantassie was chairman, and where, after dinner, a discussion arose about an Act of Parliament. Mr Anderson told them they were all wrong, and that the contents of the Act were so and so. The books were brought from the Council Chambers, when Mr Anderson was found right, and all the East Lothian gentlemen wrong. He is a very well-informed man, and has all the Acts of Parliament at his finger-ends. I was present at a Hallow Fair when a cross toll-bar was erected, and many paid the toll demanded. At last Mr Anderson came up with his drove, and having the Act of Parliament in his pocket at the time, he broke down the toll-bar and sent the keeper home to his honest calling. But James Milner, Tillyriach, was perhaps the most remarkable among all the cattle-dealers of the time. He was a very large tall man, with tremendously big feet--a great man for dress--wore top-boots, white neckcloth, long blue coat, with all the et-ceteras, and used hair-powder. He was, withal, very clever, and had an immensity of mother-wit. He rode the best horse in the country, kept greyhounds, and galloped a horse he called the "Rattler." The rides he took with this animal are the talk of the country to this day. The Rattler was very fast, and would jump over anything. There was no end to the hares Milner killed. He was tenant not only of Tillyriach, which was at that time the property of Sir William Forbes of Craigievar, but he rented Carnaveron and other farms in the Vale of Alford. His position was good: he dined with the gentlemen of the neighbourhood. On one occasion he had Sir William Forbes to dine with him at Tillyriach, and collected all the horses, cattle, and servants from his other farms, and had them all coming as if from the yoke when Sir William arrived. Milner wanted allowances for several improvements from his landlord, and, among the rest, allowance to build, and payment for, a large dwelling-house; but he outwitted himself for once, as Sir William was afraid of the man, and refused to give any allowance whatsoever, remarking that his wealth in cattle and horses was so enormous that he might build himself in so that he would never get him out. However, Milner built an additional large dining-room at his own expense, and it being finished all but the chimney-top, he got up one summer morning very early, ordered his men and horses along with a mason to follow him, and went to William Laing, one of his sub-tenants, of whom he had a host, quietly removed a new dressed granite chimney-top which Laing had lately erected, without being detected by the inmates, and had it placed upon his room ere ever it was missed. There it remained for fifty years, until the houses at Tillyriach were taken down. Milner was very fond of a lark; he was the best possible neighbour; but if he took offence or considered himself slighted or overlooked, he would have his revenge. There was a rather troublesome neighbour who had offended Mr Milner, and of whom he could not get the better, except in the following way:--He put a large drove of cattle among his corn during the night, and was there in the morning with his appraiser to pay the damage. The damage is never in such cases estimated at the loss sustained by the owner, and a man may easily be ruined in that way. Mr Milner was the Captain Barclay of the Vale of Alford. He must have the best of everything--the best horses, the best cattle; and at the first cattle-show in the country, at Kincardine O'Neil, he gained the first prize for the best bull. He had the finest horses in the country, and it was worth something to get a "lift" of Milner's horses; and the most grievous fault his servants could commit, was allowing any other horses in the country to take as heavy loads as his. Tillyfour and Tillyriach adjoin, and are now one farm.[2] My father was in Tillyfour, and Milner in Tillyriach. The crop was all cut by the sickle, and wonderful were the prodigies performed by some of the shearers. When the harvest came near a conclusion, there was generally a severe "kemp" between neighbours who would have "cliach" first. One season Milner had fallen much behind his Tillyfour neighbours, and it became clear that Tillyfour was to gain the victory. Milner ordered Rattler to be saddled, and he was not long in galloping with such a horse, and on such an emergency, over the length and breadth of the Vale of Alford. He collected the whole country, and cut the last standing sheaf on Tillyriach in one night. The first thing heard at Tillyfour next morning was one volley of firearms after another, which was continued through the day, with a relay of shooters, and in the very teeth of my father's people. It cost Milner a great deal of Athole-brose[3] and powder, but he did not mind trifles to gain his point. It was the custom at that time that the party who finished harvest first communicated the intelligence to his neighbours by the firing of guns. [2] For description of a day at Tillyfour, see Dixon's 'Field and Fern,' Part North, p. 158-181. [3] Whisky and oatmeal mixed. Another anecdote or two of Milner, and I have done with him. As he was dressing at the glass one morning, at an inn in the south, and in the act of powdering his hair, and tying his white neckerchief, which he always wore on high days and holidays, James Williamson of Bethelnie said to him, "Ah! what a pretty man you are, James!" "Yes," said Milner, with an oath, "if it were not for these ugly skulks of feet of mine." He always carried large saddlebags on his horse on his journeys, well replenished with all necessary auxiliaries for a change of dress, as when he went north he had often to dine with the Highland proprietors, and Milner was not the man to go otherwise than in full dress. He took a good deal of liberty with his fellow-cattle-dealers, who were not so exact as to their wardrobes, and carried generally in their pocket only a spare shirt and a pair of stockings. Milner's traps were a great additional burden on his horse. While going north he thought proper, one morning, to fasten them on my father's horse. My father took no notice of this at the time; but falling a little behind before coming to the top of a high hill, he contrived to unloose the mouths of the bags. The cattle-dealers always dismounted at the top of a hill, and walked down, either leading or driving their horses before them to the foot. My father dismounted, put the whip to his horse, a very spirited animal, and down the hill he galloped. First one article of clothing, then another, went helter-skelter along the road for a mile, one here and one there--ruffled shirts, white neckcloths, long coats, cashmere vests, boot-tops, pomatum boxes, cotton stockings, &c. &c.--not two of them together. It took Milner a long time to collect the contents of his bags; he was very sulky during the day, and his own horse carried the saddlebags in future. On a journey in the north, his comrades proposed that he should dress himself (and he did so to some purpose), and call on a gentleman, a large owner of fine stock, but whose land-steward and the cattle were some forty miles distant from the manor-house. Mr Milner did so; was well received and hospitably entertained; and at parting the gentleman gave him a letter to his land-steward, with instructions as to the sale of his stock. Milner was very quick, and he had his doubts as to these instructions; and as from forty to fifty miles was a long journey out and returning, he became anxious to know the contents. He returned to his friends, and communicated his suspicions to them. One more daring than the others proposed that the letter should be opened; a tea-kettle was got, the water brought to the boil, the wafer put to the steam, and the letter opened. The contents read thus:--"Be sure and sell the _old cows_, but do not sell the bullocks upon any account." I need not say what a rage Milner was in; calling the gentleman out was the least punishment he might expect. On one occasion he was in the south, where he bought cattle as well as in the north, and had an appointment to purchase a rare lot of cattle. James Williamson, Bethelnie, was also anxious to secure the same lot. The two were at the same inn; and after Milner went to bed, his shoes were turned out of his bedroom to be brushed. Williamson got hold of them, and had them put into a pot of water and boiled for hours. He contrived to do away with his stockings in a way I shall not mention. When Milner rose to continue his journey, he might have got the better of the loss of his stockings, but his shoes were a hopeless case, and he was obliged to defer his journey. New shoes had to be made; and as Milner's feet were so large, lasts had first to be made; and thus it took several days to get him fitted out for the road. James Williamson, meanwhile, bought the cattle and had his laugh at Milner, who reaped a share of the profits. It is now about half a century since Milner died, at a comparatively early age; but there still remains a lively impression of his person and exploits among the older residenters of the Vale of Alford. James Allardyce of Boyndsmill, tenant of Cobairdy, was also a great farmer, but of a different stamp. He was a friend of the late Duke of Gordon, who introduced him at Court; he also always wore powder. Many were the stories he told of his journey to London, and the great personages he was introduced to there. He was the best chairman at a public meeting I ever saw; and at a public sale it was a perfect treat to hear him. He was a master of the art of pleasing, and no man could put a company into equal good-humour. He had something to say in every one's praise, and no one else could say it so well. He spoke the dialect of his own county (the kingdom of Forgue) and never affected the English language. He fed--such feeding as they got!--sixty bullocks annually, which were always sold to one or other of the dealers, and went to Barnet Fair. Cobairdy's winterers and their prices were an interesting topic of conversation every spring, as the season came round. The great English dealers were the Armstrongs, James and Thomas, the Millers, Murphy, Robert M'Turk, Billie Brown, John Elliot, the Carmichaels, &c. &c. The Armstrongs were from Yorkshire; they bought largely of our good beasts at Falkirk, Falkland, and Kinross. Their credit was unlimited. They paid the cattle, not with Bank of England notes, but with their own private bills; and whereas they left home without more money than was necessary to pay the expenses of their journey, they would return with hundreds of pounds. For example: they would buy a lot of cattle for £860, give their acceptance for £1000, and get the balance (£140) from the seller. At last, however, they became bankrupt, and paid 3s. per pound. My father lost £3300 by them; and a great many of the returned bills are still in my possession. Messrs John and William Thom lost about the same sum. The Bannermans of Perth lost £4000--in fact, were ruined by their loss. My father and the Thoms stood out. The Thoms lost very heavily by the Millers also. My father's losses by bad debts were fully £10,000 in all. John Thom of Uras, Stonehaven, was also one of the firm that lost heavily, and has always, to his credit, paid 20s. in the pound. It was a saying of an old friend of mine that no great breeder or great cattle-dealer ever died rich; and this has held good in the great majority of cases. John Elliot and William Brown bought largely of our Aberdeen cattle, and attended Aikey Fair as well as Falkirk. Brown, who was very clever, had raised himself from being an Irish drover. He rented a farm in the neighbourhood of Carlisle, and died a few years ago much respected. Elliot was a Carlisle man, and so were the Millers. Elliot latterly became a Smithfield salesman, but died many years ago. But Robert M'Turk stood, in my estimation, at the top of the tree. I have known him buy seventy score of Highlanders at the October Falkirk Tryst without dismounting from his pony. I have seen seventy-five score of Galloways belonging to him in one drove passing through Carlisle to Norfolk. I have known him buy from a thousand to two thousand of our large county cattle at Falkirk, sweeping the fair of the best lots before other buyers could make up their minds to begin. He rented large grazings in Dumfriesshire, where he wintered and grazed the Highlanders, and which, I believe, his relatives still retain. He was a warm friend, and very kind to me when I was almost a boy, and on a busy day he trusted me to cull the beasts he had bought from myself. I shall never see his like again at Falkirk or any other place. I have a vivid recollection of the stout-built man upon his pony, buying his cattle by the thousand; his calm and composed demeanour was a striking contrast to the noise made by some jobbers at our fairs in even the buying of an old cow. Although plain in manner, he was a thorough gentleman, devoid of slang and equivocation. He was the Captain Barclay of Dumfriesshire, and furnished an exception to my friend's remark, for he died in independent circumstances. He paid for all his cattle ready money. The Carmichaels were another extensive firm of English dealers; they bought largely at Falkirk, Aikey Fair, and in the north. Robert Carmichael, of Ratcliffe Farm, near Stirling, was many years appointed a judge of Highlanders at the Highland Society's shows. But we had also the Hawick Club, a set of giants--Halliburton, Scott, and Harper--a very wealthy firm; and James Scott died the other year worth seventy or eighty thousand pounds. As a company they seldom bought runts--a term by which our Aberdeen cattle were known to the English jobbers; they bought large lots of Highlanders, especially Highland heifers, in October and November; but they were open at all times, when they saw a good prospect of profit, to buy any number, or any sort. I once came through Mr Harper's hands at a bad Hallow Fair with seven score of Aberdeen runts in a way I should not like often to do. The business of the "Club" was principally confined to the months of October and November, but individually they had large stakes in the country. James Scott was one of the largest sheep-farmers in Scotland, and one of the greatest buyers of sheep at Inverness. I could tell many anecdotes of the firm of Halliburton & Co., but I fear tiring my readers. I will, however, venture on one or two. As I have already mentioned, they were very powerful men. On one occasion Halliburton had arrived at Braemar very tired to attend the fair. He had fallen asleep on the sofa, and a thief was busy rifling his pockets, when he awoke, took hold of the thief, held him with one hand as if he had been in a vice, and handed him over to justice. It was told of James Scott, who was a very quiet reserved man, that once when he was in the Highlands he was insulted by a party of Highland gentlemen; from better it came to worse, and ended in Scott nearly killing every man of them. Halliburton was much respected, but he was a great declaimer as to prices of cattle falling when he was a purchaser. At an Amulree market he was very early on the market-ground. A soft-looking country man, well dressed, came up with thirteen very fine polled cattle, which Halliburton bought at a price that _satisfied even him_ as to their cheapness. He took James Ritchie, an Aberdeen dealer, to see them. On hearing the price Ritchie was astonished. "Oh," said Halliburton, "I have often told you, James, what country men would do, but you would not believe me." The seller was very anxious to get the money, as he said he had horses to buy; but Halliburton told him horses were dangerous, and he must wait his time. He began to be suspicious that all was not right, and in a short time the seller was apprehended for stealing the cattle from Wemyss Castle. He was tried at Perth, and transported for fourteen years, and Halliburton and Ritchie had to give evidence. The judge said to Halliburton at the trial at Perth, "You surely must have known the cattle were too cheap." Halliburton answered, "My lord, the next market would have proved if they were too cheap or too dear." The payments at Falkirk were all made through the bankers; there were always from four to six bank-tents on the muir. When I took payment for my cattle I went generally with the buyer to the bank-tent. This was merely a common tent, with a bank-office attached. The banker calculated the amount, and received the money, which he put to my credit, and after I concluded my business I got an order for the amount on Aberdeen. This avoided all risk of forged notes, &c. Strange payments were sometimes offered. On one occasion an Irishman, who appeared to have been "holding his Christmas," bought sixty horned cattle from me, the best in the fair, at £14, 14s. a-head--a long price at that time. The beasts were good, and the price was good. He presented first £70 in gold; he then took out a handkerchief, the contents of which were £100, £20, £10, £5, and £1 notes. Such a miscellaneous payment I had never seen offered, and I believe no one else had, at Falkirk or any other place. It would have been hopeless for us to attempt counting it, and Mr Salmon, agent for the Commercial Bank, took the business in hand. Looking first at the confused mass of notes, all "head and tail," and then scanning the appearance of my customer, he began his task; but with all his practice it took him a quarter of an hour to assort the payment. He threw back two £1-notes to the buyer, who got into a towering passion, and, with words that I cannot put upon paper, asked him if he thought _he_ would offer forged notes. Mr Salmon meekly replied that M'Combie might take them if he pleased, he had got nothing to do with that, but he would not. Our Irish friend then exchanged the notes, for he had no want of money. I did not even know the gentleman's name; I never saw him before, and I never, to my knowledge, saw him afterwards. There were in such large markets as Falkirk and Hallow Fair great chances of good prices to be had at times. When cattle were selling dear, buyers from England, Wales, Ireland, and all parts of Scotland, congregated at Falkirk: they were not all judges alike, and some sellers at such a time were always sure of a good price. For the amusement of my readers, I will give a few examples. On the second day of an October Falkirk Tryst (I had sold out, as I generally did, the first day), I was standing with a dealer from the north who had forty or sixty--I think sixty--two-year-old polled stots to sell. He had just parted with a customer for 2s. 6d. a-head, having offered them at £8, 15s., and refused £8, 12s. 6d. A gentleman's land-steward came through the lot of cattle with a milk-white horse, and his eyes looked first to the right and then to the left with wonderful quickness. He asked the price of the cattle. I thought the seller's conscience a trifle lax when he asked £13, 13s. a-head. Being very young I turned my back, as I could not keep my gravity. The owner then asked what he would give. £11, 11s. was the answer. No sooner were the words out of the man's mouth than down came the clap, "They are yours." I could stand it no longer, and drew back aghast. The buyer became suspicious that all was not right; and my father, who was held in great esteem both by buyers and sellers, acted as umpire, to whom both parties referred the transaction. Being the only witness, I was closely interrogated by the umpire, the buyer, and the seller. I told the price asked and the price offered. The matter had now assumed a serious aspect. My father, after hearing the evidence, which was not denied, and the price having been fairly offered and accepted, could only decide one way. I recollect his words when he gave his decision: "Well, sir, the beasts are dear according to this market, but they are good growers, and you will soon make them worth it; my decision is, you must take them." They were paid for, and went across the ferry to Fife again. In a rising market I have seen cattle raised £1 a-head; and if the jobber does not take a price when there is a rise, and fairly in his power, he is a fool, for he will soon find out that the buyers will have no mercy upon the sellers when in their power. In all my experience, the above, in a dull day, or any other day, was the most glaring start I remember. I never attended the fairs in Angusshire, but on one occasion Mr Thom hauled me off to Forfar market in the beginning of November, before Hallow Fair of Edinburgh. We were in partnership at the time, and bought seventy small polled stots to take to Hallow Fair, to which we had sent off two or three droves the week before. We could get but one drover, a townsman, to assist in lifting them, and had to turn drovers ourselves. We had not gone above a mile on our way to Dundee with the cattle when it came on a fearful night of rain, and got very dark. Mr Thom quarrelled with the drover--a useless creature--and sent him about his business, so that we were left alone with our seventy beasts in the dark, on a road with which we were entirely unacquainted. We went on for hours, not knowing where we were going, till at last we came to a bothy, where we asked the servants what we were to do with our charge, and if we were on the road to the ferry at Dundee. We were told, first, that we had taken the wrong road, and were miles out of our way; and second, that we might put the cattle into a field close at hand. We put the cattle up accordingly, and went to a public-house near by, which was kept by a very decent man, Edward, a cattle-dealer. We got supper, and took an hour or two in bed; and between one and two o'clock in the morning, the rain having abated and the moon risen, we started the drove and had the beasts at Dundee and across the ferry by the first boat at eight o'clock in the morning, with no assistance whatever. We now started fairly on our destination for Edinburgh, and having got food for the cattle and bread and cheese for ourselves, about three miles up the south side of the Tay we hired a sort of drover, and bent our way by Rathillet. About dark we arrived at ---- (Mr Walker's), where we not only got as much turnips and straw to our beasts as they could eat, but were ourselves treated like princes by Mr Walker. He gave us the best bed in the house, would not let us go without a good breakfast in the morning, and would accept of scarcely any remuneration. We started for Lochgelly after breakfast, but Mr Thom persuaded me to turn off and take Falkland market, which was held that day, while he and the drover proceeded straight to Lochgelly with the cattle. Falkland was far out of the way, but he assured me there were plenty of horses to hire there, and that I could easily join him at Lochgelly at night. When I got to Falkland I found there were only four beasts in the market that suited our trade, which was not encouraging, as I did not want plenty of money if I could have got anything to lay it out on. I found also that Mr Thom had been mistaken about the hiring. Not a horse was to be got at any price, and I had no help but to set off on foot for Lochgelly, on a road I had never travelled. I had scarcely left Falkland when I was overtaken by a heavy rain which continued throughout my journey. I had first to climb a long steep hill for about three or four miles, and when at last I got to the public road, I found it one mass of mud, in consequence of the large coal traffic, and the heavy fall of rain. I had a deal of money with me, and as it was quite dark, I was rather uneasy about it, meeting so many miners and coal-carters under such circumstances, and in a part of the country with which I was utterly unacquainted. The road is a very long one, and with such a protracted soaking in the mud, my feet began to fail me. I at last reached my destination, however; and with considerable difficulty--for I had never been in Lochgelly before--I hunted up Mr Thom, whom I found comfortably quartered beside a good fire, with supper before him. But my troubles were not yet over. One of the servants at the place was leaving, and what was termed a "foy" was being held that night. She had collected a great number of her friends, who kept the house in an uproar the whole night. We went to bed, but could get no sleep, the row these revellers made was so great, and our bedroom door was all but broken open two or three times. Our remonstrances had no effect, and sleep being out of the question, we got up about one o'clock, hunted up our drover, and started our drove once more, although the night was as bad as could be. By about nine o'clock A.M. we arrived at Queensferry; but by this time I had strained my leg, and was unable to proceed. I was therefore left on the north side in charge of the cattle, while Mr Thom crossed to the south side to procure the necessary food for the other droves during the market. It will thus be seen that we droved the seventy cattle from Forfar market all the way to Queensferry in two days and three nights during the short day of November, going out of our way once as much as six miles. I cannot say what the distance was exactly, but it must have been at least seventy miles--a feat in cattle-droving unparalleled in my experience. After a day's rest I crossed the ferry with the cattle, assisted by the drover. The beasts were dreadfully jaded, and with difficulty reached their destination, within a mile of the market-stance. The journey had told severely upon them, and two went down immediately on reaching the field. We tried every means to stir them, but failed. They were hand-fed, and with great difficulty got to the market, where they were quickly sold, though how they were got to their destination I never learned. At a very good Hallow Fair, I had forty small-horned Cabrach beasts and forty small polled stirks standing alongside of each other. I had been within 7s. 6d. a-head of selling them once or twice, when a stranger priced them, a very well-to-do and apparently young man. My price was £7, 7s. a-head for the eighty. He just took one look through them, and said, "Well, I shall have them, and you meet me at the Black Bull at eight o'clock, and I will pay you for them." It not being the _custom of the trade_ to get all our askings, I was a little nervous about my customer, but found he was all right. I met him at the Black Bull at the hour mentioned. He was in great spirits, and paid me in Bank of England notes. Arthur Ritchie, Bithnie, a cattle-dealer from Aberdeen, used to tell the following story: In a bad Hallow Fair, towards sunsetting, a gentleman came round and asked the price of a lot of cattle. Arthur had given him a large halter, and he got an offer which he accepted. It was a great price for the market. The buyer refused afterwards to take them, and my father was made umpire. The buyer said that a glimmer came over his eyes, and he thought them better when he offered the price. However, he got ashamed, and took the cattle. An old respected servant of my own, who assisted me for years in the buying and selling of cattle--James Elmslie, very well known here and in the south--had sold twenty beasts very well at Hallow Fair for me. There was a "buffalo" among them of the worst type--a great big "buffalo dog." The buyer, when he paid them, said, "Well, James, if they had all been like the big one, I would not have grudged you the price." "Ah, sir," said James, "you would have difficulty in getting a lot like him!" I could scarcely keep my gravity. A very grave and solemn conclusion to a sale occurred to me at Hallow Fair. I had sold twenty beasts to a very rich farmer near North Berwick, who had bought many lots from me. He had employed a marker, who had just marked nineteen out of the twenty. The buyer was joking with me about the dearness of the cattle, when, in a moment, he dropped down dead, falling on his back, and never moving or speaking more. The event created such a sensation, that no more sales were made that day. The English dealers seldom came north except to Aikey Fair. Then we had the Armstrongs, the Millers, Murphy, and other English dealers, and it was quite a sight to witness the droves going south; but Aikey Fair has now lost its ancient glory, and is only the shadow of what it was. It was a sight I shall never witness more to see the whole hillside covered with innumerable herds of "Buchan hummlies." Mr Bruce of Millhill showed the largest lots, and stood at the top as an exhibitor. Talking of Buchan, the names of Bruce, Millhill, and Smart, Sandhole, were household words at my father's board. My father and myself have bought thousands of cattle from them; no agriculturists have ever been more respected in Buchan. Mr Bruce, perhaps, was as solid, but Smart was the more dashing man. I have never met any one who would do the same amount of business with as few words as Smart, and do it as well. As one example: He brought sixty beasts to Mintlaw market--cattle were low-priced at the time. I had the first offer of them: he asked £12, 12s. a-head. I offered £12, and we split the 12s. The whole transaction did not take up half of the time I require to write it. Mr Bruce and Mr Smart were the best judges in Buchan. We had other great exhibitors, Mr Bruce, Inverwhomrey; Mr Scott, Yokieshill; Mr Milne, Mill of Boyndie; Mr Paton, Towie; Mr Milne, Watermill, &c. Mr Mitchell, Fiddesbeg, the Browns, the Rattrays, Hay of Little Ythsie, and Wm. M'Donald, were all extensive dealers in cattle in those days. The following anecdote of William M'Donald was told by my father: It had been a very good September Falkirk market, and Mr John Geddes, Haddoch, who was an extensive home grazier and dealer, had a large stock of cattle on hand. M'Donald and my father were both anxious for the chance to buy them, and pushed through their business at Falkirk as fast as possible to get to Haddoch. At that time the dealers accomplished all their journeys on horseback, and prided themselves on the fleetness of their saddle-horses. My father thought no one his match in the saddle. He reached Haddoch on Wednesday at midnight--the first cattle-market day at Falkirk being on Tuesday--but the first thing he observed on drawing near to the house, which remains on the farm to this day, although a new one has been built, was the main room lighted up. On coming nearer, he heard voices fast and loud, and one was that of M'Donald! It was all over! M'Donald had fairly beat M'Combie in the chase. My father got hold of Mrs Geddes, worn-out and disappointed, and got quietly to bed; and I have often heard him tell how M'Donald's peals of laughter rang in his ears as the punch-bowl went round, even to the dawning of the day. Neither M'Donald nor Haddoch knew my father was in the house. He left in the morning for Clashbrae, where he bought some smaller lots from the farmer there, who was a local dealer. A word as to M'Donald: He was a stout-made middle-sized man, and spoke so fast over the "bowl" that no one could follow him. He had a good deal of mother-wit; and his great ambition was to be the owner of large droves of cattle. I have seen a drove belonging to him a mile and more long. Mr John Geddes was a man of high standing and great firmness of character. He wore the broad blue bonnet, with a long blue coat and clear buttons, and boot-hose, and rode a very fine cob pony with a long tail. He was of great strength of constitution, and could have sat twenty-four hours with the punch-bowl before him (it was always the bowl at Haddoch), and risen as sober as when he sat down. Such were the habits of those days. I never pass on the railway from Huntly to Rothiemay, but on casting my eye over the old house I recall the night described so graphically by my father. He and Haddoch had large transactions. After a bad October Tryst, where my father had sixteen score of Aberdeenshire cattle, and when he lost £4 a-head upon every beast, Mr Geddes returned him £70 as a luck-penny upon a large lot he had bought from him. There have few men appeared in the north of greater influence or of higher moral worth than the late Mr John Geddes of Haddoch. His landlord, the late Duke of Gordon, was proud of him, as well he might be. It was the general custom that the dealers came to the market-ground with their cattle, and immediately before them, to the part of the market-stance where they wished them to stand. It was quite a sight to see Mr Geddes on an Old Keith market-day (Old Keith Market, like Aikey Fair, is now only a shadow of its ancient greatness), with his broad bonnet, the long blue coat, the overall stockings, and mounted on a strong bay pony with its tail to the ground, at the head of a large lot of heavy cattle. Every one made room for his cattle, as he rode before them to the upper wall; it would have been of no use to resist, as the weight of his animals would have soon cleared the road for themselves; and as soon as the large black mass of horned cattle appeared in the valley below, the cry was, "There comes Haddoch! We must clear the way, or else his cattle will soon clear it at our expense." After the first lot was stationed, another and another followed in succession, which were placed beside the others, till perhaps there were 200 altogether; the different lots being all kept completely separate for the inspection of purchasers. Mr Geddes never went south with cattle, but sold them all at home. In a bad year he once got as far south as Tillyfour with 120 cattle in November. They were at Tillyfour a night, and my father bought them in the morning, but they were about a mile on the road before the bargain was struck. No one could have seen Mr Geddes without pronouncing him a man of mark. But the greatest dealer the county could claim, and one at the same time deeply engaged in agriculture and its interests, was Mr James Innes of Durris. Mr Innes was born at Leuchars in Morayshire; his father was Sheriff of Kincardineshire, and proprietor of Leuchars; his brother, Cosmo Innes, Esq., was Sheriff of Morayshire. The father of Mr James Innes bought the lease of the estate of Durris for ninety-nine years from the trustees of the Earl of Peterborough for £30,000 and an annual feu-duty of a few hundred pounds. Owing to some new views of the law of entail, the Duke of Gordon, the legal heir of the Earl of Peterborough, turned Mr Innes out of the estate after he had expended £95,000 in improvements, and after the case had been in court for fifteen years. Mr Innes farmed extensively, having had seven or eight farms in his own occupancy at the same time. He rode on horseback yearly to Falkirk, and bought a large lot of Highland cattle. He generally had 200 cattle, 1500 sheep, and from ten to twelve pairs of horses on his farms. Mr Innes's horses went at the top of their speed in cart and plough; they had all breeding. No standing was allowed when the horses were in harness. In a busy day in harvest, and when the horses were yoked double, you would have seen Mr Innes's horses driving in the corn at a smart gallop. The harvest-carts were wide, railed and framed on both sides, with one or two cross bearers. In a "leading" day Mr Innes was a sure hand at the fork in the stackyard, and the man on the stack and the man on the cart had to look out. Mr Innes was no trifler, and would not be trifled with; but if an accident happened he made no remarks. He did not transact business by commission, but purchased both the cattle and sheep himself. The aged West Highlanders were sent to the wood during winter; the year-old Highlanders were put into the strawyards; and the four-year-old Aberdeens were bought for stall-feeding. Black-faced wethers were sent to the low pasture and for turnip-feeding. An annual sale of cattle and letting of grass took place about the 20th May. Mr Innes was famed for growing turnips. He gained the prize of £50, given by the Highland Society for the best field of turnips in the north of Scotland, twenty acres of yellow and ten of globe turnips. Deacon Williamson's six and eight year old Aberdeen work oxen--these were not the days of quick returns in cattle--consumed them, and they went to the Greenland whale-ships at last. Mr Innes was the poor man's friend, and a kind master to his servants, but a cool determined man. Although standing almost six feet three inches in height, he was a splendid horseman; when crossing the Dee he made his horse jump into the boat with himself upon his back. He galloped as the crow flies from one farm to another, and was at the head of everything himself. He was an intimate friend of the late Lord Kennedy, Captain Barclay of Ury, Farquharson of Finzean, Davidson of Balnagask, and Cruickshank of Langley Park. He sometimes took a holiday with them; and even entered for a time into some of their frolics, when his seedtime and harvest were finished: he was quite fit to keep his own with them. He was well educated, wrote out his leases, collected his rents, could floor any one in court, and was very popular as a justice. Mr Cruickshank of Langley Park and Mr Innes afterwards quarrelled: the quarrel originating at Blackhall. There had been a good deal of chaffing between them, which ended in a row. Cruickshank went home and wrote a challenge to Innes, and Innes went home and wrote one to Cruickshank. They met and fought at Laurencekirk: Major C. Robertson, Kindface, Invergordon, was Cruickshank's second, and Dr Hoyle, Montrose, was in attendance as surgeon. ---- ---- was Innes's second, and Dr Skene, Aberdeen, his surgeon. After the first fire the seconds stopped proceedings; but Mr Innes's mother had intercepted a letter, which she gave to her son after the first duel, and Mr Innes forthwith sent another challenge to Cruickshank. They fought again at Bourtreebush, half-way between Aberdeen and Stonehaven. Mr John Stewart, late in Anguston (who was a great friend of the laird of Durris) was standing with Mr Innes at the Plainstones, in Aberdeen. Mr Innes looked at the town clock, and said, "My time is up; but you will meet me at breakfast to-morrow at Durris at eight." He did not say what he was to be about. Mr William Walker, who was afterwards three years overseer to Mr Innes at Durris, tells that he thinks it was in June or July 1819 that his father's servant and himself were carting home fuel from near Bourtreebush, when they observed two carriages on the turnpike from Aberdeen driving at a furious pace. The carriages stopped in an instant within 300 yards of the inn; several gentlemen alighted and walked into the nearest field, and in a few minutes shots were twice exchanged, one party and carriage leaving twenty minutes before the other, in the direction of Stonehaven. At the second shot Mr Innes was wounded in the thigh; and it was a close shave on the other side, for Mr Innes's ball went through Mr Cruickshank's whiskers. Mr Innes, however, kept his appointment with Mr Stewart next morning. Mr Stewart said that he met him at Durris House at breakfast. He came down stairs with his wonted agility, in the best of spirits, and shook hands with him; but he seemed to tremble a little, and his hands fell downwards, and although he never mentioned the duel, Mr Stewart afterwards heard he was wounded in the groin. For the above account of the second famous duel fought between Mr Innes and Mr Cruickshank of Langley Park, I am indebted to Mr William Walker and Mr John Stewart, late of Anguston. The two were, however, great friends ever after. I was well acquainted with Alexander Davidson, the notorious poacher and smuggler. He was a very powerful man, and his whole body was covered with hair like that of an ox. He was a favourite with many of the gentlemen, and was often sent for by them to show his feats of strength and agility. He could shoot in a direct line from Braemar to Aberdeen with very little interruption. From many of the proprietors he had permission to take a run through their property; others winked at him: from myself, then acting for my father, he had permission to go on his course. He was very polite in his askings, and put it thus: "Will you have the goodness to allow me to go through your property when I am on my annual tour? I will not poach it; I will keep the straight line, and only kill what may be on my way." I believe Davidson was true to his promise; but if he was refused permission, and if any attempt was made to entrap him, he had his revenge: he would shoot and poach on that property for days, and no one could take him. In the year 1820 Mr Innes and Mr Davidson of Balnagask gave their support to Davidson against Lord Kennedy and Mr Farquharson of Finzean, who laid a bet of £50 that Davidson would not run without clothing from Barkley Street, Stonehaven, to the gate of Inchmarlo in a given time. It was thought that Davidson's feet must fail him. At the Bridge of Banchory there was a posse of wives, with Mrs Duncan the toll-mistress at their head, ready to make an onslaught on poor Davidson. They had been hired, some at five shillings, some at ten, and the leader, Mrs Duncan, at twenty shillings, and came prepared with their aprons full of stones and other missiles, and Mrs Duncan had in addition a large knotty stick. When Davidson came in sight he saw the trap that was laid for him, and drew up for breath before he came within the enemy's reach. The fearful rush and the unearthly appearance of Davidson took his enemies by surprise; their missiles fell wide of the mark, and with a few tremendous bounds he passed the wives and the bridge. Mrs Duncan was in a towering passion because Davidson had escaped, after all her generalship, and declared, not in the most becoming language, "that it was not a man, but a beast." Davidson was safe, and reached the gate of Inchmarlo up to time, and pocketed the £50. Davidson was at last found dead on the hills, with his faithful pointer standing over him. Captain Barclay of Ury and Mr Innes laid a heavy bet with Finzean that they would produce six better men in Durris than Finzean could do in all his estates. The men were selected, and the day was fixed; a long and strong rope was procured, which crossed the Dee, and twelve yards to each side extra, to allow the men to be tied in at regular distances from each other. At the place chosen to decide the wager the river had sloping banks on each side. Those who got the first start were sure to pull the others probably nearly through the river; the tide would then be turned, and the other party be as successful with their opponents. So matters went on several times, until it was found necessary to stop, and no decision could be given. The poor men got a proper ducking, and some of them were even in great danger of being drowned or hanged, as they were all tied into the ropes. I was very well acquainted with the late Captain Barclay, who was the lineal descendant of the author of the 'Apology for the Quakers,' and claimant of the earldom of Monteith, and was familiarly designated "the father of the shorthorns." Though Captain Barclay remains without a national acknowledgment of his merits, no man deserved better of the farmers of Scotland; for he was their firm supporter through life in good and bad report. Captain Barclay was in many respects a remarkable man--one not to be forgotten by any one who had once met him. I have been many a day in company with him, and have the most vivid recollection of him as he examined the stock in a show-yard. Pacing along from class to class, I think I see him drawing his open hand leisurely down over his chin, and, as he met an acquaintance, saying in his deep sonorous voice, "How do you do?" laying the emphasis on the "how," and passing on. No one would have made any mistake as to Captain Barclay being a gentleman, although his dress was plain--a long green coat with velvet collar and big yellow buttons, a coloured handkerchief, long yellow cashmere vest, knee-breeches, very wide top-boots with long brown dirty tops, and plain black hat, generally pretty well worn. When at home he wore knee-breeches with patches on the knees, coarse stockings, and large shoes. Captain Barclay carried through with energy whatever he took in hand. The "Defiance" must go its twelve miles an hour including stoppages. He took a great delight in driving the "Defiance," wearing the red coat with the "Defiance" buttons; and on one occasion he drove the mail from London to Stonehaven out and out. His horses were the strongest and his fields the largest in the country. He said "he did not like a field in which the cattle could see one another every day." He put four horses in his waggons, and never sent less than 20 bolls (16 quarters) of grain to Aberdeen upon a waggon. It was a great sight to see four or five of Captain Barclay's waggons going down Marischal Street. The houses shook, the inhabitants were alarmed, and nervous people thought the houses would tumble down. Captain Barclay could not tolerate a boaster or puppy in any shape. A few years before his death he happened to be in the coffee-room, Market Street, Aberdeen, one evening along with some of his friends. A fast young man took out £20 and boasted he would run a mile in a certain time: he was not aware that Captain B. was present. The Captain covered the money, and the £40 was lodged with the stakeholder. "Now, my man," said the Captain (turning the quid of tobacco once or twice in his mouth, and taking his hand down from his nose to his chin), in his prolonged solemn tone, "we will put you to time." The race was run and lost. The Captain was walking one day in his park when he came on an intruder in the shape of an ass. He seized the donkey and threw it over the wall of the park. To his astonishment the animal was returned. The Captain pitched him over again, and again he came back. This was repeated several times, till at last the Captain went outside the wall and found that it was a gypsy that was his match. He was so much pleased with the prowess of the man, that he took him to the mansion-house of Ury, treated him to all he could eat and drink, and gave him permission to graze his donkey as often as he liked on the policies of Ury. One morning, when the Captain was driving the "Defiance," there was a plain country woman sitting behind him. A gentleman wished to deprive the woman of her seat. The Captain remonstrated with him and bade him let the poor woman alone. The stranger did not know that it was Captain Barclay, and went on from better to worse, till he told the Captain if he would stop the coach and come down he would settle the matter with him. The Captain immediately stopped the coach, saying, "I suppose I must gratify you," gave the reins to Davie Troup, and jumped down with his top-coat on. The stranger advised him to strip. "Oh no," said the Captain, "that would be troublesome." His opponent, a very strong man, rushed at him like a bull-dog. The Captain put on his guard, looked at his antagonist for a moment or two, turned the quid of tobacco once or twice in his mouth, and then gave him a blow that felled him to the ground like a log of wood. He got to his feet again, when the Captain doubled the dose. The stranger was satisfied, and said, "You must either be the devil or Captain Barclay of Ury." "I am not the former," said the Captain, "but I am the latter." A stranger would hardly at first sight have got an adequate impression of Captain Barclay's power, but his appearance grew upon you when you came close to him; you then saw his great strength. He was a very round-made man, shaped for great endurance, which was put to a severe test when, in 1809, he walked a thousand miles in a thousand hours. His man Cross, who attended him, described to me the difficulty of his task in keeping him awake. At first he had to apply the stick and the lash, and the Captain growled most hideously at him; but latterly, when he saw he was to win, he improved in strength and spirits every hour till the end. After two days' rest he went on the Walcheren expedition. When past sixty he would walk twenty or thirty miles to dinner. I could relate many interesting reminiscences of Captain Barclay, but as most of them have been published already, I have only given a few well-authenticated anecdotes, which, so far as I know, have never before appeared. He was found dead in his bed in 1854: and in him the tenant-farmers of Scotland and the poor of his own neighbourhood lost one of their best friends. While speaking of Milner I referred to the great feats performed in those days with the sickle. I remember a Highland woman, "black Bell," who made sixteen to eighteen threaves (384 to 432 sheaves) daily in harvest of good-sized sheaves; but George Bruce, Ardgows, in the parish of Tough, could shear thirty-six threaves in a day, and bind and stook it. However incredible this may appear, it is a fact. I have seen him shearing after he was an old man; he drove the "rig" of say eighteen feet from side to side, and never lifted his hand till he had a sheaf. He used a long sickle, and drew the corn to him. I cannot describe his method properly. He was a tall, thin, wiry man, with very long arms. My father used to tell how my grandfather sent two men and two women to give George Bruce a day's shearing, and how George came with a little girl (who did little or nothing but make bands for her master), and how my grandfather asked him "if that was the way he intended to pay his debt." George replied that "he could put his four shearers on one 'rig'"--they were fully an average of the shearers in the country--"and he and the lassie would take the other." They started accordingly, and Bruce kept ahead of them throughout the day. III. THE CATTLE TRADE, THEN AND NOW. The lean-cattle trade is a most dangerous one, and I would not advise any young friend of mine to engage in it. I believe for one who has succeeded twenty have gone down. This is true, at least, as far as droving from the north to the south of Scotland and England is concerned. Home jobbers have been more fortunate, though I am not acquainted with many who have done much good. There are many temptations connected with it, and it requires a strong mind to resist them. I have only given the bright side of the picture; but let us look for a moment at the other. I have told that great chances are got by some at times; these, however, are exceptional to the general rule. Lean cattle are sold by value as well as fat, and if well bought will be easily sold. I found it the safe plan to buy a small drove well. It was only a little trade that I carried on--I never had fewer than from seven to ten score, and my largest droves never exceeded eighteen score; as a consequence, my losses were not heavy nor my profits very great. When I was in the trade the price of cattle was very low, which lessened my risk, but I have known £2 a-head lost over a large drove. During the French war the price of cattle became very high; and £4 a-head, and even much more, would sometimes be lost or gained on droving cattle. My father when a young man went to the far north--to Caithness, Sutherland, Skye, and the islands--and bought large droves of Highland cattle and brought them home. They were disposed of often by public roup in this county, or driven to the southern markets. At that time there were few regular markets in these counties, but the dealers when they went to the country cried a market, announcing that they would meet the sellers on a certain day and at a convenient place, and in this way the trade was carried out. Large profits were obtained; but the dealers were liable to heavy losses, especially in spring, the cattle being then but skin and bone, and many dying in the transit. My father lost in one night, after swimming the Spey, seventeen old Caithness runts. There were no bridges in those days. It came on a severe frost after the cattle had swam the river. The value of bone-manure was unknown, and their bones bleached in the sun on the braes of Auchindown for more than thirty years, and remains of them were visible within the last few years. My father not only carried on a very large trade to the Falkirk markets, but also a very extensive business to England, and had a salesman who attended all the great English fairs, particularly in Leicestershire, who sold drove after drove that were bought by my father here. Referring to documents in my possession, I find he had in one year 1500 head of cattle at the October Tryst of Falkirk, 800 of which were Highlanders, and the remainder Aberdeen cattle. The Highlanders were grazed in Braemar, on the Geldie, Boynach, and Corryvrone, the property of the Earl of Fife. His books show a clear profit at that fair of £2000, and the year following of £1500. Prices of cattle were very high during the war. I observe the prices of three heavy lots of horned Aberdeen cattle sold in Cumberland--viz., £22, £23, 10s., and £25 a-head. A Carlisle carrier, I have often heard my father say, was the purchaser. He declared he bought them for eating up his horse-litter. Steam navigation and the use of bone-dust being both introduced about the same time, shortly produced a complete revolution in the cattle trade; feeding soon became general, from the larger breadth and heavier crops of turnips grown; droving annually diminished, till now it has all but ceased, almost all the herds in Aberdeenshire being fattened, besides many brought in from north and south. The late Mr Hay, Shethin; Mr Lumsden, Aquhorthies; and his brother, Mr Lumsden, Eggie; Mr Milne, Fornet; Mr Mitchell, Fiddesbeg; Mr Stoddart, Cultercullen; Deacon Milne, and Deacon Spark, took the lead; and to these gentlemen the credit is due for being the first to introduce a proper and profitable system of feeding cattle in Aberdeenshire. More attention was also paid to the breeding department. James Anderson, Pitcarry, was the first man who shipped a beast from Aberdeen to London; his venture was two Angus polled oxen. The late Mr Hay, Shethin, was the first who sent cattle by rail from Aberdeen; his venture was a truck of Highlanders. The shipping of cattle gradually and rapidly increased, and soon became a great trade from our ports, many sailing-vessels, as well as steamers, being brought into requisition. Lean cattle were sent by sea instead of road. We had at that time no railway, and the expense was heavy. On a fat bullock it was from £2, 10s. a-head to £3 by steamer; by the sailing-vessels, however, it was only about £1, 10s. a-head. Sometimes they made quick passages, but this was uncertain; and I have known them a month at sea. I have seen the same cargo of cattle driven back to Aberdeen two or three times. I have been in the hold of the vessel when they were driven back, and shall never forget the scene when the buckets and water were brought forward; you would have thought the ship would have rent asunder by the struggles of the cattle to get at the water. I have sent cargoes of lean cattle by sailing-vessels to Barnett, Woolpit, &c. I have had them driven back after being days at sea. It was while inspecting one of these cargoes that I witnessed the scene of watering I have described. I lost money by that branch of my business, and I gave it up. Although the loss by deterioration of condition must have been great, it was astonishing how few deaths occurred in the sailing-vessels; the proportion was greater in the steamers. A year seldom passed without the shippers having heavy losses. I was owner of part of the cattle when every beast on board the Duke of Wellington, except three (one belonging to me, and he had to be carted from the boat, and two belonging to Mr Farquharson of Asloun), was either thrown overboard or smothered in the hold. The sailors told that a blackhorned Bogieside ox, belonging to Mr Hay, swam for several miles after the ship. I have made inquiry of the cattle-man as to the scene in the hold of a steamer in a storm amongst the cattle. He said, "I went once down to the hold amongst them, but I was glad to get back with my life; and although you had given me the ship and all upon her, I would not have gone back." He declared that, though you had set a hundred men with heavy flails in operation at one time beating upon the side of the ship, it would not have been worse than the legs of the cattle beating upon each other and all within their reach. The owners of the Aberdeen steamers have always been anxious to accommodate their customers; and about twelve years ago they raised an insurance fund for the protection of the shippers. They laid past one shilling for every beast they shipped to meet deaths and accidents, and they have most honourably paid the losses incurred by the shippers of cattle. It is a good arrangement for both parties; it gives confidence to the shippers, and no doubt has a tendency to make the owners more careful in not sending their ships to sea if danger is apprehended. The cattle go well by sea when the weather is moderate, but in rough weather they are safer by rail. The above description will give some idea of the hardships the poor beasts endure in the hold when overtaken by a storm. I have seen my own cattle, after they were taken from the hold of the steamboat at London, so changed in appearance that I could not identify them, and could not tell whether they were black or grey. I should most seriously advise the Railway Company to adopt some method of insurance, to avoid the unseemly squabbles that are daily occurring with the senders of live cattle and dead meat. It is not my province to make any remarks on the late rise of the freight on cattle by the Steamboat Company and the Railway. The matter is in their own hands; but I think conciliation, owing to the present state of feeling, might have been their wisest policy; however, we will allow them to be the best judges. It will now be our study, for our own protection, to exert our influence in the proper quarter to have our grievances removed. The method of transit is an important subject to the owners of the cattle, to the landowners, and to the consumers. I have no doubt whatsoever that a legislative enactment will make all right by-and-by. I cannot leave this subject without noticing Scott, the cattle-traffic manager of the Caledonian Company at Aberdeen, and John Henry, the cattle-traffic manager of the Aberdeen and London Steam Navigation Company--men who deserve to wear a better coat, and who have done everything in their power for the interest of the senders of cattle. I believe there is difficulty in avoiding causes of complaint at all times where there are so many servants, and the senders of cattle are sometimes themselves to blame. I have never myself lost a beast by rail; I prepare my cattle for their journey before they start from home. My heavy cattle are turned out three different times at least before they are sent to rail. I walk them in a lea field: the first day they are put out four hours; I then give them a day to rest; turn them out again on the second day and increase the distance, and they come quite fresh out of the trucks at London. What can an owner of cattle expect but that some will go down if he take his cattle six, eight, or ten miles without their ever having left the stall for five or eight months before, and put them on to rail? Many hundreds of good oxen have been lost in this way, or crushed and bruised. Cattle when tied up are kept in an unnatural state; they often take founder when at the stall as a consequence, and sometimes paralysis; but such moderate exercise as I have described tends to bring them back to their natural state. I have often been asked the question by those who had seen my Christmas market cattle--"How is it that your beasts are so good upon their legs compared with others?" The first day after the cattle are put out for four hours they will not look so well, and will return to the stalls very much fatigued; but on the second and third days of their exercise they will recover their wonted appearance. They will walk eight or ten miles in a morning and go fresh into the truck, and on reaching their destination will come out and stand well up in the market. Founder generally yields to bleeding and two or three doses of salts with sulphur and ginger: I never saw this treatment fail. Paralysis is a more serious matter: in that case the firing-iron must be applied, and after the most skilful treatment the results are often very unsatisfactory. Cattle of all ages that are confined are liable to paralysis of the hind quarters; the complaint, however, is most prevalent among young bulls, and although removed, they generally lose from six to twelve months' growth. Cattle that have been confined to the stall, and even straw-yard cattle, are utterly unfit for the road, on account of the softness of their hoofs, and when put to it at once, are very apt to take paralysis if not carefully prepared by previous exercise. A certain season of the year is more especially to be guarded against--viz., from the middle of March to the middle of May. Cattle that have been two weeks at grass may, however, be safely droved. Every one who has been in the cattle trade will recollect the losses he has sustained in spring, in the transit of cattle, by the animals throwing their hoofs; and we can all remember how often we have seen our beasts, especially in dry warm weather in spring, lying on the roads, and how we had to cart them home or to the nearest slaughtering shop. If there be a separation of the hoof at the top from the skin, and if a white frothy substance oozes out at this break, it is a sure sign that irreparable injury has been done. The beast will pine on for six months, and at last throw the old hoof when a new one has grown up. This is a more teasing case to the owner than when the hoof is thrown at once. The animal should be slaughtered immediately, if at all in condition, as it will not only lose condition every day till the hoof comes off, but be a bad thriver ever after. Five or six miles of bad driving at this season is enough to do the whole business. If cattle should cast their hoofs, or even one hoof, suddenly, if at all in condition, they should also be slaughtered without delay, as they will pine for six months and be a daily grievance to the owner. If it be a young or valuable breeding animal, however, it should be bled, and get two or three doses of cooling medicine to remove the inflammation; then soiled in a loose-box, and his feet well bound up with tow and tar. If animals are not slaughtered, I would recommend soiling in all cases, if possible. But "prevention is better than cure;" and all this can be avoided if we will only take proper precautions. I shall state the method I adopt in my practice, and I have paid dearly for my experience. I generally buy a good many beasts in spring in Morayshire, and sometimes winter a lot or two there. Until within a few years we had no railway conveyance, and the cattle all came by road. Before the time appointed for lifting the cattle, I sent across three or four able-bodied men who were acquainted with the dressing of the feet. Beginning their operations at the most northern point of the county, and going from one farm to another where the cattle were wintered, they dressed every hoof of every bullock that required it. By dressing, and by the proper training of the cattle before starting, I have brought home thousands of them safe and sound. Proper attention was no doubt paid to the droving, the men who had charge of them being trained to the occupation. Short stages and plenty of food are indispensable to their safe arrival. It is of great importance, in order to cattle thriving upon grass, to have their feet properly dressed; and many of our careful farmers have their cattle's feet dressed every year before they are put out to grass, even although they are not sent from the farm. The general method adopted in dressing is to take up the leg with a rope run from the couple; this, however, must be a severe strain on the beasts. The method I adopted when I was in the lean-cattle trade was different: the bullock was driven to a wall; a man, or two men, secured him by the nose and the back of the neck. The fore feet were easy to hold up--one man could generally manage them; but the hind feet were not so easy a matter, and it always required two, and sometimes three, strong men to hold them up. It is done entirely by method: not allowing the beast to stretch out his legs is the whole secret. The bullock has no power if his legs are kept close to his hind quarters; but if he is allowed to stretch them out, he will throw off any number of men. Two men, one on each side, put their backs close to the hind quarters of the bullock, and keep in his leg, not allowing him to strike it out. There he is fixed; and the topsman, who is generally an adept at the business, dresses the foot. Before the introduction of railways shoeing was sometimes required, but more frequently in autumn than in spring. In bad weather many of the cattle had to be shod, else they never could have performed their journeys. In wet weather their hoofs wore through to the sensitive parts, and they got lame; but when properly shod, they immediately recovered and took the front of the drove. The following may appear incredible, but it will show the proficiency some men attained in the art. Robert Gall of Kennethmont on one occasion shod seventy cattle to me in one day, near Perth, and no rope ever touched them in the field. It should, however, be remembered that cattle, after being driven a distance, get more easily handled. Robert Smith, one of the few of the old race of drovers now alive, and who is still in my service, assisted in this great performance. I should explain, for the sake of the general reader, that the inside hoof of the fore foot is generally the first to wear through. Many of the cattle had only one or two hoofs shod, others perhaps three or four, and an exceptional beast would have every one of the eight done. The shoes were made at the Crossgates of Fife; they were sent by coach to different cattle stations, and the men, by rotation, had to carry a supply upon their backs. It may seem a strange fact that no other blacksmith could make nails equal to those made at the Crossgates. The men would not hear of any others; they said they would not drive. The Crossgates blacksmith not only supplied the Scotch drovers, but also the English lean-cattle jobbers. As to fat cattle for market, after they are trained, they should not go a yard except by rail or steamboat. As to trucking store cattle, this must be regulated entirely by the season of the year and the weight of the cattle, &c. I have always had a reluctance to truck store cattle if I could possibly avoid it, not only for the expense, but for the risk incurred from dirty and infected trucks. I would recommend, if the cattle have a distance to travel in March, April, and May, and until they have been fourteen days at grass, that they should be trucked. But I have often been astonished at the recklessness of farmers buying cattle in a fair, going straight to the nearest station, and turning them into any dirty truck they can get--(when are trucks other than dirty?) The danger is great; despite the utmost circumspection, even the most careful may sometimes be caught. If those who act so escape, it is not owing to their good management. I would recommend my friends, when they go to a fair for the purpose of purchasing cattle, to take a confidential servant of their own along with them, or else make it a part of the bargain that the owner keeps the cattle for a certain time, till the buyer can get the trucks properly cleaned--which I find no difficulty in getting done--so that before they allow their cattle to be trucked they may be satisfied the trucks are thoroughly cleaned. They should be washed over with chloride of lime, or, what is still better, given a fresh coat of paint. Three to four shillings will paint a truck; that is a small matter--say sixpence a-head; but care must be taken that the paint is dry before the cattle are put into the truck, else the beasts will be poisoned. If this is neglected, there is great risk of bringing home foot-and-mouth disease, or even the lung disease. Some say that it was impossible to attend to such an operation--that business called them home, and that people would not take home their cattle. I have never found any difficulty in my own experience; but I must allow that some sellers are too distant to send the cattle home. In such an emergency the beasts should be laid past upon a little hay or straw for a day in the neighbourhood; there is always a field to be had, or the market green. What is a day, or a man or two, and a night's hay, if your beasts come safe? Disease has been carried in this way to hundreds of steadings, and the results have been most disastrous. The day's rest will be a great advantage to the cattle after the fatigue of standing in the market. The main object with store cattle should be to keep them sound on their feet and free from disease. If their transit is to be by rail, the quality of their food for a day or two is of minor importance; they will soon recover. It would be foolish to truck store cattle after they have been at grass for a few weeks. Their feet get hardened, and in the end of May, and in June, July, and August, there is no risk of injuring the beasts by driving in easy stages from ten to fourteen miles a-day. At that season cattle can hedge it; they will live almost on what they pick up on the roadsides as they go along. Your cattle arrive safe and sound, and free from all trouble and risk as respects trucks. In the dead-meat trade there has now sprung up a new trade and almost a new race of men. The quantity of dead meat sent from Aberdeen regulates the Newgate market. Mr Bonser, the great dead-meat salesman, states in his evidence before a committee of the House of Commons, "that there are no others that know the beasts for the London market equal to the Aberdeen butchers, and from no other place does it arrive in the same condition; and this may be owing to the cold climate." Mr Wilson of Edinburgh put the question to the Chamber of Agriculture, "What is the reason that the Aberdeenshire cattle proved better and carried more good flesh than any other cattle?" Mr Wilson's question is perhaps not very easily answered, but I should give as some of the reasons the following:--The Aberdeenshire farmers have turned their attention almost exclusively to the breeding and feeding of cattle. They have continued for a long period, without regard to price, in many cases, to introduce the best blood into their herds. By a long-continued infusion of first-class animals, and weeding out inferior animals, they have established a breed unequalled for meat-producing qualities in Britain. The Aberdeenshire turnips have been proved by analysis to be of a very superior quality, and it is likewise a good grazing county. Another point is the great attention paid to calves after weaning, and not allowing them to lose the calf-flesh, which, if lost, can never be regained. But the indomitable perseverance of the farmers in selecting good and weeding out inferior animals is, I think, the main cause. It will be seen by the following table that the dead-meat trade has become one of the great institutions of the country. There are hundreds engaged in the business, and it is yearly increasing. Amongst the greatest senders are Messrs Butler, Skinner, Wishart, and Wisely, and White of Aberdeen; but a great deal of dead meat is also sent from the rural districts. When the supply is short, some of our most enterprising butchers attend the Glasgow market, bring down cattle, and slaughter them in Aberdeen, and send their carcasses to London. I have known Mr Butler bring down fifty in one week. The following table shows the number of cattle and tons of dead meat sent to the London and other markets during 1865 and the six previous years; it also shows what was sent by rail and sea respectively:-- CATTLE. DEAD MEAT. Year. Rail. Sea. Rail. Sea. 1859 13,130 7,282 6,905 tons. 48 tons. 1860 13,993 3,782 5,769 tons. 53 tons. 1861 8,852 8,324 8,041 tons. 127 tons. 1862 6,281 4,518 9,392 tons. 76 tons. 1863 9,623 4,163 9,395 tons. 58 tons. 1864 7,624 3,551 9,840 tons. 2 tons. 1865 9,031 4,558 10,074 tons. 61 tons. Taking the year 1865, there were 10,074 tons of dead meat sent by rail, and 61 tons by sea. Calculating that 6 cwt. was the average weight of the cattle, this will show that 33,783 cattle were sent away from Aberdeen as dead meat, against 9031 live cattle by rail and 4558 by sea, so that 20,194 more were sent away dead than alive. The live cattle would weigh 7 cwt., or 1 cwt. more than the dead.[4] [4] Since the amalgamation between the Caledonian Railway and the Scottish North-Eastern took place, the returns of cattle and dead meat sent to London and elsewhere have not been given to the public. The Caledonian Company refused repeatedly to give them, and when pressed by myself, offered to let me have access to the accumulated pile of forwarding-notes for the last four years! The following valuable statistics, compiled by Mr James Valentine, Aberdeen, show that the proportion of dead meat sent to London is on the increase:-- 1. The _cattle and dead meat sent by sea_ during the past three years stood:-- CATTLE. DEAD MEAT. Year. Number. Tons. 1866, 5483 499 1867, 2770 487 1868, 6313 380 2. _Of dead meat booked "through" per Great North of Scotland Railway_, the amount for five years was:-- Year. Tons. 1864 1848 1865 2874 1866 3346 1867 3414 1868 3544 3. The number of _cattle-hides_ passing through the hands of the dealers in Aberdeen during 1867 was, in whole, 49,181. In 1868 the number was 42,115, besides 13,167 from the county, and 3125 from Kincardineshire. If we set down each animal slaughtered at 6 cwt., this would give a total of 17,500 tons; or, deducting the town's consumption (say 2500 tons), 15,000 tons sent south for the year. Probably, however, though hides to this amount dealt with in Aberdeen, represent meat as stated, part of the meat may be included in the category "booked through per Great North." Supposing, therefore, that the whole amount of dead meat despatched from Aberdeen from every quarter, in 1868, was 15,000 tons, we may assume that, in addition, 7500 cattle were sent south. The tendency of late years has undoubtedly been to send fewer live stock and more dead meat to the London market, and also to send more cattle by sea and dead meat by rail. I have stated that almost a new race of men has sprung up within the last forty years. Very few are now alive that were prominent in the cattle trade at that time; there are, however, some alive that I may name: Mr Anderson, Pitcarry; Mr Lumsden, Aquhorthies; and Mr Stoddart, Cultercullen. These must always hold a prominent position in the cattle trade of Aberdeenshire, as Mr Anderson was the first man that shipped cattle from Aberdeen, and Messrs Lumsden and Stoddart distinguished themselves in Aberdeenshire as two of our best judges, and were amongst the first to see and take advantage of steam communication. They are now the oldest of the Aberdeen shippers of cattle. They were some of the first to develop and mature that system of feeding which has made Aberdeenshire celebrated through Britain. The Aberdeen butchers have a higher standing than can be claimed by their brethren in any other part of the kingdom. The butchers in other cities are generally only purveyors, and never dispute the honours of the show-yard with the grazier or breeder. They buy their weekly supply at their weekly markets; but many of the chief Aberdeen butchers do not depend upon the market for their supplies, but feed large lots of fine cattle and sheep themselves to meet emergencies, upon which they can fall back. They do more than this; they are the largest and most successful exhibitors at our great annual fat shows. They are not only great purveyors themselves, but they supply a good proportion of the Christmas prize animals to the chief butchers of London, Birmingham, Liverpool, Newcastle, York, Darlington, Edinburgh, Glasgow, &c. The names of Martin, Stewart, Knowles, &c., are celebrated not only in Great Britain, but in France. Such men are public benefactors, and entitled to the gratitude of their country. Messrs James and William Martin (butchers to the Queen) kill and retail 40 beasts and 100 sheep weekly. Messrs Knowles, Stewart, and Milne, have grand retail trades, but Mr White perhaps retails as much as, if not more than, any of them. It is a great sight to see the display of meat and the immense crowd of purchasers in his shop on a Friday forenoon. Mr White is a man who has raised himself to the highest position by his steadiness and persevering energy. He is one of those men who cannot be kept down. These butchers are also great senders of live cattle to London. At the great market they stand pre-eminent. The Messrs Martin, who stand at the top, send as many as 100 or 150 cattle, worth from £35 to £50 a-head. Messrs Stewart, Knowles, Wishart, and Wisely, &c., send yearly splendid lots. Messrs Wishart and Wisely, as feeders and dealers, are gradually drawing to the top. They feed a great many superior cattle, and put an immense number through their hands. Many of them they send alive to London, but they also send an enormous quantity of dead meat. No men in the trade know their business better. Mr Martin, however, must still stand at the top. As an example, I may mention that he exhibited a four-year-old Highlander at Birmingham, London, and Liverpool in 1868, which gained the first prize at each of these places. His head now adorns Mr Martin's shop in New Market, alongside of the royal arms, the firm being butchers to her Majesty. It is a perfect model of what the head of a Highlander should be. Deacon Milne, however, surpassed them all for several years, if not in numbers, in the quality and value of the animals he forwarded to the great Christmas market. For several years Mr Skinner, Woodside, has sent about 100 valuable animals to the Christmas market. He is one of the greatest senders of dead meat, and he also feeds a large lot of bullocks. To speak of all the senders of dead meat, butchers, and jobbers, in the city and the provinces, would be a hopeless and an endless task. I believe there cannot be fewer than 500 in Aberdeenshire alone; and, long as I have been connected with the cattle trade, I could not name one in ten. I have briefly noticed the cattle trade in connection with the Aberdeen butchers: let me now glance at the shippers and jobbers of the provinces, as it is from them that the raw material is furnished. The following remarks apply to Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray shires: our provincial jobbers are a host in themselves, and are a very heterogeneous multitude: from the man who can pay thousands, through all the intermediate stages, down to the man that buys a beast and cannot lift it unless he can sell it there and then for a profit. We have a large class of the first, who can not only pay their hundreds but their thousands. We have an intermediate class that job, generally occupiers of two and four horse farms. There is no end to their peregrinations, toil, and industry; in summer, in winter, in fair and foul, by night and by day, by moonlight and by starlight, they scour the country, and collect cattle from all points of the compass, and sell them at the fairs to farmers, butchers, and dealers. We have also the dealer of smaller pretensions, who can only afford to buy a beast or two, which he drives to market himself; such a beginning, however, I have known end in becoming the proprietor of £25,000 worth of landed property. We have the cow-jobber, and it is sometimes a very lucrative business; many have been very successful in the trade. Mr Forrest was a cow-jobber: he rented all the grass land round Hamilton Palace for many years from the Duke of Hamilton. He bought nothing but cows, and it was said he would ride 100 miles to buy a farrow cow. He died worth a fortune, and proprietor of a good estate. We have the jobber who buys only lean store cattle, and the jobber of fat cattle alone. Banffshire can claim a Stoddart, and Morayshire the two M'Kessocks, the Laird of Ardgay, and the tenant of Balnaferry; and I do not know which to admire most, the daring and skill of the laird, or the caution and skill of the tenant, Macdonald of Blervie, through whose hands three-fourths of the store cattle in Morayshire pass. We have in Aberdeenshire Mr Reid, Greystone, in the Vale of Alford; Mr Stoddart, Cultercullen; the Messrs Bruce in Alford, Clova, and Strathbogie; and Mr Mennie of Huntly. Mr Reid, Greystone, has attained the highest position as a feeder and grazier amongst British agriculturists. His stock have for many years taken a most prominent place at our national shows at London, Birmingham, Liverpool, York, Newcastle, Leeds, Edinburgh, &c. &c. IV. BLACK POLLED ABERDEEN AND ANGUS CATTLE & SHORTHORNS. It is not my purpose to treat of shorthorns: I may, however, glance at some of the principal breeders of that kind of stock in the north. Mr Alexander Hay, Shethin, was the first who introduced shorthorns into Aberdeenshire. He bought the celebrated bull "Jerry" from the late Mr John Rennie of Phantassie; and he was the first shorthorn that crossed the Dee. I should have mentioned his brother, the late William Hay, Shethin, the celebrated breeder of shorthorns, and one of the greatest feeders in the north. He was the first man in Aberdeenshire who gained a prize at the Smithfield Club Show, the animal being a Hereford ox; and he was also the first that sent cattle by railway to London. He and the Messrs Cruickshank, Sittyton, had everything their own way in the show-yard for years. The late Mr Grant Duff of Eden was one of the greatest and most systematic breeders of shorthorns in the north. He paid 170 guineas for "Brawith Bud," and she made his "herd's fortunes." He astonished the country by his crosses between the shorthorns and West-Highlanders. He was dead against the system of forcing for the show-yard. Foremost among eminent breeders of shorthorns in the north at the present time are the Messrs Cruickshank, Sittyton. Their fame is European; they own the largest herds of shorthorns in the world. It is only necessary to name "Fairfax Royal," "Prince Edward Fairfax," "Velvet Jacket," "Matadore," "Lord Sackville," the "Baron" by "Baron Warlaby," "Master Butterfly," the "2d John Bull," "Lancaster Comet," "Lord Raglan," "Ivanhoe," "Lord Garlies," "Malachite," "Windsor Augustus," "Sir James the Rose," and last, though not least, "Forth"--to show the distinguished position their herd has taken. Suffice it to say that no other breeder of shorthorns can claim having owned such an array of first-class bulls. Amongst the eminent breeders of shorthorns, Mr Campbell, Kinellar, occupies a distinguished place. I believe no one is a better judge of shorthorns, and no other has been more successful as a breeder. Mr C. began to breed this class of stock about twenty years ago, and "Lord Scarboro'," "Mosstrooper," "Beeswing," "Garioch Boy," "Scarlet Velvet," and "Diphthong," are some of the celebrated bulls that have been introduced into the herd. "Scarlet Velvet" and "Diphthong" gained the Aberdeenshire challenge-cup in 1862-63. At his annual sales his bull calves bring high prices; for some as much as sixty, eighty, and a hundred guineas each have been paid. His stock has for years taken a high position in our show-yards. Mr George Shepherd, Shethin, who succeeded his father-in-law, Mr Wm. Hay, had one of the largest herds of shorthorns, which were mostly sold off some years ago. Mr Shepherd's herd was of the highest blood, and won many prizes. The bull "Cherry Duke the Second," bred by Mr Bolden and bought by Mr Shepherd, jun., from Mr Atherston, was invincible. After gaining every prize in the north and the challenge-cup at Aberdeen, he finished his honourable career as a prize-winner at Edinburgh, when, in 1859, he took the first prize in the aged bull class. Mr Milne of Kinaldie is an eminent breeder of shorthorns; he has distanced all other competitors with his cows. Mr Marr, Uppermill, has got some of the very best shorthorns in the country; and his brother Mr Marr, Cairnbrogie; Mr Scott, Glendronach; Mr Bruce, Broadland; and Mr Mitchell, Haddo--are all eminent breeders of shorthorns. Their bull calves command high prices at their annual sales. In Banffshire we have that veteran and successful breeder, Mr Longmore, Rettie, whose stock has long borne a high character. In Morayshire we have two eminent breeders--Mr Geddes of Orbliston and Mr M'Kessock, Balnaferry, who have everything their own way in the show-yard north of the Spey. Mr Geddes stood at the top of the Highland Society's prize-list at the Inverness show as the owner of the best aged shorthorned bull, and was a winner along with Mr John M'Kessock in the class of shorthorned heifers. Mr Stronach of Ardmellie was a successful breeder of shorthorns. He sold off his stock some years ago. His farm was only 100 acres, but his stock fetched high prices. One yearling quey brought £54, and a cow £53. The proceeds of the sale amounted to about £1000--a large sum, considering the smallness of the farm. Mr Stronach was for many years a successful competitor at the local shows, and sold a cow to Mr Cruickshank that carried the first prize at one of the Highland Society's shows at Aberdeen. Mr Stronach crossed the yellow Highland cows and heifers with shorthorn bulls, and the result was very successful. Mr Stronach was also an exhibitor at the Paris show. I have only glanced at the breeders of shorthorns in the north; in conclusion, I may notice some of those noblemen and gentlemen who have distinguished themselves as breeders of Aberdeen and Angus polled cattle. Among these the late Hugh Watson, Keillor, deserves to be put in the front rank. No breeder of polled Aberdeen and Angus will grudge that well-merited honour to his memory. We all look up to him as the first great improver, and no one will question his title to this distinction. There is no herd in the country which is not indebted to the Keillor blood. For many a long year Mr Watson carried everything before him. He began to exhibit in 1810, and won during his lifetime some 200 prizes for cattle, sheep, and cart and thoroughbred horses. The heifers which he exhibited at Perth in 1829 were greatly admired; and the Smithfield heifer of '29 was so good that she was modelled, and her portrait is in the volume 'Cattle' of the publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. He gained the Pureell challenge-cup at Belfast for an Angus ox, which was kept by the Prince Consort at the Royal Farm, Windsor, till his death, when his age was seventeen. As an example of the longevity of the race, Mr Watson's celebrated cow, "Old Grannie," the first cow in the Polled Herd Book, died at thirty-five years of age. Mr Watson bred many celebrated bulls, but "Old Jock" was _facile princeps_. He carried everything before him, and in 1844 was sold for a hundred guineas--a large price at that time. To "Angus," who fell into my hands, I am indebted for some of the best blood in the male line. Mr Watson also bred "Strathmore," "Windsor," "Pat," and "Second Jock," which last beat all the bulls in a sweepstake at Perth in 1852, after he was thirteen years old. Mr Bowie, of Mains of Kelly, has been a most successful and energetic breeder of polled cattle. To him I am indebted for "Hanton," who, with "Angus" and "Panmure" in the male line, were my "herds' fortunes." He also bred "Cup-Bearer," who did so much good for Lord Southesk's herd. "Second Earl Spencer" and "Cup-Bearer" were 1st and 2d prize bulls at Berwick. At our national shows Mr Bowie has been the most successful prize-taker in the Bull classes. Where he has exhibited he has generally carried the first honours. At Aberdeen, at Berwick, at Dumfries, and at the Royal Agricultural Society of England, his bulls were invincible. It is most deeply to be regretted that the plague got into his stock, and he has sustained a heavy loss. Still he came out better than any of his neighbours. He saved twenty-three cattle; and his herd will, I trust, in a few years attain its wonted position. I have drawn, at one time or another, largely from Mr Bowie's stock, and have paid him high prices--as high as a hundred guineas for bulls, and forty, fifty, and sixty guineas for females. Mr Bowie is one of the best judges of Aberdeen and Angus cattle in Scotland. Lord Southesk was one of our most enterprising breeders of polled stock; and before the plague decimated his fine herd last year, it was almost the best in the land. There has been a herd of pure Angus cattle at Kinnaird for fifty years; but when his lordship succeeded to the property it got a fresh start. He introduced "Cup-Bearer" by "Pat" from Mr Bowie's herd, and he did good service. The well-known "Druid," of show-yard celebrity, was descended from "Cup-Bearer" and from "Dora," bred to Mr Ruxton of Farnell. "Windsor" was afterwards introduced. He was bought from George Brown, Westerton of Fochabers, for two hundred guineas, and took the first prize at Edinburgh in the aged bull class; the silver medal to the breeder came to Tillyfour. He was carried off by the plague, at nine years of age, last winter at Kinnaird. "Druid" was a great prize-winner, and gained more than £100 in his different journeys, and a host of medals. The Kelso heifers were very superior, and "Quadrona" gained the first prize at Smithfield in the female polled class. It is deeply to be regretted that Lord Southesk's fine herd suffered so heavily by the rinderpest. This has been indeed a national loss. Lord Southesk spared no expense in purchasing the finest animals, and had an able assistant in his brother, the Hon. Charles Carnegie, M.P., who is not only a good judge, but knows the pedigrees of the different polled herds better than any other man. William Fullerton, late of Mains of Ardovie, now of Mains of Ardestie, was a celebrated breeder of Angus cattle; but pleuro-pneumonia got into his herd, and he lost no fewer than eighty cattle by the disease. One bull that recovered was good enough to go to Glasgow and take the first prize in the aged bull class. His bull "Panmure" gained the first prize at the Highland Society's Show at Dundee in the aged bull class, and Mr Fullerton also carried off the prize for the three best cows. "Panmure" was sold to the late Mr Taylor, Wellhouse, Alford, and some of my best stock trace their descent from "Panmure." The late Lord Panmure sent the late Mr Phillip, the great painter, to Wellhouse, to take the bull's portrait. Not satisfied with Mr Phillip's first sketch, he sent him back; and Mr Phillip lived at Wellhouse for weeks, and painted "Panmure" a second time. Mr Fullerton is one of our best judges, and to him I am indebted for my best stock in the female line. It was at his sale I purchased the "Queen," whose descendants in the female line have, except in two or three solitary cases, driven competition before them in Scotland, England, and France. Many of my best stock trace their pedigree from the "Queen." The Ballwyllo herd have long been celebrated, and were a tower of strength at the Angus Agricultural Society's shows. The late Mr Robert Scott was a most enthusiastic and successful breeder. The prizes gained by the Ballwyllo herd were very numerous. At Aberdeen, in 1847, Mr Robert Scott gained the first prize for a cow from the Highland Society; and at Windsor, in 1851, he gained the first prize in the cow class for the same animal, which was bred at Tillyfour. He also gained the first prize in the aged bull class at Perth, and the first prize in the yearling heifer class. Both animals were bred at Ballwyllo. The Ballwyllo stock have taken a prominent place at Dumfries, and at the Royal Northern Agricultural Society's shows. Since Mr Robert Scott's death, Mrs Scott, his mother, has most enthusiastically stuck to the Angus Doddies; but it is a matter of deep regret that she also was a severe sufferer by the rinderpest. Mr Mustard, Leuchland, is a very old breeder, and I believe no purer stock exist in Forfarshire. Mr Mustard never forces his stock for the show-yard, and seldom sends any except to the county show, where they are always winners. I have often admired the purity, style, and condition--as it ought to be in a breeding stock--of the Leuchland herd. Mr Lyell, of Shielhill, brother of Sir Charles Lyell, has a very good herd of polled Angus cattle. His bull "Prospero" gained the first prize at Perth in the two-year-old class, and at Battersea Park he won the first prize in the aged bull class. Mr Leslie of the Thorn is also a most successful breeder. He came out so strong at Stirling that he beat all and sundry for yearling bulls, and followed up his conquests by selling "President the Fourth" at an almost fabulous price. From Angus we come north to Kincardine, and we there find the celebrated breeder since 1826, Mr Robert Walker, Portlethen. It would be endless to attempt to sum up his victories, local, national, and international, they are spread over such a large surface. Mr Walker was a most successful competitor at the International Show at Paris, and refused £230 for his prize bull. His bull "Porty" was sent to Inverury, and took the first prize. There was no Aberdeen show at that time. "The Banks of Dee" carried everything before him, and his descendants gained seven firsts and a second in one year in the show-yard; but although Mr Walker had never bred another animal save "Fox Maule," his celebrity as a breeder would have been established. "Fox Maule" was one of the best polled bulls ever exhibited. Mr Hector, late in Fernyflat, was a very celebrated breeder of polled cattle, and his stock was of the very highest order, and gained many prizes at our national shows. The Crathes stock is of long standing. The late Sir Thomas Burnett was a most successful breeder, and stood in the front rank for many a long year. The Crathes herd was a tower of strength, and under the able management of Mr John Davidson they were dangerous antagonists. I have had many encounters with them in the Aberdeen show-yard, and have got soundly beaten. "The Banks of Dee," mentioned above, was the most celebrated bull of his day, and took the first prize wherever he was exhibited, local and national. Sir Thomas had his portrait taken and engraved. The prizes gained by the Crathes stock count by the hundred. On the lamented death of Sir Thomas Burnett he was succeeded by his brother, Sir Alexander Burnett, who kept up the stock; and at his death he was succeeded by the present proprietor, Sir James Burnett, who has added drafts from the best stocks in the country. There is no doubt the Crathes herd will remain true to its ancient fame. In Aberdeenshire the breeders of polled cattle are very numerous, but we shall only mention a few. William M'Combie, of Easter Skene, has always stuck to the polled breed, and his stock have been conspicuous as prize-takers. His cow, "Queen of Scots," beat Lord Southesk's "Dora" and ten other fine cows in 1853, and "Roderick Dhu" gained the first prize the same year, while "Alastor the Second" beat "Fox Maule" at Aberdeen--the only time that animal ever was beaten. One ox I purchased from Mr M'Combie gained the first prize at Glasgow at the last fat show held by the Highland Society.[5] [5] Mr M'Combie has taken a very prominent position since the above was written. At the Highland Society's show at Aberdeen he gained the first prize for the best yearling bull, the first prize for the best two-year-old bullock, and other prizes. Colonel Fraser, of Castle Fraser, has also stuck to the Aberdeen and Angus polled cattle. His stock take a prominent place at the Royal Northern Agricultural Society's shows.[6] They are not pampered for show-yard purposes, but he has bred from the best blood, and his stock always take a good place where exhibited. In the Garioch, as a breeder of polled cattle, Mr Stephen, Conglass, stands pre-eminent. The Conglass stock have been handed down from father to son, and the son has not allowed them to lose their position. Mr Stephen gained the Fat challenge-cup by a three-year-old ox, bred to himself at Aberdeen in 1864. At Poissy he carried off the first prize for the best heifer, beating all and sundry. [6] Since the first edition of this book was published, Colonel Fraser's stock has taken a leading position. At the Royal Northern Agricultural Society's show in 1867, he gained the Polled challenge-cup. The cup has to be gained for three successive years by the same party, and with different animals, before it becomes his property. I had gained it the two preceding years, and it was now fairly within my grasp. It was my last asking, but it was dashed from my lips, and went for the time to Castle Fraser, instead of going to Tillyfour for ever. Colonel Fraser likewise gained the first prize for the same cow at the Highland Society's show at Glasgow in 1867; and again carried first honours with a younger cow at the Highland Society's show at Aberdeen last summer. Mr M'Combie of Easter Skene's farm-manager has great merit by his indefatigable exertions in bringing up the Easter Skene stock to its high position. He is an old and respected servant of my own, and nothing gives him so much satisfaction as to beat his old master. Mr Hampton, manager for Castle Fraser, deserves equal credit for his unwearied exertions in improving the Castle Fraser stock. In Banffshire, Mr Walker of Montbletton is the most celebrated breeder. He has twenty breeding cows, and has carried almost every medal and prize at the Banff and Turriff shows for polled cattle, as well as many of the highest prizes at the Royal Northern and Highland Society's shows. In Morayshire we have Mr Brown, Westerton, who is well known as one of our best judges of polled cattle. Mr Brown's herd came first prominently into notice at the Highland Society's show at Inverness in 1856, when he carried off the highest honours for heifers, and was second to "Hanton"--who never was beaten but once--in the aged bull class. At the Highland Society's show at Aberdeen, he was first with "Windsor" in the two-year-old class. Mr Brown's skill was tested as to the purchase and sale of "Windsor;" he bought him from me as a calf in low condition, under £40, and sold him to Lord Southesk for 200 guineas. At Elgin, at Aberdeen, and at the Highland Society's shows, Mr Brown was a most successful competitor. But at the Dumfries show, Mr Brown, Mr Collie, and myself got pleuro-pneumonia into our stock, and it decimated Mr Brown's valuable herd. Mr Brown's character as a judge stands in the front rank with the breeders of Aberdeen and Angus stock, and he has often been put on to act in that capacity by the Directors of the Highland and Royal Northern Agricultural Societies. Mr Paterson, Mulben, is a great and fortunate breeder of polled stock. Mr Paterson commenced to breed in 1846. His celebrated "Mayflower" was the first-prize cow at the Highland Society's show at Perth in 1861; "Malcolm" was first at Elgin and Aberdeen, and second at Perth; and "Prince of Wales," bred to Mr Brown, Westerton, was first at Aberdeen in 1862, and first at the Highland Society's show at Stirling. It would be a hopeless as well as an endless task to record Mr Paterson's victories at the Highland and Royal Northern Societies' shows at Elgin, Aberdeen, Banff, Huntly, and Dufftown, where he has often got everything his own way. Mr John Collie, Ardgay, was a celebrated breeder, and was one of the most dangerous men to face in the show-yard I have ever encountered. He gave me a sound drubbing at Edinburgh in the Cow class, and beat me for a first place out of my own kennel with "Fair Maid of Perth," which he bought from me at 81 guineas; but not satisfied with that, he took a second place with "Mayflower," bred to Mr Paterson, and left me with the bronze medal for my cow prize. I am indebted to Mr Collie for some of my best animals--viz., "Zara," the second-prize heifer at Battersea, and "Kate of Aberdeen," out of "Zara," and many others. He has been a very successful exhibitor of stock, and has distinguished himself at Elgin, Aberdeen, the Highland Society's shows, and the great International Exhibition at Paris. The ox I gained the Smithfield prize with in 1864 was bred to Mr Collie. Perhaps the Ballindalloch herd of polled cattle are the oldest in the north; they have been the talk of the country since my earliest recollection, and were then superior to all other stock. The herd has been kept up to its wonted standard, and even raised higher, by the present proprietor, Sir George Macpherson Grant, of Ballindalloch and Invereshie, by selections from the best herds in the kingdom. Coming fast into notice is the Drumin herd; it consists of about twenty cows and their followers. Mr Skinner has improved his stock by drafts from the best herds in the country. He never forces for the show-yard, but his stock have been very successful at the Spey and Avonside Agricultural Society's shows. He has won the first prize for cows for the last two years--no small victory, when he had Sir George Macpherson Grant and Mr Paterson to contend against. He has also had his fair share of prizes for bulls, heifers, and bullocks. A bullock bred at Drumin took the first prize at Liverpool, in the Polled class, in December last. Mr Skinner has not exhibited his stock at the Highland Society's shows, but there is no doubt we shall see them there by-and-by.[7] [7] Mr Skinner was an exhibitor at the Highland Society's show at Aberdeen last summer, and gained the first prize for his two-year-old heifer. V. HINTS ON THE BREEDING AND CARE OF CATTLE. It has been suggested to me that I should add my experience as a breeder of Aberdeen and Angus stock to my observations on the feeding of cattle. It is with considerable hesitation that I have ventured to put upon paper my views upon a subject on which there is such diversity of opinion. It will, however, lessen the field of controversy, that my practice and observations apply only to the Aberdeen and Angus breed; although I presume what applies to one breed may apply in a great degree to all. My observations may be of some use to those readers who have not devoted much attention to the subject; they may prove of interest even to more experienced breeders, should I be able to adduce facts that may have escaped their notice, or in confirmation of their own observations. I can hardly speak with the same authority as a breeder, generally, that I can as a feeder; yet I have been a close observer now for many years, and devoted my earnest attention to the improvement of the Aberdeen and Angus polled breed of cattle, with respect to size, symmetry, fineness of bone, strength of constitution, and disposition to accumulate fat, sparing no expense in obtaining the finest animals from the purest stock. Laying the foundation of a breeding stock will be the first matter under consideration. We are met here at the very outset by the advocates of blood and those of selection. Much may be said and volumes have been written in favour of both. My experience leads me to take a middle course between the two, and to keep in view both the one and the other. With respect to the qualifications of a successful breeder, Darwin writes: "Not one man in a thousand has accuracy of eye and judgment sufficient to become an eminent breeder. If gifted with these qualities, and he studies the subject for years, and devotes his lifetime to it with indomitable perseverance, he will succeed and make great improvements; and if he wants any of these qualities he will assuredly fail." Darwin's view will be found pretty correct. Many breed with a certain success, and even rush to the top for a time in the show-yard, but it is only those described by Darwin who will finally succeed. In laying the foundation of a breeding stock there is generally one of two objects in view: either, first, to raise up a herd the best of its race, with a view to competition in the show-yard and to improve it to the utmost; or, second, to breed commercial cattle for commercial purposes with the greatest possible profit. The first requires independent means; and, to secure success, skill, perseverance, and patience under heavy disappointments. The second can be attained by ordinary prudence. If the first object be the one aimed at, the selection should be made from the most established herds, and of animals of pedigree, and possessing the characteristics of the race you intend to propagate. But my attention will be more particularly directed to the second. There are few that have hatfuls of money to expend upon the purchase of high-bred animals; nor is this necessary in order to secure a profitable return from a breeding stock. I would recommend the following method: I shall suppose a farmer wishes to buy twenty cows to stock his farm (Aberdeen and Angus cattle). His entry is, say, at Whitsunday. He must have a bull to serve his cows. He should be selected from an established herd and from a race of good milkers. The farmer must be a good judge, or employ one in whom he has implicit confidence to act in his behalf. In his selection he must have a certain model in his eye, such as he wishes to propagate. I assume that he considered that his farm is adapted for the rearing of the Aberdeen and Angus breed of cattle, and is convinced of their hardihood of constitution being adapted to his soil and the climate. He ought to keep to certain ground in his selection; that, namely, where the polled breed are still in a state of purity, as in Angus, Aberdeen, Kincardine, Banff, and Moray shires. He ought to visit the Alford district, and all to the west of Alford. On the Spey he will find cattle well worth his attention. They are not of large size generally, but many of fine quality. In the neighbourhood of Dufftown, and west from Dufftown, there are many useful beasts. The Mearns and Angus he should carefully examine, visiting the farms where polled cattle are bred. The wealthy breeder, No. 1, may look to the honours of the show-yard; but No. 2, with his limited means, must have regard only to his ultimate profit. As it is a Whitsunday entry, he ought to have the lot made up, and the bull put to them in season, that he may not lose a year. The cows he buys will give milk to the house, and the two-year-old heifers will be easily kept on. I speak on the supposition that cows and heifers are bought, but the majority should be heifers. He ought to attend all the fairs in his power through spring, and be on the instant ready to pick up a suitable beast wherever it appears, which he can always do at market value. He ought to select the best heifers or cows (duly informing himself as to their breeding) from the different districts I have named. The produce, after a first-class bull, will be astonishing. The cows that throw the best calves should be retained, while those that "cry back" should be dismissed, and their places filled up with a new selection. By careful breeding for two years there will be a most useful profitable breeding stock established, and there is no doubt that even some good races may be secured. We have ample experience and proof of this in the good calves thrown by our worthless little black polled country cows, and it is on my experience of this fact that my recommendation is founded. For two-year-olds rising three, out of small cows, I have at Christmas got £40 from the butcher. Purity of blood in the male will be found highly to improve inferior races. A herd of breeding stock without the risk of haphazard will be secured at a moderate cost--one that will be profitable to the owner. The following remarks apply partly to a show-yard herd, and partly to one for commercial purposes. In the original selection, as I have already observed, the breeder must have in his eye the model he wishes to propagate. The animals selected should approach the desired type as nearly as can be obtained; and by careful and repeated selections the ideal may be reached. The selector must be well satisfied as to soundness of constitution, especially in laying the foundation of a show-yard herd. If male or female have hereditary defects of constitution, their progeny will inherit them. Show-yard stock, being pampered for exhibition, are more liable than the common stock of the country to be affected with hereditary diseases. Pedigree is of the most vital importance. We ought always to prefer a bull of high pedigree, with fair symmetry and quality, to another bull, though much superior in appearance, but of questionable pedigree. If the latter be turned to a herd superior in blood to himself, incalculable mischief may be done. Breeders have not given the subject the attention it deserves. I have paid dearly for my experience in the matter. But bulls, even from the purest herds, will not all produce stock alike. Some will give a majority of bull calves, others a majority of heifer calves; some will be famous for getting fine bulls, and others for getting fine heifers, while others produce little to boast of in the one or the other. No one can affirm that he has a first-class sire till he has been tested. If the result be satisfactory, money should be no temptation; he must not be sold. It must not be forgotten that the male has most influence in breeding; but without first-class females the descendants will not shine generally in the show-yard. Breeding for the show-yard must not be left to haphazard; nor is the breeder likely to be successful if pride and conceit be his besetting sins. Take the following by way of illustration: At perhaps a distant sale a fine cow is bought, or it may be at market. Attention to pedigree is ignored; the age is perhaps considered of no consequence. On her arrival she is examined and applauded by friends and neighbours. The inspection may cost the owner gallons of whisky; but she is to prove a mine of wealth. Great hopes are entertained of her progeny. The calf is expected to be first-class. After days of care and nights of dreams and anxious watchings, with unnecessary aid in calving, the calf at last sees the light of day. The owner is disgusted at the result. The cow yields little milk, either for the calf or the family. She is sent where she should have gone years before--to the butcher. The disappointed owner in future buys the cheapest animals that come to hand. If pedigree be ignored, and the sire be of doubtful antecedents, except in an accidental case, the progeny will be at the best of medium quality; but by ordinary precaution such loss may be avoided. Breeding in-and-in has some advantages and many advocates. It is a knotty point to touch upon. At the commencement I stated that my own experience led me to adopt a middle course; that experience has not been in favour of the system. By adhering to it I found that quality was maintained, and even improved; but size was reduced, and symptoms of delicacy of constitution were manifested. It may be pursued for a time, until the type is developed, but to continue for any length of time to breed _in_ and in, is not only against my experience, but, I believe, against nature. In looking over a herd of breeding cattle, I have often seen the owner or the cattle-keeper pointing out a cow that throws a good calf, and never threw a bad one, and at the same time telling you how great a milker she is. It would be difficult to buy such a cow too dear. Most of the above remarks may apply alike to the home farm of the proprietor, to the large and small farmer, and to the crofter with one cow. It is well known to breeders of cattle, and I believe of sheep, that there are particular races that are celebrated, and upon which you can calculate that they will never propagate an inferior animal. Specimens not so desirable will now and again appear, but the blood is there, and the divergence will not be great from the desired type. Again, there will be one race noted for producing celebrated males, and another for producing celebrated females. A bull may be introduced that is a great getter of bull calves, yet the change may not be to the advantage of the owner, as the female calves will not be bred of so high an order. Professor Thury, of Geneva, has written a very interesting paper on the law of the production of sexes. In a letter to me, dated 14th February 1864, he says: "There are, if the owner pleases, two periods of heating: the one the general period, which shows itself in the course of the year, following the seasons; the other, a particular period, which lasts in cows from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, and which reveals itself a certain number of times. It is this particular period, lasting from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, the commencement of which gives females, while its termination gives males. In order that we may obtain a certain result, we must not cause the same cow to be covered twice in succession at an interval too short, for the (generative) substance of the bull preserves itself for a time sufficiently long in the organs of the cow. In the experiments made in Switzerland we have taken the cow at the first certain signs of heating, for the purpose of obtaining heifers, and at the termination of the heating for the purpose of obtaining males. The result of these experiments is, that we do not yet know what is the relative length of time which gives females, and the time which gives males; this would form an interesting subject of examination. I am of opinion that various circumstances must be regarded as influencing the relative period, so as to alter the moment of (conception), and that the season must exercise considerable influence. I am of opinion that in such questions as that which forms the subject of my little work, we physiologists should learn much from men of practice and experience, such as you, who have afforded proofs of their knowledge. The best results will follow when the raisers and experimentalists direct their attention to the same object." I would here acknowledge the courtesy and kindness of Professor Thury in so readily responding to my inquiries. The experiments conducted in Switzerland were decisive in support of Professor Thury's theory. In a trial of twenty-eight cows, it proved correct in the whole number. In the selection of the male, you will have to consider the faulty or defective points in your cows with a view to correct them. As far as possible--pedigree being right--you ought to purchase the bull that is strong upon the points where your females are faulty. If this is not duly attended to, the defect or malformation may be aggravated. But although the bull selected possesses the excellence wanting in the cows, he ought, of course, not to be very deficient in other points, else the cure may be worse than the disease. If possible, he should be taken from a pasture not superior to your own. Docility of temper in male and female is indispensable. Inexpressible mischief may be done by the introduction of wild blood into the herd, for it is sure to be inherited. I have suffered seriously by this error. To be good behind the shoulder, good in the girth, and well down in the fore-rib, are the qualifications most difficult to attain. Lightness of the fore-rib shows a tendency to delicacy of constitution, and strength and soundness are most important to the success of the breeder. Depth of rib is more important in the male than in the female. Lightness of the fore-rib may be tolerated when milk is the object (and many great milkers are so characterised), but not where the production of beef is the object. Then you must study to combine quality with weight. Quality ought to be the first consideration, but we must never forget that all must come to lbs. at last. I have already given my opinion as to the shape and quality of a perfect breeding and feeding animal. I shall only here remark that it is indispensable in our cold climate that the animals should have a good coat of soft silky hair to defend them from the cold blasts of autumn, winter, and spring. The Rev. H. Berry, in his Essay on Breeding, remarks: "A person selecting a stock from which to breed, notwithstanding he has set up for himself a standard of perfection, will obtain them with qualifications of different descriptions, and in different degrees. In breeding from such he will exercise his judgment, and decide what are indispensable or desirable qualities, and will cross with animals with a view to establish them. This proceeding will be of the 'give-and-take' kind. He will submit to the introduction of a trifling defect, in order that he may profit by a great excellence; and between excellences perhaps somewhat incompatible he will decide on which is the greatest, and give it the preference. To a person commencing improvement, the best advice is to get as good a bull as he can; and if he be a good one of his kind, to use him indiscriminately with all his cows; and when by this proceeding, which ought to be persisted in, his stock has, with an occasional change of bull, become sufficiently stamped with desirable excellences, his selection of males should then be made, to eradicate defects which he thinks it desirable to get rid of. He will not fail to keep in view the necessity of _good blood_ in the bulls resorted to, for that will give the only assurance that they will transmit their own valuable properties to their offspring; but he must not depend on this alone, or he will soon run the risk of degeneracy." I agree generally with the above extract from Mr Berry's most valuable prize essay; but I must take exception to at once using even the best bull indiscriminately for a large and valuable herd of breeding cows. I hold that every bull must be tested, and when the result is found satisfactory, _then, and not till then_, use him indiscriminately for all your cows. My experience coincides with Mr Berry's where he says the wise breeder "will not fail to keep in view the necessity of good blood in the bulls resorted to, for that will give the only assurance that they will transmit their own valuable properties to their offspring; but he must not depend upon this alone, or he will soon run the risk of degeneracy." To keep up a breeding stock to a high point of excellence is very difficult. The breeder ought to be always buying and selling and incorporating different _strains_ together. There will be many blanks, but there will be a prize; and when you hit, and the incorporation proves a lasting benefit and is stamped on the original herd, it is a great prize you have won. I therefore agree with Mr Berry that we must not depend alone upon the good blood of the bull. Having done my best to explain how I think the foundation of a breeding stock should be laid, I shall now give my opinion and experience how the herd should be treated, and how it should be kept up. The cows, heifers, and bulls should be kept fresh, not fat, nor too lean. The calves should have a different treatment. All breeding cattle tied to the stall should be let out every day for two or three hours, or at least every second day, unless the weather be very wet or stormy. The finer the quality of the stock the less rich will be the food they require. It is only throwing away your means to give high-bred cows with calf, or heifers rising two years old, a full supply of turnips. A few to keep them fresh and healthy, and plenty of straw, is all they should be allowed. Bulls that are apt to accumulate fat should also be stinted, else they will soon be useless as stock-getters. After calving, the cows, to secure a flow of milk, should receive a full allowance of turnips, but the increase must be gradual, as the cow has been stinted, or ought to have been, before calving. Before calving, milk-fever, or dropping after calving, is to be guarded against. I have three or four cases with only one recovery. I now bleed and physic every cow two or three days before calving. I stint them in their food two or three weeks, and have never lost one where this practice was fully carried out. The lean cow is as apt to go down as the fat one. Some think warm weather is the cause. I believe it has nothing to do with it. The grass being generally luxuriant in warm weather, and many cows going off in milk-fever at that season, has led to this error. Milk-fever may, however, be produced by giving cold water immediately after calving, &c. Cows may be attacked immediately or in a few hours after calving; when four or five days have passed, the animal may be considered safe. There are different causes, no doubt; but bringing a cow from poor pasture and putting her on a rich and luxuriant one without stint, or from straw and giving her a full allowance of turnips up to the time of calving, are two of the greatest predisposing causes. As an example, I bought a cow in July off a poor pasture and put her on a rich one; as she was low-priced I did not use the necessary precautions: she went down in milk-fever. A respected old servant bought a fine polled cow. I was walking across the field with him, and we came upon his cow. It was in July, and the grass was very luxuriant. I asked if he had bled the cow, as she would calve immediately. He said, "No, I have not; and I never saw them bled except at Tillyfour." To my sorrow and to the man's heavy loss the cow died of milk-fever. Milk-fever is thought by many to be incurable. Mr Sorely, veterinary surgeon, late of Alford, has been most successful in its treatment; and if the cows are not very far gone before he is called, he generally effects a cure. I would recommend those not acquainted with the treatment of this dreadful calamity to communicate with him. The symptoms are known by the cow getting restless, lifting her legs and setting them down again, a wild appearance, and attempting to poke her keeper: then succeeds a quick motion in the flank; she begins to stagger, falls, but recovers herself again. This is repeated several times, till she is at length no longer able to rise. Her head will be turned to one side; she loses the sense of feeling, and although pricked with a sharp instrument gives no sign of pain; and if not relieved, death closes the scene. If the sense of feeling returns, it is the first sign of recovery. The moment that milk-fever is observed the veterinary surgeon should be called in. There is little risk with a heifer with her first calf, and I never bleed or physic a heifer in calf, because she has not attained her growth. In her case "the additional nutriment goes to increase of size, instead of becoming the foundation of disease." Red-water is also a very fatal complaint among cows. They generally take it about the thirteenth or fourteenth day after calving. Many farms are almost exempt from this disease. It is very fatal, but if taken in time it can generally be cured; heavy losses are, however, experienced every year by it. I have only had two or three cases of red-water, and I do not therefore enlarge upon it. My observation has led me to believe that the theory of the late Mr Peter Smith, veterinary surgeon, Alford (who gained the Highland Society's prize for the best essay on red-water in cows), is correct, that the disease is generally most prevalent on farms where the land is black and of a moorish tendency. The veterinary surgeon should be called in _instanter_. Garget in the udder, or weed, is also to be guarded against. After calving, some cracks and sores appear in the udder; they get very troublesome. The teats must be drawn and clean milked out; blood will sometimes appear with the milk; the cow must be secured, if necessary, to effect this. The udder should be bathed with warm water, and well rubbed over with hog's lard, and to this treatment the complaint will generally yield. The too hastily drying the cow, and frequent carelessness in not milking clean out, are the general causes of this complaint. It may, however, assume a more serious aspect; the milk gets coagulated in the udder, and the result will be the loss for yielding milk of one, two, or more of the quarters of the udder, if the proper remedies are not instantly adopted. Mortification sometimes ensues; diseased portions will break off from the udder, and it may end in the death of the animal. Putting the calf to suckle the cow will be useful in effecting a cure; but often the teats become so painful that the cow will not allow the calf to approach her. I cannot impress too strongly on the breeder that, as soon as symptoms of garget are observed, the cow must be firmly secured and the teats properly drawn three or four times a-day. If this is neglected or inefficiently performed, the result is scarcely doubtful. Very often there will be only matter to draw, but it must be withdrawn from time to time as it collects. The teaching of experience is costly in such a case; and here the care of honest, intelligent servants is invaluable. When the calves are taken from their dams there is the greatest danger of garget, and this is always an anxious time with the breeder. The cows must be allowed to go gradually off their milk, the greatest care being taken to draw the teats once a-day when necessary. The food must be restricted till the milk disappear; and as some cows that have been suckled will not allow their teats to be drawn by the hand, the calves must be put to them once a-day till the milk cease. _The proper age for breeding._--The proper age for breeding may depend upon circumstances, breed, &c.; but, dealing as we are with the Aberdeen and Angus, I would say that heifers should never be put to the bull before they are two years old. There is, no doubt, some force in the argument that by breeding earlier keep is saved; but the answer to this is that growth is diminished, while calving is attended with danger. I had six heifers bulled when they were one year old. They had all difficulty in calving; three of them required assistance, and were very much torn and lacerated before the calves could be extracted, and the mothers have never attained the size of the other cows in the herd. Nor has the argument much force with me that the one-year-old is surer to stand to the bull than the two-year-old. I maintain that we have this very much in our own power, and that the two-year-old, with proper treatment, and at little cost, is as sure to stand to the bull as the one-year-old, while she will attain to a larger size. The treatment I adopt with yearling heifers intended for breeding purposes is the following--and I have seldom or never failed in getting them in calf: They are not starved to interfere with their growth, but through the summer, when rising two years old, they are kept on the very worst grass on the farm, and on the refuse of the grass rejected by the other cattle, which are removed to fresh pastures. In winter and spring, up to the time of serving with the bull, they get an average barrowful of turnips amongst every three, and no more. By this treatment the heifers will just be fresh, and will stand to the bull as readily as yearlings. I grant that if you were to put them on luxuriant pasture, and give them full allowance of turnips through the winter and spring, they would be fit for the butcher, and not for the bull. The advantages more than counterbalance the disadvantages. Their parts will be strong and open, and they will calve with safety; while, on the other hand, the calving of those served at a year old will always be attended with difficulty; the parts will often be injured and lacerated, and mortification of the womb and the death of the animal may follow. I need not tell my readers that the bull should not be allowed to go with the breeding cows or heifers, as the almost universal practice now is to keep them separate. The advantages of this must be manifest to every one. The symptoms of coition are so well known, that I shall not enlarge upon them; but if cows are confined to the house, there are some shy animals that require the greatest attention to detect them, while the majority are easily observed by their lowing and agitated appearance. In the former case the animal will not blare, neither will there be much difference in her general appearance; but her external parts will be red, and a transparent liquor will be discharged from the vagina. Let her be put out with another, which will prove her at once. In some seasons, although the cows and heifers are in a breeding state, it is, even with the best management, difficult to get them in calf. This becomes a source of great annoyance and loss to the breeder. A cow should never be allowed the bull sooner than five or six weeks after calving; to do otherwise will prove a failure, and will be detrimental to the animal. If a cow or heifer should miss to stand to the bull before the end of May, and the weather get warm, it is difficult to get them in calf; they may run on for months every two or three weeks. Many a good breeding animal has been lost in this way, and gone to the butcher, their owner having despaired of getting them in calf; whereas, if he had had patience until September or October, when the cold weather sets in, in all likelihood they would have been got in calf. I had three cows out of four, that had run on the whole summer, got in calf in one day. An early spring calf is preferable to a late one, and most desirable; but my doctrine is, that a good calf never can come wrong. It is trying to the breeder to see his fine cows running on, but we must not despair; we must not lose a chance, for we will generally catch them, and sometimes when we least expect it. When a cow assumes the appearance of what we term a regular buller--when she is running every day, or every second or third day, or when one or more retire from the herd and assume the habits of the male--then, and not till then, does the case become utterly hopeless. I had two fine cows I was obliged to quit; they assumed the habits of the male, absented themselves from the rest of the herd, went through the field lowing, roaring, and pawing the ground with their feet, their lowing being that of the male and not of the female, and their shapes and looks were completely changed. Some friends, in whose opinion I have confidence, think this disease hereditary. I would recommend, when cows and heifers are not standing to the bull, to give a dose or two of medicine. A change of the bull may succeed; and leading the cow or heifer six miles out and six miles in, when coming in heat, will sometimes be effectual. I was led to this practice by observing that cows or heifers that had run on the whole season up to the time of exhibition, when put to the bull on their arrival from the show, were got in calf at once. I naturally concluded that the exercise which they had undergone was the cure. I adopted the principle, and have succeeded in several cases, though not in all; and I know of some other breeders who have also been successful. A cow goes nine months with young, generally ten or fourteen days longer. I have known one go twenty-seven days past her time. They generally go longer with a bull calf than a heifer. It is almost a sure sign that all will be right if the cow go past her time; when matters are wrong the birth is generally premature. Slinking is one of the greatest pests to which a breeder is subjected. The symptoms are as follows: a yellow mixed with red, glairy, offensive fluid will be observed running from the vagina, a flow of milk to the udder, and a loosening of the couplings behind; in a day or two premature labour follows. No time is to be lost on these symptoms being observed. The cow should be immediately removed to a separate apartment, and kept by herself for two or three weeks. If the premature birth should take place before the cow is removed, the foetus and after-birth must be instantly buried, and not only the stall where the cow was standing, but the whole of the byre should be thoroughly washed over with hot lime, or chloride of lime. It is well known that if one cow abort, others are apt to follow. I recollect that almost every cow out of forty, belonging to the late James Walker, Wester Fintray, aborted. One half were polled, the other shorthorns. When a cow is with calf she has strong sympathetic feelings. The foetus and after-birth from a cow that has slinked are very offensive, and if left within reach, the other cows will sniff at it, and bellow around it; and in a short time more of the cows will abort. Many reasons have been given as the cause of abortion; from my own observations, frosty turnips are one great cause, and I never allow my cows to get these. If I happen to run short of fresh turnips from the store, and frosty weather continue, I order the cows straw and water, and perhaps a little cake or corn at the same time. I have paid dearly for this experience also. I believe hove to be another cause of abortion; and that particular atmospheric conditions have a good deal to do with it. The skilful veterinary surgeon should be consulted; he will probably recommend physic to cool the system, the foetus and placenta to be buried, the animal separated, and the cow-house disinfected. The cow should be fattened and sold, unless she be a very valuable breeding animal, as the chances are that she will slink again. I have indeed seen a cow, after slinking, breed regularly for many years; but the sure way is to get quit of her to the butcher, if she is not a valuable breeding animal. I have explained, under the head of Milk-Fever, the treatment previous to calving; I shall add that a cow ought to be let dry six weeks at least before calving. It is well known that a cow that is milked up to the time of calving proves very deficient as a milker for the season, even although she had formerly been a good one. It prevents improvement of condition; and from a very lean cow there is not much to be expected. As to natural labour a very few remarks will suffice. The cow should be disturbed as little as possible, and no assistance rendered where it is not necessary. When the water-bag comes away, the hand should be introduced to ascertain whether the calf is coming the right way; its fore-legs protruding to the passage, and its head lying upon them or a little between them, is the natural position when all is right. We must have patience, and, if possible, allow nature to effect its object; but if six or eight hours shall have passed, assistance must be given. In my practice I have observed that when the water-bag comes away in the early stages the labour is protracted. I have seen many tail-presentations, but I have found them easily dealt with by pushing back the hind-quarters and getting hold of the feet; pushing backwards, forwards, and upwards the hind-legs, and bringing them to the level of the passage, the calf will be easily extracted. In unnatural labour the veterinary surgeon should be immediately called in. Skellet 'On the Parturition of the Cow' is the most valuable authority I am acquainted with on unnatural labour, but I fear it is out of print. A word here as to free-martins. When a cow produces two calves, the one a male and the other a female, the female is called a free-martin. The almost universal belief is, that the free-martin will not breed; and generally this holds good. I have had, however, in my practice two free-martins that have bred. One of them proved one of the most useful animals and best breeders in the herd, and produced some of my finest females; but her own appearance lacked that female style which shows itself in a high-bred herd. And here I may remark that those who act as judges at our cattle-shows, if they are judging males, ought to judge them as males and not as females; and if they are judging females, they ought to judge them as females and not as males. Some may understand what I mean. As I consider it one of the most important qualifications in a judge to have the discernment I refer to, and as many are appointed judges, even at our national shows, _who never should have been appointed, and many act who never should act_, it ought to be put out of all doubt. As an example, when a bull shows the head of a female and a want of masculine character, he should be rejected. Masculine character in the bull is of the greatest importance to the success of the breeder--effeminacy in the male must be shunned as the most deadly poison. On the other hand, let that female be rejected by the judge in the show-yard, and by the breeder in his selection, that looks as much like a male as a female. However long she may have been kept up for show-yard purposes, or whatever enormous quantity of beef she may have put on, if she have the head of the ox (I do not say of the bull, because I have never seen a female so characterised) she must be put aside, unless very superior in other respects. Such animals will seldom pass muster with the first-class judge, but _even he must be upon his guard_. I have often seen great blunders committed, especially with heifers, the owner of which may, for the sake of winning the prize, have fed them for years without hope of propagation. I have seen them carry the prize to the exclusion of the really useful breeding animal, and when the show was over they were sold to the butcher. I would not propose any rule to be laid down to exclude animals from our exhibitions on account of their condition, because the proper amount of flesh can never be satisfactorily settled; nor can it be definitely fixed when an animal should be excluded as being too fat for breeding. The experiment was tried at some of our national shows, but utterly failed, as the jury could not agree. The rules of the Highland Society are good so far as they go--viz., that unless the owner of cows that have not had a calf in the year of the exhibition, and of the two-year-old heifers that have been awarded prizes, can certify that the animals have had a calf--the cows in four months and the heifers in nine after the exhibition--the money prize will be withheld. But this does not cover the difficulty, as the prize-money is of secondary importance to the majority of exhibitors--being first on the prize-list is their main ambition; but, I believe, it is all that rules can reach. The only safeguard lies with the council and the directors--and the strong moral force of the exhibitors ought to be brought to bear upon them--of our national and local cattle-shows. They ought to appoint no one, however highly connected, unless he is _acknowledged a judge by the exhibitors of the class of stock to which he is appointed_. If the right man be put in the right place, there will seldom be cause to complain of overfed useless breeding animals gaining the prizes; but if ignorant forward men are appointed, you are certain to see the fattest animals at the top of the prize-list. At one of our great shows the same judges were appointed for cattle and sheep;--they were unexceptional judges of cattle, but knew very little about breeding-sheep. There were two pens of breeding-ewes in competition: one of the pens was from a first-class stock of sheep, but from hill pasture; the other was from a jobber, who had selected them from the common sheep in the country, but had grazed them with the cows on the farm, and they were in high condition--they wanted style and breeding. The judges were hesitating as to which of the pens the prize should be awarded to, when one of them exclaimed, "Stop, stop; let me in o'er till I handle them!"--an Aberdeen man likes something that will handle, whether ox or sheep. He went, and after he had performed the handling proof, which required little time and less skill, "Ah!" he exclaimed, pointing to the fat ewes, "that's the sheep!" and the ticket was fixed accordingly. This anecdote was related to me by the owner of the fat ewes, who was present. No butcher, except he be well acquainted with the treatment of a breeding stock, ought to be a judge of breeding animals. With fat stock one of the judges ought always to be a first-class butcher. In natural labour the after-birth generally comes away soon after calving. Many remove it immediately; this, however, should never be allowed, as the cow will chew it greedily, and it acts as physic to her. If the after-birth should be retained, as it generally is in cases of premature labour, this need cause little alarm to the owner. I have never seen any danger from allowing it to remain, and I prefer letting it alone, as it will rot away of itself, to the danger of tearing it away; but the cow should be removed from the others. I believe the opinion to be erroneous that there is danger from the after-birth being retained for any moderate length of time; but the womb itself will sometimes follow the calf, and this requires prompt treatment. I have known of its being successfully returned without the aid of the veterinary surgeon, but this should never be attempted by an unpractised hand if you can command the surgeon's attendance. It is a very common occurrence that two or three months before calving the vagina protrudes when the cow is lying: when this occurs she should be kept well up behind, else it may bring on premature calving. When the cow calves the danger is over. If the calf is to be milked from the hand it should be taken from the cow as soon as it is dropt, and before the mother sees it; if allowed to remain with the cow for some time and then removed, it will be a cause of great irritation to the mother and very prejudicial to her milking. When it is to be suckled, the calf should be left quietly with the cow: and by licking the calf and eating the placenta the cow will be settled, the calf will get to its legs, and all may be expected to be right. A warm drink should be given--cold water must be avoided--and the cow made comfortable. She should be milked out after first suckling, and this will require to be repeated two or three times a-day for a few weeks, until the calf is able, and can with safety be allowed, to take all the milk. In a day or two after the calf is dropt it ought to be muzzled, and allowed a limited time to suckle the mother three times a-day. It must not be allowed a full allowance for the first fourteen days after birth. A confidential servant must remove the muzzle, stand beside the calf until it has taken a safe allowance, and then return the muzzle. When the calf has got the cud, which will be observed about fourteen days after its birth, it will then be safe to remove the muzzle. I muzzle all my calves, to prevent them from eating straw, hair, &c, which they cannot digest, and which accumulate in the stomach and prove the death of the animal. Many thousand calves are lost in this way, the owner never suspecting the cause. If the calf is opened up after death, there will be found in the stomach a large, firm, round ball composed of straw, hair, and other substances, with knots of curdled milk conjoined. After the calf has got the cud, and is fourteen days old, it may be allowed to suck at pleasure. It must be seen, however, that the calf has ability to clean out the udder of the cow; if part of the milk is retained, the cow must be milked by the hand. Plenty of good milk is the proper foundation to make a good animal; if stinted when a calf, a year's growth is lost. Selling a great deal of butter and rearing a good bullock are incompatible. Many good calves are milked from the pail, and they thrive better after they are weaned; but it will generally be found that the sure way to make first-class calves is to allow them to suckle. There will be many drawbacks at the expense of the calf if it is brought up from the pail; drafts will be required by the housekeeper for milk, butter, and cheese for the family, which cannot be made if the calf is suckled by the mother in the field. The plan adopted by some of giving skimmed milk to the calf cannot be too much reprobated; and to give old milk to a new-dropt calf is perfectly preposterous: it is unnatural, and will probably prove the death of the calf. The calf should be allowed to suckle or be fed from the pail for six or eight months. It has then strength to stand weaning, and, if properly cared for, will not be checked in its growth, and it will retain the good calf-flesh it has put on. The loss of the calf-flesh cannot be remedied, and great care should be taken to avoid this. If the calf-flesh is lost the animal will be reduced in value, and can never be made to yield first-class meat. Great care, therefore, must be taken by the breeder when his calves are weaned. To guard against Black-leg, the calves should be immediately corded in the dewlap,[8] and receive, along with other nourishing food, each 1-1/2 lb. of oilcake a-day. This treatment is absolutely necessary during their first winter. The open strawyard for calves is of great importance. If they are kept regularly growing on, black-leg will be prevented. While proper treatment is adopted, there will be little to fear from that dreadful scourge. [8] I have been accused of cruelty for cording the dewlaps of my calves. The pain must be of short duration, as it is done by a sharp instrument in a moment. I have never lost more than two of my breeding stock from Quarter-ill. There is no question that the cause of this dreadful malady is sudden transition from a restricted diet to a full and nutritious one, from a poor pasture to a rich and luxuriant one, or from a poor pasture in autumn to a full allowance of turnips; the increase of blood on the system is so great that the constitution cannot stand it. I have seen almost every calf on several large farms carried off by black-leg. There is no secret as to its prevention. Keep the young calf gradually growing, never let him want; give 1 to 2 lb. of oilcake a-day; and keep up the irritation by cords with a good hold of the dewlap. After the first winter, black-leg is little to be feared. I have had a case or two in two or three year olds, but it is very uncommon. Prevention is the only safeguard, for I have never seen black-leg cured. To some 1 to 2 lb. of oilcake a-day may look an expense that the calves cannot repay; but if any of my friends will divide a lot of their calves, and give the one lot turnips and straw, and the other turnips, straw, and 1 to 2 lb. of oilcake daily to each calf, if they are dissatisfied with the result on the 1st of May I shall pay the balance. I shall not enter upon the point of the great additional value of the manure, but leave that to the chemist. I allow my calves to suckle till October, and the late ones two or three months longer. Butter and even corn are but secondary to our cattle, and in these days of progression we must advance with the times or go down. As to Navel-ill, much has been written on the deadliness of the complaint. I have never had any loss from it. Diarrhoea is a very common complaint with calves, and I have lost one or two by it, but, I believe, owing to carelessness. It will generally yield to a dose or two of castor-oil. The Knee-ill is more to be dreaded. The complaint is worse some seasons than others, and some, under the best treatment, will die. The calf gets down and is unable to rise; on examination it will be found that one or both, generally of the fore-legs, are very much swollen at the joints; the calf is very much pained, especially if moved, and the disease acts very much like rheumatic fever on the human body. I cannot assign any cause for this disease, as I have seen calves seized with it that were kept warm and comfortable. In some cases it may be attributed to some particular atmospheric influence. It is very difficult to remove. The calf will be down for weeks, and in some cases they never get up. Very little can be done for them, and any treatment I have seen adopted is of small value. Rubbing turpentine daily into the swollen joints is useful, but attention to the general health is of the greatest consequence--such as counteracting costiveness in the bowels, &c. I have seen splints of wood introduced, and also tying out the leg with bandages; but I have no great faith in any such treatment. Rubbing daily with turpentine, and attention to the general health, is all I can recommend. Costiveness of the bowels, if not counteracted, may end in serious consequences. I had a case of a calf that got very costive--so bad that it moaned dreadfully from pain. I lost all hope of saving it. I thought of injections, and had them administered repeatedly for hours; to my astonishment the calf recovered and did well. Castor-oil is the safest medicine for calves. Let me here record an observation for which I am indebted to Mr Sorely, late veterinary surgeon, Alford. (While I have seen some with as good hands as Mr Sorely, I have never had the fortune to meet another with as clear a head.) The first question he asks when told that a calf is ailing, is, "How old is it?" If the calf is very young, and violently ill of any complaint, the great chance is, that it will not recover; whereas, if it be three weeks, and, still more, two or three months old, the probability is that it will. As to the castration of calves, it is such a simple process that it is unnecessary to say much on the subject. The only thing I would recommend is, that the breeder, if he does not castrate his calves himself, should not allow the operator to cut away any part of the purse, as it should be recollected a good purse in the London market will be the next criterion to the butcher after the flank, and a good purse is always worth £1 to a bullock in London. If the purse should get much swelled after castration, warm fomentations should be applied two or three times a-day, or even a poultice if the case be very bad. If there is an accumulation of pus, it may be necessary to puncture the purse, and the animal will soon be relieved. Rheumatism, I have no doubt, is hereditary. I have seen it in the fourth generation; little, if anything, can be done for it. At certain seasons of the year it will appear, and wear off again. Howk is perhaps the complaint to which my cattle are most liable. I have repeated cases of it every year. The animal is observed to be stiff and staring in his coat, eats little, and, as the disease advances, retires from the rest of herd. When taken up, his skin along the back will be found adhering to the flesh, and if pressed on the spine he will nearly crouch to the ground. If a hold is taken of the skin--which is very difficult to accomplish--and it is lifted from the flesh, when let go it will give a crack similar to the sound that follows when you give a knock to the common corn-basket. This is a never-failing symptom. I treat the complaint very successfully with doses of salts and sulphur. If the animal is taken up in the early stages of the disease, the skin may only be adhering to a part behind the shoulder-blade; but in a day or two the adhesion will be found to extend along the whole of the spine; or, _vice versa_, it may begin across the kidneys and go forward to the shoulder-blade. I regard indigestion as the cause, and some cattle take it in particular fields worse than others. Diseases of the tongue are rare: I have had some half-dozen cases. A cure is utterly hopeless, and the animal should be sent to the butcher without delay. When examined, the root of the tongue, or one side of it, will be found very much inflamed, and warts will also generally be observed. The animal will be found frothing at the mouth in the field; and if in the stall, a great deal of frothy matter will be seen before him. I never knew one recover, and I have attempted all sorts of treatment. Foul in the foot is very serious when it gets into a lot of heavy feeding cattle in winter; the loss it entails is sometimes very heavy. It assumes several phases. If there be but a crack between the claws without swelling, it is easily managed. The old plan of taking a hair-rope and drawing it several times through is very good practice, and with a little caustic applied, a cure is soon effected. There is another form of the disease more difficult to treat: there is the great swelling between the claws; it becomes a hard substance and very painful; the animal gets feverish and is scarcely able to rise, and if got up holds out the afflicted leg. He is off his food, and sinks rapidly in condition; and the pain is excruciating. I apply a succession of poultices, and when the lump breaks the danger is over: tow and tar are then applied to the sore, a cotton bandage put on between the claws of sufficient length to secure the application, and the ends made fast by a woollen garter cut from an old stocking. If the disease is neglected the consequences may be fatal; it is worst in winter when cattle are at the feeding-stall. I regard it as infectious. If it get into a byre of weighty fat cattle the loss will be heavy. I have seen a bullock drop in value £3, £4, or even £5; and several animals lost by carelessness. I had a bullock out upon turnips, which had been neglected, and was pronounced by my veterinary surgeon incurable. As to Foot-and-mouth disease, it is a light matter among stirks and lean cattle--they will be little if any the worse of it; but it is very serious amongst heavy feeding cattle and milch cows. If fat cattle are attacked, they should have their turnips sliced, with crushed oilcake and meal. There is no treatment of any avail in the fever stages. When the fever is gone, there will be a beast or two out of a lot whose feet will require attention. The horn of the hoof gets loosened from the flesh. The animal may require to be thrown and the dead horn cut away. It must be remembered that it will never attach itself again. The veterinary surgeon should generally perform the operation, unless the owner is skilful himself. Cows require great attention. The disease seats itself in their udders, and unless they are most carefully milked out they may be rendered useless as milkers--losing one, two, or even all the quarters of the udder. The foot-and-mouth disease is very infectious. I recollect having carried it home from a neighbouring farm, by merely handling a bull which was down with the disease. I came straight home and handled the first beast opposite the door in one of my own byres; in three days he was seized with the complaint; and in two or three days thereafter nearly every beast through the steading was down with it. Out of forty fat cattle thirty-eight had it, only two escaping. Upon inquiry I found that one of them had had it before. I lost from £4 to £5 of condition on an average off every one of the thirty-eight. From the same farm and at the same time a veterinary surgeon had been called in. He went straight to another farm six miles distant, and in a few days every animal there was seized with the same complaint. It is the general belief that an animal will not take the foot-and-mouth disease twice. This is a mistake. I have a cow that took it twice, but there were seven years between the attacks. I have had the Lung disease on two farms; all known treatment is unsatisfactory. I believe, if the attack be violent, no treatment will save the animal. It is sometimes difficult to know it at first. There will generally be a cough, but it is not the clear cough of the animal in health. It is compressed, and the animal coughs unwillingly and with evident pain. The particular cough cannot be mistaken, and the grunt is a never-failing symptom. There is generally one lung more affected than the other. The ear being applied to the chest will discover the impeded circulation. Many cattle take the disease so slightly that it is never discovered. Some have little if any cough, and the pile continues soft and healthy. I recollect a milking cow which I was suspicious had the disease. I made her be run out; there was no acceleration of breathing; her coat was fine, and there was no diminution of the milk; but she gave a grunt which confirmed me in my opinion that she had had a slight touch of the complaint. The grieve, a most intelligent man, was satisfied that the cow was healthy. I fattened her, and for my own information had her slaughtered at home. It was three months after, and the _post-mortem_ examination showed one of the lungs, to the extent of about the size of a crown-piece, adhering to the ribs--a sufficient proof that my conjecture was correct. Many take the disease that are never suspected. I had a bullock showing some symptoms of the disease in a byre amongst ten. The others were, to all appearance, in perfect health. I sent them immediately to London. My salesman was instructed to inspect the carcasses after they were slaughtered, and to report. He did so carefully, and there was not one of the number but had their lungs more or less affected. Mr Collie, Ardgay, Morayshire, had a byre of cattle slaughtered under the same circumstances, and with the very same result. Pleuro-pneumonia is not so infectious as foot-and-mouth disease, but if it get into a farm-steading it is most difficult to get clear of. I have known cattle infected in three days. I had bought a lot of cattle from a farm in Morayshire where the disease has never been up to this hour. It was in the month of April. There were two or three of the lot that I did not think profitable to graze. I tied them in a byre where infected cattle had stood. They were only to be kept a week or two, and I had no idea of danger. One of them took the disease very badly in three days after he was tied up. I have known it lie dormant in the system (as to any visible appearance) for three months and a half. I found the general period of incubation from five to six weeks. I have taken the greatest pains with the byres where the infected cattle stood, having the wood-work taken out, the roofs and greeps carefully scraped and washed with soap and warm water, lime-water, and afterwards with chloride of lime; and yet, after all this labour, I have seen the disease break out again and again. After repeated outbreaks, I not only removed the wood-work, but the whole of the stones in the stalls and greeps, and buried them. I had the roofs and stone mangers, &c., carefully scraped, and washed with soap and warm water, and afterwards with chloride of lime. They were then closely painted, and lastly coal-tarred; but it was only after five or six months' perseverance that I got clear of it. Having heard a report that a cow belonging to my cousin, Mr M'Combie, editor of the 'Free Press,' was labouring under pleuro-pneumonia, I went to see her. Mr Sorely, veterinary surgeon, was in attendance. As there had been no disease in the neighbourhood for five years, I was unwilling to credit the report. But a more marked case I have never witnessed; and the _post-mortem_ examination showed all the symptoms of the fell disease. Mr Sorely, Mr M'Combie's overseer, and I, all agreed that as a wood dividing-partition had been allowed to remain since the time of the previous infection, and the cow was seen chewing pieces of the wood that had got rotted at the base, the wood had retained the poison, and the cow had been infected from the chewing of it. The breath is the cause of the infection when cattle are housed together and the disease introduced. It generally attacks the animals standing at the walls first. The breath is driven by different currents through the building to the walls, where it is stopped; it rebounds, and hence the beasts at the walls generally fall the first victims--so, at least, I have found it in my experience. I had forty beasts divided by a stone-and-lime mid-wall to the level of the side-walls; up to the roof there was a strong and close division of wood. Unfortunately there had been a small aperture about two feet square left open. I made an observation to the cattleman that I should not be at all surprised if the disease came from the infected byre through the opening to the byre where the cattle were sound. The first or second day thereafter the animal standing below the aperture was seized, and got down in the disease. In treatment I have no confidence, having tried everything that could be tried and completely failed. I would, however, recommend that neither hay nor straw be given to animals labouring under the disease. I lost a valuable bull, after he was recovering, from this cause. He was allowed to eat too freely of hay, which he could not masticate; and when opened after death, an ordinary bucketful of hay was found in his stomach, as dry as when it was eaten. I have come to the conclusion that no animal should be allowed hay or straw while unable properly to masticate its food. It is well ascertained that when the poison is lying dormant in an animal, it will infect the other cattle before it is visible in itself. As a confirmation of this fact, I had a sale of breeding stock after the Dumfries show, on Thursday, 30th August 1860. The cattle seemed to be in perfect health on the day of the sale; about three-fourths of them were removed on Friday. The day following--viz., Saturday--a cow was taken ill. I entertained fears that it might turn out pleuro-pneumonia; and circulars were sent to the parties who had removed their cattle. The buyers isolated the cattle bought at the sale from their own stock. Two of the beasts that had been removed died, other two took the complaint and recovered; but fortunately it did not spread amongst the buyers other stock. The cow first taken ill recovered, and another that was left over took the disease and recovered. But, further, a bull was withdrawn from the sale and sent home to Tillyfour from Dorsell the night of the sale, to all appearance in perfect health, though he afterwards died of the disease. He was watered at a watering-place on the roadside, where a crofter's cattle watered daily. The crofter's cattle went down in the disease, and one of them died. Many were the weary days and restless nights I endured when the disease got fairly developed through two of my largest steadings. It is in such cases that the value of a clear-headed veterinary surgeon is appreciated. I would not be well away from one steading, when a messenger would meet me with intelligence of some disaster at the other. I had many beasts being fed on other farms as well as those on my own--not fewer than 400 one way or other. I have said how much I am indebted in such emergencies to the advice and counsel of a clear-headed veterinary surgeon. The disease was in the midst of my breeding stock, and two or three had succumbed to it. Mr Sorely and I were brooding over this state of matters, when I asked him whether he could do anything to save the herd. He said, "I will think over it till to-morrow." He came on the morrow, and seven successive evenings, and administered to each animal a drench, and he would trust no one but himself to do it. I believe there were three changes of medicine; not one animal which got the medicine took the disease, although they had been standing in the midst of it. There was one worthless old milk cow amongst the others, that I did not think worth the trouble of giving the medicine to; she took the disease, and was fed with gruel for fourteen days, and recovered, while the others continued in perfect health. I have related the diseases that are of a local character, as they have come under my own notice, without any desire to set myself up as an authority. 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22771	----	(This file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) Transcriber's Note: The spelling in this text has been preserved as in the original. Obvious printer's errors have been corrected. A list of the corrections can be found at the end of this e-text. * * * * * CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES EMBRACING THEIR HISTORY AND BREEDS, CROSSING AND BREEDING, AND FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT; WITH THE DISEASES TO WHICH THEY ARE SUBJECT, AND THE REMEDIES BEST ADAPTED TO THEIR CURE. TO WHICH IS ADDED A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE. BY ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S., PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND OPERATIVE SURGERY IN THE VETERINARY COLLEGE OF PHILADELPHIA; LATE PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF OHIO; SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY ASSOCIATION OF PHILADELPHIA; AUTHOR OF "THE HORSE AND HIS DISEASES," ETC., ETC. [Illustration: With Numerous Illustrations.] PHILADELPHIA: John E. Potter and Company, 617 Sansom Street. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by JOHN E. POTTER, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. PREFACE. A marked interest has of late years been manifested in our country relative to the subject of breeding and rearing domestic cattle. This has not been confined to the dairyman alone. The greater portion of intelligent agriculturists have perceived the necessity of paying more attention than was formerly devoted to the improvement and perfection of breeds for the uses of the table as well. In this respect, European cattle-raisers have long taken the precedence of our own. The gratifying favor with which the author's former publication, "The Horse and his Diseases," has been received by the public, has induced him to believe that a work, similar in spirit and general treatment, upon Cattle, would not be without interest for the agricultural community. In this belief, the present treatise has been prepared. The author has availed himself of the labors of others in this connection; never, however, adopting results and conclusions, no matter how strongly endorsed, which have been contradicted by his own observation and experience. In a field like the one in question, assuredly, if anywhere, some degree of independent judgment will not be censured by those who are familiar with the sad consequences resulting from the attempted application of theories now universally exploded, but which in the day and generation of their originators were sanctioned and advocated by those who claimed to be magnates in this department. To the following works, especially, the author acknowledges himself indebted: American Farmer's Encyclopædia; Stephens's Book of the Farm; Flint's Milch-Cows and Dairy Farming; Laurence on Cattle; Allen's Domestic Animals; Youatt and Martin on Cattle; Thomson's Food of Animals; Allen's Rural Architecture; Colman's Practical Agriculture and Rural Economy; Goodale's Breeding of Domestic Animals; and Prof. Gamgee's valuable contributions to veterinary science. Particular attention is requested to the division of "Diseases." Under this head, as in his former work, the author has endeavored to detail the symptoms of the most common ailments of cattle in such a manner that every farmer and cattle-owner can at once understand them, and also to suggest such procurable remedies as a wide experience has proved to be most efficacious. A generous space has been devoted to the consideration of that fatal epidemic, now generally known as "Pleuro-Pneumonia," as it has manifested itself in Europe and this country, in the belief that a matter of such vital importance to the stock-raiser ought to receive a complete exposition in a work like the present. As the author's personal experience in connection with the treatment of this peculiar disease has been, perhaps, as large and varied as that of any American practitioner, he is not without the hope that his views upon the matter may prove productive of some benefit to others. Should the present volume prove as acceptable to those interested as did his former work, the author will be abundantly satisfied that he has not mistaken in this instance the wants of the public. CONTENTS. HISTORY AND BREEDS OF CATTLE, 13 THE BRITISH OX, 15 AMERICAN CATTLE, 21 The Ayrshire, 23 The Jersey, 30 The Short-Horns, 32 The Dutch, 36 The Hereford, 38 The North-Devon, 41 Native Cattle, 43 NATURAL HISTORY OF CATTLE, 50 Gestation, 51 Formation of Teeth, 51 Points of a Good Cow, 57 THE MILK-MIRROR, 61 CROSSING AND BREEDING, 77 PREGNANCY, 92 TREATMENT BEFORE CALVING, 93 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT, 97 SOILING, 118 CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER, 122 THE BARN, 146 MILKING, 155 RAISING OF CALVES, 168 POINTS OF FAT CATTLE, 183 DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING, 188 DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES, 205 Abortion, 206 Apoplexy, 215 Black-Water, 215 Bronchitis, 216 Consumption, 217 Coryza, 217 Cow-pox, 218 Diarrhoea, 219 Dysentery, 220 Enteritis, 222 Epizoötics, 224 Epizoötic Catarrh, 234 Fardel, 236 Foul in the Foot, 237 Garget, 237 Gastro-enteritis, 238 Hoose, 238 Hoove, 239 Hydatids, 240 Inflammation of the Bladder, 241 Inflammation of the Haw, 241 Inflammation of the Kidneys, 242 Inflammation of the Liver, 242 Laryngitis, 243 Lice, 244 Mange, 244 Murrain, 246 Navel-ill, 247 Obstructions in the Oesophagus, 247 Open Joints, 248 Parturition, 248 Free Martins, 251 Cleansing, 253 Inversion of the Uterus, 253 Phrenitis, 254 Pleurisy, 255 Pleuro-pneumonia, 256 Pneumonia, 300 Protrusion of the Bladder, 302 Puerperal Fever, 302 Quarter Evil, 303 Rabies, 304 Red Water, 305 Rheumatism, 307 Strangulation of the Intestines, 308 Thrush in the Mouth, 308 Tumors, 308 Ulcers about the Joints, 312 Warbles, 313 Worms, 315 Worms in the Bronchial Tubes, 316 SURGICAL OPERATIONS, 316 Castration, 316 Tracheotomy, 319 Spaying, 320 LIST OF MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE, 330 DOSES OF VARIOUS MEDICINES, 336 ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE A Prize Bull, 13 The Well-fed Beasts, 19 An Ayrshire Bull, 23 A Short-horn Bull, 33 A North Devon Steer, 41 Draft Oxen, 45 Skeleton of the Ox, 50 Teeth at Birth, 52 Teeth at Second Week, 52 Teeth at Three Weeks, 53 Teeth at a Month, 53 Teeth at Five to Eight Months, 53 Ten Months Teeth, 53 Twelve Months Teeth, 54 Fifteen Months Teeth, 54 Eighteen Months Teeth, 55 Teeth at Two Years Past, 55 Teeth at Three Years Past, 56 Teeth at Four Years Past, 56 Teeth at Five Years Past, 56 Teeth at Ten Years Past, 56 A Good Milch Cow, 58 Milk-Mirror (A), 62 Milk-Mirror (B), 63 Milk-Mirror (C), 63 Milk-Mirror (D), 64 Milk-Mirror (E), 65 Milk-Mirror (F), 66 Milk-Mirror (G), 69 Milk-Mirror (H), 70 Milk-Mirror (K), 72 Milk-Mirror (L), 74 Cow and Calf, 77 Ready for Action, 83 A Sprightly Youth, 89 Feeding, 97 The Family Pets, 102 Buying Cattle, 107 Calling in the Cattle, 112 "On the Rampage", 117 Patiently Waiting, 123 A Chance for a Selection, 129 A West Highland Ox, 139 Barn for Thirty-four Cows and Three Yoke of Oxen, 150 Transverse Section, 152 Room over the Cow-Room, 153 The Preferable Method, 159 Maternal Affection, 168 Frolicksome, 177 Points of Cattle, 185 A Frontispiece, 190 Scotch Mode of Cutting up Beef, 195 English Mode of Cutting up Beef, 197 Diseases and Their Remedies, 205 A Chat on the Road, 218 The Mad Bull, 230 An Aberdeenshire Polled Bull, 244 Taking an Observation, 256 The Twins, 268 A Rural Scene, 285 Taking it Easily, 299 Home Again, 313 [Illustration] History and Breeds It is quite certain that the ox has been domesticated and in the service of man from a very remote period. We are informed in the fourth chapter of Genesis, that cattle were kept by the early descendants of Adam; Jubal, the son of Lamech--who was probably born during the lifetime of Adam--being styled the father of such as have cattle. The ox having been preserved by Noah from the flood of waters, the original breed of our present cattle must have been in the neighborhood of Mount Ararat. From thence, dispersing over the face of the globe--altering by climate, by food, and by cultivation--originated the various breeds of modern ages. That the value of the ox tribe has been in all ages and climates highly appreciated, we have ample evidence. The natives of Egypt, India, and Hindostan, seem alike to have placed the cow amongst their deities; and, judging by her usefulness to all classes, no animal could perhaps have been selected whose value to mankind is greater. The traditions, indeed, of every Celtic nation enroll the cow among the earliest productions, and represent it as a kind of divinity. In nearly all parts of the earth cattle are employed for their labor, for their milk, and for food. In southern Africa they are as much the associates of the Caffre as the horse is of the Arab. They share his toils, and assist him in tending his herds. They are even trained to battle, in which they become fierce and courageous. In central Africa the proudest ebony beauties are to be seen upon the backs of cattle. In all ages they have drawn the plough. In Spain they still trample out the corn; in India they raise the water from the deepest wells to irrigate the thirsty soil of Bengal. When Cæsar invaded Britain they constituted the chief riches of its inhabitants; and they still form no inconsiderable item in the estimate of that country's riches. The parent race of the ox is said to have been much larger than any of the present varieties. The Urus, in his wild state at least, was an enormous and fierce animal, and ancient legends have thrown around him an air of mystery. In almost every part of the continent of Europe and in every district of England, skulls, evidently belonging to cattle, have been found, far exceeding in bulk any now known. As the various breeds of cattle among us were introduced into this country from Great Britain, we propose, before going into the details of the leading American breeds, to glance somewhat briefly at the history of THE BRITISH OX. In the earliest and most reliable accounts which we possess of the British Isles--the Commentaries of Cæsar--we learn that the ancient Britons possessed great numbers of cattle. No satisfactory description of these cattle occurs in any ancient author; but, with occasional exceptions, we know that they possessed no great bulk or beauty. Cæsar tells us that the Britons neglected tillage and lived on milk and flesh; and this account of the early inhabitants of the British Isle is corroborated by other authors. It was such an occupation and mode of life as suited their state of society. The island was divided into many little sovereignties; no fixed property was secure; and that alone was valuable which could be hurried away at the threatened approach of the invader. Many centuries after this, when--although one sovereign seemed to reign paramount over the whole of the kingdom--there continued to be endless contests among the feudal barons, and therefore that property alone continued to be valuable which could be secured within the walls of the castle, or driven beyond the assailant's reach--an immense stock of provisions was always stored up in the various fortresses, both for the vassals and the cattle; or it was contrived that the latter should be driven to the domains of some friendly baron, or concealed in some inland recess. When the government became more powerful and settled, and property of every kind was assured a proportionate degree of protection, as well as more equally divided, the plough came into use; agricultural productions were oftener cultivated, the reaping of which was sure after the labor of sowing. Cattle were then comparatively neglected and for some centuries injuriously so. Their numbers diminished, and their size also seems to have diminished; and it is only within the last century and a half that any serious and successful efforts have been made materially to improve them. In the comparatively roving and uncertain life which the earlier inhabitants led, their cattle would sometimes stray and be lost. The country was at that time overgrown with forests, and the beasts betook themselves to the recesses of these woods, and became wild and sometimes ferocious. They, by degrees, grew so numerous as to be dangerous to the inhabitants of the neighboring districts. One of the chronicles asserts that many of them harbored in the forests in the neighborhood of London. Strange stories are told of some of them, and, doubtless, when irritated, they were fierce and dangerous enough. As, however, civilization advanced, and the forests became thinned and contracted, these animals were seen more rarely, and at length almost disappeared. A few of them, however, are still to be found in the parks of some of the leading English noblemen, who keep them for ornament and as curiosities. The color of this wild breed is invariably white, the muzzle being black; the whole of the inside of the ear, and about one-third of the outside, from the tips downward, red; horns white, with black tips, very fine, and bent upward; some of the bulls have a thin, upright mane, about an inch and a half or two inches long. The beef is finely marbled and of excellent flavor. At the first appearance of any person they set off in full gallop, and at the distance of about two hundred yards, make a wheel around and come boldly up again in a menacing manner; on a sudden they make a full stop at the distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the object of their surprise; but upon the least motion they all again turn round and fly off with equal speed, but not to the same distance, forming a shorter circle; and, again returning with a more threatening aspect than before, they approach probably within thirty yards, when they again make another stand, and then fly off; this they do several times, shortening their distance and advancing nearer and nearer, till they come within such short distance that most persons think it prudent to leave them. When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or ten days in some retired situation, and go and suckle them two or three times a day. If any persons come near the calves they clap their heads close to the ground to hide themselves--a proof of their native wildness. The dams allow no one to touch their young without attacking with impetuous ferocity. When one of the herd happens to be wounded, or has grown weak and feeble through age or sickness, the rest set on it and gore it to death. The breeds of cattle which are now found in Great Britain, are almost as various as the soil of the different districts or the fancies of the breeders. They have, however, been very conveniently classed according to the comparative size of the horns; the _long-horns_, originally from Lancashire, and established through most of the midland counties; the _short-horns_, generally cultivated in the northern counties and in Lincolnshire, and many of them found in every part of the kingdom where the farmer pays much attention to his dairy, or where a large supply of milk is desired; and the _middle-horns_, a distinct and valuable breed, inhabiting, principally, the north of Devon, the east of Sussex, Herefordshire, and Gloucestershire; and of diminished bulk and with somewhat different character, the cattle of the Scottish and Welsh mountains. The Alderney, with its _crumpled horn_, is found on the southern coast; while the polled, or _hornless_, cattle prevail in Suffolk, Norfolk, and Galloway, whence they were first derived. These leading breeds, however, have been intermingled in every possible way. They are found pure only in their native districts, or on the estate of some wealthy and spirited individuals. Each county has its own mongrel breed, often difficult to be described, and not always to be traced--neglected enough, yet suited to the soil and the climate; and among small farmers, maintaining their station, in spite of attempts at improvements by the intermixture or the substitution of foreign varieties. Much dispute has arisen as to the original breed of British cattle. The battle has been sharply fought between the advocates of the middle and of the long-horns. The short-horns and the polls are out of the lists; the latter, although it has existed in certain districts from time immemorial, being probably an accidental variety. The weight of argument appears at present to rest with the middle horns; the long-horns being evidently of Irish extraction. [Illustration: THE WELL-FED BEASTS.] Great Britain has shared the fate of other nations, and oftener than they been overrun and subjugated by invaders. As the natives retreated they carried with them some portion of their property, consisting, in the remote and early times, principally of cattle. They drove along with them as many as they could, when they retired to the fortresses of North Devon and Cornwall, or the mountainous region of Wales, or when they took refuge in the retirement of East Sussex; and there, retaining all their prejudices, manners, and customs, were jealous of the preservation of that which reminded them of their native country before it yielded to a foreign yoke. In this way was preserved the ancient breed of British cattle. Difference of climate produced some change, particularly in their bulk. The rich pasturage of Sussex fattened the ox into its superior size and weight. The plentiful, but not so luxuriant, herbage of the north of Devon produced a smaller and more active animal; while the privations of Wales lessened the bulk and thickened the hide of the Welsh Stock. As for Scotland, it set its invaders at defiance; or its inhabitants retreated for a while, and soon turned again on their pursuers. They were proud of their country, and of their cattle, their choicest possession; and there, also, the cattle were preserved, unmixed and undegenerated. Thence it has resulted, that in Devon, in Sussex, in Wales, and in Scotland, the cattle have been the same from time immemorial; while in all the eastern coasts and through every district of England, the breed of cattle degenerated, or lost its original character; it consisted of animals brought from all the neighboring, and some remote districts, mingled in every possible variety, yet conforming to the soil and the climate. Careful observations will establish the fact, that the cattle in Devonshire, Sussex, Wales, and Scotland are essentially the same. They are middle horned; not extraordinary milkers, and remarkable for the quality rather than the quantity of their milk; active at work, and with an unequalled aptitude to fatten. They have all the characters of the same breed, changed by soil, climate, and time, yet little changed by man. The color, even, may be almost traced, namely: the red of the Devon, the Sussex, and the Hereford; and where only the black are now found, the recollection of the red prevails. As this volume is intended especially for the farmers of our own country, it is deemed unnecessary in this connection to present any thing additional under the present head, except the names of the prominent species of British cattle. These are, commencing with the middle horns, the North Devon, the Hereford, the Sussex, the Welsh (with the varieties of the Pembrokeshire, the Glamorganshire, the Radnor black, the Anglesea and some others); and the Scotch with its chief varieties, the West Highlanders, the North Highlanders, the North Eastern, the Fife, the Ayrshire, and the Galloways. As to the long horns, which came originally from Craven in Yorkshire, it may be remarked that this breed has been rapidly disappearing of late, and has everywhere given place to better kinds. Of this species there are--or perhaps were--two leading classes, the Lancashire and the Leicestershire improved. Of the short horns, the leading breeds are the Dutch, the Holderness, the Teeswater, the Yorkshire, the Durham, the Northumberland, and some others. AMERICAN CATTLE. The breeds of cattle which stock the farms of the United States are all derived from Europe, and, with few exceptions, from Great Britain. The highest breeds at the present time are of comparatively recent origin, since the great improvements in breeding were only commenced at about the period of the American Revolution. The old importations made by the early settlers, must consequently have been from comparatively inferior grades. In some sections of the Union, and more particularly in New England, the primitive stock is thought to have undergone considerable improvement; whilst in many parts of the Middle, and especially of the Southern States, a greater or less depreciation has ensued. The prevailing stock in the Eastern States is believed to be derived from the North Devons, most of the excellent marks and qualities of which they possess. For this reason they are very highly esteemed, and have been frequently called the American Devon. The most valuable working oxen are chiefly of this breed, which also contributes so largely to the best displays of beef found in the markets of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. By means of this domestic stock, and the importations still extensively made of selections from the short horns, and others of the finest European breeds, the cattle, not only of New England, but of other sections, are rapidly improving, especially in the Middle and Western States. A brief sketch of the principal breeds of American cattle, as well as of the grades or common stock of the country, will be of service to the farmer in making an intelligent selection with reference to the special object of pursuit--whether it be the dairy, the production of beef, or the raising of cattle for work. In selecting any breed, regard should be had to the circumstances of the individual farmer and the object to be pursued. The cow most profitable for the milk dairy, may be very unprofitable in the butter and cheese dairy, as well as for the production of beef; while, for either of the latter objects, the cow which gave the largest quantity of milk might be very undesirable. A union and harmony of all good qualities must be secured, so far as possible. The farmer wants a cow that will milk well for some years; and then, when dry, fatten readily and sell to the butcher for the highest price. These qualities, often supposed to be utterly incompatible, will be found united in some breeds to a greater extent than in others; while some peculiarities of form have been found, by observation, to be better adapted to the production of milk and beef than others. It is proposed, therefore, to sketch the pure breeds now found in America. THE AYRSHIRE. [Illustration: AN AYRSHIRE BULL.] This breed is justly celebrated throughout Great Britain and this country for its excellent dairy qualities. Though the most recent in their origin, they are pretty distinct from the Scotch and English races. In color, the pure Ayrshires are generally red and white, spotted or mottled, not roan like many of the short horns, but often presenting a bright contrast of colors. They are sometimes, though rarely, nearly or quite all red, and sometimes black and white; but the favorite color is red and white brightly contrasted; and, by some, strawberry-color is preferred. The head is small, fine and clean; the face long and narrow at the muzzle, with a sprightly, yet generally mild expression; eye small, smart and lively; the horns short, fine, and slightly twisted upward, set wide apart at the roots; the neck thin; body enlarging from fore to hind quarters; the back straight and narrow, but broad across the loin; joints rather loose and open; ribs rather flat; hind quarters rather thin; bone fine; tail long, fine, and bushy at the end; hair generally thin and soft; udder light color and capacious, extending well forward under the belly; teats of the cow of medium size, generally set regularly and wide apart; milk-veins prominent and well developed. The carcass of the pure bred Ayrshire is light, particularly the fore quarters, which is considered by good judges as an index of great milking qualities; but the pelvis is capacious and wide over the hips. On the whole, the Ayrshire is good looking, but wants some of the symmetry and aptitude to fatten which characterize the short horn, which is supposed to have contributed to build up this valuable breed on the basis of the original stock of the county of Ayr, which extends along the eastern shore of the Firth of Clyde, in the southwestern part of Scotland. The original stock of this country are described as of a diminutive size, ill fed, ill shaped, and yielding but a scanty return in milk. They were mostly of a black color, with large stripes of white along the chine and ridge of their backs, about the flanks, and on their faces. Their horns were high and crooked, having deep ringlets at the root--the surest proof that they were but scantily fed; the chine of their backs stood up high and narrow; their sides were lank, short, and thin; their hides thick and adhering to the bones; their pile was coarse and open; and few of them gave more than six or eight quarts of milk a day when in their best condition, or weighed, when fat, more than from a hundred to a hundred and sixty pounds avoirdupois, rejecting offal. A wonderful change has since been made in the condition, aspect, and qualities of the Ayrshire dairy stock. They are now almost double the size, and yield about four times the quantity of milk that the Ayrshire cows formerly yielded. A large part of this improvement is due to better feeding and care, but much, no doubt, to judicious crossing. Strange as it may seem, considering the modern origin of this breed, all that is certainly known touching it is, that about a century and a half ago there was no such breed as Ayrshire in Scotland. The question has therefore arisen, whether these cattle came entirely from a careful selection of the best native breed. If they did, it is a circumstance without a parallel in the history of agriculture. The native breed may indeed be ameliorated by careful selection; its value may be incalculably increased; some good qualities, some of its best qualities, may be developed for the first time; but yet there will be some resemblance to the original stock, and the more the animal is examined, the more clearly can be traced the characteristic points of the ancestor, although every one of them is improved. Youatt estimates the daily yield of an Ayrshire cow, for the first two or three months after calving, at five gallons a day, on an average; for the next three months, at three gallons; and for the next four months, at one gallon and a half. This would give eight hundred and fifty gallons as the annual average; but, allowing for some unproductive cows, he estimates the average of a dairy at six hundred gallons a year for each cow. Three gallons and a half of the Ayrshire cow's milk will yield one and a half pounds of butter. Some have estimated the yield still higher. One of the four cows originally imported into this country by John P. Cushing, Esq., of Massachusetts, gave in one year three thousand eight hundred and sixty-four quarts, beer measure, or about nine hundred and sixty-six gallons, at ten pounds the gallon; being an average of over ten and a half beer quarts a day for the entire year. The first cow of this breed, imported by the Massachusetts Society, for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1837, yielded sixteen pounds of butter a week for several successive weeks, on grass feed only. It should be borne in mind, in this connection that the climate of New England is less favorable to the production of milk than that of England and Scotland, and that no cow imported after arriving at maturity can be expected to yield as much, under the same circumstances, as one bred on the spot where the trial is made, and perfectly acclimated. On excellent authority, the most approved shape and marks of a good dairy cow are as follows: Head small, long, and narrow toward the muzzle; horns small, clear, bent, and placed at considerable distance from each other; eyes not large, but brisk and lively; neck slender and long, tapering toward the head, with a little loose skin below; shoulders and fore quarters light and thin; hind quarters large and broad; back straight, and joints slack and open; carcass deep in the rib; tail small and long, reaching to the heels; legs small and short, with firm joints; udder square, but a little oblong, stretching forward, thin skinned and capacious, but not low hung; teats or paps small, pointing outward, and at a considerable distance from each other; milk-veins capacious and prominent; skin loose, thin, and soft like a glove; hair short, soft, and woolly; general figure, when in flesh, handsome and well proportioned. If this description of the Ayrshire cow be correct, it will be seen that her head and neck are remarkably clean and fine, the latter swelling gradually toward the shoulders, both parts being unencumbered with superfluous flesh. The same general form extends backward, the fore quarters being, light the shoulders thin, and the carcass swelling out toward the hind quarters, so that when standing in front of her it has the form of a blunted wedge. Such a structure indicates very fully developed digestive organs, which exert a powerful influence on all the functions of the body, and especially on the secretion of the milky glands, accompanied with milk-veins and udder partaking of the same character as the stomach and viscera, being large and capacious, while the external skin and interior walls of the milk-glands are thin and elastic, and all parts arranged in a manner especially adapted for the production of milk. A cow with these marks will generally be of a quiet and docile temper, which greatly increases her value. A cow that is of a quiet and contented disposition feeds at ease, is milked with ease, and yields more than one of an opposite temperament; while, after she is past her usefulness as a milker, she will easily take on fat, and make fine beef and a good quantity of tallow, because she feeds freely, and when dry the food which went to make milk is converted into fat and flesh. But there is no breed of cows with which gentle gentleness of treatment is so indispensable as with the Ayrshire, on account of her naturally nervous temperament. If she receives other than kind and gentle treatment, she will often resent it with angry looks and gestures, and withhold her milk; and if such treatment is long continued, will dry up; but she willingly and easily yields it to the hand that fondles her, and all her looks and movements toward her friends are quiet and mild. The Ayrshires in their native country are generally bred for the dairy, and for no other object; and the cows have justly obtained a world-wide reputation for this quality. The oxen are, however, very fair as working cattle, though they cannot be said to excel other breeds in this respect. The Ayrshire steer maybe fed and turned at three years old; but for feeding purposes the Ayrshires are greatly improved by a cross with the short horns, provided regard is had to the size of the animal. It is the opinion of good breeders that a high-bred short horn bull and a large-sized Ayrshire cow will produce a calf which will come to maturity earlier, and attain greater weight, and sell for more money than a pure-bred Ayrshire. This cross, with feeding from the start, may be sold fat at two or three years old, the improvement being most noticeable in the earlier maturity and size. In the Cross with the short horn, the form ordinarily becomes more symmetrical, while there is, perhaps, little risk of lessening the milking qualities of the offspring, if sufficient regard is paid to the selection of the individual animals to breed from. It is thought by some that in the breeding of animals it is the male which gives the external form, or the bony and muscular system of the young, while the female imparts the respiratory organs, the circulation of the blood, the organs of secretion, and the like. If this principle be true, it follows that the milking qualities come chiefly from the mother, and that the bull cannot materially alter the conditions which determine the transmission of these qualities, especially when they are as strongly marked as they are in this breed. Until, however, certain mooted questions connected with breeding are definitively settled, it is the safest plan, in breeding for the dairy, to adhere to the rule of selecting only animals whose progenitors on both sides have been distinguished for their milking qualities. It may be stated, in conclusion, that for purely dairy purposes the Ayrshire cow deserves the first place. In consequence of her small, symmetrical, and compact body, combined with a well-formed chest and a capacious stomach, there is little waste, comparatively speaking, through the respiratory system; while at the same time there is very complete assimilation of the food, and thus she converts a very large proportion of her food into milk. So remarkable is this fact, that all dairy farmers who have any experience on the point, agree in stating that _an Ayrshire cow generally gives a larger return of milk for the food consumed than a cow of any other breed_. The absolute quality may not be so great, but it is obtained at a less cost; and this is the point upon which the question of profit depends. The best milkers which have been known in this country were grade Ayrshires, larger in size than the pure bloods, but still sufficiently high grades to give certain signs of their origin. This grade would seem to possess the advantage of combining, to some extent, the two qualities of milking and adaptation to beef; and this is no small recommendation of the stock to farmers situated as American farmers are, who wish for milk for some years and then to turn over to the butcher. THE JERSEY. These cattle are now widely known in this country. Many of them have been imported from an island of the same name in the British Channel, near the coast of France, and they may now be considered, for all practical purposes, as fully acclimated. They were first introduced, upward of thirty years ago, from the channel islands, Alderney, Guernsey, and Jersey. This race is supposed to have been originally derived from Normandy, in the northern part of France. The cows have been long celebrated for the production of very rich milk and cream, but till within the last twenty-five or thirty years they were comparatively coarse, ugly, and ill-shaped. Improvements have been very marked, but the form of the animal is still far from satisfying the eye. The head of the pure Jersey is fine and tapering, the cheek small, the throat clean, the muzzle fine and encircled with a light stripe, the nostril high and open; the horns smooth, crumpled, but not very thick at the base, tapering and tipped with black; ears small and thin, deep orange color inside; eyes full and placid; neck straight and fine; chest broad and deep; barrel hoofed, broad and deep, well ribbed up; back straight from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the hip to the setting of the tail; tail fine, at right angles with the back, and hanging down to the hocks; skin thin, light color, and mellow, covered with fine soft hair; fore legs short, straight and fine below the knee, arm swelling and full above; hind quarters long and well filled; hind legs short and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine, squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small; udder full in size, in line with the belly, extending well up behind; teats of medium size, squarely placed and wide apart, and milk-veins very prominent. The color is generally cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less of white, and the fine head and neck give the cows and heifers a fawn-like appearance, and make them objects of attraction in the park; but the hind quarters are often too narrow to work well, particularly to those who judge animals by the amount of fat which they carry. It should be borne in mind, however, that a good race of animals is not always the most beautiful, as that term is generally understood. Beauty in stock has no invariable standard. In the estimation of some, it results mainly from fine forms, small bones, and close, compact frames; while others consider that structure the most perfect, and therefore the most beautiful, which is best adapted to the use for which it is destined. With such, beauty is relative. It is not the same in an animal designed for beef and in one designed for the dairy or for work. The beauty of a milch cow is the result of her good qualities. Large milkers are very rarely cows that please the eye of any but a skillful judge. They are generally poor, since their food goes mainly to the production of milk, and because they are selected with less regard to form than to good milking qualities. The prevailing opinion as to the beauty of the Jersey, is based on the general appearance of the cow when in milk--no experiments in feeding exclusively for beef having been made public, and no opportunity to form a correct judgment from actual observation having been furnished; and it must be confessed that the general appearance of the breed would amply justify the hasty conclusion. The bulls are usually very different in character and disposition from the cows, and are much inclined to become restive and cross at the age of two or three years, unless their treatment is uniformly gentle and firm. The Jersey is to be regarded as a dairy breed, and that almost exclusively. It would not be sought for large dairies kept for the supply of milk to cities; for, though the quality would gratify the customer, the quantity would not satisfy the owner. The place of the Jersey cow is rather in private establishments, where the supply of cream and butter is a sufficient object; or, in limited numbers, to add richness to the milk of large butter dairies. Even one or two good Jersey cows with a herd of fifteen or twenty, will make a great difference in the quality of the milk and butter of the whole establishment; and they would probably be profitable for this, if for no other object. THE SHORT HORNS. No breed of cattle has commanded more universal admiration during the last half century than the improved short horns, whose origin can be traced back for nearly a hundred years. According to the best authorities, the stock which formed the basis of improvement existed equally in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Northumberland, and the adjoining counties; and the pre-eminence was accorded to Durham, which gave its name to the race, from the more correct principles of breeding which seem to have obtained there. There is a dispute among the most eminent breeders as to how far it owes its origin to early importations from Holland, whence many superior animals were brought for the purpose of improving the old long horned breed. A large race of cattle had existed for many years on the western shores of the continent of Europe. As early as 1633, they were imported from Denmark into New England in considerable numbers, and thus laid the foundation of a valuable stock in farming at a very early date in Holland, and experience led to the greatest care in the choice and breeding of dairy stock. From these cattle many selections were made to cross over to the counties of York and Durham. The prevailing color of the large Dutch cattle was black and white, beautifully contrasted. [Illustration: A SHORT HORN BULL.] The cattle produced by these crosses a century ago were known by the name of "Dutch." The cows selected for crossing with the early imported Dutch bulls were generally long horned, large boned, coarse animals, a fair type of which was found in the old "Holderness" breed of Yorkshire--slow feeders, strong in the shoulder, defective in the fore quarter, and not very profitable to the butcher, their meat being coarse and uninviting. Their milking qualities were good, surpassing those, probably, of the improved short horns. Whatever may be the truth with regard to these crosses, and however far they proved effective in creating or laying the foundation of the modern improved short horns, the results of the efforts made in Yorkshire and some of the adjoining counties were never so satisfactory to the best judges as those of the breeders along the Tees, who selected animals with greater reference to fineness of bone and symmetry of form, and the animals they bred soon took the lead and excited great emulation in improvement. Importations of short horns have been frequent and extensive into the United States within the last few years, and this famous breed is now pretty generally diffused over the country. The high-bred short horn is easily prepared for a show, and, as fat will cover faults, the temptation is often too great to be resisted; and hence it is not uncommon to see the finest animals rendered unfit for breeding purposes by over-feeding. The race is susceptible of breeding for the production of milk, as several families show, and great milkers have often been known among pure-bred animals; but it is more common to find it bred mainly for the butcher, and kept accordingly. It is, however, a well-known fact, that the dairies of London are stocked chiefly with short horns and Yorkshires, or high grades between them, which, after being milked as long as profitable, feed equal, or nearly so, to pure-bred short horns. It has been said, by very good authority, that the short horns improve every breed with which they cross. The desirable characteristics of the short horn bull may be summed up, according to the judgment of the best breeders, as follows: He should have a short but fine head, very broad across the eyes, tapering to the nose, with a nostril full and prominent; the nose itself should be of a rich flesh color; eyes bright and mild; ears somewhat large and thin; horns slightly covered and rather flat, well set on; a long, broad, muscular neck; chest wide, deep, and projecting; shoulders fine, oblique, well formed into the chine; fore legs short, with upper arm large and powerful; barrel round, deep, well-ribbed horns; hips wide and level; back straight from the withers to the setting on of the tail, but short from hips to chine; skin soft and velvety to the touch; moderately thick hair, plentiful, soft, and mossy. The cow has the same points in the main, but her head is finer, longer, and more tapering; neck thinner and lighter, and shoulders more narrow across the chine. The astonishing precocity of the short horns, their remarkable aptitude to fatten, the perfection of their forms, and the fineness of their bony structure, give them an advantage over most other races when the object of breeding is for the shambles. No animal of any other breed can so rapidly transform the stock of any section around him as the improved short horn bull. It does not, however, follow that the high-bred short horns are unexceptionable, even for beef. The very exaggeration, so to speak, of the qualities which make them so valuable for the improvement of other and less perfect races, may become a fault when wanted for the table. The very rapidity with which they increase in size is thought by some to prevent their meat from ripening up sufficiently before being hurried off to the butcher. The disproportion of the fatty to the muscular flesh, found in this to a greater extent than in races coming more slowly to maturity, makes the meat of the thorough-bred short horn, in the estimation of some, less agreeable to the taste, and less profitable to the consumer; since the nitrogenous compounds, true sources of nutriment, are found in less quantity than in the meat of animals not so highly bred. In sections where the climate is moist, and the food abundant and rich, some families of the short horns may be valuable for the dairy; but they are most frequently bred exclusively for beef in this country, and in sections where they have attained the highest perfection of form and beauty, so little is thought of their milking qualities that they are often not milked at all, the calf being allowed to run with the dam. THE DUTCH. This short horned race, in the opinion of many--as has been previously remarked--contributed largely, about a century ago, to build up the Durham or Teeswater stock. It has been bred with special reference to dairy qualities, and is eminently adapted to supply the wants of the dairy farmer. The cows of North Holland not only give a large quantity, but also a very good quality, so that a yield of sixteen to twenty-five quarts, wine measure, at every milking, is not rare. The principles upon which the inhabitants of Holland practise, in selecting a cow from which to breed, are as follows: She should have, they say, considerable size--not less than four and a half or five feet girth, with a length of body corresponding; legs proportionally short; a finely formed head, with a forehead or face somewhat concave; clear, large, mild and sparkling eyes, yet with no expression of wildness; tolerably large and stout ears, standing out from the head; fine, well curved horns; a rather short, than long, thick, broad neck, well set against the chest and withers; the front part of the breast and shoulders must be broad and fleshy; the low-hanging dewlap must be soft to the touch; the back and loins must be properly projected, somewhat broad, the bones not too sharp, but well covered with flesh; the animal should have long curved ribs, which form a broad breast bone; the body must be round and deep, but not sunken into a hanging belly; the rump must not be uneven, the hip-bones should not stand out too broad and spreading, but all the parts should be level and well filled up; a fine tail, set moderately high up and tolerably long, but slender, with a thick, bushy tuft of hair at the end, hanging down below the hocks; the legs must be short and low, but strong in the bony structure; the knees broad, with flexible joints; the muscles and sinews must be firm and sound, the hoofs broad and flat, and the position of the legs natural, not too close and crowded; the hide, covered with fine glossy hair, must be soft and mellow to the touch, and set loose upon the body. A large, rather long, white and loose udder, extending well back, with four long teats, serves also as a characteristic mark of a good milch cow. Large and prominent milk-veins must extend from the navel back to the udder; the belly of a good milch cow should not be too deep and hanging. The color of the North Dutch cattle is mostly variegated. Cows with only one color are no favorites. Red or black variegated, gray and blue variegated, roan, spotted and white variegated cows, are especially liked. THE HEREFORD. These cattle derive their name from a county in the western part of England. Their general characteristics are a white face, sometimes mottled; white throat, the white generally extending back on the neck, and sometimes, though rarely, still further along on the back. The color of the rest of the body is red, generally dark, but sometimes light. Eighty years ago the best Hereford cattle were mottled or roan all over; and some of the best herds, down to a comparatively recent period, were either all mottled, or had the mottled or speckled face. The expression of the face is mild and lively; the forehead open, broad, and large; the eyes bright and full of vivacity; the horns glossy, slender and spreading; the head small, though larger than, and not quite so clear as, that of the Devons; the lower jaw fine; neck long and slender; chest deep; breast-bone large, prominent, and very muscular; the shoulder-blade light; shoulder full and soft; brisket and loins large; hips well developed, and on a level with the chine; hind quarters long and well filled in; buttocks on a level with the back, neither falling off nor raised above the hind quarters; tail slender, well set on; hair fine and soft; body round and full; carcass deep and well formed, or cylindrical; bone small; thigh short and well made; legs short and straight, and slender below the knee; as handlers very excellent, especially mellow to the touch on the back, the shoulder, and along the sides, the skin being soft, flexible, of medium thickness, rolling on the neck and the hips; hair bright; face almost bare, which is characteristic of pure Herefords. They belong to the middle horned division of the cattle of Great Britain, to which they are indigenous, and have been improved within the last century by careful selections. Hereford oxen are excellent animals, less active but stronger than the Devons, and very free and docile. The demand for Herefords for beef prevents their being much used for work in their native county, and the farmers there generally use horses instead of oxen. It is generally conceded that the qualities in which Herefords stand pre-eminent among the middle-sized breeds are in the production of oxen and their superiority of flesh. On these points there is little chance of their being excelled. It should, however, be borne in mind that the best oxen are not produced from the largest cows; nor is a superior quality of flesh, such as is considered very soft to the touch, with thin skin. It is the union of these two qualities which often characterizes the short horns; but Hereford breeders--as a recent writer remarks--should endeavor to maintain a higher standard of excellence--that for which the best of the breed have always been esteemed--a moderately thick, mellow hide, with a well apportioned combination of softness with elasticity. A sufficiency of hair is also desirable, and if accompanied with a disposition to curl moderately, it is more in esteem; but that which has a harsh and wiry feel is objectionable. In point of symmetry and beauty of form, the well bred Herefords may be classed with the improved short horns, though they arrive somewhat more slowly at maturity, and never attain such weight. Like the improved short horns, they are chiefly bred for beef, and their beef is of the best quality in the English markets, commanding the highest price of any, except perhaps, the West Highlanders. The short horn produces more beef at the same age than the Hereford, but consumes more food in proportion. The Herefords are far less generally spread over England than the improved short horns. They have seldom been bred for milk, as some families of the latter have; and it is not very unusual to find pure-bred cows incapable of supplying milk sufficient to nourish their calves. They have been imported to this country to some extent, and several fine herds exist in different sections; the earliest importations being those of Henry Clay, of Kentucky, in 1817. The want of care and attention to the udder, soon after calving, especially if the cow be on luxuriant grass, often injures her milking properties exceedingly. The practice in the county of Hereford has generally been to let the calves suckle from four to six months, and bull calves often run eight months with the cow. But their dairy qualities are perhaps as good as those of any cattle whose fattening properties have been so carefully developed; and, though it is probable that they could be bred for milk with proper care and attention, yet, as this change would be at the expense of other qualities equally valuable, it would evidently be wiser to resort to other stock for the dairy. THE NORTH DEVONS. [Illustration: A NORTH DEVON STEER.] This beautiful race of middle horned cattle dates further back than any well established breed among us. It goes generally under the simple name of Devon; but the cattle of the southern part of the country, from which the race derives its name, differ somewhat from those of the northern, having a larger and coarser frame, and far less tendency to fatten though their dairy qualities are superior. The North Devons are remarkable for hardihood, symmetry and beauty, and are generally bred for work and for beef, rather than for the dairy. The head is fine and well set on; the horns of medium length, generally curved; color usually bright blood-red, but sometimes inclining to yellow; skin thin and orange-yellow; hair of medium length, soft and silky, making the animals remarkable as handlers; muzzle of the nose white; eyes full and mild; ears yellowish, or orange-color inside, of moderate size; neck rather long, with little dewlap; shoulders oblique; legs small and straight, with feet in proportion; chest of good width; ribs round and expanded; loins of first-rate quality, long, wide, and fleshy; hips round, of medium width; rump level; tail full near the setting on, tapering to the tip; thighs of the bull and ox muscular and full, and high in the flank, though in the cow sometimes thought to be light; the size medium, generally called small. The proportion of meat on the valuable parts is greater, and the offal less, than on most other breeds, while it is well settled that they consume less food in its production. The Devons are popular with the Smithfield butchers, and their beef is well marbled or grained. As working oxen, the Devons perhaps excel all other races in quickness, docility, beauty, and the ease with which they are matched. With a reasonable load, they are said to be equal to horses as walkers on the road, and when they are no longer wanted for work they fatten easily and turn well. As milkers, they do not excel--perhaps they may be said not to equal--the other breeds, and they have a reputation of being decidedly below the average. In their native country the general average of the dairy is one pound of butter a day during the summer. They are bred for beef and for work, and not for the dairy; and their yield of milk is small, though of a rich quality. Several animals, however, of the celebrated Patterson herd would have been remarkable as milkers even among good milking stock. Still, the faults of the North Devon cow, considered as a dairy animal, are too marked to be overlooked. The rotundity of form and compactness of frame, though they contribute to her remarkable beauty constitute an objection to her for this purpose: since it is generally admitted that the peculiarity of form which disposes an animal to take on fat is somewhat incompatible with good milking qualities. On this account, Youatt--who is standard authority in such matters--says that for the dairy the North Devon must be acknowledged to be inferior to several other breeds. The milk is good, and yields more than the average proportion of cream and butter; but it is deficient in quantity. He also maintains that its property as a milker could not be improved without producing a certain detriment to its grazing qualities. Distinguished Devon breeders themselves have come to the same conclusion upon this point. The improved North Devon cow may be classed, in this respect, with the Hereford, neither of which has well developed milk-vessels--a point of the utmost consequence to the practical dairyman. NATIVE CATTLE. The foregoing comprise the pure-bred races in America; for, though other and well-established breeds--like the Galloways, the long horns, the Spanish, and others--have, at times, been imported, and have had some influence on our American stock, yet they have not been kept distinct to such an extent as to become the prevailing stock of any particular section. A large proportion, however--by far the largest proportion, indeed--of the cattle known among us cannot be included under any of the races to which allusion has been made; and to the consideration of this class the present article is devoted. The term "breed"--as was set forth in the author's treatise, "The Horse and his Diseases"--when properly understood, applies only to animals of the same species, possessing, besides the general characteristics of that species, other characteristics peculiar to themselves, which they owe to the influence of soil, climate, nourishment, and the habits of life to which they are subjected, and which they transmit with certainty to their progeny. The characteristics of certain breeds or families are so well marked, that, if an individual supposed to belong to any one of them were to produce an offspring not possessing them, or possessing them only in part, with others not belonging to the breed, it would be just ground for suspecting a want of purity of bloods. In this view, no grade animals, and no animals destitute of fixed peculiarities or characteristics which they, share in common with all other animals of the class of which they are a type, and which they are capable of transmitting with certainty to their descendants, can be recognized by breeders as belonging to any one distinct race, breed, or family. The term "native" is applied to a vast majority of our American cattle, which, though born on the soil, and thus in one sense natives, do not constitute a breed, race, or family, as correctly understood by breeders. They do not possess characteristics peculiar to them all, which they transmit with any certainty to their offspring, either of form, size, color, milking or working properties. But, though an animal may be made up of a mixture of blood almost to impurity, it does not follow that, for specific purposes, it may not, as an individual animal, be one of the best of the species. Indeed, for particular purposes, animals might be selected from among those commonly called "natives" in New England, and "scrubs" at the west and south, equal, and perhaps superior, to any among the races produced by the most skillful breeding. There can be no objection, therefore, to the use of the term "native," when it is understood as descriptive of no known breed, but only as applied to the common stock of a country, which does not constitute a breed. But perhaps the entire class of animals commonly called "natives" would be more accurately described as grades; since they are well known to have sprung from a great variety of cattle procured at different times and in different places on the continent of Europe, in England, and in the Spanish West Indies, brought together without any regard to fixed principles of breeding, but only from individual convenience, and by accident. The first importations to this country were doubtless those taken to Virginia previous to 1609, though the exact date of their arrival is not known. Several cows were carried there from the West Indies in 1610, and in the next year no less than one hundred arrived there from abroad. [Illustration: DRAFT OXEN.] The earliest cattle imported into New England arrived in 1624. At the division of cattle which took place three years after, one or two are distinctly described as black, or black and white, others as brindle, showing that there was no uniformity of color. Soon after this, a large number of cattle were brought over from England for the settlers at Salem. These importations formed the original stock of Massachusetts. In 1725, the first importation was made into New York from Holland by the Dutch West India Company, and the foundation was then laid for an exceedingly valuable race of animals, which, subsequent importations from the same country, as well as from England, have greatly improved. The points and value of this race in its purity have been already adverted to under the head of the Dutch cattle. In 1627, cattle were brought from Sweden to the settlements on the Delaware, by the Swedish West India Company. In 1631, 1632, and 1633, several importations were made into New Hampshire by Captain John Mason who, with Gorges, had procured the patent of large tracts of land in the vicinity of the Piscataqua river, and who immediately formed settlements there. The object of Mason was to carry on the manufacture of potash. For this purpose he employed the Danes; and it was in his voyage to and from Denmark that he procured many Danish cattle and horses, which were subsequently scattered over that entire region, large numbers being driven to the vicinity of Boston and sold. These Danish cattle are described as large and coarse, of a yellow color; and it is supposed that they were procured by Mason as being best capable of enduring the severity of the climate and the hardships to which they would be subjected. However this may have been, they very soon spread among the colonists of the Massachusetts Bay, and have undoubtedly left their marks on the stock of the New England and the Middle States, which exist to some extent even to the present day, mixed in with an infinite multitude of crosses with the Devons, the Dutch cattle already alluded to, the black cattle of Spain and Wales, and the long horn and the short horn--most of which crosses were accidental, or due to local circumstances or individual convenience. Many of these cattle, the descendants of such crosses, are of a very high order of merit; but to which particular cross this is due, it is impossible to say. They generally make hardy, strong, and docile oxen, easily broken to the yoke and quick to work, with a fair tendency to fatten when well fed; while the cows, though often ill-shaped, are sometimes remarkably good milkers, especially as regards the quantity which they give. Indeed, it has been remarked by excellent judges of stock, that if they desired to select a dairy of cows for milk for sale, they would make their selection from cows commonly called native, in preference to pure-bred animals of any of the established breeds, and that they believed they should find such a dairy the most profitable. In color, the natives, made up as already indicated, are exceedingly various. The old Denmarks, which to a considerable extent laid the foundation of the stock of Maine and New Hampshire, were light yellow. The Dutch of New York and the Middle States, were black and white; the Spanish and Welsh were generally black; the Devons, which are supposed to have laid the foundation of the stock of some of the States, were red. Crosses of the Denmark with the Spanish and Welsh naturally made a dark brindle; crosses of the Devon often made a lighter or yellowish brindle while the more recent importations of Jerseys and short horns have generally produced a beautiful spotted progeny. The deep red has long been a favorite color in New England; but the prejudice in its favor is fast giving way to more variegated colors. Among the earlier importations into this country were also several varieties of hornless cattle, which have been kept measurably distinct in some sections; or where they have been crossed with the common stock there has been a tendency to produce hornless grades. These are not unfrequently known as "buffalo cattle." They were, in many cases, supposed to belong to the Galloway breed; or, which is more likely, to the Suffolk dun, a variety of the Galloway, and a far better milking stock than the Galloways, from which, it sprung. These polled, or hornless cattle vary in color and qualities, but they are usually very good milkers when well kept, and many of them fatten well, and attain good weight. The Hungarian cattle have also been imported, to some extent, into different parts of the country, and have been crossed upon the natives with some success. Many other strains of blood from different breeds have also contributed to build up the common stock of the country of the present day; and there can be no question that its appearance and value have been largely improved during the last quarter of a century, nor that improvements are still in progress which will lead to satisfactory results in the future. But, though we already have an exceedingly valuable foundation for improvement, no one will pretend to deny that our cattle, as a whole, are susceptible of it in many respects. They possess neither the size, the symmetry, nor the early maturity of the short horns; they do not, as a general thing, possess the fineness of bone, the beauty of form and color, nor the activity of the Devons or the Herefords; they do not possess that uniform richness of milk, united with generous quality, of the Ayrshires, nor the surpassing richness of milk of the Jerseys: but, above all, they do not possess the power of transmitting the many good qualities which they often have to their offspring--which is the characteristic of all well established breeds. It is equally certain, in the opinion of many good judges, that the dairy stock of the country has not been materially improved in its intrinsic good qualities during the last thirty or forty years. This may not be true of certain sections, where the dairy has been made a special object of pursuit, and where the custom of raising the best male calves of the neighborhood, or those that came from the best dairy cows, and then of using only the best formed bulls, has long prevailed. Although in this way some progress has, doubtless, been made, there are still room and need for more. More attention must be paid to correct principles of breeding before the satisfactory results which every farmer should strive to reach can be attained. Having glanced generally at the leading breeds of cattle in Great Britain, and examined, more in detail, the various breeds in the United States, the next subject demanding attention is, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF CATTLE. [Illustration: SKELETON OF THE OX AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES. 1. The upper jaw-bone. 2. The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. 3. The lachrymal bone. 4. The malar, or cheek bone. 5. The frontal bone, or bone of the forehead. 6. The horns, being processes or continuations of the frontal. 7. The temporal bone. 8. The parietal bone, low in the temporal fossa. 9. The occipital bone, deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head. 10. The lower jaw. 11. The grinders. 12. The nippers, found on the lower jaw alone. 13. The ligament of the neck, and its attachments. 14. The atlas. 16. The dentata. 17. The orbits of the eye. 18. The vertebræ, or bones of the neck. 19. The bones of the back. 20. The bones of the loins. 21. The sacrum. 22. The bones of the tail. 23. The haunch and pelvis. 24. The eight true ribs. 25. The false ribs, with their cartilages. 26. The sternum. 27. The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 28. The humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder. 29. The radius, or principal bone of the arm. 40. The ulna, its upper part forming the elbow. 41. The small bones of the knee. 42. The large metacarpal or shank bone. 43. The smaller or splint bone. 44. The sessamoid bones. 45. The bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger pasterns to each foot. 46. The two smaller pasterns to each foot. 47. The two coffin bones to each foot. 48. The navicular bones. 49. The thigh bone. 50. The patella, or bone of the knee. 51. The tibia, or proper leg bone. 52. The point of the hock. 53. The small bones of the hock. 54. The metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg. 55. The pasterns and feet.] DIVISION. _Vertebrata_--possessing a back-bone. CLASS. _Mammalia_--such as give suck. ORDER. _Ruminantia_--chewing the cud. FAMILY. With horns. GENUS. _Bovidæ_--the ox tribe. Of this tribe there are eight species: _Bos urus_, the ancient bison. _Bos bison_, the American buffalo. _Bos moschatus_, the musk ox. _Bos frontalis_, the gayal. _Bos grunniens_, the grunting ox. _Bos caffer_, the South African buffalo. _Bos bubalus_, the common buffalo. _Bos taurus_, the common domestic ox. GESTATION. The usual period of pregnancy in a cow is nine calendar months, and something over: at times as much as three weeks. With one thousand and thirty one cows, whose gestations were carefully observed in France, the average period was about two hundred and eighty-five days. FORMATION OF TEETH. It is of the utmost importance to be able to judge of the age of a cow. Few farmers wish to purchase a cow for the dairy after she has passed her prime, which will ordinarily be at the age of nine or ten years, varying, of course, according to care, feeding, &c., in the earlier part of her life. The common method of forming an estimate of the age of cattle is by an examination of the horn. At three years old, as a general rule, the horns are perfectly smooth; after this, a ring appears near the nob, and annually afterward a new one is formed, so that, by adding two years to the first ring, the age is calculated. This is a very uncertain mode of judging. The rings are distinct only in the cow; and it is well known that if a heifer goes to bull when she is two years old, or a little before or after that time, a change takes place in the horn and the first ring appears; so that a real three-year-old would carry the mark of a four-year-old. [Illustration: TEETH AT BIRTH.] The rings on the horns of a bull are either not seen until five, or they cannot be traced at all; while in the ox they do not appear till he is five years old, and then are often very indistinct. In addition to this, it is by no means an uncommon practice to file the horns, so as to make them smooth, and to give the animal the appearance of being much younger than it really is. This is, therefore, an exceedingly fallacious guide, and cannot be relied upon by any one with the degree of confidence desired. [Illustration: SECOND WEEK.] The surest indication of the age in cattle, as in the horse, is given by the teeth. The calf, at birth, will usually have two incisor or front teeth--in some cases just appearing through the gums; in others, fully set, varying as the cow falls short of, or exceeds, her regular time of calving. If she overruns several days, the teeth will have set and attained considerable size, as appears in the cut representing teeth at birth. During the second week, a tooth will usually be added on each side, and the mouth will generally appear as in the next cut; and before the end of the third week, the animal will generally have six incisor teeth, as denoted in the cut representing teeth at the third week; and in a week from that time the full number of incisors will have appeared, as seen in the next cut. [Illustration: THREE WEEKS.] [Illustration: MONTH.] [Illustration: FIVE TO EIGHT MONTHS.] [Illustration: TEN MONTHS.] [Illustration: TWELVE MONTHS.] [Illustration: FIFTEEN MONTHS.] These teeth are temporary, and are often called milk-teeth. Their edge is very sharp; and as the animal begins to live upon more solid food, this edge becomes worn, showing the bony part of the tooth beneath, and indicates with considerable precision the length of time they have been used. The centre, or oldest teeth show the marks of age first, and often become somewhat worn before the corner teeth appear. At eight weeks, the four inner teeth are nearly as sharp as before. They appear worn not so much on the outer edge or line of the tooth, as inside this line; but, after this, the edge begins gradually to lose its sharpness, and to present a more flattened surface; while the next outer teeth wear down like the four central ones; and at three months this wearing off is very apparent, till at four months all the incisor teeth appear worn, but the inner ones the most. Now the teeth begin slowly to diminish in size by a kind of contraction, as well as wearing down, and the distance apart becomes more and more apparent. [Illustration: EIGHTEEN MONTHS.] From the fifth to the eighth month, the inner teeth will usually appear as in the cut of the teeth at that time; and at ten months, this change shows more clearly, as represented in the next cut; and the spaces between them begin to show very plainly, till at a year old they ordinarily present the appearance of the following cut; and at the age of fifteen months, that shown in the next, where the corner teeth are not more than half the original size, and the centre ones still smaller. [Illustration: TWO YEARS PAST.] The permanent teeth are now rapidly growing, and preparing to take the place of the milk-teeth, which are gradually absorbed till they disappear, or are pushed out to give place to the two permanent central incisors, which at a year and a half will generally present the appearance indicated in the cut, which shows the internal structure of the lower jaw at this time, with the cells of the teeth, the two central ones protruding into the mouth, the next two pushing up, but not quite grown to the surface, with the third pair just perceptible. These changes require time; and at two years past the jaw will usually appear as in the cut, where four of the permanent central incisors are seen. After this, the other milk-teeth decrease rapidly, but are slow to disappear; and at three years old, the third pair of permanent teeth are but formed, as represented in the cut; and at four years the last pair of incisors will be up, as in the cut of that age; but the outside ones are not yet fully grown, and the beast can hardly be said to be full-mouthed till the age of five years. But before this age, or at the age of four years, the two inner pairs of permanent teeth are beginning to wear at the edges, as shown in the cut; while at five years old the whole set becomes somewhat worn down at the top, and on the two centre ones a darker line appears in the middle, along a line of harder bone, as appears in the appropriate cut. [Illustration: THREE YEARS PAST.] [Illustration: FOUR YEARS PAST.] [Illustration: FIVE YEARS PAST.] [Illustration: TEN YEARS PAST.] Now will come a year or two, and sometimes three, when the teeth do not so clearly indicate the exact age, and the judgment must be guided by the extent to which the dark middle lines are worn. This will depend somewhat upon the exposure and feeding of the animal; but at seven years these lines extend over all the teeth. At eight years, another change begins, which cannot be mistaken. A kind of absorption begins with the two central incisors--slow at first, but perceptible--and these two teeth become smaller than the rest, while the dark lines are worn into one in all but the corner teeth, till, at ten years, four of the central incisors have become smaller in size, with a smaller and fainter mark, as indicated in the proper cut. At eleven, the six inner teeth are smaller than the corner ones; and at twelve, all become smaller than they were, while the dark lines are nearly gone, except in the corner teeth, and the inner edge is worn to the gum. POINTS OF A GOOD COW. After satisfaction is afforded touching the age of a cow, she should be examined with reference to her soundness of constitution. A good constitution is indicated by large lungs, which are found in a deep, broad, and prominent chest, broad and well-spread ribs, a respiration somewhat slow and regular, a good appetite, and if in milk a strong inclination to drink, which a large secretion of milk almost invariably stimulates. In such a cow the digestive organs are active and energetic, and they make an abundance of good blood, which in turn stimulates the activity of the nervous system, and furnishes the milky glands with the means of abundant secretion. Such a cow, when dry, readily takes on fat. When activity of the milk-glands is found united with close ribs, small and feeble lungs, and a slow appetite, often attended by great thirst, the cow will generally possess only a weak and feeble constitution; and if the milk is plentiful, it will generally be of bad quality, while the animal, if she does not die of diseased lungs, will not readily take on fat, when dry and fed. [Illustration: A GOOD MILCH COW.] In order to have no superfluous flesh, the cow should have a small, clean, and rather long head, tapering toward the muzzle. A cow with a large, coarse head will seldom fatten readily, or give a large quantity of milk. A coarse head increases the proportion of weight of the least valuable parts, while it is a sure indication that the whole bony structure is too heavy. The mouth should be large and broad; the eye bright and sparkling, but of a peculiar placidness of expression, with no indication of wildness, but rather a mild and feminine look. These points will indicate gentleness of disposition. Such cows seem to like to be milked, are fond of being caressed, and often return caresses. The horns should be small, short, tapering, yellowish, and glistening. The neck should be small, thin, and tapering toward the head, but thickening when it approaches the shoulder; the dewlaps small. The fore quarters should be rather small when compared with the hind quarters. The form of the barrel will be large, and each rib should project further than the preceding one, up to the loins. She should be well formed across the hips and in the rump. The spine or back-bone should be straight and long, rather loosely hung, or open along the middle part, the result of the distance between the dorsal vertebræ, which sometimes causes a slight depression, or sway back. By some good judges, this mark is regarded as of great importance, especially when the bones of the hind quarters are also rather loosely put together, leaving the rump of great width and the pelvis large, and the organs and milk-vessels lodged in the cavities largely developed. The skin over the rump should be loose and flexible. This point is of great importance; and as, when the cow is in low condition or very poor, it will appear somewhat harder and closer than it otherwise would, some practice and close observation are required to judge well of this mark. The skin, indeed, all over the body, should be soft and mellow to the touch, with soft and glossy hair. The tail, if thick at the setting on, should taper and be fine below. But the udder is of special importance. It should be large in proportion to the size of the animal, and the skin thin, with soft, loose folds extending well back, capable of great distension when filled, but shrinking to a small compass when entirely empty. It must be free from lumps in every part, and provided with four teats set well apart, and of medium size. Nor is it less important to observe the milk-veins carefully. The principal ones under the belly should be large and prominent, and extend forward to the navel, losing themselves, apparently, in the very best milkers, in a large cavity in the flesh, into which the end of the finger can be inserted; but when the cow is not in full milk, the milk-vein, at other times very prominent, is not so distinctly traced; and hence, to judge of its size when the cow is dry, or nearly so, this vein may be pressed near its end, or at its entrance into the body, when it will immediately fill up to its full size. This vein does not convey the milk to the udder, as some suppose, but is the channel by which the blood returns; and its contents consist of the refuse of the secretion, or of what has not been taken up in forming milk. There are also veins in the udder, and the perineum, or the space above the udder, and between that and the buttocks, which it is of special importance to observe. These veins should be largely developed, and irregular or knotted, especially those of the udder. They are largest in great milkers. The knotted veins of the perineum, extending from above downwards in a winding line, are not readily seen in young heifers, and are very difficult to find in poor cows, or those of only a medium quality. They are easily found in very good milkers, and if not at first apparent, they are made so by pressing upon them at the base of the perineum, when they swell up and send the blood back toward the vulva. They form a kind of thick network under the skin of the perineum, raising it up somewhat, in some cases near the vulva, in others nearer down and closer to the udder. It is important to look for these veins, as they often form a very important guide, and by some they would be considered as furnishing the surest indications of the milking qualities of the cow. Full development almost always shows an abundant secretion of milk; but they are far better developed after the cow has had two or three calves, when two or three years' milking has given full activity to the milky glands, and attracted a large flow of blood. The larger and more prominent these veins the better. It is needless to say that in observing them some regard should be had to the condition of the cow, the thickness of skin and fat by which they may be surrounded, and the general activity and food of the animal. Food calculated to stimulate the greatest flow of milk will naturally increase these veins, and give them more than usual prominence. THE MILK-MIRROR. The discovery of M. Guénon, of Bordeaux, in France--a man of remarkable practical sagacity, and a close observer of stock--consisted in the connection between the milking qualities of the cow and certain external marks on the udder, and on the space above it, called the perineum, extending to the buttocks. To these marks he gave the name of milk-mirror, or escutcheon, which consists in certain perceptible spots rising up from the udder in different directions, forms and sizes, on which the hair grows upward, whilst the hair on other parts of the body grows downward. The reduction of these marks into a system, explaining the value of particular forms and sizes of the milk-mirror, belongs exclusively to Guénon. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [A.]] He divided the milk-mirror into eight classes, and each class into eight orders, making in all no less than sixty-four divisions, which he afterward increased by subdivisions, thus rendering the whole system complicated in the extreme, especially as he professed to be able to judge with accuracy, by means of the milk-mirror, not only of the exact quantity a cow would give, but also of the quality of the milk, and of the length of time it would continue. He endeavored to prove too much, and was, as a matter of consequence, frequently at fault himself. Despite the strictures which have been passed upon Guénon's method of judging of cows, the best breeders and judges of stock concur in the opinion, as the result of their observations, that cows with the most perfectly developed milk-mirrors are, with rare exception, the best milkers of their breed; and that cows with small and slightly developed milk-mirrors are, in the majority of cases, bad milkers. There are, undoubtedly, cows with very small mirrors, which are, nevertheless, very fair in the yield of milk; and among those with middling quality of mirrors, instances of rather more than ordinary milkers often occur, while at the same time it is true that cases now and then are found where the very best marked and developed mirrors are found on very poor milkers. These apparent exceptions, however, are to be explained, in the large majority of cases, by causes outside of those which affect the appearance of the milk-mirror. It is, of course, impossible to estimate with mathematical accuracy either the quantity, quality, or duration of the milk, since it is affected by so many chance circumstances, which cannot always be known or estimated by even the most skillful judges; such, for example, as the food, the treatment, the temperament, accidental diseases, inflammation of the udder, premature calving, the climate and season, the manner in which she has been milked, and a thousand other things which interrupt or influence the flow of milk, without materially changing the size or shape of the milk-mirror. It has, indeed, been very justly observed that we often see cows equally well formed, with precisely the same milk-mirror, and kept in the same circumstances, yet giving neither equal quantities nor similar qualities of milk. Nor could it be otherwise; since the action of the organs depends, not merely on their size and form, but, to a great extent, on the general condition of each individual. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [B.]] [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [C.]] The different forms of milk-mirrors are represented by the shaded parts of cuts, lettered A, B, C, D; but it is necessary to premise that upon the cows themselves they are always partly concealed by the thighs, the udder, and the folds of the skin, which are not shown, and therefore they are not always so uniform in nature as they appear in the cuts. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [D.]] Their size varies as the skin is more or less folded or stretched; while the cuts represent the skin as uniform or free from folds, but not stretched out. It is usually very easy to distinguish the milk-mirrors by the upward direction of the hair which forms them. They are sometimes marked by a line of bristly hair growing in the opposite direction, which surrounds them, forming a sort of outline by the upward and downward growing hair. Yet, when the hair is very fine and short, mixed with longer hairs, and the skin much folded, and the udder voluminous and pressed by the thighs, it is necessary, in order to distinguish the part enclosed between the udder and the legs, and examine the full size of the mirrors, to observe them attentively, and to place the legs wide apart, and to smooth out the skin, in order to avoid the folds. The mirrors may also be observed by holding the back of the hand against the perineum, and drawing it from above downward, when the nails rubbing against the up-growing hair, make the parts covered by it very perceptible. As the hair of the milk-mirror has not the same direction as the hair which surrounds it, it may often be distinguished by a difference in the shade reflected by it. It is then sufficient to place it properly to the light in order to see the difference in shade, and to make out the part covered by the upward-growing hair. Most frequently, however, the hair of the milk-mirror is thin and fine, and the color of the skin can easily be seen. If the eye alone is trusted, we shall often be deceived. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [E.]] In some countries cattle-dealers shave the back part of the cow. Just after this operation the mirrors can neither be seen nor felt; but this inconvenience ceases in a few days. It may be added that the shaving--designed, as the dealers say, to beautify the cow--is generally intended simply to destroy the milk-mirror, and to deprive buyers of one means of judging of the milking qualities of the cows. It is unnecessary to add that the cows most carefully shaven are those which are badly marked, and that it is prudent to take it for granted that cows so shorn are bad milkers. Milk-mirrors vary in position, extent, and the figure which they represent. They may be divided according to their position, into mirrors or escutcheons, properly so called, or into lower and upper tufts, or escutcheons. The latter are very small in comparison with the former, and are situated in close proximity to the vulva, as seen at 1, in cut E. They are very common on cows of bad milking races, but are very rarely seen on the best milch cows. They consist of one or two ovals, or small bands of up-growing hair, and serve to indicate the continuance of the flow of milk. The period is short, in proportion as the tufts are large. They must not be confounded with the escutcheon proper, which is often extended up to the vulva. They are separated from it by bands of hair, more or less large, as in cut marked F. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [F.]] Milk-mirrors are sometimes symmetrical, and sometimes without symmetry. When there is a great difference in the extent of the two halves, it almost always happens that the teats on the side where the mirror is best developed give more milk than those of the opposite side. The left half of the mirror, it may be remarked, is almost always the largest; and so, when the perinean part is folded into a square, it is on this side of the body that it unfolds. Of three thousand cows in Denmark, but a single one was found, whose escutcheon varied even a little from this rule. The mirrors having a value in proportion to the space which they occupy, it is of great importance to attend to all the rows of down-growing hairs, which diminish the extent of surface, whether these tufts are in the midst of the mirror, or form indentations on its edges. These indentations, concealed in part by the folds of the skin, are sometimes seen with difficulty; but it is important to take them into account, since in a great many cows they materially lessen the size of the mirror. Cows are often found, whose milk-mirrors at first sight appear very large, but which are only medium milkers; and it will usually be found that lateral indentations greatly diminish the surface of up-growing hair. Many errors are committed in estimating the value of such cows, from a want of attention to the real extent of the mirror. All the interruptions in the surface of the mirror indicate a diminution in the quantity of the milk, with the exception, however, of small oval or elliptical plates which are found in the mirror, on the back part of the udders of the best cows, as represented in the cut already given, marked A. These ovals have a peculiar tint, which is occasioned by the downward direction of the hair which forms them. In the best cows these ovals exist with the lower mirrors very well developed, as represented in the cut just named. In short, it should be stated that, in order to determine the extent and significance of a mirror, it is necessary to consider the state of the perineum as to fat, and that of the fullness of the udder. In a fat cow, with an inflated udder, the mirror would appear larger than it really is; whilst in a lean cow, with a loose and wrinkled udder, it appears smaller. Fat will cover faults--a fact to be borne in mind when selecting a cow. In bulls, the mirrors present the same peculiarities as in cows; but they are less varied in their form, and especially much less in size. In calves, the mirrors show the shapes which they are afterwards to have, only they are more contracted, because the parts which they cover are but slightly developed. They are easily seen after birth; but the hair which then covers them is long, coarse, and stiff; and when this hair falls off, the calf's mirror will resemble that of the cow, but will be of less size. With calves, however, it should be stated, in addition, that the milk-mirrors are more distinctly recognized on those from cows that are well kept, and that they will generally be fully developed at two years old. Some changes take place in the course of years, but the outlines of the mirror appear prominent at the time of advanced pregnancy, or, in the case of cows giving milk, at the times when the udder is more distended with milk than at others. M. Mayne, who has explained and simplified the method of M. Guénon, divides cows, according to the quantity which they give, into four classes: first, the very good; second, the good; third, the medium; and fourth, the bad. In the FIRST class he places cows, both parts of whose milk mirror, the mammary--the tuft situated on the udder, the legs and the thighs--and the perinean--that on the perineum, extending sometimes more or less out upon the thighs--are large, continuous, and uniform, covering at least a great part of the perineum, the udder, the inner surface of the thighs, and extending more or less out upon the legs, as in cut A, with no interruptions, or, if any, small ones, oval in form, and situated on the posterior face of the udder. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [G.]] Such mirrors are found on most very good cows, but may also be found on cows which can scarcely be called good, and which should be ranked in the next class. But cows, whether having very well developed mirrors or not, may be reckoned as very good, and as giving as much milk as is to be expected from their size, food, and the hygienic circumstances in which they are kept, if they present the following characteristics: veins of the perineum large, as if swollen, and visible on the exterior--as in cut A--or which can easily be made to appear by pressing upon the base of the perineum; veins of the udder large and knotted; milk-veins large, often double, equal on both sides, and forming zig-zags, under the belly. To the signs furnished by the veins and by the mirror, may be added also the following marks: a uniform, very large, and yielding udder, shrinking much in milking, and covered with soft skin and fine hair; good constitution, full chest, regular appetite, and great propensity to drink. Such cows rather incline to be poor than to be fat. The skin is soft and yielding; short, fine hair; small head; fine horns; bright, sparkling eye; mild expression; feminine look; with a fine neck. Cows of this first class are very rare. They give, even when small in size, from ten to fourteen quarts of milk a day; and the largest sized from eighteen to twenty-six quarts a day, and even more. Just after calving, if arrived at maturity and fed with good, wholesome, moist food in sufficient quantity and quality, adapted to promote the secretion of milk, they can give about a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay, or its equivalent, which they eat. They continue in milk for a long period. The best never go dry, and may be milked even up to the time of calving, giving from eight to ten quarts of milk a day. But even the best cows often fall short of the quantity of milk which they are able to give, from being fed on food which is too dry, or not sufficiently varied, or not rich enough in nutritive qualities, or deficient in quantity. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [H.]] The SECOND class is that of _good cows_; and to this belong the best commonly found in the market and among the cow-feeders of cities. They have the mammary part of the milk-mirror well developed, but the perinean part contracted, or wholly wanting, as in cut G; or both parts of the mirror are moderately developed, or slightly indented, as in cut H. Cut E belongs also to this class, in the lower part; but it indicates a cow, which--as the upper mirror, 1, indicates--dries up sooner when again in calf. These marks, though often seen in many good cows, should be considered as certain only when the veins of the perineum form, under the skin, a kind of network, which, without being very apparent, may be felt by a pressure on them; when the milk-veins on the belly are well-developed, though less knotty and less prominent than in cows of the first class; in short, when the udder is well developed, and presents veins which are sufficiently numerous, though not very large. It is necessary here, as in the preceding class, to distrust cows in which the mirror is not accompanied by large veins. This remark applies especially to cows which have had several calves, and are in full milk. They are medium or bad, let the milk-mirror be what it may, if the veins of the belly are not large, and those of the udder apparent. The general characteristics which depend on form and constitution combine, less than in cows of the preceding class, the marks of good health and excellent constitution with those of a gentle and feminine look. Small cows of this class give from seven to ten or eleven quarts of milk a day, and the largest from thirteen to seventeen quarts. They can be made to give three-fourths of a pint of milk, just after calving, for every ten ounces of hay consumed, if well cared for, and fed in a manner favorable to the secretion of milk. They hold out long in milk, when they have no upper mirrors or tufts. At seven or eight months in calf, they may give from five to eight quarts of milk a day. The THIRD class consists of _middling cows_. When the milk-mirror really presents only the mammary or lower part slightly indicated or developed, and the perinean part contracted, narrow, and irregular--as in cut K--the cows are middling. The udder is slightly developed or hard, and shrinks very little after milking. The veins of the perineum are not apparent, and those which run along the lower side of the abdomen are small, straight, and sometimes unequal. In this case the mirror is not symmetrical, and the cow gives more milk on the side where the vein is the largest. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [K.]] These cows have large heads, and a thick, hard skin. Being ordinarily in good condition, they are beautiful to look at, and seem to be well formed. Many of them are nervous and restive, and not easily approached. Cows of this class give, according to size, from three or four to ten quarts of milk. They very rarely give, even in the most favorable circumstances, half a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay which they consume. The milk diminishes rapidly, and dries up wholly the fourth or fifth month in calf. The FOURTH class is composed of _bad cows_. As they are commonly in good condition, these cows are often the most beautiful of the herd and in the markets. They have fleshy thighs, thick and hard skin, a large and coarse neck and head, and horns large at the base. The udder is hard, small and fleshy, with a skin covered with long, rough hair. No veins are to be seen either on the perineum or the udder, while those of the belly are slightly developed, and the mirrors are ordinarily small, as in cut L. With these characteristics, cows give only a few quarts of milk a day, and dry up in a short time after calving. Some of them can scarcely nourish their calves, even when they are properly cared for and well fed. Sickly habits, chronic affections of the digestive organs, the chest, the womb, and the lacteal system, sometimes greatly affect the milk secretion, and cause cows troubled with them to fall from the first or second to the third, and sometimes to the fourth class. Without pushing this method of judging of the good milking qualities of cows into the objectionable extreme to which it was carried by its originator, it may be safely asserted that the milk-mirror forms an important additional mark or point for distinguishing good milkers; and it may be laid down as a rule that, in the selection of milch cows, as well as in the choice of young animals for breeders, the milk-mirror should, by all means, be examined and considered; but that we should not limit or confine ourselves exclusively to it, and that other and long-known marks should be equally regarded. There are cases, however, where a knowledge and careful examination of the form and size of the mirror become of the highest importance. It is well known that certain signs or marks of great milkers are developed, only as the capacities of the animal herself are fully and completely developed by age. The milk-veins, for instance, are never so large and prominent in heifers and young cows as in old ones, and the same may be said of the udder, and of the veins of the udder and perineum; all of which it is of great importance to observe in the selection of milch cows. Those signs, then, which in cows arrived at maturity are almost sufficient in themselves to warrant a conclusion as to their merits as milkers, are, to a great extent, wanting in younger animals, and altogether in calves, as to which there is often doubt whether they shall be raised; and here a knowledge of the form of the mirror is of immense advantage, since it gives, at the outset and before any expense is incurred, a somewhat reliable means of judging of the future milking capacities of the animal; or, if a male, of the probability of his transmitting milking qualities to his offspring. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [L.]] It will be seen, from an examination of the points of a good milch cow that, though the same marks which indicate the greatest milking qualities may not always indicate the greatest aptitude to fatten, yet that the signs which denote good fattening qualities are included among the signs favorable to the production of milk; such as soundness of constitution, marked by good organs of digestion and respiration fineness and mellowness of the skin and hair, quietness of disposition--which inclines the animal to rest and lie down while chewing the cud--and other marks which are relied on by graziers in selecting animals to fatten. In buying dairy stock the farmer generally finds it for his interest to select young heifers, as they give the promise of longer usefulness. But it is often the case that older cows are selected with the design of using them for the dairy for a limited period, and then feeding them for the butcher. In either case, it is advisable, as a rule, to choose animals in low or medium condition. The farmer cannot commonly afford to buy fat; it is more properly his business to make it, and to have it to sell. Good and well-marked cows in poor condition will rapidly gain in flesh and products when removed to better pastures and higher keeping, and they cost less in the original purchase. It is, perhaps, superfluous to add that regard should be had to the quality of the pasturage and keeping which a cow has previously had, as compared with that to which she is to be subjected. The size of the animal should also be considered with reference to the fertility of the pastures into which she is to be put. Small or medium-sized animals accommodate themselves to ordinary pastures far better than large ones. Where a very large cow will do well, two small ones will usually do better; while the large animal might fail entirely where two small ones would do well. It is better to have the whole herd, so far as may be, uniform in size; for, if they vary greatly, some may get more than they need, and others will not have enough. This, however, cannot always be brought about. [Illustration] Crossing and Breeding The raising of cattle has now become a source of profit in many sections,--to a greater extent, at least, than formerly--and it becomes a matter of great practical importance to our farmers to take the proper steps to improve them. Indeed, the questions--what are the best breeds, and what are the best crosses, and how shall I improve my stock--are now asked almost daily; and their practical solution would add many thousand dollars to the aggregate wealth of the farmers of the country, if they would all study their own interests. The time is gradually passing away when the intelligent practical farmer will be willing to put his cows to any bull, simply because his services may be had for twenty-five cents; for, even if the progeny is to go to the butcher, the calf sired by a pure-bred bull--particularly of a race distinguished for fineness of bone, symmetry of form, and early maturity--will bring a much higher price at the same age than a calf sired by a scrub. Blood has a money value, which will, sooner or later, be generally appreciated. The first and most important object of the farmer is to get the greatest return in money for his labor and his produce; and it is for his interest to obtain an animal--a calf, for example--that will yield the largest profit on the outlay. If a calf, for which the original outlay was five dollars, will bring at the same age and on the same keep more real net profit than another, the original outlay for which was not twenty-five cents, it is certainly for the farmer's interest to make the heavier original outlay and thus secure the superior animal. Setting all fancy aside, it is merely a question of dollars and cents; but one thing is certain--and that is, that no farmer can afford to keep poor stock. It eats as much, and requires nearly the same amount of care and attention, as stock of the best quality; while it is equally certain that stock of ever so good a quality, whether grade, native, or thorough-bred, will be sure to deteriorate and sink to the level of poor stock by neglect and want of proper attention. How, then, is our stock to be improved? Not, certainly, by that indiscriminate crossing, with a total disregard of all well-established principles, which has thus far marked our efforts with foreign stock, and which is one prominent reason why so little improvement has been made in our dairies; nor by leaving all the results to chance, when, by a careful and judicious selection, they may be within our own control. We want cattle for distinct purposes, as for milk, beef, or labor. In a large majority of cases--especially in the dairy districts, at least, comprising the Eastern and Middle States--the farmer cares more for the milking qualities of his cows, especially for the quantity they give, than for their fitness for grazing, or aptness to fatten. These latter points become more important in the Western and some of the Southern States, where much greater attention is paid to breeding and to feeding, and where comparatively slight attention is given to the productions of the dairy. A stock of cattle which would suit one farmer might be wholly unsuited to another, and in such particular case the breeder should have some special object in view, and select his animals with reference to it. There are, however, some well-defined general principles that apply to breeding everywhere, and which, in many cases, are not thoroughly understood. To these attention will now be directed. The first and most important of the laws to be considered in this connection is that of _similarity_. It is by virtue of this law that the peculiar characters, properties, and qualities of the parents--whether external or internal, good or bad, healthy or diseased--are transmitted to their offspring. This is one of the plainest and most certain of the laws of nature. The lesson which it teaches may be stated in five words:--Breed only from the best. Judicious selection is indispensable to success in breeding, and this should have regard to every particular--general appearance, length of limb, shape of carcass, development of chest; in cattle, to the size, shape, and position of the udder, thickness of skin, touch, length and texture of hair, docility, and all those points which go to make up the desirable animal. Not only should care be exercised to avoid _structural defects_, but especially to secure freedom from _hereditary diseases_; as both defects and diseases appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable qualities. There is, oftentimes, no obvious peculiarity of structure or appearance which suggests the possession of diseases or defects which are transmissible; and for this reason, special care and continued acquaintance are requisite in order to be assured of their absence in breeding animals; but such a tendency, although invisible or inappreciable to careless observers, must still, judging from its effects, have as real and certain an existence as any peculiarity of form or color. In neat cattle, hereditary diseases do not usually show themselves at birth; and sometimes the tendency remains latent for many years, perhaps through one or two generations, and afterward breaks out with all its former severity. The diseases which are found hereditary in cattle are scrofula, consumption, dysentery, diarrhoea, rheumatism, and malignant tumors. As these animals are less exposed to the exciting causes of disease, and less liable to be overtasked or subjected to violent changes of temperature, or otherwise put in jeopardy, their diseases are not so numerous as those of the horse, and what they have are less violent, and generally of a chronic character. With regard to hereditary diseases, it is eminently true that "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." As a general and almost invariable rule, animals possessing either defects or a tendency to disease, should not be employed for breeding. If, however, for special reasons it seems desirable to breed from one which has some slight defect of symmetry, or a faint tendency to disease--although for the latter it is doubtful whether the possession of any good qualities can fully compensate--it should be mated with one which excels in every respect in which it is itself deficient, and on no account with one which is near of kin to it. There is another law, by which that of similarity is greatly modified--the law of _Variation_ or divergence. All animals possess a certain flexibility or pliancy of organization, which renders them capable of change to a greater or less extent. When in a state of nature, variations are comparatively slow and infrequent; but when in a state of domestication they occur much oftener and to a much greater extent. The greater variability in the latter case is doubtless owing, in some measure, to our domestic productions' being reared under conditions of life not so uniform as, and different from, those to which the parent species was exposed in a state of nature. Among what are usually reckoned the more active causes of variation may be named _climate_, _food_, and _habit_. Animals in a cold climate are provided with a thicker covering of hair than in warmer ones. Indeed, it is said that in some of the tropical provinces of South America, there are cattle which have an extremely rare and fine fur, in place of the ordinary pile of hair. The supply of food, whether abundant or scanty, is one of the most efficient causes of variation known to be within the control of man. A due consideration of the natural effects of climate and food is a point worthy the careful attention of the stock-husbandman. If the breeds employed be well adapted to the situation, and the capacity of the soil be such as to feed them fully, profit may be safely anticipated. Animals are to be regarded as machines for converting herbage into money. The bestowal of food sufficient, both in amount and quality, to enable animals to develop all the excellencies inherent in them, and yield all the profit of which they are capable, is something quite distinct from undue forcing of pampering. The latter process may produce wonderful animals to look at, but neither useful nor profitable ones, and there is danger of thus producing a most undesirable variation, since in animals the process may be carried far enough to produce barrenness. Instances are not wanting, particularly among the more recent improved short-horns, of impotency among the males and of barrenness among the females; and in some cases where the latter have borne calves, they have failed to secrete sufficient milk for their nourishment. Impotency in bulls of various breeds has, in many instances, occurred from too high feeding, especially when connected with a lack of sufficient exercise. A working bull, though perhaps not so pleasing to the eye as a fat one, is a surer stock-getter; and his progeny is more likely to inherit full health and vigor. _Habit_ has a decided influence toward producing variations. We find in domestic animals that use--or the demand created by habit--is met by a development or change in the organization adapted to the requirement. For instance, with cows in a state of nature, or where required only to suckle their young, the supply of milk is barely fitted to the requirement. If more is desired, and the milk is drawn completely and regularly, the yield is increased and continued longer. By keeping up the demand there is induced, in the next generation, a greater development of the secreting organs, and more milk is given. By continuing the practice, by furnishing the needful conditions of suitable food and the like, and by selecting in each generation those animals showing the greatest tendency toward milk, a breed specially adapted for the dairy may be established. It is just by this mode that the Ayrshires have, within the past century, been brought to be what they are--a breed giving more good milk upon a certain amount of food than any other. [Illustration: READY FOR ACTION.] It is a fact too well established to be controverted, that the first male produces impressions upon subsequent progeny by other males. To what extent this principle holds, it is impossible to say. Although the instances in which it is known to be of a very marked and obvious character may be comparatively few, yet there is ample reason to believe that, although in a majority of cases the effect may be less noticeable, it is not less real; and it therefore demands the special attention of breeders. The knowledge of this law furnishes a clue to the cause of many of the disappointments of which practical breeders often complain, and of many variations otherwise unaccountable, and it suggests particular caution as to the first male employed in the coupling of animals--a matter which has often been deemed of little consequence in regard to cattle, inasmuch as fewer heifers' first calves are reared, than those are which are borne subsequently. The phenomenon--or law, as it is sometimes called--of atavism, or _ancestral influence_, is one of considerable practical importance, and well deserves the careful attention of the breeder of farm stock. Every one is aware that it is by no means unusual for a child to resemble its grandfather, or grandmother, or even some ancestor still more remote, more than it does either its own father or mother. The same occurrence is found among our domestic animals, and oftener in proportion as the breeds are crossed or mixed up. Among our common stock of neat cattle, or natives--originating, as they did, from animals brought from England, Scotland, Denmark, France, and Spain, each possessing different characteristics of form, color, and use, and bred, as our common stock has usually been, indiscriminately together, with no special object in view, with no attempt to obtain any particular type or form, or to secure adaptation for any particular purpose--frequent opportunities are afforded of witnessing the results of this law of hereditary transmission. So common, indeed, is its occurrence, that the remark is often made, that, however good a cow may be, there is no telling beforehand what sort of a calf she may have. The fact is sufficiently obvious, that certain peculiarities often lie dormant for a generation or two and then reappear in subsequent progeny. Stockmen often speak of it as "breeding back," or "crying back." The lesson taught by this law is very plain. It shows the importance of seeking thorough-bred or well-bred animals; and by these terms are simply meant such as are descended from a line of ancestors in which for many generations the desirable forms, qualities, and characteristics have been _uniformly shown_. In such a case, even if ancestral influence does come in play, no material difference appears in the offspring, the ancestors being all essentially alike. From this standpoint we best perceive in what consists the money value of a good "pedigree." This is valuable, in proportion as it shows an animal to be descended, not only from such as are purely of its own race or breed, but also from such individuals of that breed as were specially noted for the excellencies for which that particular breed is esteemed. Probably the most distinctly marked evidence of ancestral influence among us, is to be found in the ill-begotten, round-headed calves, not infrequently dropped by cows of the common mixed kind, which, if killed early, make very blue veal, and if allowed to grow up, become exceedingly profitless and unsatisfactory beasts; the heifers being often barren, the cows poor milkers, the oxen dull, mulish beasts, yielding flesh of very dark color, of ill flavor and destitute of fat. _The relative influence_ of the male and female parents upon the characteristics of progeny has long been a fruitful subject of discussion among breeders. It is found in experience that progeny sometimes resembles one parent more than the other--sometimes there is an apparent blending of the characteristics of both--sometimes a noticeable dissimilarity to either, though always more or less resemblance somewhere--and sometimes the impress of one may be seen upon a portion of the organization of the offspring, and that of the other parent upon another portion; yet we are not authorized from such discrepancies to conclude that it is a matter of chance; for all of nature's operations are conducted in accordance with fixed laws, whether we be able fully to discover them or not. The same causes always produce the same results. In this case, not less than in others, there are, beyond all doubt, certain fixed laws; and the varying results which we see are easily and sufficiently accounted for by the existence of conditions or modifying influences not fully open to our observation. It may be stated, on the whole--as a result of the varied investigations to which this question has given rise--that the evidence, both from observation and the testimony of the best practical breeders, goes to show that each parent usually contributes certain portions of the organization to the offspring, and that each has a modifying influence upon the other. Facts also show that the same parent does not always contribute the same portions, but that the order is at times, and not rarely, reversed. Where animals are of distinct species or breeds, transmission is usually found to be in harmony with the principle, that the male gives mostly the outward form and locomotive system, and the female chiefly the interior system, constitution and the like. Where the parents are of the same breed, it appears that the proportions contributed by each are governed, in a large measure, by the condition of each in regard to age and vigor, or by virtue of individual potency or superiority of physical endowment. This potency or power of transmission, seems to be legitimately connected with high breeding, or the concentration of fixed qualities, obtained by continued descent for many generations from such only as possess in the highest degree the qualities desired. Practically, the knowledge obtained dictates in a most emphatic manner that every stock-grower use his utmost endeavor to obtain the services of the best sires; that is, the best for the ends and purposes in view--that he depend chiefly on the sire for outward form and symmetry--and that he select dams best calculated to develop the good qualities of the male, depending chiefly upon these for freedom, from internal disease, for hardihood and constitution, and, generally, for all qualities dependent upon the vital or nutritive system. The neglect of the qualities of the dam, which is far too common--miserably old and inferior animals being often employed--cannot be too strongly censured. With regard to the laws which regulate the sex of the progeny very little is known. Many and extensive observations have been made, without reaching any definite conclusion. Nature seems to have provided that the number of each sex; produced, shall be nearly equal; but by what means this result is attained, has not as yet been discovered. It has long been a disputed point, whether the system of _breeding in-and-in_, or the opposite one of frequent crossing, has the greater tendency to improve the character of stock This term, in-and-in, is often very loosely used and as variously understood. Some confine the phrase to the coupling of those of exactly the same blood, as brothers and sisters, while others include in it breeding from parents and offsprings; and others still employ it to embrace those of a more distant relationship. For the last, the term breeding-in, or close breeding, is generally deemed more suitable. The current opinion is decidedly against the practice of breeding from any near relatives; it being usually found that degeneracy follows, and often to a serious degree; but it is not proved that this degeneracy, although very common and even usual, is yet a necessary consequence. That ill effects follow, in a majority of cases, is not to be doubted; but this is easily and sufficiently accounted for upon quite other grounds. Perhaps, however, the following propositions may be safely stated: That in general practice, with the grades and mixed animals common in the country, _close-breeding should be scrupulously avoided_ as highly detrimental. It is better _always_ to avoid breeding from near relatives whenever stock-getters of the same breed and of equal merit can be obtained which are not related. Yet, where this is not possible, or where there is some desirable and clearly defined purpose in view--as the fixing and perpetuating of some valuable quality in a particular animal not common to the breed--and the breeder possesses the knowledge and skill needful to accomplish his purpose, and the animals are perfect in health and development, close breeding may be practised with advantage. The practice of _crossing_, like that of close breeding, has its strong and its weak side. Judiciously practised, it offers a means of providing animals _for the butcher_, often superior to, and more profitable than, those of any pure breed. It is also admissible as the foundation of a systematic and well-considered attempt to establish a new breed. But when crossing is practised injudiciously and indiscriminately, and especially when so done for the purpose of procuring _breeding animals_, it is scarcely less objectionable than careless in-and-in breeding. [Illustration: A SPRIGHTLY YOUTH.] The profitable style of breeding for the great majority of farmers to adopt, is neither to cross nor to breed from close affinities--except in rare instances, and for some specific and clearly understood purpose--but to _breed in the line_; that is, to select the breed or race best adapted to fulfil the requirement demanded, whether it be for the dairy, for labor, or for such combination of these as can be had without too great a sacrifice of the principal requisite, and then to procure a _pure-bred_ male of the kind determined upon, and breed him to the females of the herd; and if these be not such as are calculated to develop his qualities, endeavor by purchase or exchange to procure such as will. Let the progeny of these be bred to another _pure-bred_ male of the same breed, but as distantly related to the first as may be. Let this plan be faithfully pursued, and, although we cannot, without the intervention of well-bred females, procure stock purely of the kind desired, yet in several generations--if proper care be given to the selection of males, that each one be such as to retain and improve upon the points gained by his predecessor--the stock, for most practical purposes, will be as good as if thorough-bred. If this plan were generally adopted, and a system of letting or exchanging males established, the cost might be brought within the means of most persons, and the advantages which would accrue would be almost beyond belief. A brief summing-up of the foregoing principles may not be inappropriate here. The law of similarity teaches us to select animals for breeding which possess the desired forms and qualities in the greatest perfection and best combination. Regard should be had, not only to the more obvious characteristics, but also to such hereditary traits and tendencies as may be hidden from cursory observation and demand careful and thorough investigation. From the hereditary nature of all characteristics, whether good or bad, we learn the importance of having all desirable qualities _thoroughly inbred_; or, in other words, so firmly in each generation that the next is warrantably certain to present nothing worse--that no ill results follow from breeding back to some inferior ancestor--that all undesirable traits or points be, so far as possible, _bred-out_. So important is this consideration, that, in practice, it is decidedly preferable to employ a male of ordinary external appearance--provided his ancestry be all which is desired--rather than a grade, or cross-bred animal, although the latter be greatly his superior in personal beauty. A knowledge of the law of variation teaches us to avoid, for breeding purposes, such animals as exhibit variations unfavorable to the purpose in view; to endeavor to perpetuate every real improvement gained; as well as to secure, as far as practicable, the conditions necessary to induce or continue any improvement, such as general treatment, food, climate, habits, and the like. Where the parents do not possess the perfections desired, selections for coupling should be made with critical reference to correcting the faults or deficiencies of one by corresponding excellencies in the other. To correct defects, too much must not be attempted at once. Pairing those very unlike oftener results in loss than gain. Avoid all extremes, and endeavor by moderate degrees to attain the end desired. Crossing, between different breeds, for the purpose of obtaining animals for the shambles, may be advantageously practised to a considerable extent, but not for the production of breeding animals. As a general rule, cross-bred males should not be employed for propagation, and cross-bred females should be served by thorough-bred males. In ordinary practice, breeding from near relatives is to be scrupulously avoided. For certain purposes, under certain conditions and circumstances, and in the hands of a skillful breeder, it may be practised with advantage--but not otherwise. In a large majority of cases--other things being equal--we may expect in progeny the outward form and general structure of the sire, together with the internal qualities, constitution, and nutritive system of the dam; each, however, modified by the other. Particular care should always be taken that the male by which the dam first becomes pregnant is the best which can be obtained; also, that at the time of sexual congress both are in vigorous health. Breeding animals should not be allowed to become fat, but always kept in thrifty condition; and such as are intended for the butcher should never be fat but once. In deciding with what breeds to stock a farm, endeavor to select those best adapted to its surface, climate, and degree of fertility; also, with reference to probable demand and proximity to markets. No expense incurred in procuring choice animals for propagation, no amount of skill in breeding, can supersede, or compensate for, a lack of liberal feeding and good treatment. The better the stock, the better care they deserve. PREGNANCY The symptoms of pregnancy in its early stage were formerly deemed exceedingly unsatisfactory. The period of being in season--which commonly lasts three or four days, and then ceases for a while, and returns in about three weeks--might entirely pass over; and, although it was then probable that conception had taken place, yet in a great many instances the hopes of the breeder were disappointed. It was not until between the third and fourth month, when the belly began to enlarge--or, in many cases, considerably later--and when the motions of the foetus might be seen, or, at all events, felt by pressing on the right flank, that the farmer could be assured that his cow was in calf. That greatest of improvements in veterinary practice, the application of the ear to the chest and belly of various animals, in order to detect by the different sounds--which after a short time, will be easily recognized--the state of the circulation through most of the organs, and consequently, the precise seat and degree of inflammation and danger, has now enabled the breeder to ascertain the existence of pregnancy at as early a stage as six or eight weeks. The beating of the heart of the calf may then be distinctly heard, twice, or more than twice, as frequent as that of the mother; and each pulsation will betray the singular double beating of the foetal heart. This will also be accompanied by the audible rushing of the blood through the vessels of the placenta. The ear should be applied to the right flank, beginning on the higher part of it, and gradually shifting downward and backward. These sounds will thus soon be heard, and cannot be mistaken. TREATMENT BEFORE CALVING. Little alteration needs to be made in the management of the cow for the first seven months of pregnancy; except that, as she has not only to yield milk for the profit of the farmer, but to nourish the growing foetus within, she should be well, yet not too luxuriantly, fed. The half-starved cow will not adequately discharge this double duty, nor provide sufficient nutriment for the calf when it has dropped; while the cow in high condition will be dangerously disposed to inflammation and fever, when, at the time of parturition, she is otherwise so susceptible of the power of every stimulus. If the season and the convenience of the farmer will allow, she will be better at pasture, at least for some hours each day than when confined altogether to the cow-house. At a somewhat uncertain period before she calves, there will be a new secretion of milk for the expected little one; and under the notion of somewhat recruiting her strength, in order better to enable her to discharge her new duty--but more from the uniform testimony of experience that there is danger of local inflammation, general fever, garget in the udder, and puerperal fever, if the new milk descends while the old milk continues to flow--it has been usual to let the cow _go dry_ for some period before parturition. Farmers and breeders have been strangely divided as to the length of this period. It must be decided by circumstances. A cow in good condition may be milked for a much longer period than a poor one. Her abundance of food renders a period of respite almost unnecessary; and all that needs to be taken care of, is that the old milk should be fairly gone before the new milk springs. In such a cow, while there is danger of inflammation from the sudden rush of new milk into a bag already occupied, there is almost always considerable danger of indurations and tumors in the teats from the habit of secretion being too long suspended. The emaciated and over-milked beast, however, must rest a while before she can again advantageously discharge the duties of a mother. If the period of pregnancy were of equal length at all times and in all cows, the one that has been well fed might be milked until within a fortnight or three weeks of parturition, while a holiday of two months should be granted to the poorer beast; but as there is much irregularity about the time of gestation, it may be prudent to take a month or five Weeks, as the average period. The process of parturition is necessarily one that is accompanied with a great deal of febrile excitement; and, therefore, when it nearly approaches, not only should a little care be taken to lessen the quantity of food, and to remove that which is of a stimulating action, but a mild dose of physic, and a bleeding regulated by the condition of the animal, will be very proper precautionary measures. A moderately open state of the bowels is necessary at the period of parturition in the cow. During the whole time of pregnancy her enormous stomach sufficiently presses upon and confines the womb; and that pressure may be productive of injurious and fatal consequences, if at this period the rumen is suffered to be distended by innutritious food, or the manyplus takes on that hardened state to which it is occasionally subject. Breeders have been sadly negligent in this respect. The springing of the udder, or the rapid enlargement of it from the renewed secretion of milk--the enlargement of the external parts of the bearing (the former, as has been said by some, in old cows, and the latter in young ones)--the appearance of a glaring discharge from the bearing--the evident dropping of the belly, with the appearance of leanness and narrowness between the shape and the udder--a degree of uneasiness and fidgetiness--moaning occasionally--accelerated respiration--all these symptoms will announce that the time of calving is not far off. The cow should be brought near home, and put in some quiet, sheltered place. In cold or stormy weather she should be housed. Her uneasiness will rapidly increase--she will be continually getting up and lying down--her tail will begin to be elevated and the commencement of the labor-pains will soon be evident. In most cases the parturition will be natural and easy, and the less the cow is disturbed or meddled with, the better. She will do better without help than with it; but she should be watched, in order to see that no difficulty occurs which may require aid and attention. In cases of difficult parturition the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon may be required. [Illustration] Feeding and Management No branch of dairy farming can compare in importance with the management of cows. The highest success will depend upon it, whatever breed be selected, and whatever amount of care and attention be given to the points of the animals; for experience will show that very little milk comes out of the bag, that is not first put into the throat. It is poor economy, therefore, to attempt to keep too many cows for the amount of feed one has; for it will generally be found that one good cow well-bred and well fed will yield as much as two ordinary cows kept in the ordinary way; while a saving is effected both in labor and room required, and in the risks on the capital invested. If an argument for the larger number on poorer feed is urged on the ground of the additional manure--which is the only basis upon which it can be put--it is enough to say that it is a very expensive way of making manure. It is not too strong an assertion, that a proper regard to profit and economy would require many an American farmer to sell off nearly half of his cows, and to feed the whole of his hay and roots hitherto used into the remainder. An animal, to be fully fed and satisfied, requires a quantity of food in proportion to its live weight. No feed is complete that does not contain a sufficient amount of nutritive elements; hay, for example, being more nutritive than straw, and grains than roots. The food, too, must possess a bulk sufficient to fill up to a certain degree the organs of digestion of the stomach; and, to receive the full benefit of its food, the animal must be wholly satisfied--since, if the stomach is not sufficiently distended, the food cannot be properly digested, and of course many of the nutritive principles which it contains cannot be perfectly assimilated. An animal regularly fed eats till it is satisfied, and no more than is requisite. A part of the nutritive elements in hay and other forage plants is needed to keep an animal on its feet--that is, to keep up its condition--and if the nutrition of its food is insufficient for this, the weight decreases, and if it is more than sufficient the weight increases, or else this excess is consumed in the production of milk or in labor. About one sixtieth of their live weight in hay, or its equivalent, will keep horned cattle on their feet; but, in order to be completely nourished, they require about one thirtieth in dry substances, and four thirtieths in water, or other liquid contained in their food. The excess of nutritive food over and above what is necessary to sustain life will go, in milch cows, generally to the production of milk, or to the growth of the foetus, but not in all cows to an equal extent; the tendency to the secretion of milk being much more developed in some than in others. With regard, however, to the consumption of food in proportion to the live weight of the animal, it must be taken, in common with all general principles, with some qualifications. The proportion is probably not uniform as applied to all breeds indiscriminately, though it may be more so as applied to animals of the same breed. The idea of some celebrated stock-raisers has been that the quantity of food required depends much upon the shape of the barrel; and it is well known that an animal of a close, compact, well-rounded barrel, will consume less than one of an opposite make. The variations in the yield of milch cows are caused more by the variations in the nutritive elements of their food than by a change of the form in which it is given. A cow, kept through the winter on mere straw, will cease to give milk; and, when fed in spring on green forage, will give a fair quantity of milk. But she owes the cessation and restoration of the secretion, respectively, to the diminution and increase of her nourishment, and not at all to the change of form, or of outward substance in which the nutriment is administered. Let cows receive through winter nearly as large a proportion of nutritive matter as is contained in the clover, lucerne, and fresh grass which they eat in summer, and, no matter in what precise substance or mixture that matter be contained, they will yield a winter's produce of milk quite as rich in caseine and butyraceous ingredients as the summer's produce, and far more ample in quantity than almost any dairyman with old-fashioned notions would imagine to be possible. The great practical error on this subject consists, not in giving wrong kinds of food, but in not so proportioning and preparing it as to render an average ration of it equally rich in the elements of nutrition, and especially in nitrogenous elements, as an average ration of the green and succulent food of summer. We keep too much stock for the quantity of good and nutritious food which we have for it; and the consequence is, that cows are, in nine cases out of ten, poorly wintered, and come out in the spring weakened, if not, indeed, positively diseased, and a long time is required to bring them into a condition to yield a generous quantity of milk. It is a hard struggle for a cow reduced in flesh and in blood to fill up the wasted system with the food which would otherwise have gone to the secretion of milk; but, if she is well fed, well housed, well littered, and well supplied with pure, fresh water, and with roots, or other _moist_ food, and properly treated to the luxury of a frequent carding, and constant kindness, she comes out ready to commence the manufacture of milk under favorable circumstances. _Keep the cows constantly in good condition_, ought, therefore, to be the motto of every dairy farmer, posted up over the barn, and on and over the stalls, and over the milk-room, and repeated to the boys whenever there is danger of forgetting it. It is the great secret of success; and the difference between success and failure turns upon it. Cows in milk require more food in proportion to their size and weight than either oxen or young cattle. In order to keep cows in milk well and economically, regularity is next in importance to a full supply of wholesome and nutritious food. The animal stomach is a very nice chronometer, and it is of the utmost importance to observe regular hours in feeding, cleaning, and milking. This is a point, also, in which very many farmers are at fault--feeding whenever it happens to be convenient. The cattle are thus kept in a restless condition, constantly expecting food when the keeper enters the barn; while, if regular hours are strictly adhered to, they know exactly when they are to be fed, and they rest quietly till the time arrives. If one goes into any well-regulated dairy establishment an hour before feeding, scarcely an animal will rise to its feet; while; if it happens to be the hour of feeding, the whole herd will be likely to rise and seize their food with an avidity and relish not to be mistaken. With respect to the exact nurture to be pursued, no rule could be prescribed which would apply to all cases; and each individual must be governed much by circumstances, both regarding the particular kinds of feed at different seasons of the year, and the system of feeding. It has been found--it may be stated--in the practice of the most successful dairymen, that, in order to encourage the largest secretion of milk in stalled cows, one of the best courses is, to feed in the morning, either at the time of milking--which is preferred by many--or immediately after, with cut feed, consisting of hay, oats, millet, or cornstalks, mixed with shorts, and Indian linseed, or cotton-seed meal, thoroughly moistened with water. If in winter, hot or warm water is far better than cold. If given at milking-time, the cows will generally give down their milk more readily. The stalls and mangers should first be thoroughly cleansed. [Illustration: THE FAMILY PETS.] Roots and long hay may be given during the day; and at the evening milking, or directly after, another generous meal of cut feed, well moistened and mixed, as in the morning. No very concentrated food, like grains alone, or oil-cakes, should be fed early in the morning on an empty stomach, although it is sanctioned by the practice in the London milk-dairies. The processes of digestion go on best when the stomach is sufficiently distended; and for this purpose the bulk of food is almost as important as the nutritive qualities. The flavor of some roots, as cabbages and turnips, is more apt to be imparted to the flesh and milk when fed on an empty stomach than otherwise. After the cows have been milked and have finished their cut feed, they are carded and curried down, in well-managed dairies, and then either watered in the stall--which, in very cold or stormy weather, is far preferable--or turned out to water in the yard. While they are out, if they are let out at all, the stables are put in order; and, after tying them up, they are fed with long hay, and left to themselves till the next feeding time. This may consist of roots--such as cabbages, beets, carrots, or turnips sliced--or of potatoes, a peck, or--if the cows are very large--a half-bushel each, and cut feed again at the evening milking, as in the morning; after which, water in the stall, if possible. The less cows are exposed to the cold of winter, the better. They eat less, thrive better, and give more milk, when kept housed all the time, than when exposed to the cold. A case is on record, where a herd of cows, which had usually been supplied from troughs and pipes in the stalls, were, on account of an obstruction in the pipes, obliged to be turned out thrice a day to be watered in the yard. The quantity of milk instantly decreased, and in three days the diminution became very considerable. After the pipes were mended, and the cows again watered, as before, in their stalls, the flow of milk returned. This, however, must be governed much by the weather; for in very mild and warm days it may be judicious not only to let them out, but to allow them to remain out for a short time, for the purpose of exercise. Any one can arrange the hour for the several processes named above, to suit himself; but, when once fixed, it should be rigidly and regularly followed. If the regular and full feeding be neglected for even a day, the yield of milk will immediately decline, and it will be very difficult to restore it. It may be safely asserted, as the result of many trials and long practice, that a larger flow of milk follows a complete system of regularity in this respect than from a higher feeding where this system is not adhered to. One prime object which the dairyman should keep constantly in view is, to maintain the animal in a sound and healthy condition. Without this, no profit can be expected from a milch cow for any considerable length of time; and with a view to this, there should be an occasional change of food. But, in making changes, great care is requisite in order to supply the needful amount of nourishment, or the cow will fall off in flesh, and eventually in milk. It should, therefore, be remembered that the food consumed goes not alone to the secretion of milk, but also to the growth and maintenance of the bony structure, the flesh, the blood, the fat, the skin, and the hair, and in exhalations from the body. These parts of the body consist of different organic constituents. Some are rich in nitrogen, as the fibrin of the blood and albumen; others destitute of it, as fat; some abound in inorganic salts, phosphate of lime, and salts of potash. To explain how the constant waste of these substances may be supplied, a celebrated chemist observes that the albumen, gluten, caseine, and other nitrogenized principles of food, supply the animal with the materials requisite for the formation of muscle and cartilage; they are, therefore, called flesh-forming principles. Fats, or oily matters of the food, are used to lay on fat, or for the purpose of sustaining respiration. Starch, sugar, gum, and a few other non-nitrogenized substances, consisting of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, supply the carbon given off in respiration, or they are used for the production of fat. Phosphate of lime and magnesia in food principally furnish the animal with the materials of which the bony skeleton of its body consists. Saline substances--chlorides of sodium and potassium, sulphate and phosphate of potash and soda, and some other mineral matters occurring in food--supply the blood, juice of flesh, and various animal juices, with the necessary mineral constituents. The healthy state of an animal can thus only be preserved by a mixed food; that is, food which contains all the proximate principles just noticed. Starch or sugar alone cannot sustain the animal body, since neither of them furnishes the materials to build up the fleshy parts of the animal. When fed on substances in which an insufficient quantity of phosphates occurs, the animal will become weak, because it does not find any bone-producing principle in its food. Due attention should, therefore, be paid by the feeder to the selection of food which contains all the kinds of matter required, nitrogenized as well as non-nitrogenized, and mineral substances; and these should be mixed together in the proportion which experience points out as best for the different kinds of animals, or the particular purpose for which they are kept. Relative to the nutrition of cows for dairy purposes, milk may be regarded as a material for the manufacture of butter and cheese; and, according to the purpose for which the milk is intended to be employed, whether for the manufacture of butter or the production of cheese, the cow should be differently fed. Butter contains carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and no nitrogen. Cheese, on the contrary, is rich in nitrogen. Food which contains much fatty matter, or substances which in the animal system are readily converted into fat, will tend to increase the proportion of cream in milk. On the other hand, the proportion of caseine or cheesy matter in milk is increased by the use of highly nitrogenized food. Those, then, who desire much cream, or who produce cream for the manufacture of butter, select food likely to increase the proportion of butter in the milk. On the contrary, where the principal object is the production of milk rich in curd--that is, where cheese is the object of the farmer--clover, peas, bran-meal, and other plants which abound in legumine--a nitrogenized organic compound, almost identical in properties and composition with caseine, or the substance which forms the curd of milk--will be selected. And so the quality, as well as the quantity, of butter in the milk, depends on the kind of food consumed and on the general health of the animal. Cows fed on turnips in the stall always produce butter inferior to that of cows living upon the fresh and aromatic grasses of the pastures. Succulent food in which water abounds--the green grass of irrigated meadows, green clover, brewers' and distillers' refuse, and the like--increases the quantity, rather than the quality, of the milk; and by feeding these substances the milk-dairyman studies his own interest, and makes thin milk without diluting it with water--though, in the opinion of some, this may be no more legitimate than watering the milk. But, though the yield of milk may be increased by succulent or watery food, it should be given so as not to interfere with the health of the cow. Food rich in starch, gum, or sugar, which are the respiratory elements, an excess of which goes to the production of fatty matters, increases the butter in milk. Quietness promotes the secretion of fat in animals and increases the butter. Cheese will be increased by food rich in albumen, such as the leguminous plants. [Illustration: BUYING CATTLE.] The most natural, and of course the healthiest, food for milch cows in summer, is the green grass of the pastures; and when these fail from drought or over-stocking, the complement of nourishment may be made up with green clover, green oats, barley, millet, or corn-fodder and cabbage-leaves, or other succulent vegetables; and if these are wanting, the deficiency may be partly supplied with shorts, Indian-meal, linseed or cotton-seed meal. Green grass is more nutritious than hay, which always loses somewhat of its nutritive properties in curing; the amount of the loss depending chiefly on the mode of curing, and the length of exposure to sun and rain. But, apart from this, grass is more easily and completely digested than hay, though the digestion of the latter may be greatly aided by cutting and moistening, or steaming; and by this means it is rendered more readily available, and hence far better adapted to promote a large secretion of milk--a fact too often overlooked even by many intelligent farmers. In autumn, the best feed will be the grasses of the pastures, so far as they are available, green-corn fodder, cabbage, carrot, and turnip leaves, and an addition of meal or shorts. Toward the middle of autumn, the cows fed in the pastures will require to be housed regularly at night, especially in the more northern latitudes, and put, in part at least, upon hay. But every farmer knows that it is not judicious to feed out the best part of his hay when his cattle are first put into the barn, and that he should not feed so well in the early part of winter that he cannot feed better as the winter advances. At the same time, it should always be borne in mind that the change from grass to a poor quality of hay or straw, for cows in milk, should not be too sudden. A poor quality of dry hay is far less palatable in the early part of winter, after the cows are taken from grass, than at a later period; and, if it is resorted to with milch cows, will invariably lead to a falling off in the milk, which no good feed can afterward wholly restore. It is desirable, therefore, for the farmer to know what can be used instead of his best English or upland meadow hay, and yet not suffer any greater loss in the flow of milk, or in condition, than is absolutely necessary. In some sections of the Eastern States, the best quality of swale hay will be used; and the composition of that is as variable as possible, depending on the varieties of the grasses of which it was made, and the manner of curing. But, in other sections, many will find it necessary to use straw and other substitutes. Taking good English or meadow hay as the standard of comparison, and calling that one, 4.79 times the weight of rye-straw, or 3.83 times the weight of oat-straw, contains the same amount of nutritive matter; that is, it would take 4.79 times as good rye-straw to produce the same result as good meadow hay. In winter, the best food for cows in milk will be good sweet meadow hay, a part of which should be cut and moistened with water--as all inferior hay or straw should be--with an addition of root-crops, such as turnips, carrots, parsnips, potatoes, mangold-wurtzel, with shorts, oil-cake, Indian meal, or bean meal. It is the opinion of most successful dairymen that the feeding of moist food cannot be too highly recommended for cows in milk, especially to those who desire to obtain the largest quantity. Hay cut and thoroughly moistened becomes more succulent and nutritive, and partakes more of the nature of green grass. As a substitute for the oil-cake, hitherto known as an exceedingly valuable article for feeding stock, there is probably nothing better than cotton-seed meal. This is an article whose economic value has been but recently made known, but which, from practical trials already made, has proved eminently successful as food for milch cows. Chemists have decided that its composition is not inferior to that of the best flaxseed cake, and that in some respects its agricultural value surpasses that of any other kind of oil-cake. It has been remarked by chemists, in this connection, that the great value of linseed-cake, as an adjunct to hay, for fat cattle and milch cows, has been long recognized; and that it is undeniably traceable, in the main, to three ingredients of the seeds of the oil-yielding plants. The value of food depends upon the quantities of matters it contains which may be appropriated by the animal which consumes the food Now, it is proved that the fat of animals is derived from the starch, gum, and sugar, and more directly and easily from the oil of the food. These four substances, then, are fat-formers. The muscles, nerves, and tendons of animals, the brine of their blood and the curd of their milk, are almost identical in composition with, and strongly similar in many of their properties to, matters found in all vegetables, but chiefly in such as form the most concentrated food. These blood (and muscle) formers are characterized by containing about fifteen and a half per cent. of nitrogen; and hence are called nitrogenous substances. They are, also, often designated as the albuminous bodies. The bony framework of the animal owes its solidity to phosphate of lime, and this substance must be furnished by the food. A perfect food must supply the animal with these three classes of bodies, and in proper proportions. The addition of a small quantity of a food, rich in oil and albuminous substances, to the ordinary kinds of feed, which contain a large quantity of vegetable fibre or woody matter, more or less indigestible, but, nevertheless, indispensable to the herbivorous animals, their digestive organs being adapted to a bulky food, has been found highly advantageous in practice. Neither hay alone nor concentrated food alone gives the best results. A certain combination of the two presents the most advantages. Some who have used cotton-seed cake have found difficulty in inducing cattle to eat it. By giving it at first in small doses, mixed with other palatable food, they soon learn to eat it with relish. Cotton-seed cake is much richer in oils and albuminous matters than the linseed cake. A correspondingly less quantity will therefore be required. Three pounds of this cotton-seed cake are equivalent to four of linseed cake of average quality. During the winter season, as has been already remarked, a frequent change of food is especially necessary, both as contributions to the general health of animals, and as a means of stimulating the digestive organs, and thus increasing the secretion of milk. A mixture used as cut feed and well moistened is now especially beneficial, since concentrated food, which would otherwise be given in small quantities, may be united with larger quantities of coarser and less nutritive food, and the complete assimilation of the whole be better secured. On this subject it has been sensibly observed that the most nutritious kinds of food produce little or no effect when they are not digested by the stomach, or if the digested food is not absorbed by the lymphatic vessels, and not assimilated by the various parts of the body. Now, the normal functions of the digestive organs not only depend upon the composition of the food, but also on its volume. The volume or bulk of the food contributes to the healthy action of the digestive organs, by exercising a stimulating effect upon the nerves which govern them. Thus the whole organization of ruminating animals necessitates the supply of bulky food, to keep the animal in good condition. Feed sweet and nutritious food, therefore, frequently, regularly, and in small quantities, and change it often, and the best results may be confidently anticipated. If the cows are not in milk, but are to come in in the spring, the difference in feeding should be rather in the quantity than the quality, if the highest yield is to be expected from them during the coming season. The most common feeding is hay alone, and oftentimes very poor hay at that. The main point is to keep the animal in a healthy and thriving condition, and not to suffer her to fail in flesh; and with this object, some change and variety of food are highly important. [Illustration: CALLING IN THE CATTLE.] Toward the close of winter, a herd of cows will begin to come in, or approach their time of calving. Care should then be taken not to feed too rich or stimulating food for the last week or two before this event, as it is often attended with ill consequences. A plenty of hay, a few potatoes or shorts, and pure water will suffice. In spring, the best feeding for dairy cows will be much the same as that for winter; the roots in store over winter, such as carrots, mangold wurtzel, turnips, and parsnips, furnishing very valuable aid in increasing the quantity and improving the quality of milk. Toward the close of this season, and before the grass of pastures is sufficiently grown to make it judicious to turn out the cows, the best dairymen provide a supply of green fodder in the shape of winter rye, which, if cut while it is tender and succulent, and before it is half grown, will be greatly relished. Unless cut young, however, its stalk soon becomes hard and unpalatable. All practical dairymen agree in saying that a warm and well-ventilated barn is indispensable to the promotion of the highest yield of milk in winter; and most agree that cows in milk should not be turned out, even to drink, in cold weather; all exposure to cold tending to lessen the yield of milk. In the London dairies, in which, of course, the cows are fed so as to produce the largest flow of milk, the treatment is as follows: The cows are kept at night in stalls. About three A. M. each has a half-bushel of grains. When milking is finished, each receives a bushel of turnips (or mangolds), and shortly afterward, one tenth of a truss of hay of the best quality. This feeding occurs before eight A. M., when the animals are turned into the yard. Four hours after, they are again tied up in their stalls, and have another feed of grains. When the afternoon milking is over (about three P. M.), they are fed with a bushel of turnips, and after the lapse of an hour, hay is given them as before. This mode of feeding usually continues throughout the cool season, or from November to March. During the remaining months they are fed with grains, tares, and cabbages, and a proportion of rowen, or second-cut hay. They are supplied regularly until they are turned out to grass, when they pass the whole of the night in the field. The yield is about six hundred and fifty gallons a year for each cow. Mr. Harley--whose admirable dairy establishment was erected for the purpose of supplying the city of Glasgow with a good quality of milk, and which has contributed more than any thing else to improve the quality of the milk furnished to all the principal cities of Great Britain--adopted the following system of feeding with the greatest profit: In the early part of the summer, young grass and green barley, the first cutting especially, mixed with a large proportion of old hay or straw, and a good quantity of salt to prevent swelling, were used. As summer advanced, less hay and straw were given, and as the grass approached ripeness, they were discontinued altogether; but young and wet clover was never given without an admixture of dry provender. When grass became scarce, young turnips and turnip leaves were steamed with hay, and formed a good substitute. As grass decreased, the turnips were increased, and at length became a complete substitute. As the season advanced, a large proportion of distillers' grains and wash was given with other food, but these were found to have a tendency to make the cattle grain-sick; and if this feeding were long-continued, the health of the cows became affected. Boiled linseed and short-cut wheat straw mixed with the grains, were found to prevent the cows from turning sick. As spring approached, Swedish turnips, when cheap, were substituted for yellow turnips. These two roots, steamed with hay and other mixtures, afforded safe food till grass was again in season. When any of the cows were surfeited, the food was withheld till the appetite returned, when a small quantity was given, and increased gradually to the full allowance. But the most elaborate and valuable experiments in the feeding and management of milch cows, are those made, not long since, by Mr. T. Horsfall, of England, and published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. His practice, though adapted more especially, perhaps, to his own section, is nevertheless of such general application and importance as to be worthy of attention. By his course of treatment he found that he could produce as much and as rich butter in winter as in summer. His first object was to afford a full supply of the elements of food adapted to the maintenance, and also to the produce of the animal; and this could not be effected by the ordinary food and methods of feeding, since it is impossible to induce a cow to consume a quantity of hay requisite to supply the waste of the system, and keep up, at the same time, a full yield of the best quality of milk. He used, to some extent, cabbages, kohl rabi, mangolds, shorts, and other substances, rich in the constituents of cheese and butter. "My food for milch cows," says he, "after having undergone various modifications, has for two seasons consisted of rape cake five pounds, and bran two pounds, for each cow, mixed with a sufficient quantity of bean-straw, oat-straw, and shells of oats, in equal proportions, to supply them three times a day with as much as they will eat. The whole of the materials are moistened and blended together, and, after being well steamed, are given to the animal in a warm state. The attendant is allowed one pound to one pound and a half per cow, according to circumstances, of bean-meal, which he is charged to give to each cow in proportion to the yield of milk; those in full milk getting each two pounds per day, others but little. It is dry, and mixed with the steamed food on its being dealt out separately. When this is eaten up, green food is given, consisting of cabbages, from October to December, kohl rabi till February, and mangold till grass time, with a view to nicety of flavor. I limit the quantity of green food to thirty or thirty-five pounds per day for each. After each feed, four pounds of meadow hay, or twelve pounds per day, is given to each cow. They are allowed water twice a day, to the extent which they will drink." Bean-straw uncooked having been found to be hard and unpalatable, it was steamed to make it soft and pulpy, when it possessed an agreeable odor, and imparted its flavor to the whole mass. It was cut for this purpose just before ripening, but after the bean was fully grown, and in this state was found to possess nearly double the amount of albuminous matter, so valuable to milch cows, of good meadow or upland hay. Bran or shorts is also vastly improved by steaming or soaking with hot water, when its nutriment is more readily assimilated. It contains about fourteen per cent. of albumen, and is rich in phosphoric acid. Rape-cake was found to be exceedingly valuable. Linseed and cotton-seed cake may probably be substituted for it in this country. Mr. Horsfall turned his cows in May into a rich pasture, housing them at night, and giving them a mess of the steamed mixture and some hay morning and night; and from June to October they had cut grass in the stall, besides what they got in the pasture, and two feeds of the steamed mixture a day. After the beginning of October the cows were kept housed. With such management his cows generally yielded from twelve to sixteen quarts of milk (wine measure) a day, for about eight months after calving, when they fell off in milk, but gained in flesh, up to calving-time. In this course of treatment the manure was far better than the average, and his pastures constantly improved. The average amount of butter from every sixteen quarts of milk was twenty-five ounces--a proportion far larger than the average. [Illustration: "ON THE RAMPAGE."] How widely does this course of treatment differ from that of most farmers! The object with many seems to be, to see with how little food they can keep the cow alive. From a correct point of view, the milch cow should be regarded as an instrument of transformation. The question should be--with so much hay, so much grain, so many roots, how can the most milk, or butter, or cheese, be made? The conduct of a manufacturer who owned good machinery, and an abundance of raw material, and had the labor at hand, would be considered very senseless, if he hesitated to supply the material, and keep the machinery at work, at least so long as he could run it with profit. Stimulate the appetite, then, and induce the cow to eat, by a frequent change of diet, not merely enough to supply the constant waste of her system, but enough and to spare, of a food adapted to the production of milk of the quality desired. SOILING. Of the advantages of soiling milch cows--that is, feeding exclusively in the barn--there are yet many conflicting opinions. As to its economy of land and feed there can be no question, it being generally admitted that a given number of animals may be abundantly fed on a less space; nor is there much question as to the increased quantity of milk yielded in stall feeding. Its economy, in this country, turns rather upon the cost of labor and time; and the question raised by the dairyman is, whether it will pay--whether its advantages are sufficient to balance the extra expense of cutting and feeding, over and above cropping on the pasture. The importance of this subject has been strongly impressed upon the attention of farmers in many sections of the country, by a growing conviction that something must be done to improve the pastures, or that they must be abandoned altogether. Thousands of acres of neglected pasture-land in the older States are so poor and worn out that from four to eight acres furnish but a miserable subsistence for a good-sized cow. No animal can flourish under such circumstances. The labor and exertion of feeding are too great, to say nothing of the vastly inferior quality of the grasses in such pastures, compared with those on more recently seeded lands. True economy would dictate that such pastures should either be allowed to run to wood, or be devoted to sheep-walks, or ploughed and improved. Cows, to be able to yield well, must have plenty of food of a sweet and nutritious quality; and, unless they find it, they wander over a large space, if at liberty, and thus deprive themselves of rest. If a farmer or dairyman unfortunately owns such pastures, there can be no question that, as a matter of real economy, he had better resort to the soiling system for his milch cows; by which means he will largely increase his annual supply of good manure, and thus have the means of improving, and bringing his land to a higher state of cultivation. A very successful instance of this management occurs in the report of the visiting committee of an agricultural society in Massachusetts, in which they say: "We have now in mind a farmer in this county who keeps seven or eight cows in the stable through the summer, and feeds them on green fodder, chiefly Indian corn. We asked him his reasons for it. His answer was: 1. That he gets more milk than he can by any other method. 2. That he gets more manure, especially liquid manure. 3. That he saves it all, by keeping a supply of mud or mould under the stable, to be taken out and renewed as often as necessary. 4. That it is less troublesome than to drive his cows to pasture; that they are less vexed by flies, and have equally good health. 5. That his mowing land is every year growing more productive, without the expense of artificial manure.--He estimates that on an acre of good land twenty tons of green fodder may be raised. That which is dried is cut fine, and mixed with meal or shorts, and fed with profit. He believes that a reduced and worn-out farm--supposing the land to be naturally good--could be brought into prime order in five years, without any extra outlay of money for manure, by the use of green fodder in connection with the raising and keeping of pigs; not fattening them, but selling at the age of four or five months." He keeps most of his land in grass, improving its quality and productiveness by means of top-dressing, and putting money in his pocket--which is, after all, the true test both for theory and practice. Another practical case on this point is that of a gentleman in the same State who had four cows, but not a rod of land on which to pasture them. They were, therefore, never out of the barn--or, at least, not out of the yard--and were fed with grass, regularly mown for them; with green Indian corn and fodder, which had been sown broadcast for the purpose; and with about three pints of meal a day. Their produce in butter was kept for thirteen weeks. Two of them were but two years old, having calved the same spring. All the milk of one of them was taken by her calf for six weeks out of the thirteen, and some of the milk of the other was taken for family use, the quantity of which was not measured. These heifers could not, therefore, be estimated as equal to more than one cow in full milk. And yet from these cows no less than three hundred and eighty-nine pounds of butter were made in the thirteen weeks. Another pound would have made an average of thirty pounds a week for the whole time. It appears from these and other similar instances of soiling, or stall-feeding in summer on green crops cut for the purpose, that the largely increased quantity of the yield fully compensates for the slightly deteriorated quality. And not only is the quantity yielded by each cow increased, but the same extent of land, under the same culture, will carry double or treble the number of ordinary pastures, and keep them in better condition. There is also a saving of manure. But with us the economy of soiling is the exception, and not the rule. In adopting this system of feeding, regularity is required as much as in any other, and a proper variety of food. A succession of green crops should be provided, as near as convenient to the stable. The first will naturally be winter rye, in the Northern States, as that shoots up with great luxuriance. Winter rape would probably be an exceedingly valuable addition to the plants usually cultivated for soiling in this country, in sections where it would withstand the severity of the winter. Cabbages, kept in the cellar or pit, and transplanted early, will also come in here to advantage, and clover will very soon follow them; oats, millet, and green Indian-corn, as the season advances; and, a little later still, perhaps, the Chinese sugar-cane, which should not be cut till headed out. These plants, in addition to other cultivated grasses, will furnish an unfailing succession of succulent and tender fodder; while the addition of a little Indian, linseed, or cotton-seed meal will be found economical. In the vicinity of large towns and cities, where the object is too often to feed for the largest quantity, without reference to quality, an article known as distillers' swill, or still-slop, is extensively used. This, if properly fed in limited quantities, in combination with other and more bulky food, may be a valuable article for the dairyman; but, if given--as it too often is--without the addition of other kinds of food, it soon affects the health and constitution of the animals fed on it. This swill contains a considerable quantity of water, some nitrogenous compounds, and some inorganic matter in the shape of phosphates and alkaline salts found in the different kinds of grain of which it is made up, as Indian corn, wheat, barley, rye, and the like. Where this forms the principal food of milch cows, the milk is of a very poor quality--blue in color, and requiring the addition of coloring substances to make it saleable. It contains, often, less than one per cent. of butter, and seldom over one and three-tenths or one and a half per cent.--while good, saleable milk should contain from three to five per cent. It will not coagulate, it is said, in less than five or six hours; while good milk will invariably coagulate in an hour or less, under the same conditions. Its effect on the system of young children is, therefore, very destructive, causing diseases of various kinds, and, if continued, death. So pernicious have been the consequences resulting from the use of this "swill-milk," as it is called, in the largest city of this country, that the Legislature of the State of New York, at a recent session (1861-2), interfered in behalf of the community by making the sale of the article a penal offence. CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER. As has been already stated, the grasses in summer, and hay in winter, form the most natural and important food for milch cows; and, whatever other crops come in as additional, these will form the basis of all systems of feeding. The nutritive qualities of the grasses differ widely; and their value as feed for cows will depend, to a considerable extent, on the management of pastures and mowing-lands. Some considerations bearing upon the subject of the proper cultivation of these leading articles of food are, therefore, proposed in this article. [Illustration: PATIENTLY WAITING.] If the turf of an old pasture is carefully examined, it will be found to contain a large variety of plants and grasses adapted for forage; some of them valuable for one purpose, and some for another. Some of them, though possessing a lower percentage of nutritive constituents than others, are particularly esteemed for an early and luxuriant growth, furnishing sweet feed in early spring, before other grasses appear; some of them, for starting more rapidly than others, after having been eaten off by cattle, and, consequently, of great value as pasture grasses. Most grasses will be found to be of a social character, and do best in a large mixture with other varieties. In forming a mixture for pasture grasses, the peculiar qualities of each species should, therefore, be regarded: as the time of flowering, the habits of growth, the soil and location on which it grows best, and other characteristics. Among the grasses found on cultivated lands in this country, the following are considered as among the most valuable for ordinary farm cultivation; some of them being adapted to pastures, and others almost exclusively to mowing and the hay-crop: Timothy, Meadow Foxtail, June or Kentucky Blue Grass, Fowl Meadow, Rough-stalked Meadow, Orchard Grass, Perennial Rye Grass, Italian Rye Grass, Redtop, English Bent, Meadow Fescue, Tall Oat Grass, Sweet-scented Vernal, Hungarian Grass, Red Clover, White or Dutch Clover, and some others. Of these, the most valuable, all things considered, is TIMOTHY. It forms a large proportion of what is commonly called English, or in some sections meadow, hay, though it originated and was first cultivated in this country. It contains a large percentage of nutritive matter, in comparison with other agricultural grasses. It thrives best on moist, peaty, or loamy soils, of medium tenacity, and is not well suited to very light, sandy lands. On very moist soils, its root is almost always fibrous; while on dry and loamy ones it is bulbous. On soils of the former description, which it especially affects, its growth is rapid, and its yield of hay large, sometimes amounting to three or four tons the acre, depending much, of course, upon cultivation. But, though very valuable for hay, it is not adapted for pasture, as it will neither endure severe grazing, nor is its aftermath to be compared with that of meadow foxtail, and some of the other grasses. JUNE GRASS, better known in some sections as Kentucky Blue Grass, is very common in most sections of the country, especially on limestone lands, forming a large part of the turf, wherever it flourishes, and being held in universal esteem as a pasture grass. It starts early, but varies much in size and appearance, according to the soil; growing in some places with the utmost luxuriance, and forming the predominant grass; in others, yielding to the other species. If cut at the time of flowering, or a few days after, it makes a good and nutritious hay, though it is surpassed in nutritive qualities by several of the other grasses. It starts slowly after having been cut, especially if not cut very early. But its herbage is fine and uniform, and admirably adapted to lawns, growing well in almost all soils, though it does not endure very severe droughts. It withstands, however, the frosts of winter better than most other grasses. In Kentucky--a section where it attains its highest perfection and luxuriance, ripening its seeds about the tenth of June--and in latitudes south of that, it sometimes continues green through the mild winters. It requires three or four years to become well set, after sowing, and it does not attain its highest yield as a pasture grass till the sod is even older than that. It is not, therefore, suited to alternate husbandry, where land usually remains in grass but two or three years before being ploughed up. In Kentucky, it is sown any time in winter when the sun is on the ground, three or four quarts of seed being used to the acre. In spring the seeds germinate, when the sprouts are exceedingly fine and delicate. Stock is not allowed on it the first year. The MEADOW FOXTAIL is also an excellent pasture grass It somewhat resembles Timothy, but is earlier, has a softer spike, and thrives on all soils except the dryest. Its growth is rapid, and it is greatly relished by stock of all kinds. Its stalks and leaves are too few and light for a field crop, and it shrinks too much in curing to be valuable for hay. It flourishes best in a rich, moist, and rather strong soil, sending up a luxuriant aftermath when cut or grazed off, which is much more valuable, both in quality and nutritive value, than the first crop. In all lands designed for permanent pasture, therefore, it should form a considerable part of a mixture. It will endure almost any amount of forcing, by liquid manures or irrigation. It requires three or four years, after soiling, to gain a firm footing in the soil. The seed is covered with the soft and woolly husks of the flower, and is consequently light; weighing but five pounds to the bushel, and containing seventy-six thousand seeds to the ounce. The ORCHARD GRASS, or ROUGH COCKSFOOT, for pastures, stands pre-eminent. This is a native of this country, and was introduced into England, from Virginia, in 1764, since which time its cultivation has extended into every country of Europe, where it is universally held in very high estimation. The fact of its being very palatable to stock of all kinds, its rapid growth, and the luxuriance of its aftermath, with its power of enduring the cropping of cattle, have given it a very high reputation, especially as a pasture grass. It blossoms earlier than Timothy; when green, is equally relished by milch cows; requires to be fed closer, to prevent its forming tufts and growing up to seed, when it becomes hard and wiry, and loses much of its nutritive quality. As it blossoms about the same time, it forms an admirable mixture with red clover, either for permanent pasture or mowing. It resists drought, and is less exhausting to the soil than either rye grass or Timothy. The seed weighs twelve pounds to the bushel, and when sown alone requires about two bushels to the acre. The ROUGH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS is somewhat less common than the June grass, but is considered equally valuable. It grows best on moist, sheltered meadows, where it flowers in June and July. It is readily distinguished from June grass by its having a rough sheath, while the latter has a smooth one, and by having a fibrous root, while the root of the other is creeping. It possesses very considerable nutritive qualities, and comes to perfection at a desirable time, and is exceedingly relished by cattle, horses and sheep. For suitable soils it should form a portion of a mixture of seeds, producing, in mixture with other grasses which serve to shelter it, a large yield of hay, far above the average of grass usually sown on a similar soil. It should be cut when the seed is formed. Seven pounds of seed to the acre will make a good sward. The grass loses about seventy per cent. of its weight in drying. The nutritive qualities of its aftermath exceed very considerably those of the crop cut in the flower or in the seed. FOWL MEADOW GRASS is another indigenous species, of great value for low and marshy grounds, where it flourishes best; and, if cut and properly cured, makes a sweet and nutritious hay, which, from its fineness, is eaten by cows without waste. According to Sinclair--who experimented, with the aid of Sir Humphrey Davy, to ascertain its comparative nutritive properties--it is superior in this respect to either meadow foxtail, orchard grass, or tall meadow oat grass; but it is probable that he somewhat overrates it. If allowed to stand till nearly ripe, it falls down, but sends up innumerable flowering stems from the joints, so that it continues green and luxuriant till late in the season. It thrives best in mixture with other grasses, and deserves a prominent place in all mixtures for rich, moist pastures, and low mowing-lands. RYE GRASS has a far higher reputation abroad than in this country, and probably with reason; for it is better adapted to a wet and uncertain climate than to a dry and hot one. It varies exceedingly, depending much on soil and culture; but, when cut in the blossom to make into hay, it possesses very considerable nutritive power. If allowed to get too ripe, it is hard and wiry, and not relished by cows. The change from a juicy and nutritious plant to a woody fibre, containing but little soluble matter, is very rapid. Properly managed, however, it is a tolerably good grass, though not to be compared to Timothy, or orchard grass. REDTOP is a grass familiar to every farmer in the country. It is the Herd's grass of Pennsylvania, while in New York and New England it is known by a great variety of names and assumes a great variety of forms, according to the soil in which it grows. It is well adapted to almost every soil, though it seems to prefer a moist loam. It makes a profitable crop for spending, in the form of hay, though its yield is less than that of Timothy. It is well suited to our permanent pastures, where it should be fed close, otherwise it becomes wiry and innutritious, and cattle refuse it. It stands the climate of the country as well as any other grass, and so forms a valuable part of any mixture for pastures and permanent mowing-lands; but it is, probably, rather over rated by us. ENGLISH BENT, known also by a number of other names, is largely cultivated in some sections. It closely resembles redtop, but may be distinguished from it by the roughness of the sheaths when the hand is drawn from above downward. It possesses about the same qualities as redtop. MEADOW FESCUE is one of the most common of the fescue grasses, and is said to be the Randall grass of Virginia. It is an excellent pasture grass, forming a very considerable portion of the turf of old pasture lands and fields; and is more extensively propagated and diffused from the fact that it ripens its seeds before most other grasses are cut, and sheds them to spring up and cover the ground. Its long and tender leaves are much relished by cattle. It is rarely sown in this country, notwithstanding its great and acknowledged value as a pasture grass. If sown at all, it should be in mixture with other grasses, as orchard grass, and rye grass, or June grass. It is of much greater value at the time of flowering than when the seed is ripe. [Illustration: A CHANCE FOR A SELECTION.] THE TALL OAT GRASS is the Ray grass of France. It furnishes a luxuriant supply of foliage, is valuable either for hay or for pasture, and has been especially recommended for soiling purposes, on account of its early and luxuriant growth. It is often found on the borders of fields and hedges, woods and pastures, and is sometimes very plenty in mowing-lands. After having been mown it shoots up a very thick aftermath, and, on this account, partly, is regarded of nearly equal excellence with the common foxtail. It grows spontaneously on deep, sandy soils, when once naturalized. It has been cultivated to a considerable extent in this country, and is esteemed by those who know it mainly for its early, rapid, and late growth, making it very well calculated as a permanent pasture grass. It will succeed on tenacious clover soil. The SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL GRASS is one of the earliest in spring and one of the latest in autumn; and this habit of growth is one of its chief excellencies, as it is neither a nutritious grass, nor very palatable to stock of any kind, nor does it yield a very good crop. It is very common in New England and all over the Middle States, coming into old worn-out fields and moist pastures spontaneously, and along every roadside. It derives its name from its sweetness of odor when partially wilted or crushed in the hand, and it is this chiefly which gives the delicious fragrance to all new-mown bay. It is almost the only grass that possesses a strongly-marked aromatic odor, which is imparted to other grasses with which it is cured. Its seed weighs eight pounds to the bushel. In mixtures for permanent pastures it may be of some value. HUNGARIAN GRASS, or millet, is an annual forage plant, introduced into France in 1815, and more recently into this country. It germinates readily, and withstands the drought remarkably, remaining green when other grasses are parched and dried up. It has numerous succulent leaves which furnish an abundance of sweet fodder, greatly relished by stock of all kinds. It attains its greatest luxuriance on soils of medium consistency and richness, but does very well on light and dry plains. RED CLOVER is an artificial grass of the leguminous family, and one of the most valuable cultivated plants for feeding to dairy cows. It flourishes best on tenacious soils and stiff loams. Its growth is rapid, and a few months after sowing are sufficient to supply an abundant sweet and nutritious food. In the climate of New England, clover should be sown in the spring of the year, while most of the natural grasses do far better when sown in the fall. It is often sown with perfect success on the late snows of March or April, and soon finds its way down into the soil and takes a vigorous hold with its root. It is valuable not only as a forage plant, but as shading the ground, and thereby increasing its fertility. The introduction of clover among the cultivated plants of the farm has done more, perhaps, for modern agriculture than that of any other single plant. It is now considered indispensable in all good dairy districts. WHITE CLOVER, often called Honeysuckle, is also widely diffused over this country, to which it is undoubtedly indigenous. As a mixture in all pasture grasses it holds a very high rank, as it is exceedingly sweet and nutritious, and relished by all kinds of stock. It grows most luxuriantly in moist grounds and moist seasons, but easily accommodates itself to a great variety of circumstances. With respect to the mixtures of grass-seeds most profitable for the dairy farmer, no universal rule can be given, as they depend very much upon the nature of the soil and the locality. The most important point to be observed, and the one as to which, probably, the greatest deficiency exists, is to use a large number of species, with smaller quantities of each than those most commonly used. This is Nature's rule; for, in examining the turf of a rich old pasture, a large number of different species will be found growing together, while, if the turf of a field sown without two or three species is examined, a far less number of plants is found to the square foot, even after the sod is fairly set. In the opinion of the most competent judges, no improvement in grass culture is more important than this. As an instance of what he would consider an improvement on the ordinary mixtures for _permanent pastures_, Mr. Flint, in his "Milch Cows and Dairy Farming," suggests the following as likely to give satisfactory results, dependent, of course, to a considerable extent, on the nature and preparation of the soil: Meadow Foxtail, flowering in May and June, 2 pounds Orchard Grass, " " " " 6 " Sweet-scented Vernal, " " April and May, 1 " Meadow Fescue, " " May and June, 2 " Redtop, " " June and July, 2 " June Grass, " " May and June, 4 " Italian Rye Grass, " " June, 4 " Perennial do., " " " " 6 " Timothy, " " June and July, 3 " Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, " " 2 " Perennial Clover, flowering in June, 3 " White Clover, " " May to September 5-40 " For mowing-lands the mixture would, of course, be somewhat changed. The meadow foxtail and sweet-scented vernal would be left out entirely, and some six or eight pounds added to the Timothy and red clover. The proper time to lay down lands to grass in the latitude of New England is August or September, and no grain crop should be sown with the seed. Stiff or clayey pastures should never be overstocked, but when fed pretty close the grasses are far sweeter and more nutritious than when they are allowed to grow up rank and coarse; and if, by a want of sufficient feeding, they get the start of the stock, and grow into rank tufts, they should be cut and removed, when a fresh grass will start up, similar to the aftermath of mowing-lands, which will be eaten with avidity. Grasses for curing into hay should be cut either at the time of flowering, or just before, especially if designed for milch cows. They are then more succulent and juicy, and, if properly cured, form the sweetest food. Grass cut in the blossom will make more milk than if allowed to stand later. Cut a little before the blossoming; it will make more than when in blossom, and the cows prefer it, which is by no means an unimportant consideration, since their tastes should always be consulted. Grass cut somewhat green, and properly cured, is next to fresh, green grass in palatable, nutritive qualities. Every farmer knows the milk-producing properties of rowen, or second crop, which is generally cut before it ripens. No operation on the farm is of greater importance to the dairyman than the cutting of his grass and the manner of curing hay; and in this respect the practice over the country generally is susceptible of very marked improvement. The chief object is to preserve the sweetness and succulence of the grass in its natural state, so far as possible; and this object cannot be attained by exposing it too long to the scorching suns and drenching rains to which our climate is liable. As a general thing, farmers try to make their hay too much. As to the best modes of curing clover, the following, among others, is adopted by many successful farmers: What is mown in the morning is left in the swath, to be turned over early in the afternoon. At about four o'clock, or while it is still warm, it is put into small cocks with a fork, and, if the weather is favorable, it may be housed on the fourth or fifth day, the cocks being turned over on the morning of the day in which it is to be carted. By this method all the heads and leaves are saved, and these are more valuable than the stems. For new milch cows in winter scarcely any food is better. It will cause them to give as great a flow of milk as any hay, unless it be good rowen. INDIAN CORN makes an exceedingly valuable fodder, both as a means of carrying a herd of milch cows through our severe droughts of summer, and as an article for soiling cows kept in the stall. No dairy farmer will neglect to sow an extent in proportion to the number of cows which he keeps. The most common practice is, to sow in drills from two and a half to three feet apart, on land well tilled and thoroughly manured, making the drills from six to ten inches wide with the plough, manuring in the furrow, dropping the kernels about two inches apart, and covering with the hoe. In this mode of culture, the cultivator may be used between the rows when the corn is from six to twelve inches high, and, unless the ground is very weedy, no other after culture is needed. The first sowing usually takes place about the middle of May, and this is succeeded by other sowings, at intervals of a week or ten days, till July, in order to have a succession of green fodder; but, if it is designed to cut it up to cure for winter use, an early sowing is generally preferred, in order to be able to cure it in warm weather, in August or early in September. Sown in this way, about three or four bushels of corn are required for an acre; since, if sown thickly, the fodder is better, the stalks smaller, and the waste less. The chief difficulty in curing corn cultivated for this purpose, and after the methods just spoken of, arises from the fact that it comes at a season when the weather is often colder, the days shorter, and the dews heavier, than when the curing of hay takes place. Nor is the curing of corn cut up green so easy and simple as that of the drying of stalks of Indian corn cut above the ear, as in the common practice of topping. The plant is then riper, less juicy, and cures more readily. The method sometimes adopted is to cut and tie into small bundles, after it is somewhat wilted, and then to stook upon the ground, where it is allowed to stand, subject to all the changes of weather, with only the protection of the stook itself. The stooks consist of bunches of stalks first bound into small bundles, and are made sufficiently large to prevent the wind from blowing them over. The arms are thrown around the tops to bring them as closely together as possible, when the tops are broken over or twisted together, or otherwise fastened, in order to make the stook "shed the rain" as well as possible. In this condition they remain out until they are sufficiently dried to be put in the barn. Corn fodder is very excellent for young dairy stock. COMMON MILLET is another very valuable crop for fodder in soiling, or to cure for winter use, but especially to feed out during the usual season of drought. Many varieties of millet are cultivated in this country, the ground being prepared and treated as for oats. If designed to cut for green fodder, half a bushel of seed to the acre should be used; if to ripen seed, twelve quarts, sown broadcast, about the last of May or early in June. A moist loam or muck is the best soil adapted to millet; but very great crops have been grown on dry upland. It is very palatable and nutritious for milch cows, both green and when properly cured. The curing should be very much like that of clover, care being taken not to over-dry it. For fodder, either green or cured, it is cut before ripening. In this state all cattle eat it as readily as green corn, and a less extent will feed them. Millet is worthy of a widely-extended cultivation, particularly on dairy farms. Indian millet is another cultivated variety. RYE, as a fodder plant, is chiefly valuable for its early growth in spring. It is usually sown in September or October--from the middle to the end of September being, perhaps, the most desirable time--on land previously cultivated and in good condition. If designed to ripen only, a bushel of seed is required to the acre, evenly sown; but, if intended for early fodder in spring, two or two and a half bushels of seed per acre should be used. On warm land the rye can be cut green the last of April or the first of May. Care should be taken to cut early; since, if it is allowed to advance too far towards maturity, the stalk becomes hard and unpalatable to cows. OATS are also sometimes used for soiling, or for feeding green, to eke out a scanty supply of pasture feed; and for this purpose they are valuable. They should be sown on well-tilled and well-manured land, about four bushels to the acre, towards the last of April or the first of May. If the whole crop is to be used as green fodder, five bushels of seed will not be too much for good, strong soil. They will be sufficiently grown to cut by the first of July, or in some sections earlier, depending upon the location. The CHINESE SUGAR-CANE also may deserve attention as a fodder plant. Experiments thus far made would seem to show that when properly cultivated, and cut at the right time, it is a palatable and nutritious plant, while many of the failures have been the result of too early cutting. For a fodder crop the drill culture is preferable, both on account of the larger yield obtained and because it is thus prevented from becoming too hard and stalky. Of the root crops the POTATO is the first to be mentioned. This produces a large quantity of milk, though the quality is inferior. The market value of this root is, at times, too great to allow of feeding extensively with it, even in milk dairies, where it is most valuable as a food for cows; still, there are locations where it may be judicious to cultivate this root for dairy feed, and in all circumstances there is a certain portion of the crop of unmarketable size, which will be of value fed to milch cows or swine. It should be planted in April or May, but in many sections in June, on good mellow soil, first thoroughly plowed and harrowed, then furrowed three feet apart, and manured in the furrows with a mixture of ashes, plaster of Paris, and salt. The seed may be dropped in the furrows, one foot apart, after the drill system--or in hills, two and a half or three feet apart--to be covered with the plough by simply turning the furrows back, after which the whole should be rolled with the field-roller, when it can be done. If the land is not already in good heart from continued cultivation, a few loads of barnyard manure may be spread, and plowed under, by the first plowing. Used in this way it is far less liable to cause the rot, than when it is put in the hill. If a sufficient quantity of wood-ashes is not at hand, sifted coal-ashes will answer the purpose, and these are said to be valuable as a preventive of rot. In this way, one man, two boys, and a horse can plant from three to four acres a day on mellow land. By another method two acres a day on the sod have been planted. The manure is first spread upon the grass, and then a furrow made by a yoke of oxen and one man, another following after and dropping, a foot apart, along the outer edge of the furrow on the grass. By quick work, one hand can nearly keep up with the plow in dropping. When arrived at the end of the piece, a back furrow is turned up to the potatoes, and a good plowman will cover nearly all without difficulty. On the return furrow, the man or boy who dropped follows after, covering up any that may be left or displaced, and smoothing off the top of the back-furrows when necessary. Potatoes thus planted have come out finely. The cost of cultivation in this mode, it must be evident, is but trifling, compared with the slower method of hand-planting. It requires a skillful ploughman, a quick, active lad, and a good yoke of oxen, and the extent of the work will depend somewhat upon the state of the turf. The nutritive equivalent for potatoes in a hundred pounds of good hay is 319 pounds; that is, it will take 3.19 pounds of potatoes to afford the same amount of nourishment as one pound of hay. The great value of roots is as a change or condiment calculated to keep the animal in a healthy condition. [Illustration: A WEST HIGHLAND OX.] The CARROT is somewhat extensively fed, and is a valuable root for milch cows. This, like the potato, has been cultivated and improved from a wild plant. Carrots require a deep, warm, mellow soil, thoroughly cultivated, but clean, and free from weed-seed. The difference between a very good profit and a loss on the crop depends much upon the use of land and manures perfectly free from foul seeds of any kind. Ashes, guano, seaweed, ground bones, and other similar substances, or thoroughly-rotted and fermented compost, will answer the purpose. After plowing deep, and harrowing carefully, the seed should be planted with a seed-sower, in drills about eighteen inches apart, at the rate of four pounds to the acre, about the middle of May. The difference between sowing on the fifteenth of May and on the tenth of June in New England is said to be nearly one-third in the crop on an average of years. In weeding, a little wheel hoe is invaluable, as with it a large part of the labor of cultivation is saved. A skillful hand can run this hoe within a half an inch of the young plants without injury, and go over a large space in the course of a day, if the land was properly prepared in the first place. The American farmer should always plan to economize labor, which is the great item of expense upon a farm. By this is not meant that he should strive to shirk or avoid work, but that he should make the least amount of work accomplish the greatest and most profitable results. Labor-saving machinery on the farm is applied, not to reduce the number of hours of labor, or to make the owner a man of leisure--who is, generally, the unhappiest man in the world--but to enable him to accomplish the greatest results in the same time that he would be compelled to obtain smaller ones. Carrots will continue to grow and increase in size late into the fall. When ready to dig, plow around as near to the outside rows as possible, turning away the furrow from the row. Then take out the carrots, pulling off the tops, and throw the carrots and tops into separate heaps on the plowed furrows. In this way a man and two boys can harvest and put into the cellar upwards of a hundred bushels a day. The TURNIP, and the Swedish turnip, or ruta baga, are also largely cultivated as a field crop to feed to stock; and for this purpose almost numberless varieties are used, furnishing a great amount of succulent and nutritious food, late into winter, and, if well-kept, late into spring. The chief objection to the turnip is, that it taints the milk. This may be remedied--to a considerable extent, if not wholly--by the use of salt, or salt hay, and by feeding at the time of milking, or immediately after, or by steaming before feeding, or putting a small quantity of the solution of nitre into the pail, and milking upon it. Turnips may be sown any time in June, in rich land, well mellowed by cultivation. Very large crops are obtained, sown as late as the middle of July, or the first of August, on an inverted sod. The Michigan, or double-mould-board plow leaves the land light, and in admirable condition to harrow, and drill in turnips. In one instance, a successful root-grower cut two tons of hay to the acre, on the twenty-third of June, and after it was removed from the land spread eight cords of rotten kelp to the acre, and plowed in; after which about three cords of fine old compost manure were used to the acre, which was sown with ruta baga seed, in drills, three feet apart, plants thinned to eight or ten inches in the drill. No after cultivation was required. On the fifteenth of November he harvested three hundred and seventy bushels of splendid roots to the acre, carefully measured off. The nutritive equivalent of Swedish turnips as compared with good meadow hay is 676, taking hay as a standard at 100; that is, it would require 6.76 pounds of turnips to furnish the same nutriment as one pound of good hay; but fed in connection with other food--as hay, for example--perhaps five pounds of turnips would be about equal to one pound of hay. The English or round turnip is usually sown broadcast after some other crop, and large and valuable returns are often obtained. The Swede is sown in drills. Both of these varieties are used for the production of milk. The chief objection to the turnip crop is that it leaves many kinds of soil unfit for a succession of some other crops, like Indian corn, for instance. In some sections, no amount of manuring appears to make corn do well after turnips or ruta bagas. The MANGOLD WURTZEL, a variety of the common beet, is often cultivated in this country with great success, and fed to cows with advantage, furnishing a succulent and nutritive food in winter and spring. The crop is somewhat uncertain. When it does well, an enormous yield is often obtained; but, not rarely, it proves a failure, and is not, on the whole, quite as reliable as the ruta baga, though a more valuable crop when the yield is good. It is cultivated like the common beet in moist, rich soils; three pounds of seed to the acre The leaves may be stripped off, towards fall, and fed out, without injury to the growth of the root. Both mangolds and turnips should be cut with a root-cutter, before being fed out. The PARSNIP is a very sweet and nutritious article of fodder, and adds richness and flavor to the milk. It is worthy of extended culture in all parts of the country where dairy husbandry is pursued. It is a biennial, easily raised on deep, rich, well-cultivated and well-manured soils, often yielding enormous crops, and possessing the decided advantage of withstanding the severest winters. As an article of spring feeding, therefore, it is exceedingly valuable. Sown in April or May, it attains a large growth before winter. Then, if desirable, a part of the crop may be harvested for winter use, and the remainder left in the ground till the frost is out, in March or April, when they can be dug as wanted, and are exceedingly relished by milch cows and stock of all kinds. They make an admirable feed at the time of milking, and produce the richest cream, and the yellowest and finest-flavored butter, of any roots used among us. The best dairy farmers on the Island of Jersey often feed to their cows from thirty to thirty-five pounds of parsnips a day, in addition to hay or grass. Both practical experiment and scientific analysis prove this root to be eminently adapted to dairy stock, where the richness of milk or fine-flavored butter is any object. For mere milk-dairies, it is not quite so valuable, probably, as the Swedish turnip. The culture is similar to that of carrots, a rich, mellow, and deep loam being best; while it has a great advantage over the carrot in being more hardy, and rather less liable to injury from insects, and more nutritive. For feeding and fattening stock it is eminently adapted. To be sure of a crop, fresh seed must be had, as it cannot be depended on for more than one year. For this reason the largest and straightest roots should be allowed to stand for seed, which, as soon as nearly ripe, should be taken out and spread out to dry, and carefully kept for use. For field culture, the hollow-crowned parsnip is the best and most profitable; but on thin, shallow soils the turnip-rooted variety should be used. Parsnips may be harvested like carrots, by plowing along the rows. Let butter or cheese dairymen give this crop a fair and full trial, and watch its effect in the quality of the milk and butter. The KOHL RABI is also cultivated to a considerable extent in this country for the purpose of feeding stock. It is supposed to be a hybrid between the cabbage and the turnip and is often called the cabbage-turnip, having the root of the former, with a turnip-like or bulbous stem. The special reason for its more extensive cultivation among us is its wonderful indifference to droughts, in which it seems to flourish best, and to bring forth the most luxuriant crops. It also withstands the frosts remarkably, being a hardy plant. It yields a somewhat richer quality of milk than the ordinary turnip, and the crop is generally admitted to be as abundant and profitable. Very large crops of it have been produced by the ordinary turnip or cabbage cultivation. As in cabbage-culture, it is best to sow the seed in March or April, in a warm and well-enriched seed-bed; from which it is transplanted in May, and set out after the manner of cabbages in garden culture. It bears transplanting better than most other roots. Insects injure it less than the turnip, dry weather favors it, and it keeps well through winter. For these reasons, it must be regarded as a valuable addition to our list of forage plants adapted to dairy farming. It grows well on stronger soils than the turnip requires. LINSEED MEAL is the ground cake of flaxseed after the oil is pressed out. It is very rich in fat-forming principles, and given to milch cows increases the quality of butter, and keeps them in condition. Four or five pounds a day are sufficient for cows in milk, and this amount will effect a great saving in the cost of other food, and at the same time make a very rich milk. It is extensively manufactured in this country, and largely exported, but it is worthy of more general use here. It must not be fed in too large quantities to milch cows, for it would be liable to give too great a tendency to fat, and thus affect the quantity of the milk. COTTON-SEED MEAL is an article of comparatively recent introduction. It is obtained by pressing the seed of the cotton-plant, which extracts the oil, when the cake is crushed or ground into meal, which has been found to be a very valuable article for feeding stock. From analysis it is shown to be equal or superior to linseed meal. Practical experiments only are needed to establish it. It can be procured in market at a reasonable price. The MANURES used in this country for the culture of the above named plants are mostly such as are made on the farm, consisting chiefly of barnyard composts of various kinds, with often a large admixture of peat-mud. There are few farms that do not contain substances, which, if properly husbanded, would add very greatly to the amount of manure ordinarily made. The best of the concentrated manures, which it is sometimes necessary to use, for want of time and labor to prepare enough upon the farm, is, unquestionably, Peruvian guano. The results of this, when properly applied, are well known and reliable, which can hardly be said of any other artificial manure offered for the farmer's notice. The chief objection to depending upon manures made off the farm is, in the first place, their great expense; and in the second--which is equally important--the fact, that, though they may be made valuable, and produce at one time the best results, a want of care in the manufacture, or designed fraud, may make them almost worthless, with the impossibility of detecting the imposition, without a chemical analysis, till it becomes too late, and the crop is lost. It is, therefore, safest to rely mainly upon the home manufacture of manure. The extra expense of soiling cattle, saving and applying the liquid manure, and thus bringing the land to a higher state of cultivation, when it will be capable of keeping more stock and furnishing more manure, would offer a surer road to success than a constant outlay for concentrated fertilizers. THE BARN. The farm barn, next to the farm house, is the most important structure of the farm itself, in the Northern and Middle States; and even at the South and Southwest, where barns are less used, they are of more importance in the economy of farm management than is generally understood. Indeed, to the eyes of a person of taste, a farm or plantation appears incomplete, without good barn accommodations, as much as without good household appointments--and without them, no agricultural establishment can be complete in all its proper economy. The most _thorough_ barn structures, perhaps, to be seen in the United States, are those of the State of Pennsylvania, built by the German farmers of the lower and central counties. They are large, and expensive in their construction; and, in a strictly economical point of view, are, perhaps, more costly than is required. Yet, there is a substantial durability about them, that is exceedingly satisfactory, and, where the pecuniary ability of the farmer will admit, they may well furnish models for imitation. In the structure of the barn, and in its interior accommodation, much will depend upon the branches of agriculture to which the farm is devoted. A farm cultivated in grain chiefly requires but little room for stabling purposes. Storage for grain in the sheaf, and granaries, will require its room; while a stock farm requires a barn with extensive hay storage, and stables for its cattle, horses, and sheep, in all climates which do not admit of such stocks living through the winter in the field, as is the case in the great grazing districts west of the Alleghanies. Again, there are wide districts of country where a mixed husbandry of grain and stock is pursued, which require barns and outbuildings accommodating both. It may be well here to remark that many designers of barns, sheds, and other outbuildings for the accommodation of farm stock, have indulged in fanciful arrangements for the comfort and convenience of animals, which are so complicated that when constructed, as they sometimes are, the practical, common-sense farmer will not use them; and by reason of the learning which is required for their use, they are altogether unsuitable for the treatment and use which they generally receive from those who have the daily care of the stock for which they are intended, and for the rough usage which they experience from the animals themselves. A very pretty and plausible arrangement of stabling, feeding, and all the other requirements of a barn establishment may be thus got up by an ingenious theorist at the fireside, which will work charmingly as he dilates upon its good qualities, untried; but, which, when subjected to experiment, will be utterly worthless for practical use. There can be no doubt that the simplest plan of construction, consistent with an economical expenditure of the material of food for the consumption of stock, is by far the most preferable. Another item to be considered in this connection, is the comparative value of the stock, the forage fed to them, and the labor expended in feeding and taking care of them. To illustrate: Suppose a farm to lie in the vicinity of a large town or city. Its value is, perhaps, a hundred dollars an acre. The hay cut upon it is worth fifteen dollars a ton, at the barn, and straw and coarse grains in proportion, and hired labor ten or twelve dollars a month. Consequently, the manager of this farm should use all the economy in his power, by the aid of cutting-boxes and other machinery, to make the least amount of forage supply the wants of his stock; and the internal economy of his barn should be arranged accordingly, since labor is his cheapest item, and food his dearest. Therefore, any contrivance by which to work up his forage the closest--by way of machinery, or manual labor--so that it shall serve the purposes of keeping his stock, is true economy; and the making and saving of manures are items of the first importance. His buildings and their arrangements throughout should, for these reasons, be constructed in accordance with his practice. If, on the other hand, lands are cheap and productive, and labor comparatively dear, a different practice will prevail. The farmer will feed his hay from the mow without cutting. The straw will be stacked out, and the cattle turned to it, to pick what they like of it, and make their beds of the remainder; or, if it is housed, he will throw it into racks, and the stock may eat what they choose. To do this requires but one-third, or one-half of the labor which is required by the other mode, and the saving in this makes up, and perhaps more than makes up, for the increased quantity of forage consumed. Again, climate may equally affect the mode of winter-feeding the stock. The winters may be mild. The hay may be stacked in the fields when gathered, or put into small barns built for hay storage alone; and the manure, scattered over the fields by the cattle, as they are fed from either of them, may be knocked to pieces with the dung-beetle, in the spring, or harrowed and bushed over the ground; and with the very small quantity of labor required in all this, such practice will be more economical than any other which can be adopted. In latitudes, however, in which it becomes necessary to stall-feed during several months of the year, barns are indispensable. These should be warm, and at the same time well ventilated. The barn should be arranged in a manner suitable to keeping hay and other fodder dry and sweet, and with reference to the comfort and health of the animals, and the economy of labor and manure. The size and finish will, of course, depend on the wants and means of the farmer or dairyman; but many little conveniences, it should not be forgotten, can be added at comparatively trifling cost. The accompanying cut of a barn is given merely as an illustration of a convenient arrangement for a medium-sized dairy, and not as being adapted to all circumstances or situations. This barn is supposed to stand upon a side-hill or an inclined surface, where it is easy to have a cellar, if desired; and the cattle-room, as shown in the cut, is in the second story, or directly over the cellar, the bottom of which should be somewhat dished, or lower in the middle than around the outer sides, and carefully paved, or laid in cement. [Illustration: BARN FOR THIRTY-FOUR COWS AND THREE YOKE OF OXEN.] On the outside is represented an open shed, _m_, for carts and wagons to remain under cover, thirty feet by fifteen, while _l l l l l l_ are bins for vegetables, to be filled through scuttles from the floor of the story above, and surrounded by solid walls. The area of this whole floor equals one hundred feet by fifty-seven. _k_, is an open space, nearly on a level with the cow-chamber, through the door _p_. _s_, stairs to the third story and to the cellar, _d d d_, passage next to the walls, five feet wide, and nine inches above the dung-pit. _e e e_, dung-pit, two feet wide, and seven inches below the floor where the cattle stand. The manure drops from this pit into the cellar below, five feet from the walls, and quite around the cellar. _c c c_, plank floor for cows, four feet six inches long. _b b b_, stalls for three yoke of oxen, on a platform five feet six inches long, _n n_, calf-pens, which may also be used for cows in calving. _r r_, feeding-troughs for calves. The feeding-boxes are made in the form of trays, with partitions between them. Water comes in by a pipe, to cistern _a_. This cistern is regulated by a cock and ball, and the water flows by dotted lines, _o o o_, to the boxes; each box being connected by lead pipes well secured from frost, so that, if desired, each animal can be watered without leaving the stall, or water can be kept constantly before it. A scuttle, through which sweepings and refuse may be put into the cellar, is seen at _f_. _g_ is a bin receiving cut hay from the third story, or hay-room, _h h h h h h_, bins for grain-feed. _i_ is a tunnel to conduct manure or muck from the hay-floor to the cellar. _j j_, sliding-doors on wheels. The cows all face toward the open area in the centre. This cow-room may be furnished with a thermometer, clock, etc., and should always be well ventilated by sliding windows, which at the same time admit the light. The next cut is a transverse section of the same cow-room; _a_ being a walk behind the cows, five feet wide; _b_, dung-pit; _c_, cattle-stand; _d_, feeding-trough, with a bottom on a level with the platform where the cattle stand; _k_, open area, forty-three feet, by fifty-six. [Illustration: TRANSVERSE SECTION.] The story above the cow-room--as represented in the next cut--is one hundred feet by forty-two; the bays for hay, ten on each side, being ten feet front and fifteen feet deep; and the open space, _p_, for the entrance of wagons, carts, etc., twelve feet wide. _b_, hay-scales. _c_, scale beam. _m m m m m m_, ladders reaching almost to the roof. _l l l_, etc., scuttle-holes for sending vegetables directly to the bins, _l l l_, etc., below. _a a b b_, rooms on the corners for storage. _d_, scuttles; four of which are used for straw, one for cut hay, and one for muck for the cellar. _n_ and the other small squares are eighteen-feet posts. _f_, passage to the tool-house, a room one hundred feet long by eighteen wide. _o_, stairs leading to the scaffold in the roof of the tool-house. _i i_, benches. _g_, floor. _h_, boxes for hoes, shovels, spades, picks, iron bars, old iron, etc. _j j j_, bins for fruit. _k_, scuttles to put apples into wagons, etc., in the shed below. One side of this tool-house may be used for plows and large implements, hay-rigging, harness, etc. Proper ventilation of the cellar and the cow-room avoids the objection that the hay is liable to injury from noxious gases. [Illustration: ROOM OVER THE COW-ROOM.] The excellent manure-cellar beneath this barn extends only under the cow-room. It has a drive-way through doors on each side. No barn-cellar should be kept shut up tight, even in cold weather. The gases are constantly escaping from the manure, unless held by absorbents, which are liable not only to affect the health of the stock, but also to injure the quality of the hay. To prevent this, while securing the important advantages of a manure-cellar, the barn may be furnished with good-sized ventilators on the top, for every twenty-five feet of its length, and with wooden tubes leading from the cellar to the top. There should also be windows on different sides of the cellar to admit the free circulation of air. With these precautions, together with the use of absorbents in the shape of loam and muck, there will be no danger of rotting the timbers of the barn, or of risking the health of the cattle or the quality of the hay. The temperature at which the cow-room should be kept is somewhere from fifty to sixty degrees, Fahrenheit. The practice and the opinions of successful dairymen differ somewhat on this point. Too great heat would affect the health and appetite of the herd; while too low a temperature is equally objectionable, for various reasons. The most economical plan for room in tying cattle in their stalls, is to fasten the rope or chain, whichever is used--the wooden stanchion, or stanchel, as it is called, to open and shut, enclosing the animal by the neck, being objectionable--into a ring, which is secured by a strong staple into a post. This prevents the cattle from interfering with each other, while a partition effectually prevents any contact from the animals on each side of it, in the separate stalls. There is no greater benefit for cattle, after coming into winter-quarters, than a systematic regularity in every thing pertaining to them. Every animal should have its own particular stall in the stable, where it should always be kept. The cattle should be fed and watered at certain fixed hours of the day, as near as may be. If let out of the stables for water, unless the weather is very pleasant--when they may be permitted to lie out for a short time--they should be immediately put back, and not allowed to range about with the outside cattle. They are more quiet and contented in their stables than elsewhere, and waste less food than if permitted to run out; besides being in every way more comfortable, if properly bedded and attended to, as every one will find upon trial. The habit which many farmers have, of turning their cattle out of the stables in the morning, in all weathers--letting them range about in a cold yard, hooking and annoying each other--is of no possible benefit, unless it be to rid them of the trouble of cleaning the stables, which pays more than twice its cost in the saving of manure. The outside cattle, which occupy the yard--if there are any--are all the better that the stabled ones do not interfere with them. They become habituated to their own quarters, as do the others, and all are better for being, respectively, in their proper places. MILKING. The manner of milking exerts a more powerful and lasting influence on the productiveness of the cow than most farmers are aware. That a slow and careless milker soon dries up the best of cows, every practical farmer and dairyman knows; but a careful examination of the beautiful structure of the udder will serve further to explain the proper mode of milking, in order to obtain and keep up the largest yield. The udder of a cow consists of four glands, disconnected from each other, but all contained within one bag or cellular membrane; and these glands are uniform in structure. Each gland consists of three parts: the _glandular_, or secreting part, _tubular_ or conducting part, and the _teats_, or receptacle, or receiving part. The glandular forms by far the largest portion of the udder. It appears to the naked eye composed of a mass of yellowish grains; but under the microscope these grains are found to consist entirely of minute blood-vessels forming a compact plexus, or fold. These vessels secrete the milk from the blood. The milk is abstracted from the blood in the glandular part; the tubes receive and deposit it in the reservoir, or receptacle; and the sphincter at the end of the teat retains it there until it is wanted for use. This must not be understood, however, as asserting that all the milk drawn from the udder at one milking is contained in the receptacle. The milk, as it is secreted, is conveyed to the receptacle, and when that is full, the larger tubes begin to be filled, and next the smaller ones, until the whole become gorged. When this takes place, the secretion of the milk ceases, and absorption of the thinner or more watery part commences. Now, as this absorption takes place more readily in the smaller or more distant tubes, it is invariably found that the milk from these, which comes last into the receptacle, is much thicker and richer than what was first drawn off. This milk has been significantly styled afterings, or strippings; and should this gorged state of the tubes be permitted to continue beyond a certain time, serious mischief will sometimes occur; the milk becomes too thick to flow through the tubes, and soon produces, first irritation, then inflammation, and lastly suppuration, and the function of the gland is materially impaired or altogether destroyed. Hence the great importance of emptying these smaller tubes regularly and thoroughly, not merely to prevent the occurrence of disease, but actually to increase the quantity of milk; for, so long as the smaller tubes are kept free, milk is constantly forming; but whenever, as has already been mentioned, they become gorged, the secretion of milk ceases until they are emptied. The cow herself has no power over the sphincter at the end of her teat, so as to open it, and relieve the overcharged udder; neither has she any power of retaining the milk collected in the reservoirs when the spasm of the sphincter is overcome. Thus is seen the necessity of drawing away the last drop of milk at every milking; and the better milker the cow, the more necessary this is. What has been said demonstrates, also, the impropriety of holding the milk in cows until the udder is distended much beyond its ordinary size, for the sake of showing its capacity for holding milk--a device to which many dealers in cows resort. Thus much of the internal structure of the udder. Its external form requires attention, because it indicates different properties. Its form should be spheroidal, large, giving an idea of capaciousness; the bag should have a soft, fine skin, and the hind part upward toward the tail be loose and elastic. There should be fine, long hairs scattered plentifully over the surface, to keep it warm. The teats should not seem to be contracted, or funnel-shaped, at the inset with the bag. In the former state, teats are very apt to become corded, or spindled; and in the latter, too much milk will constantly be pressing on the lower tubes, or receptacle. They should drop naturally from the lower parts of the bag, being neither too short, small, or dumpy, or long, flabby, and thick, but, perhaps, about three inches in length, and so thick as just to fill the hand. They should hang as if all the quarters of the udder were equal in size, the front quarters projecting a little forward, and the hind ones a little more dependent. Each quarter should contain about equal quantities of milk; though, in the belief of some, the hind quarters contain rather the most. Largely developed milk-veins--as the subcutaneous veins along the under part of the abdomen are commonly called--are regarded as a source of milk. This is a popular error, for the milk-vein has no connection with the udder; yet, although the office of these is to convey the blood from the fore part of the chest and sides to the inguinal vein, yet a large milk-vein certainly indicates a strongly developed vascular system--one favorable to secretions generally, and to that of the milk among the rest. Milking is performed in two ways, stripping and handling. _Stripping_ consists in seizing the teat firmly near the root between the face of the thumb and the side of the fore-finger, the length of the teat passing through the other fingers, and in milking the hand passes down the entire length of the teat, causing the milk to flow out of its point in a forcible stream. The action is renewed by again quickly elevating the hand to the root of the teat. Both hands are employed at the operation, each having hold of a different teat, and being moved alternately. The two nearest teats are commonly first milked, and then the two farthest. _Handling_ is done by grasping the teat at its root with the fore-finger like a hoop, assisted by the thumb, which lies horizontally over the fore-finger, the rest being also seized by the other fingers. Milk is drawn by pressing upon the entire length of the teat in alternate jerks with the entire palm of the hand. Both hands being thus employed, are made to press alternately, but so quickly following each other that the alternate streams of milk sound to the ear like one forcible, continued stream. This continued stream is also produced by stripping. Stripping, then, is performed by pressing and passing certain fingers along the teat; handling, by the whole hand doubled, or fist, pressing the teat steadily at one place. Hence the origin of both names. [Illustration: THE PREFERABLE METHOD.] Of these two modes, handling is the preferable, since it is the more natural method--imitating, as it does, the suckling of the calf. When a calf takes a teat into its mouth, it makes the tongue and palate by which it seizes it, play upon the teat by alternate pressures or pulsations, while retaining the teat in the same position. It is thus obvious that handling is somewhat like sucking, whereas stripping is not at all like it. It is said that stripping is good for agitating the udder, the agitation of which is conducive to the withdrawal of a large quantity of milk; but there is nothing to prevent the agitation of the udder as much as the dairymaid pleases, while holding in the other mode. Indeed, a more constant vibration could be kept up in that way by the vibrations of the arms than by stripping. Stripping, by using an unconstrained pressure on two sides of the teat, is much more apt to press it unequally, than by grasping the whole teat in the palm of the hand; while the friction occasioned by passing the finger and thumb firmly over the outside of the teat, is more likely to cause heat and irritation in it than a steady and full grasp of the entire hand. To show that this friction causes an unpleasant feeling even to the dairymaid, she is obliged to lubricate the teat frequently with milk, and to wet it at first with water; whereas the other mode requires no such expedients. And as a further proof that stripping is a mode of milking which may give pain to the cow, it cannot be employed, when the teats are chapped, with so much ease to the cow as handling. The first requisite in the person that milks is, of course, the utmost _cleanliness_. Without this, the milk is unendurable. The udder should, therefore, be carefully cleaned before the milking commences. Milking should be done _fast_, to draw away the milk as quickly as possible, and it should be continued as long as there is a drop of milk to bring away. This is an issue which cannot be attended to in too particular a manner. If any milk is left, it is re-absorbed into the system, or else becomes caked, and diminishes the tendency to secrete a full quantity afterward. Milking as dry as possible is especially necessary with young cows with their first calf; as the mode of milking and the length of time to which they can be made to hold out, will have very much to do with their milking qualities as long as they live. Old milk left in the receptacle of the teat soon changes into a curdy state, and the caseous matter not being at once removed by the next milking, is apt to irritate the lining membrane of the teat during the operation, especially when the teat is forcibly rubbed down between the finger and thumb in stripping. The consequence of this repeated irritation is the thickening of the lining membrane, which at length becomes so hardened as to close up the orifice at the end of the teat. The hardened membrane may be easily felt from the outside of the teat, when the teat is said to be _corded_. After this the teat becomes _deaf_, as it is called, and no more milk can afterward be drawn from the quarter of the udder to which the corded teat is attached. The milking-pail is of various forms and of various materials. The Dutch use brass ones, which are brilliantly scoured every time they are in use. Tin pitchers are used in some places, while pails of wood in cooper-work are employed in others. A pail of oak, having thin staves bound together by bright iron hoops, with a handle formed by a stave projecting upward, is convenient for the purpose, and may be kept clean and sweet. One nine inches in diameter at the bottom, eleven inches at the top, and ten inches deep, with an upright handle or leg of five inches, has a capacious enough mouth to receive the milk as it descends; and a sufficient height, when standing on the edge of its bottom on the ground, to allow the dairymaid to grasp it firmly with her knees while sitting on a small three-legged stool. Of course, such a pail cannot be milked full; but it should be large enough to contain all the milk which a single cow can give at a milking; because it is undesirable to rise from a cow before the milking is finished, or to exchange one dish for another while the milking is in progress. The cow being a sensitive and capricious creature, is, oftentimes so easily offended that if the maid rise from her before the milk is all withdrawn, the chances are that she will not again stand quietly at that milking; or, if the vessel used in milking is taken away and another substituted in its place, before the milking is finished, the probability is that she will _hold_ her milk--that is, not allow it to flow. This is a curious property which cows possess, of holding up or keeping back their milk. How it is effected has never been satisfactorily ascertained; but there is no doubt of the fact that when a cow becomes irritated, or frightened from any cause, she can withhold her milk. Of course, all cows are not affected in the same degree; but, as a proof how sensitive cows generally are, it may be mentioned that very few will be milked so freely by a stranger the first time, as by one to whom they have been accustomed. There is one side of a cow which is usually called the _milking side_--that is the cow's left side--because, somehow custom has established the practice of milking her from that side. It may have been adopted for two reasons: one, because we are accustomed to approach all the larger domesticated animals by what we call the _near side_--that is, the animal's left side--as being the most convenient one for ourselves; and the other reason may have been, that, as most people are right-handed, and the common use of the right hand has made it the stronger, it is most conveniently employed in milking the hinder teats of the cow, which are often most difficult to reach on account of the position of the hind legs and the length of the hinder teats, or of the breadth of the hinder part of the udder. The near side is most commonly used in this country and in Scotland; but in many parts of England the other side is preferred. Whichever side is selected, that should uniformly be used, as cows are very sensitive to changes. In Scotland it is a rare thing to see a cow milked by any other person than a woman, though men are very commonly employed at it in this country and in England. One never sees a man milking a cow without being impressed with the idea that he is usurping an office which does not become him; and the same thought seems to be conveyed in the terms usually applied to the person connected with cows--a dairy-_maid_ implying one who milks cows, as well as performs the other duties connected with the dairy--a dairy-_man_ meaning one who owns a dairy. There can be but little question that the charge of this branch of the dairy should generally be entrusted to women. They are more gentle and winning than men. The same person should milk the same cow regularly, and not change from one to another, unless there are special reasons for it. Cows are easily rendered troublesome on being milked; and the kicks and knocks which they usually receive for their restlessness, only render them more fretful. If they cannot be overcome by kindness, thumps will never make them better. The truth is, restless habits are continued in them by the treatment which they receive at first, when, most probably, they have been dragooned into submission. Their teats are tender at first; but an unfeeling, horny hand tugs at them at stripping, as if the animal had been accustomed to the operation for years. Can the creature be otherwise than uneasy? And how can she escape the wincing but by flinging out her heels?--Then hopples are placed on the hind fetlocks, to keep her heels down. The tail must then be held by some one, while the milking is going on; or the hair of its tuft be converted into a double cord, to tie the tail to the animal's leg. Add to this the many threats and scoldings uttered by the milker, and one gets a not very exaggerated impression of the "breaking-in." Some cows, no doubt, are very unaccomodating and provoking; but, nevertheless, nothing but a rational course toward them, administered with gentleness, will ever render them less so. There are cows which are troublesome to milk for a few times after calving, that become quite quiet for the remainder of the season; others will kick pertinaciously at the first milking. In this last case the safest plan--instead of hoppling, which only irritates--is for the dairymaid to thrust her head against the flank of the cow, and while standing on her feet, stretch her hands forward, get hold of the teats the best way she can, and send the milk on the ground; and in this position it is out of the power of the cow to hurt her. These ebullitions of feeling at the first milking after calving, arise either from feeling pain in a tender state of the teat, most probably from inflammation in the lining membrane of the receptacle; or they may arise from titillation of the skin of the udder and teat, which becomes the more sensible to the affection from a heat which is wearing off. At the age of two or three years the milking glands have not become fully developed, and their largest development will depend very greatly upon the management after the first calf. Cows should have, therefore, the most milk-producing food; be treated with constant gentleness; never struck, or spoken harshly to, but coaxed and caressed; and in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, they will grow up gentle and quiet. The hundredth had better be fatted and sent to the butcher. Harshness is worse than useless. Be the cause of irritation what it may, one thing is certain, that gentle discipline will overcome the most turbulent temper. Nothing does so much to dry a cow up, especially a young cow, as the senseless treatment to which she is too often subjected. The longer the young cow, with her first and second calf, is made to hold out, the more surely will this habit be fixed upon her. Stop milking her four months before the next calf, and it will be difficult to make her hold out to within four or six weeks of the time of calving afterward. Induce her, if possible, by moist and succulent food, and by careful milking, to hold out even up to the time of calving, if you desire to milk her so long, and this habit will be likely to be fixed upon her for life. But do not expect to obtain the full yield of a cow the first year after calving. Some of the very best cows are slow to develop their best qualities; and no cow reaches her prime till the age of five or six years. The extreme importance of care and attention to these points cannot be overestimated. The wild cows grazing on the plains of South America, are said to give not more than three or four quarts a day at the height of the flow; and many an owner of large herds in Texas, it is said, has too little milk for family use, and sometimes receives his supply of butter from the New York market. There is, therefore, a constant tendency in milch cows to dry up; and it must be guarded against with special care, till the habit of yielding a large quantity, and yielding it long, becomes fixed in the young animal, when, with proper care, it may easily be kept up. Cows, independently of their power to retain their milk in the udder, afford different degrees of pleasure in milking them, even in the quietest mood. Some yield their milk in a copious flow, with the gentlest handling that can be given them; others require great exertion to draw the milk from them even in streams no larger than a thread. The udder of the former will be found to have a soft skin and short teats; that of the latter will have a thick skin, with long rough teats. The one feels like velvet; the other is no more pleasant to the touch than untanned leather. To induce quiet and persuade the animal to give down her milk freely, it is better that she should be fed at milking-time with cut feed, or roots, placed within her easy reach. If gentle and mild treatment is observed and persevered in, the operation of milking, as a general thing, appears to be a pleasure to the animal, as it undoubtedly is; but, if an opposite course is pursued--if at every restless movement, caused, perhaps, by pressing a sore teat, the animal is harshly spoken to--she will be likely to learn to kick as a habit, and it will be difficult to overcome it ever afterward. Whatever may be the practice on other occasions, there can be no doubt that, for some weeks after calving, and in the height of the flow, cows ought, if possible, to be milked regularly three times a day--at early morning, noon, and night. Every practical dairyman knows that cows thus milked give a larger quantity of milk than if milked only twice, though it may not be quite so rich; and in young cows, no doubt, it has a tendency to promote the development of the udder and milk-veins. A frequent milking stimulates an increased secretion, therefore, and ought never to be neglected in the milk-dairy, either in the case of young cows, or very large milkers, at the height of the flow, which will commonly be for two or three months after calving. There being a great difference in the quality as well as in the quantity of the milk of different cows, no dairyman should neglect to test the milk of each new addition to his dairy stock, whether it be an animal of his own raising or one brought from abroad. A lactometer--or instrument for testing the comparative richness of different species of milk--is very convenient for this purpose; but any one can set the milk of each cow separately at first, and give it a thorough trial, when the difference will be found to be great. Economy will dictate that the cows least to the purpose should be disposed of, and their places supplied with better ones. THE RAISING OF CALVES. It has been found in practice that calves properly bred and raised on the farm have a far greater intrinsic value for that farm, other things being equal, than any that can be procured elsewhere; while on the manner in which they are raised will depend much of their future usefulness and profit. These considerations should have their proper weight in deciding whether a promising calf from a good cow and bull shall be kept, or sold to the butcher. But, rather than raise a calf at hap-hazard, and simply because its dam was celebrated as a milker, the judicious farmer will prefer to judge of the peculiar characteristics of the animal itself. This will often save the great and useless outlay which has sometimes been incurred in raising calves for dairy purposes, which a more careful examination would have rejected as unpromising. [Illustration: MATERNAL AFFECTION.] The method of judging stock which has been recommended in the previous pages is of practical utility here, and it is safer to rely upon it to some extent, particularly when other appearances concur, than to go on blindly. The milk-mirror on the calf is, indeed, small, but no smaller in proportion to its size than that of the cow; while its shape and form can generally be distinctly seen, particularly at the end of ten or twelve weeks. The development of the udder, and other peculiarities, will give some indication of the future capacities of the animal, and these should be carefully studied. If we except the manure of young stock, the calf is the first product of the cow, and as such demands our attention, whether it is to be raised or hurried off to the shambles. The practice adopted in raising calves differs widely in different sections of the country, being governed very much by local circumstances, as the vicinity of a milk-market, the value of milk for the dairy, the object of breeding, whether mainly for beef, for work, or for the dairy, etc.; but, in general, it may be said, that, within the range of thirty or forty miles of good veal-markets, which large towns furnish, comparatively few are raised at all. Most of them are fattened and sold at ages varying from three to eight or ten weeks; and in milk-dairies still nearer large towns and cities they are often hurried off at one or two days, or, at most, a week old. In both of these cases, as long as the calf is kept it is generally allowed to suck the cow, and, as the treatment is very simple, there is nothing which particularly calls for remark, unless it be to condemn the practice entirely, upon the ground that there is a more profitable way of fattening calves for the butcher, and to say that allowing the calf to suck the cow at all is objectionable on the score of economy, except in cases where it is rendered necessary by the hard and swollen condition of the udder. If the calf is so soon to be taken away, it is better that the cow should not be suffered to become attached to it at all: since she is inclined to withhold her milk when it is removed, and thus a loss is sustained. The farmer will be governed by the question of profit, whatever course it is decided to adopt. In raising blood-stock, however, or in raising beef cattle, without any regard to economy of milk, the system of suckling the calves, or letting them run with the cow, may and will be adopted, since it is usually attended with somewhat less labor. The other course, which is regarded as the best where the calf is to be raised for the dairy, is to bring it up by hand. This is almost universally done in all countries where the raising of dairy cows is best understood--in Switzerland, Holland, some parts of Germany, and England. It requires rather more care, on the whole; but it is decidedly preferable, since the calves cost less, as the food can be easily modified, and the growth is not checked, as is usually the case when the calf is taken off from the cow. Allusion is here made, of course, to sections where the milk of the cow is of some account for the dairy, and where it is too valuable to be devoted entirely to nourishing the calf. In this case, as soon as the calf is dropped the cow is allowed to lick off the slimy moisture till it is dry, which she will generally do from instinct, or, if not, a slight sprinkling of salt over the body of the calf will immediately tempt her. The calf is left to suck once or twice, which it will do as soon as it is able to stand. It should, in all cases, be permitted to have the first milk which comes from the cow, which is of a turbid, yellowish color, unfit for any of the purposes of the dairy, but somewhat purgative and medicinal, and admirably and wisely designed by Nature to free the bowels and intestines of the new-born animal from the mucous, excrementitious matter always existing in it after birth. Too much of this new milk may, however, be hurtful even to the new-born calf, while it should never be given at all to older calves. The best course would seem to be--and such is in accordance with the experience of the most successful stock-raisers--to milk the cow dry immediately after the calf has sucked once, especially if the udder is painfully distended, which is often the case, and to leave the calf with the cow during one day, and after that to feed it by putting the fingers into its mouth, and gently bringing its muzzle down to the milk in a pail or trough when it will imbibe in sucking the fingers. No great difficulty will be experienced in teaching the calf to drink when taken so young, though some take to it much more readily than others. What the calf does not need should be given to the cow. Some, however, prefer to milk immediately after calving; and, if the udder is overloaded, this may be the best course, though the better practice appears to be, to leave the cow as quietly to herself as possible for a few hours. The less she is disturbed, as a general thing, the better. The after-birth should be taken from her immediately after it is dropped. It is customary to give the cow, as soon as convenient after calving, some warm and stimulating drink--a little meal stirred into warm water, with a part of the first milk which comes from her, seasoned with a little salt. In many cases the calf is taken from the cow immediately; and before she has seen it, to a warm, dry pen out of her sight, and there rubbed till it is thoroughly dry; and then, when able to stand, fed with the new milk from the cow, which it should have three or four times a day, regularly, for the first fortnight, whatever course it is proposed to adopt afterwards. It is of the greatest importance to give the young calf a thrifty start. The milk, unless coming directly from the cow, should be warmed. Some object to removing the calf from the cow in this way, on the ground of its apparent cruelty. But the objection to letting the calf suck the cow for several days, as they do, or indeed of leaving it with the cow for any length of time, is, that she invariably becomes attached to it, and frets and withholds her milk when it is at last taken from her. She probably suffers much more, after this attachment is once formed, at the removal of the object of it, than she does at its being taken at first out of her sight. The cow's memory is far more retentive than many suppose; and the loss and injury sustained by removing the calf after it has been allowed to suck her for a longer or shorter period are never known exactly, because it is not usually known how much milk the calf takes; but it is, without doubt, very considerable. If the udder is all right, there seems to be no good reason for leaving the calf with the cow for two or three days, if it is then to be taken away. The practice in Holland is to remove the calf from its mother even before it has been licked, and to take it into a corner of the barn, or into another building, out of the cow's sight and hearing, put it on soft, dry straw, and rub it dry with some hay or straw, when its tongue and gums are slightly rubbed with salt, and the mucus and saliva removed from the nostrils and lips. After this has been done, the calf is made to drink the milk first taken as it comes from the mother. It is slightly diluted with water, if taken last from the udder; but, if the first of the milking, it is given just as it is. The calf is taught to drink in the same manner as in this country, by putting the fingers in its mouth, and bringing it down to the milk, and it soon gets so as to drink unaided. It is fed, at first, from four to six times a day, or even oftener; but soon only three times, at regular intervals. Its food for two or three weeks is clear milk, as it comes warm and fresh from the cow. This is never omitted, as the milk during most of that time possesses certain qualities which are necessary to the calf, and which cannot be effectually supplied by any other food. In the third or fourth week the milk is skimmed, but warmed to the degree of fresh milk; though, as the calf grows a little older, the milk is given cold, while less care is taken to give it the milk of its own mother, that of other cows now answering equally well. In some places, calves are fed on buttermilk at the age of two weeks and after; but the change from new milk, fresh from the cow, is made gradually, some sweet skimmed milk and warm water being first added to it. At three weeks old, or thereabouts, the calf will begin to eat a little sweet, fine hay, and potatoes cut fine, and it very soon becomes accustomed to this food. Many now begin to give linseed-meal mixed into hot water, to which is added some skim-milk or buttermilk; and others use a little bran cooked in hay-tea, made by chopping the hay fine and pouring on boiling-hot water, which is allowed to stand awhile on it. An egg is frequently broken into such a mixture. Others still take pains at this age to have fresh linseed-cake, broken into pieces of the size of a pigeon's egg; putting one of these into the mouth after the meal of milk has been finished, and when it is eager to suck at any thing in its way. It will very soon learn to eat linseed-meal. A little sweet clover is put in its way at the age of about three weeks, and it will soon begin to eat that also. In this manner the feeding is continued from the fourth to the seventh week, the quantity of solid food being gradually increased. In the sixth or seventh week the milk is by degrees withheld, and water or buttermilk used instead; and soon after this, green food may be safely given, increasing it gradually with the hay to the age of ten or twelve weeks, when it will do to put them upon grass alone, if the season is favorable. A lot as near the house as possible, where they can be easily looked after and frequently visited, is the best. Calves should be gradually accustomed to all changes; and even after having been turned out to pasture, they ought to be put under shelter if the weather is not dry and warm. The want of care and attention relative to these little details will be apparent sooner or later; while, if the farmer gives his personal attention to these matters, he will be fully paid in the rapid growth of his calves. It is especially necessary to see that the troughs from which they are fed, if troughs are used, are kept clean and sweet. But there are some--even among intelligent farmers--who make a practice of turning their calves out to pasture at the tender age of two or three weeks--and that, too, when they have sucked the cow up to that time--and allow them nothing in the shape of milk and tender care. This, certainly, is the poorest possible economy, to say nothing of the manifest cruelty of such treatment. The growth of the calf is checked, and the system receives a shock from so sudden a change, from which it cannot soon recover. The careful Dutch breeders bring the calves either skimmed milk or buttermilk to drink several times a day after they are turned to grass, which is not till the age of ten or twelve weeks; and, if the weather is chilly, the milk is warmed for them. They put a trough generally under a covering, to which the calves may come and drink at regular times. Thus, they are kept tame and docile. In the raising of calves, through all stages of their growth, great care should be taken neither to starve nor to over-feed. A calf should never be surfeited, and never be fed so highly that it cannot be fed more highly as it advances. The most important part is to keep it growing thriftily without getting too fat, if it is to be raised for the dairy. The calves in the dairy districts of Scotland are fed on the milk, with seldom any admixture; and they are not permitted to suck their dams, but are taught to drink milk by the hand from a dish. They are generally fed on milk only for the first four, five, or six weeks, and are then allowed from two to two and a half quarts of new milk each meal, twice in the twenty-four hours. Some never give them any other food when young except milk, lessening the quantity when the calf begins to eat grass or other food, which it generally does when about five weeks old, if grass can be had; and withdrawing it entirely about the seventh or eighth week of the calf's age. But, if the calf is reared in winter, or early in spring, before the grass rises, it must be supplied with at least some milk until it is eight or nine weeks old, as a calf will not so soon learn to eat hay or straw, nor fare so well on them alone as it will on pasture. Some feed their calves reared for stock partly with meal mixed in the milk after the third or fourth week. Others introduce gradually some new whey into the milk, first mixed with meal; and, when the calf gets older, they withdraw the milk, and feed it on whey and porridge. Hay-tea, juices of peas and beans, or pea or bean-straw, linseed beaten into powder, treacle, etc., have all been sometimes used to advantage in feeding calves; but milk, when it can be spared, is, in the judgment of the Scotch breeders, by far their most natural food. In Galloway, and other pastoral districts, where the calves are allowed to suck, the people are so much wedded to their own customs as to argue that suckling is much more nutritious to the calves than any other mode of feeding. That it induces a greater secretion of saliva, which, by promoting digestion, accelerates the growth and fattening of the young animal, cannot be doubted; but the secretion of that fluid may likewise be promoted by placing an artificial teat in the mouth of the calf, and giving it the milk slowly, and at the natural temperature. In the dairy districts of Scotland, the dairymaid puts one of her fingers into the mouth of the calf when it is fed, which serves the purpose of a teat, and will have nearly the same effect as the natural teat in inducing the secretion of saliva. If that, or an artificial teat of leather, be used, and the milk be given slowly before it is cold, the secretion of saliva may be promoted to all the extent that can be necessary; besides, secretion is not confined to the mere period of eating, but, as in the human body, the saliva is formed and part of it swallowed at all times. As part of the saliva is sometimes seen dropping from the mouths of the calves, it might be advisable not only to give them an artificial teat when fed, but to place, as is frequently done, a lump of chalk before them to lick, thus leading them to swallow the saliva. The chalk would so far supply the want of salt, of which cattle are often so improperly deprived, and it would also promote the formation of saliva. Indeed, calves are very much disposed to lick and suck every thing which comes within their reach, which seems to be the way in which Nature teaches them to supply their stomachs with saliva. [Illustration: FROLICKSOME.] But though sucking their dams may be most advantageous in that respect, yet it has also some disadvantages. The cow is always more injured than the calf is benefited by that mode of feeding. She becomes so fond of the calf that she does not, for a long time after, yield her milk freely to the dairyman. The calf does not when young draw off the milk completely, and when it is taken off by the hand, the cow withholds a part of her milk, and, whenever a cow's udder is not completely emptied every time she is milked, the lactic secretion--as before stated--is thereby diminished. Feeding of calves by hand is also, in various respects, advantageous. Instead of depending on the uncertain, or perhaps precarious supply of the dam, which may be more at first than the young animal can consume or digest, and at other times too little for its supply, its food can, by hand-feeding, be regulated to suit the age, appetite, and the purposes for which the calf is intended; other admixtures or substitutes can be introduced into the milk, and the quantity gradually increased or withdrawn at pleasure. This is highly necessary when the calves are reared for stock. The milk is in that case diminished, and other food introduced so gradually that the stomach of the young animal is not injured as it is when the food is too suddenly changed. And, in the case of feeding calves for the butcher, the quantity of milk is not limited to that of the dam--for no cow will allow a stranger-calf to suck her--but it can be increased, or the richest or poorest parts of the milk given at pleasure. Such are, substantially, the views upon this subject which are entertained by the most judicious farmers in the first dairy districts of Scotland. In those districts--where, probably, the feeding and management of calves are as well and as judiciously conducted as in any other part of Great Britain--the farmers' wives and daughters, or the female domestics, have the principal charge of young calves; and they are, doubtless, much better calculated for this duty than men, since they are more inclined to be gentle and patient. The utmost gentleness--as has been already remarked, in another connection--should always be observed in the treatment of all stock; but especially of milch cows, and calves designed for the dairy. Persevering kindness and patience, will, almost invariably, overcome the most obstinate natures; while rough and ungentle handling will be repaid in a quiet kind of way, perhaps, by withholding the milk, which will always have a tendency to dry up the cow; or, what is nearly as bad, by kicking and other modes of revenge, which often contribute to the personal discomfort of the milker. The disposition of the cow is greatly modified, if not, indeed, wholly formed, by her treatment while young; and therefore it is best to handle calves as much as possible, and make pets of them, lead them with a halter, and caress them in various ways. Calves managed in this way will always be docile, and suffer themselves to be approached and handled, both in the pasture and in the barn. With respect to the use of hay-tea--often used in this country, but more common abroad, where greater care and attention are usually bestowed upon the details of breeding--Youatt says: "At the end of three or four days, or perhaps a week, or near a fortnight, after a calf has been dropped, and the first passages have been cleansed by allowing it to drink as much of the cow's milk as it feels inclined for, let the quantity usually allotted for a meal be mixed, consisting, for the first week, of three parts of milk and one part of hay-tea. _The only nourishing infusion of hay is that which is made from the best and sweetest hay, cut by a chaff-cutter into pieces about two inches long_, and put into an earthen vessel; over this, boiling water should be poured, and the whole allowed to stand for two hours, during which time it ought to be kept carefully closed. After the first week, the proportions of milk and hay-tea may be equal; then composed of two-thirds of hay-tea and one of milk; and at length, one-fourth part of milk will be sufficient. This food should be given to the calf in a lukewarm state _at least three, if not four times a day, in quantities averaging three quarts at a meal_, but gradually increasing to four quarts as the calf grows older. Toward the end of the second month, beside the usual quantity given at each meal--composed of three parts of the infusion and one of milk--a small wisp or bundle of hay is to be laid before the calf, which will gradually come to eat it; but, if the weather is favorable, as in the month of May, the beast may be turned out to graze in a fine, sweet pasture, well sheltered from the wind and sun. This diet may be continued until toward the latter end of the third month, when, if the calf grazes heartily, each meal may be reduced to less than a quart of milk, with hay-water; or skimmed milk, or fresh buttermilk, may be substituted for new milk. At the expiration of the third month, the animal will hardly require to be fed by hand; though, if this should still be necessary, one quart of the infusion given daily--which, during the summer, need not be warmed--will suffice." The hay-tea should be made fresh every two days, as it soon loses its nutritious quality. This and other preparations are given, not because they are better than milk,--than which nothing is better adapted to fatten a calf, or promote its growth,--but simply to economize by providing the simplest and cheapest substitutes. Experience shows that the first two or three calves are smaller than those which follow; and hence, unless they are pure-bred, and to be kept for the blood, they are not generally thought to be so desirable to raise for the dairy as the third or fourth, and those that come after, up to the age of nine or ten years. Opinions upon this point, however, differ. According to the comparative experiments of a German agriculturist, cows which as calves had been allowed to suck their dams from two to four weeks, brought calves which weighed only from thirty-five to forty-eight pounds; while others, which as calves had been allowed to suck from five to eight weeks, brought calves which weighed from sixty to eighty pounds. It is difficult to see how there can be so great a difference, if, indeed, there be any; but it may be worthy of careful observation and experiment, and as such it is stated here. The increased size of the calf would be due to the increased size to which the cow would attain; and if as a calf she were allowed to run in the pasture with her dam for four or five months, taking all the milk she wanted, she would doubtless be kept growing on in a thriving condition. But taking a calf from the cow at four or even eight weeks must check its growth to some extent; and this may be avoided by feeding liberally, and bringing up by hand. After the calf is fully weaned, there is nothing very peculiar in the general management. A young animal will require for the first few months--say up to the age of six months--an average of five or six pounds daily of good hay, or its equivalent. At the age of six months, it will require from four and a half to five pounds; and at the end of the year, from three and a half or four pounds of good hay, or its equivalent, for every one hundred pounds of its live weight; or, in other words, about three and a half or four per cent. of its live weight. At two years old, it will require three and a half, and some months later, three per cent. of its live weight daily in good hay, or its equivalent. Indian-corn fodder, either green or cured, forms an excellent and wholesome food at this age. The heifer should not be pampered, nor yet poorly fed or half starved, so as to receive a check in her growth. An abundant supply of good healthy dairy food and milk will do all that is necessary up to the time of her having her first calf--which should not ordinarily be till the age of three years, though some choose to allow them to come in at two, or a little over, on the ground that it early stimulates the secretion of milk, and that this will increase the milking propensity through life. This is undoubtedly the case, as a general rule; but greater injury is at the same time done by checking the growth, unless the heifer has been fed up to large size and full development from the start--in which case she may perhaps take the bull at fifteen or eighteen months without injury. Even if a heifer comes in at two years, it is generally deemed desirable to let her run barren for the following year, which will promote her growth and more perfect development. The feeding which young stock often get is not such as is calculated to make good-sized or valuable cattle of them. They are often fed on the poorest of hay or straw through the winter, not infrequently left exposed to cold, unprotected and unhoused, and thus stinted in their growth. This is, surely, the very worst economy, or rather it is no economy at all. Properly viewed, it is an extravagant wastefulness which no farmer can afford. No animal develops its good points under such treatment; and if the starving system is to be followed at all, it had better be after the age of two or three years, when the animal's constitution has attained the strength and vigor which may, possibly, enable it to resist ill treatment. To raise up first-rate milkers, it is absolutely necessary to feed on dairy food even when they are young. No matter how fine the breed is, if the calf is raised on poor, short feed, it will never be so good a milker as if raised on better keeping; and hence, in dairy districts, where calves are raised at all, they ought to be allowed the best pasture during the summer, and good, sweet and wholesome food during the winter. POINTS OF FAT CATTLE. Whatever theoretical objections may be raised against over-fed cattle, and great as may be the attempts to disparage the mountains of fat,--as highly-fed cattle are sometimes designated,--there is no doubt of the practical fact, that the best butcher cannot sell any thing but the best fatted beef; and of whatever age, size, or shape a half-fatted ox may be, he is never selected by judges as fit for human food. Hence, a well-fatted animal always commands a better price per pound than one imperfectly fed, and the parts selected as the primest beef are precisely the parts which contain the largest deposits of fat. The rump, the crop, and the sirloin, the very favorite cuts,--which always command from twenty to twenty-five per cent. more than any other part of the ox,--are just those parts on which the largest quantities of fat are found; so that, instead of the taste and fashion of the age being against the excessive fattening of animals, the fact is, practically, exactly the reverse. Where there is the most fat, there is the best lean; where there is the greatest amount of muscle, without its share of fat, that part is accounted inferior, and is used for a different purpose; in fact, so far from fat's being a disease, it is a condition of muscle, necessary to its utility as food,--a source of luxury to the rich, and of comfort to the poor, furnishing a nourishing and healthy diet for their families. Fattening is a secretive power which grazing animals possess, enabling them to lay by a store of the superfluous food which they take for seasons of cold or scarcity. It collects round the angular bones of the animal, and gives the appearance of rotundity; hence the tendency to deposit fat is indicated, as has been stated, by a _roundness_ of form, as opposed to the _fatness_ of a milk-secreting animal. But its greatest use is, that it is a store of heat-producing aliment, laid up for seasons of scarcity and want. The food of animals, for the most part, may be said to consist of a saccharine, an oleaginous, and an albuminous principle. To the first belong all the starchy, saccharine, and gummy parts of the plants, which undergo changes in the digestive organs similar to fermentation before they can be assimilated in the system; by them also animal heat is sustained. In indolent animals, the oily parts of plants are deposited and laid up as fat; and, when vigor and strength fail, this is taken up and also used in breathing to supply the place of the consumed saccharine matter. The albuminous, or gelatinous principle of plants is mainly useful in forming muscle; while the ashes of plants, the unconsumable parts, are for the supply, mainly, of bone, hair, and horn, but also of muscle and of blood, and to supply the waste which continually goes on. Now, there are several qualities which are essentially characteristic of a disposition to fatten. There have not, as yet, been any book-rules laid down, as in the case of M. Guénon's indications of milking-cows; but there are, nevertheless, marks so definite and well understood, that they are comprehended and acted upon by every grazier, although they are by no means easy to describe. It is by skillful acumen that the grazier acquires his knowledge, and not by theoretical rules; observation, judgment, and experience, powerful perceptive faculties, and a keen and minute comparison and discrimination, are essential to his success. [Illustration: POINTS OF CATTLE.] The first indication upon which he relies, is the _touch_. It is the absolute criterion of _quality_, which is supposed to be the keystone of perfection in all animals, whether for the pail or the butcher. The skin is so intimately connected with the internal organs, in all animals, that it is questionable whether even our schools of medicine might not make more use of it in a diagnosis of disease. Of physiological tendencies in cattle, however, it is of the last and most vital importance. It must neither be thick, nor hard, nor adhere firmly to the muscles. If it is so, the animal is a hard grazer, a difficult and obstinate feeder--no skillful man will purchase it--such a creature must go to a novice, and even to him at a price so low as to tempt him to become a purchaser. On the other hand, the skin must not be thin, like paper, nor flaccid, nor loose in the hand, nor flabby. This is the opposite extreme, and is indicative of delicateness, bad, flabby flesh, and, possibly, of inaptitude to retain the fat. It must be _elastic_ and velvety, soft and pliable, presenting to the touch a gentle resistance, but so delicate as to give pleasure to the sensitive hand--a skin, in short, which seems at first to give an indentation from the pressure of the fingers, but which again rises to its place by a gentle elasticity. The _hair_ is of nearly as much importance as the skin. A hard skin will have straight and stiff hair; it will not have a curl, but be thinly and lankly distributed equally over the surface. A proper grazing animal will have a _mossy_ coat, not absolutely curled, but having a disposition to a graceful curl, a semifold, which presents a waving inequality; but as different from a close and straightly-laid coat, as it is from one standing off the animal at right angles, a strong symptom of disease. It will also, in a thriving animal, be licked here and there with its tongue, a proof that the skin is duly performing its functions. There must be, also, the full and goggle _eye_, bright and pressed outward by the fatty bed below; because, as this is a part where Nature always provides fat, an animal capable of developing it to any considerable extent, will have its indications here, at least, when it exists in excess. So much for feeding qualities in the animal, and their conformations indicative of this kindly disposition. Next come such formations of the animal itself as are favorable to the growth of fat, other things being equal. There must be _size_ where large weights are expected. Christmas beef, for instance, is expected to be large as well as fat. The symbol of festivity should be capacious, as well as prime in quality. But it is so much a matter of choice and circumstance with the grazier, that profit alone will be his guide. The axiom will be, however, as a general rule, that the better the grazing soil the larger the animal may be; the poorer the soil, the smaller the animal. Small animals are, unquestionably, much more easily fed, and they are well known by experienced men to be best adapted to second-rate feeding pastures. But, beyond this, there must be _breadth_ of carcass. This is indicative of fattening, perhaps, beyond all other qualifications. If rumps are favorite joints and produce the best price, it is best to have the animal which will grow the longest, the broadest, and the best rump; the same of crop, and the same of sirloin; and not only so, but breadth is essential to the consumption of that quantity of food which is necessary to the development of a large amount of fat in the animal. Thus, a deep, wide chest, favorable for the respiratory and circulating functions, enables it to consume a large amount of food, to take up the sugary matter, and to deposit the fatty matter,--as then useless for respiration, but afterwards to be prized. A full level crop will be of the same physiological utility; while a broad and open framework at the hips will afford scope for the action of the liver and kidneys. There are other points, also, of much importance; the head must be small and fine; its special use is indicative of the quick fattening of the animal so constructed, and it is also indicative of the bones being small and the legs short. For constitutional powers, the beast should have his ribs extended well towards the thigh-bones or hips, so as to leave as little unprotected space as possible. There must be no angular, or abrupt points; all must be round, and broad, and parallel. Any depression in the lean animal will give a deficient deposit of flesh and fat at that point, when sold to the butcher, and thus deteriorate its value; and hence the animal must be round and full. But either fancy, or accident, or skill--it is unnecessary to decide which--has associated _symmetry_ with quality and conformation, as a point of great importance in animals calculated for fattening; and there is no doubt that, to a certain extent, this is so. The beast must be a system of mathematical lines. To the advocate of symmetry, the setting-on of a tail will be a condemning fault; indeed the ridge of the back, like a straight line, with the outline of the belly exactly parallel, viewed from the side, and a depth and squareness when viewed from behind,--which remind us of a geometrical cube, rather than a vital economy,--may be said to be the indications of excellence in a fat ox. The points of excellence in such an animal are outlined under the subsequent head, as developed in the cutting up after slaughter. Now, these qualities are inherent in some breeds; there may be cases and instances in all the superior breeds, and in most there may be failures. DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. It is necessary that cattle which have been disposed of to the dealer or butcher, or which are intended to be driven to market, should undergo a preparation for the journey. If they were immediately put to the road to travel, from feeding on grass or turnips, when their bowels are full of undigested vegetable matter, a scouring might ensue which would render them unfit to pursue their journey; and this complaint is the more likely to be brought on from the strong propensity which cattle have to take violent exercise upon feeling themselves at liberty after a long confinement. They in fact, become light-headed whenever they leave the barn or enclosure, so much so that they actually "frisk and race and leap," and their antics would be highly amusing, were it not for the apprehension that they may hurt themselves against some opposing object, as they seem to regard nothing before them. On being let out for the first time, cattle should be put for awhile into a larger court, or on a road well fenced with enclosures, and guarded by men, to romp about. Two or three such allowances of liberty will render them quiet; and, in the mean time, to lighten their weight of carcass, they should have hay for a large proportion of their food. These precautions are absolutely necessary for cattle which have been confined in barns; otherwise, accidents may befall them on the road, where they will at once break loose. Even at home serious accidents sometimes overtake them, such as the breaking down of a horn, casting off a hoof, spraining a tendon, bruising ribs, and heating the whole body violently; and, of course, when any such ill luck befalls, the animal affected must be left behind, and become a drawback upon the value of the rest, unless kept for some time longer. Having the cattle prepared for travel, the drover takes the road very slowly for the first two days, not exceeding seven or eight miles a day. At night, in winter, they should be put into an open court, and supplied with hay, water, and a very few turnips; for, if roots are suddenly withdrawn from them,--since it is taken for granted that these have formed a staple portion of their food,--their bellies will become shrunken up into smaller dimensions--a state very much against favorable appearance in market. After the first two days they may proceed faster, say twelve or thirteen miles a day, if very fat; and fifteen, if moderately so. When the journey is long and the beasts get faint from travel, they should have corn to support them. In frosty weather, when the roads become very hard, they are apt to become shoulder-shaken, an effect of founder; and if sleet falls during the day, and becomes frozen upon them at night, they may become so chilled as to refuse food, and shrink rapidly away. Cattle should, if possible, arrive the day before in the neighborhood of a distant market, and be supplied with a good feed of roots and hay, or grass, to make them look fresh and fill them up again; but if the market is at but short distance, they can travel to it early in the morning. [Illustration: A FRONTISPIECE.] In driving cattle the drover should have no dog, which will only annoy them. He should walk either before or behind, as he sees them disposed to proceed too fast or to loiter upon the road; and in passing carriages, the leading ox, after a little experience, will make way for the rest to follow. On putting oxen on a ferry-boat the shipping of the first one only is attended with much trouble. A man on each side should take hold of a horn, or of a halter made of any piece of rope, should the beast be hornless, and two other men, one on each side, should push him up behind with a piece of rope held between them as a breeching, and conduct him along the plank into the boat; if it have low gunwales, a man will be required to remain beside him until one or two more of the cattle follow their companion, which they will most readily do. From neglecting this precaution in small ferry-boats, the first beast sometimes leaps into the water, when it becomes a difficult task to prevent some of the rest doing the same thing. Whatever time a lot of cattle may take to go to a market, they should never be _overdriven_. There is great difference of management in this respect among drovers. Some like to proceed upon the road quietly, slowly, but surely, and to reach the market in a placid, cool state. Others, again, drive smartly along for some distance, and then rest to cool awhile, when the beasts will probably get chilled and have a staring coat when they reach their destination; while others like to enter the market with their beasts in an excited state, imagining that they then look gay; but distended nostrils, loose bowels, and reeking bodies are no recommendations to a purchaser. Good judges are shy of purchasing cattle in a heated state, because they do not know how long they may have been in it; and to cover any risk, will give at least five dollars a head below what they would have offered for them in a cool state. Some drovers have a habit of thumping at the hindmost beast of the lot with a stick while on the road. This is a censurable practice, as the flesh, where it is thumped, will bear a red mark after the animal has been slaughtered,--the mark receiving the appropriate name of _blood-burn_--and the flesh thus affected will not take on salt, and is apt to putrefy. A touch up on the shank, or any tendonous part, when correction is necessary, is all that is required; but the voice, in most cases, will answer as well. The flesh of overdriven cattle, when slaughtered, never becomes properly firm, and their tallow has a soft, melted appearance. A few large oxen in one lot look best in a market on a position rather above the eye of a spectator. When a large lot is nearly alike in size and appearance, they look best and most level on a flat piece of ground. Very large fat oxen never look better than on ground on the same level with the spectator. An ox, to look well, should hold his head on a line with the body, with lively ears, clear eye, dewy nose, a well-licked hide, and should stand firmly on the ground on all his feet. These are all symptoms of high health and good condition. Whenever an ox shifts his standing from one foot to another, he is _foot-sore_, and has been driven far. Whenever his head hangs down and his eyes water, he feels ill at ease inwardly. When his coat stares, he has been overheated some time, and has got a subsequent _chill_. All these latter symptoms will be much aggravated in cattle that have been fed in a barn. Cattle are made to fast before being slaughtered. The time they should stand depends upon their state on their arrival at the shambles. If they have been driven a considerable distance in a proper manner, the bowels will be in a tolerably empty state, so that twelve hours may suffice; but if they are full and just off their food, twenty-four hours will be required. Beasts that have been overdriven, or much struck with sticks, or in any degree infuriated, should not be immediately slaughtered, but allowed to stand on dry food, such as hay, until the symptoms disappear. These precautions are absolutely necessary that the meat may be preserved in the best state. The mode of slaughtering cattle varies in different countries. In the great slaughter-houses at Montmartre, in Paris, they are slaughtered by bisecting the spinal cord of the cervical vertebræ; and this is accomplished by the driving of a sharp-pointed chisel between the second and third vertebræ, with a smart stroke of a mallet, while the animal is standing, when it drops, and death or insensibility instantly ensues, and the blood is let out immediately by opening the blood-vessels of the neck. The plan adopted in England is, first to bring the ox down on his knees, and place his under-jaw upon the ground by means of ropes fastened to his head and passed through an iron ring in the floor of the slaughterhouse. He is then stunned with a few blows from an iron axe made for the purpose, on the forehead, the bone of which is usually driven into the brain. The animal then falls upon his side, and the blood is let out by the neck. Of the two modes, the French is apparently the less cruel, for some oxen require many blows to make them fall. Some butchers, however, allege that the separation of the spinal cord, by producing a general nervous convulsion throughout the body, prevents the blood from flowing as rapidly and entirely out of it as when the ox is stunned in the forehead. The skin is then taken off to the knees, when the legs are disjointed, and also off the head. The carcass is then hung up by the tendons of the hough on a stretcher, by a block and tackle, worked by a small winch, which retains in place what rope it winds up by means of a wheel and ratchet. After the carcass has hung for twenty-four hours, it should be cut down by the back-bone, or chine, into two _sides_. This is done either with the saw, or chopper; the saw making the neatest job in the hands of an inexperienced butcher, though it is the most laborious; and with the chopper is the quickest, but by no means the neatest plan, especially in the hands of a careless workman. In London, the chine is equally divided between both sides; while in Scotland, one side of a carcass of beef has a great deal more bone than the other, all the spinous processes of the vertebræ being left upon it. The bony is called the _lying_ side of the meat. In London, the divided processes in the fore-quarters are broken in the middle when warm, and chopped back with the flat side of the chopper, which has the effect of thickening the fore and middle ribs considerably when cut up. The London butcher also cuts the joints above the hind knee, and, by making some incisions with a sharp knife, cuts the tendons there, and drops the flesh of the hind-quarter on the flank and loins, which causes it to cut up thicker than in the Scotch mode. In opening the hind-quarter he also cuts the aitch bone, or pelvis through the centre, which makes the rump look better. Some butchers in the north of England score the fat of the _closing_ of the hind-quarter, which has the effect of making that part of both heifer and ox look like the udder of an old cow. There is far too much of this scoring practised in Scotland, which prevents the pieces from retaining--which they should, as nearly as possible--their natural appearance. In cutting up a carcass of beef the London butcher displays great expertness; he not only discriminates between the qualities of its different parts, but can cut out any piece to gratify the taste of his customers. In this way he makes the best use of the carcass and realizes the largest value for it, while he gratifies the taste of every grade of customers. A figure of the Scotch and English modes of cutting up a carcass of beef will at once show the difference; and upon being informed where the valuable pieces lie, an opinion can be formed as to whether the oxen the farmer is breeding or feeding possess the properties which will enable him to demand the highest price for them. [Illustration: SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTING UP BEEF.] The sirloin is the principal roasting-piece, making a very handsome dish, and is a universal favorite. It consists of two portions, the Scotch and English sides; the former is above the lumbar bones, and is somewhat hard in ill-fed cattle; the latter consists of the muscles under these bones, which are generally covered with fine fat, and are exceedingly tender. The better the beast is fed, the larger is the under muscle, better covered with fat, and more tender to eat. The hook-bone and the buttock are cut up for steaks, beefsteak pie, or minced collops, and both these, together with the sirloin, bring the highest price. The large round and the small round are both well known as excellent pieces for salting and boiling, and are eaten cold with great relish. The hough is peculiarly suited for boiling down for soup, having a large proportion of gelatinous matter. Brown soup is the principal dish made of the hough, but its decoction forms an excellent _stock_ for various dishes, and will keep in a state of jelly for a considerable time. The thick and the thin flank are both admirable pieces for salting and boiling. The tail, insignificant as it may seem, makes a soup of a very fine flavor. Hotel-keepers have a trick of seasoning brown soup or rather beef-tea, with a few joints of tail, and passing it off for genuine ox-tail soup. These are all the pieces which constitute the hind-quarter; and it will be seen that they are valuable both for roasting and boiling, not containing a single coarse piece. In the fore-quarter, is the spare rib, the six ribs of the back end of which make an excellent roast, and when taken from the side opposite to the _lying_ one, being free of the bones of the spine, it makes a large one; and it also makes excellent beefsteaks and beefsteak pie. The two runners and the nineholes make salting and boiling pieces; but, of these, the nineholes is much the best, as it consists of layers of fat and lean without any bone; whereas the fore parts of the runners have a piece of shoulder-blade in them, and every piece connected with that bone is more or less coarse-grained. The brisket eats very well boiled fresh in broth, and may be cooked and eaten with boiled greens or carrots. The shoulder-lyar is a coarse piece, and fit only for boiling fresh to make into broth or beef-tea. The nap, or shin, is analogous to the hough of the hind-leg, but not so rich and fine, there being much less gelatinous matter in it. The neck makes good broth; and the sticking-piece is a great favorite with some epicures, on account of the pieces of rich fat in it. It makes an excellent stew, as also sweet barley-broth, and the meat eats well when boiled in it. These are all the pieces of the fore-quarter; and it will be seen that they consist chiefly of boiling-pieces, and some of them none of the finest--the roasting-piece being confined to the six ribs of the spare rib, and the finest boiling-piece, corned, only to be found in the nineholes. [Illustration: ENGLISH MODE OF CUTTING UP BEEF.] The loin is the principal roasting-piece; the rump is the favorite steak-piece; the aitch-bone, the favorite stew; the buttock, the thick flank, and the thin flank are all excellent boiling-pieces when corned; the hock and the shin make soup and afford stock for the various requirements of the culinary art; and the tail furnishes ox-tail soup--a favorite English luncheon. These are all the pieces of the hind-quarter, and they are valuable of their respective kinds. In the fore-quarter, the fore-rib, middle-rib, and chuckle-rib are all roasting-pieces, not alike good; but in removing the part of the shoulder-blade in the middle-rib, the spare-ribs below make a good broil or roast; the neck makes soup, being used fresh, boiled; the back end of the brisket is boiled, corned, or stewed; the leg-of-mutton piece is coarse, but is as frequently stewed as boiled; the shin is put to the same use as the shin and hock of the hind-quarter. On comparing the two modes of cutting-up, it will be observed that in the English there are more roasting-pieces than in the Scotch, a large proportion of the fore-quarter being used in that way. The plan, too, of cutting the loin between the rump and aitch-bone in the hind-quarter, lays open the steak-pieces to better advantage than in the Scotch bullock. Extending the comparison from one part of the carcass to the other, in both methods, it will be seen that the most valuable pieces--the roasting--occupy its upper, and the less valuable--the boiling--its lower part. Every beast, therefore, that lays on beef more upon the upper part of its body is more valuable than one that lays the same quantity of flesh on its lower parts. It is deemed unnecessary to enter into details as to the modes of cutting-up most in vogue in this country, as there is a needlessly great want of uniformity. Of the qualities of beef obtained from the different breeds of cattle in England, there is no better meat than from the West Highlanders for fineness of grain and cutting up into convenient pieces for family use. The Galloways and Angus, when fattened in English pastures, are great favorites in the London market. The Short Horns afford excellent steaks, being thick of flesh, and the slice deep, large and juicy, and their covered flanks and nineholes are always thick, juicy, and well-mixed. The Herefords are somewhat similar to the Short Horns, and the Devons, may, perhaps, be classed among the Galloways and Angus, while the Welsh cannot be compared to the West Highlanders. Taking, then, the breeds of Scotland as suppliers of good beef, they seem to be more valuable for the table than those of England. There are, perhaps, not sufficient data in existence to determine the true proportion of offal of all kinds to the beef of any given fat ox; but approximations have been made, which may serve the purpose until the matter is investigated by direct experiment, under various circumstances. The dead weight bears to the live weight a ratio varying between .571 and .605 to 1; and on applying one or the other multiplier to the cases of the live weight, a pretty correct approximation is reached. The tallow is supposed to be eight one-hundredths of the live weight; so that the multiplier is the decimal .08. The hide is supposed to be five one-hundredths of the live weight; so to obtain its weight, a multiplier, .05, is used. The other offals are supposed to be in a proportion of about one-fourth of the live weight; so that the multiplier, .28, is as near as can be proposed under existing experience. Beef is the staple animal food of this country, and it is used in various states--fresh, salted, smoked, roasted, and boiled. When intended to be eaten fresh, the _ribs_ will keep the best, and with care will keep five or six days in summer, and in winter ten days. The middle of the _loin_ is the next best, and the _rump_ the next. The _round_ will not keep long, unless it is salted. The _brisket_ is the worst, and will not keep more than three days in summer, and in winter a week. In regard to the power of the stomach to digest beef, that which is eaten boiled with salt only, is digested in two hours and forty-five minutes. Beef, fresh, lean, and rarely-roasted, and a beefsteak broiled, takes three hours to digest; that fresh, and dry-roasted, and boiled, eaten with mustard, is digested in three and a half hours. Lean fresh beef fried, requires four hours, and old hard salted beef boiled, does not digest in less than four and a quarter hours. Fresh beef-suet boiled takes five and a half hours. The usual mode of preserving beef is by salting; and, when intended to keep for a long time, such as for the use of shipping, it is always salted with brine; but for family use it should be salted only with good salt; for brine dispels the juice of meat, and saltpetre only serves to make the meat dry, and give it a disagreeable and unnatural red color. Various experiments have been made in curing beef with salt otherwise than by hand-rubbing, and in a short space of time, and also to preserve it from putrefaction by other means than salt. Some packers put meat in a copper which is rendered air-tight, and an air-pump then creates a vacuum within it, thereby extracting all the air out of the meat; then brine is pumped in by pressure, which, entering into every pore of the meat formerly occupied by the air, is said to place it in a state of preservation in a few minutes. The carcass of an ox was preserved, in France, for two years from putrefaction by injecting four pounds of saline mixture into the carotid artery. Whether any such contrivance can be made available for family purposes, seems doubtful. Cattle, when slaughtered, are useful to man in various other ways than by affording food from their flesh,--their offal of tallow, hides, and horns, forming extensive articles of commerce. Of the _hide_, the characteristics of a good one for strong purposes are strength in its middle, or _butt_, as it called, and lightness in the edges, or _offal_. A bad hide is the opposite of this--thick in the edges and thin in the middle. A good hide has a firm texture; a bad one, loose and soft. A hide improves as the summer advances, and it continues to improve after the new coat of hair in autumn until November or December, when the coat gets rough from the coldness of the season, and the hide is then in its best state. It is surprising how a hide improves in thickness after the cold weather has set in. The sort of food does not seem to affect the quality of the hide; but the better it is, and the better cattle have been fed, and the longer they have been well fed, even from a calf, the better the hide. From what has been said of the effect of weather upon the hide, it seems a natural conclusion that a hide is better from an ox that has been fed in the open air, than from one that has been kept in the barn. Dirt adhering to a hide injures it, particularly in stall-fed animals; and any thing that punctures a hide, such as warbles arising from certain insects, is also injurious. The best hides are obtained from the West Highlanders. The Short Horns produce the thinnest hides, the Aberdeenshire the next, and then the Angus. Of the same breed, the ox affords the strongest hide; but, as hides are applied to various uses, the cow's, provided it be large, may be as valuable as that of the ox. The bull's hide is the least valuable. Hides are imported from Russia and South America. Hides, when deprived of their hair, are converted into _leather_ by an infusion of the astringent property of bark. The old plan of tanning used to occupy a long time; but, such was the value of the process, that the old tanners used to pride themselves upon producing a substantial article--which is more than can be said in many instances under modern improved modes, which hasten the process, much to the injury of the article produced. Strong infusions of bark make leather brittle; one hundred pounds of skin, quickly tanned in a strong infusion, produce one hundred and thirty-seven pounds of leather; while a weak infusion produces only one hundred and seventeen and a half,--the additional nineteen and a half pounds serving only to deteriorate the leather, and causing it to contain much less textile animal solid. Leather thus highly charged with tanning is so spongy as to allow moisture to pass readily through its pores, to the great discomfort and injury of those who wear shoes made of it. The proper mode of tanning lasts a year, or a year and a half, according to the quality of the leather wanted and the nature of the hides. A perfect leather can be recognized by its section, which should have a glistening marbled appearance, without any white streaks in the middle. The hair which is taken off hides in tanning, is employed to mix with plaster, and is often surreptitiously put into hair-mattresses. The principal substances of which _glue_ is made are the parings of ox and other thick hides, which form the strongest article and the refuse of the leather-dresser. Both afford from forty-five to fifty-five per cent. of glue. The tendons, and many other offals of slaughter-houses, also afford materials, though of an inferior quality, for this purpose. The refuse of tanneries--such as the ears of oxen and calves--are better articles. Animal skins also, in any form, uncombined with tannin, may be worked into glue. _Ox-tallow_ is of great importance in the arts. Candles and soap are made of it, and it enters largely into the dressing of leather and the use of machinery. Large quantities are annually exported from Russia. Ox-tallow consists of seventy-six parts of stearine and twenty-four of oleine, out of one hundred parts. The _horns_ of oxen are used for many purposes. The horn consists of two parts: an outward horny case, and an inward conical-shaped substance, somewhat intermediate between indurated hair and bone, called the _fluid_ of the horn. These two parts are separated by means of a blow upon a block of wood. The horny exterior is then cut into three portions by means of a frame saw. The lowest of these, next the root of the horn, after undergoing several processes by which it is rendered flat, is made into combs. The middle of the horn, after having been flattened by heat, and its transparency improved by oil, is split into thin layers, and forms a substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind. The tip of the horns is used by makers of knife-handles and of the tops of whips, and for other similar purposes. The interior, or core of the horn, is boiled down in water. A large quantity of fat rises to the surface; this is put aside, and sold to the makers of yellow soap. The itself is used as a kind of glue, and is purchased by the cloth-draper for stiffening. The bony substance remaining behind is then sent to the mill, and, after having been ground down, is sold to farmers for manure. Besides these various purposes to which the different parts of the horn are applied, the clippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the farmer for manure, as well as the shavings which form the refuse of the lantern-makers. Horn, as is well known, is easily rendered soft and pliant in warm water; and by this peculiarity and its property of adhering like glue, large plates of horn can be made by cementing together the edges of small pieces rendered flat by a peculiar process, as a substitute for glass. Imitation of tortoise-shell can be given to horn by means of various metallic solutions. Horn, also, when softened, can be imprinted with any pattern, by means of dies. [Illustration] Diseases and their Remedies Under this head it is proposed to notice such diseases as are most common among cattle, together with their symptoms, and to suggest such treatment of the same as has been found in the practice of the author, in the main, effective. He is aware that much more space might have been appropriated to this head, as has been the case in other treatises of this class; but he doubts the propriety of multiplying words about diseases which are of very rare occurrence, deeming it more fitting to leave such instances exclusively to the intelligent consideration of the reliable veterinary practitioner. For convenience of reference, the diseases here noticed have been arranged in alphabetical order; the whole concluding with information as to two or three operations which cannot be uninteresting to, or unprofitable for, the reader. ABORTION. The cow is, more than any other animal, subject to abortion, or slinking, which takes place at different periods of pregnancy, from half of the usual time to the seventh, or almost to the eighth month. The symptoms of the approach of abortion, unless the breeder is very much among his stock, are not often perceived; or, if perceived, they are concealed by the person in charge, lest he should be accused of neglect or improper treatment. The cow is somewhat off her feed--rumination ceases--she is listless and dull--the milk diminishes or dries up--the motions of the foetus become more feeble, and at length cease altogether--there is a slight degree of enlargement of the belly--there is a little staggering in her walk--when she is down she lies longer than usual, and when she gets up she stands for a longer time motionless. As the abortion approaches, a yellow or red glairy fluid runs from the vagina (this is a symptom, which rarely, or never, deceives) her breathing becomes laborious and slightly convulsive. The belly has for several days lost its natural rotundity, and has been evidently falling,--she begins to moan,--the pulse becomes small, wiry, and intermittent. At length labor comes on, and is often attended with much difficulty and danger. If the abortion has been caused by blows or violence, whether from brutality, or the animal's having been teased by other cows in season, or by oxen, the symptoms are more intense. The animal suddenly ceases to eat and to ruminate--is uneasy, paws the ground, rests her head on the manger while she is standing, and on her flank when she is lying down--hemorrhage frequently comes on from the uterus, or when this is not the case the mouth of that organ is spasmodically contracted. The throes come on, are distressingly violent, and continue until the womb is ruptured. If all these circumstances be not observed, still the labor is protracted and dangerous. Abortion is sometimes singularly frequent in particular districts, or on particular farms, appearing to assume an epizoötic or epidemic form. This has been accounted for in various ways. Some have imagined it to be contagious. It is, indeed, destructively propagated among the cows, but this is probably to be explained on a different principle from that of contagion. The cow is a considerably imaginative animal, and highly irritable during the period of pregnancy. In abortion, the foetus is often putrid before it is discharged; and the placenta, or after-birth, rarely or never follows it, but becomes decomposed, and, as it drops away in fragments, emits a peculiar and most noisome smell. This smell seems to be peculiarly annoying to the other cows: they sniff at it and then run bellowing about. Some sympathetic influence is exercised on their uterine organs, and in a few days a greater or less number of those that had pastured together likewise abort. Hence arises the rapidity with which the foetus is usually taken away and buried deeply, and far from the cows; and hence the more effectual preventive of smearing the parts of the cow with tar or stinking oils, in order to conceal or subdue the smell; and hence, too, the inefficacy, as a preventive, of removing her to a far-distant pasture. The pastures on which the blood or inflammatory fever is most prevalent are those on which the cows oftenest slink their calves. Whatever can become a source of general excitation and fever is likely, during pregnancy, to produce inflammation of the womb; or whatever would, under other circumstances, excite inflammation of almost any organ, has at that time its injurious effect determined to this particular one. Every farmer is aware of the injurious effect of the coarse, rank herbage of low, marshy, and woody countries, and he regards these districts as the chosen residence of red water; it may be added, that they are also the chosen residence of abortion. Hard and mineral waters are justly considered as laying the foundation of many diseases among cattle, and of abortion among the rest. Some careful observers have occasionally attributed abortion to disproportion in size between the male and the female. Farmers were formerly too fond of selecting a great overgrown bull to serve their dairy or breeding cows, and many a heifer, or little cow, was seriously injured; and she either cast her calf, or was lost in parturition. The breeders of cattle in later years are beginning to act more wisely in this matter. Cows that are degenerating into consumption are exceedingly subject to abortion. They are continually in heat; they rarely become pregnant, or if they do, a great proportion of them cast their calves. Abortion, also, often follows a sudden change from poor to luxuriant food. Cows that have been out, half-starved in the winter, when incautiously turned on rich pasture in the spring, are too apt to cast their calves from the undue general or local excitation that is set up. Hence it is, that when this disposition to abort first appears in a herd, it is naturally in a cow that has been lately purchased. Fright, from whatever cause, may produce this trouble. There are singular cases on record of whole herds of cows slinking their calves after having been terrified by an unusually violent thunder-storm. Commerce with the bull soon after conception is also a frequent cause, as well as putrid smells--other than those already noticed--and the use of a diseased bull. Besides these tangible causes of abortion, there is the mysterious agency of the atmosphere. There are certain seasons when abortion is strangely frequent, and fatal; while at other times it disappears in a manner for several successive years. The consequences of premature calving are frequently of a very serious nature; and even when the case is more favorable, the results are, nevertheless, very annoying. The animal very soon goes again to heat, but in a great many cases she fails to become pregnant; she almost invariably does so, if she is put to the bull during the first heat after abortion. If she should come in calf again during that season, it is very probable that at about the same period of gestation, or a little later, she will again abort: or that when she becomes in calf the following year, the same fatality will attend her. Some say that this disposition to cast her young gradually ceases; that if she does miscarry, it is at a later and still later period of pregnancy; and that, in about three or four years, she may be depended upon as a tolerably safe breeder. He, however, would be sadly inattentive to his own interests who keeps a profitless beast so long. The calf very rarely lives, and in the majority of cases it is born dead or putrid. If there should appear to be any chance of saving it, it should be washed with warm water, carefully dried, and fed frequently with small quantities of new milk, mixed, according to the apparent weakness of the animal, either with raw eggs or good gruel; while the bowels should, if occasion requires, be opened by means of small doses of castor-oil. If any considerable period is to elapse before the natural time of pregnancy would have expired, it will usually be necessary to bring up the little animal entirely by hand. The treatment of abortion differs but little from that of parturition. If the farmer has once been tormented by this pest in his dairy, he should carefully watch the approaching symptoms of casting the calf, and as soon as he perceives them, should remove the animal from the pasture to a comfortable cow-house or shed. If the discharge be glairy, but not offensive, he may hope that the calf is not dead; he will be assured of this by the motion of the foetus, and then it is possible that the abortion may still be avoided. He should hasten to bleed her, and that copiously, in proportion to her age, size, condition, and the state of excitation in which he may find her; and he should give a dose of physic immediately after the bleeding. When the physic begins to operate, he should administer half a drachm of opium and half an ounce of sweet spirits of nitre. Unless she is in a state of great debility, he should allow nothing but gruel, and she should be kept as quiet as possible. By these means he may occasionally allay the general or local irritation that precedes or causes the abortion, and the cow may yet go to her full time. Should, however, the discharge be fetid, the conclusion will be that the foetus is dead, and must be got rid of, and that as speedily as possible. Bleeding may even then be requisite if much fever exists; or, perhaps, if there is debility, some stimulating drink may not be out of place. In other respects the animal must be treated as if her usual time of pregnancy had been accomplished. Much may be done in the way of preventing this habit of abortion among cows. _The foetus must be got rid of immediately._ It should be buried deep, and far from the cow-pasture. Proper means should be taken to hasten the expulsion of the placenta. A dose of physic should be given; ergot of rye administered; the hand should be introduced, and an effort made, cautiously and gently, to detach the placenta; all violence, however, should be carefully avoided; for considerable and fatal hemorrhage may be speedily produced. The parts of the cow should be well washed with a solution of the chloride of lime, which should be injected up the vagina, and also given internally. In the mean time, and especially after the expulsion of the placenta, the cow-house should be well washed with the same solution. The cow, when beginning to recover, should be fattened and sold. This is the first and the grand step toward the prevention of abortion, and he is unwise who does not immediately adopt it. All other means are comparatively inefficient and worthless. Should the owner be reluctant to part with her, two months, at least, should pass before she is permitted to return to her companions. Prudence would probably dictate that she should never return to them, but be kept, if possible, on some distant part of the farm. Abortion having once occurred among the herd, the breeding cows should be carefully watched. Although they should be well fed, they should not be suffered to get into too high condition. Unless they are decidedly poor and weak, they should be bled between the third and fourth months of pregnancy, and a mild dose of physic administered to each. If the pest continues to reappear, the owner should most carefully examine how far any of the causes of abortion that have been detected, may exist on his farm, and exert himself to thoroughly remove them. An interesting paper upon this subject may be found in the Veterinary Review, vol. 1., p. 434, communicated by Prof. Henry Tanner, of Queen's College, Birmingham, England. As it suggests a theory as to the origin of this disease which is, to say the least, quite plausible, we transfer the article:-- "I shall not go into any notice of the general subject of abortion, but rather restrict my remarks to a cause which is very much overlooked, and yet which is probably more influential than all other causes combined. I refer to the growth of ergotized grass-seeds in our pastures. "The action of ergot of rye (_secale cornutum_) upon the womb is well known as an excitant to powerful action, which usually terminates in the expulsion of the foetus. We have a similar disease appearing on the seeds of our grasses, but especially on the rye grass, and thus we have an ergot of the seeds of rye grass produced, possessing similar exciting powers upon the womb to those produced by the ergot of rye. "Two conditions are necessary for the production of this ergot upon the seed of rye grass. The first is, the grass must be allowed to run to seed; and the second is, that the climate must be favorable for encouraging the development of the ergot. "In practice, we find that on land which has been fed on during the summer, unless it has been grazed with unusual care, much of the grass throws up seed-stalks and produces seed. In districts where the climate is humid and rain abundant, as well as in very wet seasons, these seeds become liable to the growth of this ergot. Cattle appear to eat it with a relish, and the result is that abortion spreads rapidly through the herd. Heifers and cows, which, up to the appearance of the ergot, have held in calf, are excited to cast their calves by consuming it in their food. The abortion having once commenced, we know that the peculiarly sensitive condition of the breeding animal will cause its extension, even where the original cause may not be in operation; but their combined action renders the loss far more serious. If we add to this the tendency which an animal receives from her first abortion, to repeat it when next in calf, we see how seriously the mischief becomes multiplied. "A somewhat extended observation, added to my own experience, has led me to the conviction that very much of the loss arising from abortion in our cows may be traced to the cause I have named. I feel assured the influence is even more extended than I have stated; for not only would the foetus be thrown off in its advanced stage, but also in its earlier growth, thus causing great trouble to breeders of high-bred stock, the repeated turning of cows to the bull, and at most irregular intervals. "The remedy differs in no respect from the ordinary mode of treatment, except that it compels a removal of the stock from the influence of the cause. Much, however, may be done by way of prevention; and this I shall briefly notice. "It simply consists in keeping breeding cows and heifers upon land free from these seeds. Grass which has been grazed during the summer, will very generally, in a humid climate, have some of this ergotized seed; but I have not observed it produced before the end of July, or early in August; and I doubt its existence, to any injurious degree, up to this time. We may, therefore, consider such ground safe up to this period. If the breeding stock are then removed to grass land which, having been mown for this operation is a guaranty against any seeds remaining, it will seldom, if ever, happen that any injury will result from the production of ergotized grass later in the season. "I will not venture to say that such will not appear in some cases where the grass has been cut early and has been followed by a rapid growth; but, at any rate, we have grazing land free from this excitant from July until September; and in the grass which has been mown late, I do not consider that there is the least fear of ergot's being again formed in that season. In this manner a farmer may keep grass land for his breeding stock entirely free from ergotized grass; and, consequently, so far as this cause is concerned, they will be free from abortion. How far young heifers may be prejudicially influenced, before they are used for breeding, by an excitement of the womb, appears to me to be a subject worthy of some attention on the part of the veterinary profession." APOPLEXY. This is a determination of blood to the head, causing pressure upon the brain. Animals attacked with this disease are generally in a plethoric condition. The usual symptoms are _coma_ (a sleepy state), eyes protruding, respiration accelerated; finally, the animal falls, struggles, and dies. In such cases, bleeding should be resorted to at an early period; give in drink one pound of Epsom-salts. BLACK WATER. This is simply an exaggerated stage of the disease known as Red Water,--to which the reader is referred in its appropriate place,--the urine being darker in color in consequence of the admixture of venous blood. The symptoms are similar, though more acute. There is constipation at first, which is followed by diarrhoea, large quantities of blood passing away with the evacuations from the bowels; symptoms of abdominal pain are present; the loins become extremely tender; and the animal dies in a greatly prostrated condition. The treatment does not differ from that prescribed in case of Red Water. BRONCHITIS. The trachea and bronchial tubes are frequently the seat of inflammation, especially in the spring of the year,--the symptoms of which are often confounded with those of other pulmonary diseases. This inflammation is frequently preceded by catarrhal affections; cough is often present for a long time before the more acute symptoms are observed. Bronchitis occasionally makes its appearance in an epizoötic form. _Symptoms._--A peculiarly anxious expression of the countenance will be observed; respiration laborious; a husky, wheezing, painful cough; on placing the ear to the windpipe a sonorous _râle_ is heard; symptomatic fever also prevails to a greater or less extent. _Treatment._--Counter-irritation should be early resorted to; strong mustard, mixed with equal parts of spirits of hartshorn and water, and made into a thin paste, should be applied all along the neck, over the windpipe, and to the sides, and should be well rubbed in; or, the tincture of cantharides, with ten drops of castor-oil to each ounce, applied in the same manner as the former, will be found equally effective. Give internally ten drops of Fleming's tincture of aconite every four hours, until five or six doses have been given; after which give one of the following powders twice a day: nitrate of potash, one ounce; Barbadoes aloes, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, half an ounce; pulverized-gentian root, one ounce; mix and divide into eight powders. If necessary a pound of salts may be given. CONSUMPTION This affection--technically known as _phthisis pulmonalis_--is the termination of chronic disease of the lungs. These organs become filled with many little cysts, or sacks, containing a yellowish or yellowish-white fluid, which in time is hardened, producing a condition of the lungs known as tuberculous. These tubercles in turn undergo another change, becoming soft in the centre and gradually involving the whole of the hardened parts, which, uniting with adjoining ones, soon forms cysts of considerable size. These cysts are known as abscesses. No treatment will be of much service here. It is, therefore, better, if the animal is not too poor in flesh, to have it slaughtered. CORYZA In the spring, and late in the fall, catarrhal affections are quite common, occurring frequently in a epizoötic form. Coryza, or nasal catarrh,--commonly called a cold in the head,--is not very common among cows. As its name implies, it is a local disease, confined to the lining membrane of the nose; and, consequently, the general system is not usually disturbed. _Symptoms._--The animal will be observed to sneeze; the Schneiderian membrane (membrane of the nose) is heightened in color; cough sometimes accompanies; there is also a muco-purulent discharge from the nose. Neglect to attend to these early symptoms frequently occasions disease of a more serious nature; in fact, coryza may be regarded as the forerunner of all epizoötic pulmonary disorders. [Illustration: A CHAT ON THE ROAD.] _Treatment._--The animal should be kept on a low diet for a few days; the nostrils occasionally steamed, and one of the following powders given night and morning, which, in most cases, will be all the medicine required: nitrate of potassa, one ounce; digitalis leaves pulverized and tartrate of antimony, of each one drachm; sulphate of copper, two drachms; mix, and divide into eight powders. Should the disease prove obstinate, give for two or three days two ounces of Epsom-salts at a dose, dissolved in water, three times a day. COW-POX. Two varieties of sore teats occur in the cow, in the form of pustular eruptions. They first appear as small vesicles containing a purulent matter, and subsequently assume a scabby appearance, or small ulcers remain, which often prove troublesome to heal. This latter is the cow-pox, from which Jenner derived the vaccine matter. _Treatment._--Foment the teats well with warm water and Castile-soap; after which, wipe the bag dry, and dress with citrine ointment. The preparations of iodine have also been recommended, and they are very serviceable. DIARRHOEA. Cattle are frequently subject to this disease, particularly in the spring of the year when the grass is young and soft. Occasionally it assumes a very obstinate form in consequence of the imperfect secretion of gastric juice; the _fæces_ are thin, watery, and fetid, followed by very great prostration of the animal. The symptoms of diarrhoea are too well known to require any detailed description. _Treatment._--If in a mild form, the diet should be low; give two ounces of Epsom-salts, twice a day. In a more obstinate form, give two drachms of carbonate of soda in the food. Oak-bark tea will be found very useful in these cases; or one of the following powders, twice a day, will be found very advantageous: pulverized opium and catechu, each one and a half ounces; prepared chalk, one drachm; to be given in the feed. Calves are particularly subject to this disease, and it often proves fatal to them. It sometimes assumes an epizoötic form, when it is generally of a mild character. So long as the calf is lively and feeds well, the farmer should entertain no fear for him; but if he mopes about, refuses his food, ceases to ruminate, wastes in flesh, passes mucus and blood with the _fæces_, and exhibits symptoms of pain, the case is a dangerous one. In such an emergency, lose no time, but give two or three ounces of Castor-oil with flour-gruel, or two ounces of salts at a dose, followed with small draughts of oak-bark tea; or give, twice a day, one of the following powders: pulverized catechu, opium, and Jamaca ginger, of each half an ounce; prepared chalk, one ounce; mix, and divide into twelve powders. Bran washes, green food, and flour-gruel should be given, with plenty of salt. DYSENTERY This disease is very frequently confounded with the foregoing. A distinction, however, exists,--since inflammation appears in this disease, while it is absent in the former. In this affection, inflammation of the large intestines takes place, which is attended with diarrhoea. The _fæces_ are covered with blood; the animal rapidly becomes prostrated, and death frequently comes to his relief. Youatt says: "It is, however, with dysentery that the practitioner is most loth to cope,--a disease that betrays thousands of cattle. This, also, may be either acute or chronic. Its causes are too often buried in obscurity, and its premonitory symptoms are disregarded or unknown. There appears to be a strong predisposition in cattle to take on this disease. It seems to be the winding-up of many serious complaints, and the foundation of it is sometimes laid by those that appear to be of the most trifling nature. It is that in cattle which glanders and farcy are in the horse,--the breaking up of the constitution. "Dysentery may be a symptom and concomitant of other diseases. It is one of the most fearful characteristics of murrain; it is the destructive accompaniment, or consequence, of phthisis. It is produced by the sudden disappearance of a cutaneous eruption; it follows the cessation of chronic hoose; it is the consequence of the natural or artificial suspension of every secretion. Were any secretion to be particularly selected, the repression of which would produce dysentery, it would be that of the milk. How often does the farmer observe that no sooner does a milch cow cease her usual supply of milk than she begins to purge! There may not appear to be any thing else the matter with her; but she purges, and, in the majority of cases, that purging is fatal. "It may, sometimes, however, be traced to sufficient causes, exclusive of previous disease. Unwholesome food--exposure to cold--neglect at the time of calving--low and marshy situations--the feeding in meadows that have been flooded, where it is peculiarly fatal--the grazing (according to Mr. Leigh, and our experience confirms his statement) upon the clays lying over the blue lias rock--the neighborhood of woods and of half-stagnant rivers--the continuation of unusually sultry weather--overwork, and all the causes of acute dysentery, may produce that of a chronic nature; an acute dysentery--neglected, or badly, or even most skillfully treated--may degenerate into an incurable chronic affection. Half starve a cow, or over-feed her, milk her to exhaustion, or dry her milk too rapidly--and dysentery may follow. "The following will, probably, be the order of the symptoms, if they are carefully observed: There will be a little dullness or anxiety of countenance, the muzzle becoming short or contracted; a slight shrinking when the loins are pressed upon; the skin a little harsh and dry; the hair a little rough; there will be a slight degree of uneasiness and shivering that scarcely attracts attention; then--except it be the degeneracy of acute into chronic dysentery--constipation may be perceived. It will be to a certain extent, obstinate; the excrement will voided with pain; it will be dry, hard, and expelled in small quantities. In other cases, perhaps, purging will be present from the beginning; the animal will be tormented with _tenesmus_, or frequent desire to void its excrement, and that act attended by straining and pain, by soreness about the _anus_, and protrusion of the _rectum_, and sometimes by severe colicky spasms. In many cases, however, and in those of a chronic form, few of these distressing symptoms are observed, even at the commencement of the disease; but the animal voids her _fæces_ oftener than it is natural that she should, and they are more fluid than in a state of health; while at the same time she loses her appetite and spirits and condition, and is evidently wasting away." _Treatment._--Give one drachm of the extract of belladonna, three times a day, dissolved in water; or calomel and powdered opium, of each one drachm three times daily. As soon as the inflammatory stage passes by, give one of the following three times daily, in their gruel: nitrate of potash pulverized, gentian-root pulverized, of each one ounce; pulverized Jamaica ginger, one half an ounce; pulverized caraway, or anise-seed, six drachms. A bottle of porter given once or twice a day, will be found of very great advantage. ENTERITIS. This is an inflammation of the external or internal coat of the intestines, sometimes attended with violent purging, especially when it is confined to the internal coats. Oxen in good condition are more subject to this disease than are cows. It most frequently occurs in dry, hot weather. It is sudden in its attacks, and often fatal in its termination. _Symptoms._--The animal is dull, and not disposed to move about; the muzzle is dry, and the coat staring; the animal yields, on pressure of the _loins_; a weak, staggering gait, when forced to move; respiration hurried; pulse accelerated but small; eyes red, full and fiery; head protruding; mouth, ears, and horns hot; appetite bad; rumination ceases; the bowels become constipated; the animal moans continually, and froths at the mouth. These symptoms violently increase as the disease advances. The animal becomes more depressed and feeble, grinds his teeth, and appears half unconscious, and dies in convulsions. Of the causes of this disease, Youatt, who is almost the only authority we have upon this subject, says: "It seems occasionally to be epidemic; for several instances of it occur, of the same character, and in the same district. M. Cruzel gives an illustration of this in his description of the disease that destroyed so many cattle, in the years 1826 to 1827, in the Department _de la Nievre_. Out of two hundred and eighteen cattle belonging to three farmers, one hundred and thirteen were attacked by this disease, and eighty-three of them died. One farmer in a neighboring district had nineteen head of cattle, all of which sickened, but only three were lost. These were unusually hot summers. The upland pasture was burnt up, or what remained of it was rendered unusually stimulating; and the acrid plants of the marshes and low grounds acquired additional deleterious agency. "When isolated cases occur, they may generally be attributed to mismanagement. Exposure to cold, or the drinking of cold water when overheated with work; too hard work in sultry weather; the use of water stagnant, impure, or containing any considerable quantity of metallic salts; the sudden revulsion of some cutaneous eruption; the crowding of animals into a confined place; too luxuriant and stimulating food generally; and the mildewed and unwholesome food on which cattle are too often kept, are fruitful sources of this complaint." _Treatment._--In the early stage of the disease, give an active purge, and follow it with ten drops of Fleming's tincture of aconite, four times daily, for two days; then give drachm doses of the extract of belladonna; give no food for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, according to circumstances. Bleeding, if done early, is often beneficial. Counter-irritants to the belly are also recommended; the best are mustard, hartshorn, and water, mixed together--or tincture of cantharides, with one drachm of croton-oil added to every ounce. EPIZOÖTICS. Diseases of this class have the same relation to the inferior animals that epidemic diseases have to man. Of course, they assume a very pestilential character. Scarcely a year passes away without diseases of this nature making their appearance in some parts of the world. They occur at all seasons of the year, but more generally prevail in the spring and fall. The period of their duration varies from months to years. They are, at times, mild in their attacks, and yield readily to proper treatment; at other times, they become painful pestilences, destroying every thing in their course. The causes are generally sought for in some peculiar condition of the atmosphere. The use of the milk and flesh of diseased cattle has frequently been productive of malignant diseases in the human family. Silius Italicus describes a fearful epizoötic, which first attacked the dog, then the feathered biped, then horses, and cattle, and, last of all, the human being. "On mules and dogs the infection first began, And, last, the vengeful arrows fixed in man." Epizoötics, occurring in rats, cats, dogs, horses, and cattle, which were followed in the succeeding years by more fearful ones which attacked the human family, are numerously recorded. These scourges have appeared in all ages of the world; but, as time and space will not allow our entering upon an extended consideration of them,--however interesting they might be to the general reader,--we shall content ourselves by quoting, somewhat in brief, from the lectures of the late William Youatt on these fatal maladies:-- "In the year 801, and at the commencement of the reign of Charlemagne, an epidemic disease devastated a great portion of his dominions. This was attributed to the villainy of the Duke of Benevento, who was said to have employed a great many persons in scattering an enchanted powder over the fields, which destroyed both the cattle and the food of the cattle. M. Paulet seems inclined to give full credence to this, and says that history offers many proofs of this destructive and diabolical practice. He affirms that many persons were punished in Germany, France, and, particularly, at Toulouse, for the commission of this crime. Several of the suspected agents of these atrocities were put to the torture and made full confession of their crime. "Of the occurrence of these diseases from the year 800 to 1316,--an interval of mental darkness, and of horrors and calamities of every kind,--history records twenty cases, more or less destructive, and extending, with greater or less devastation, over France and Germany, Italy and England. Of these twenty, four date their origin from an excessive moisture in the air, accompanied by almost continual rains, and flooding the country to a considerable extent. One was supposed to be the consequence of long-continued drought and excessive heat; one was traced to the influence of an eclipse of the sun; another, to a comet; and a fourth, to a most unusually stormy winter. The reader will have the kindness to remember that we are here expressing the opinions of the writers of the day, and by no means, our own belief of the matter. "Of the four which trace their origin to extreme wet and its consequences, the first occurred in France, in 820, after a long continuance of rain; and it was equally fatal to men and cattle. The second, which was equally fatal to both, appeared in Lorraine, in 889. The third broke out among the cavalry of the army of Arnoul, in its passage over the Alps, on its return to Italy. The fourth pervaded the whole of England in 1125, and was equally fatal to the biped and the quadruped. "That which followed excessive heat and drought, was generally prevalent throughout Europe, but especially so in Germany. It attacked oxen, sheep, and pigs. It appeared in 994, and lasted six months. "The one which was attributed to the comet, and which principally attacked cattle, appeared in France in 943 Almost every animal perished. "Another, that was supposed to be connected with an eclipse of the sun, was prevalent throughout the greater part of Germany, among men and animals, in 989. "The disease, which was the consequence of a cold and boisterous winter, was principally prevalent in France, in 887, and committed sad ravages among the herds of cattle and sheep. "Of the twelve others, of which, authors do not indicate the cause, the first was in France, in 810, and principally among cattle. The second was also in France, in 850, and almost depopulated the country of cattle. The third, in 868, was common to all animals in France. The fourth, in 870, was in the same country, and caused severe loss among cattle. The fifth prevailed on the Rhine and in Germany, and destroyed an almost incalculable number of cattle. The sixth attacked the horses of the army of Arnoul in Lorraine, in 888. The seventh, in 940, destroyed a vast number of cattle in France, Italy, and Germany. The eighth and ninth were in France, in 941 and 942, and almost all the cattle in the country perished. The tenth pestilence broke out in England, in the year 1041, and frightful was its devastation among all animals, and, particularly, horned cattle. The eleventh also devastated our country, in 1103, and the ravages were dreadful. The twelfth was chiefly fatal in Germany, and particularly in Gueldres, in 1149. "These twenty pestilences occurred in the space of 506 years. Five or six of them were most prevalent among cattle; two were almost confined to horses; twelve included, to a greater or less degree, almost every species of quadrupeds; and four extended to the human being. Among these the ravages of eight were most destructive in France; as many in Germany; and four in Italy and England. "As far as we have hitherto proceeded, it will also appear that cattle are more subject to these diseases than any other species of domesticated animals, and that the pestilence is always most fearful among them. It is also evident that the maladies which proceed from cold or humidity are more frequent in the temperate and southern parts of Europe than those which depend upon drought, or almost any other cause. "The malady lingers in different countries, in proportion to its want of power to accomplish at once all its devastation. "After this time, there are few satisfactory accounts of these diseases for more than five centuries. We only know that, occasionally suspending their ravages,--or, rather, visiting new districts when they had ceased to desolate others--they have continued to be objects of terror and instruments of devastation, even unto the present day; and it is only within a few years that they have been really understood, and have become, to a certain degree, manageable." In the United States, epizoötic diseases have been of frequent occurrence; but, owing to the want of properly qualified veterinary surgeons, they have not, until within a very recent period, been properly described or understood. The day however, is fast approaching when this void will be filled, and when epizoötic and other diseases will be correctly noted and recorded. The necessity for this must have been forcibly impressed upon the minds of the inhabitants of our country from the experience of the last ten or twelve years. Respecting the late epizoötic among cattle in Portage County, Ohio, William Pierce, V.S., of Ravenna, thus describes the symptoms as they appeared, in a letter to the author: "A highly-colored appearance of the sclerotic coat of the eye, also of the _conjunctiva_ (a lining membrane of the eyelid) and the Schneiderian membrane of the nose; a high animal heat about the head and horns; a highly inflammatory condition of the blood; contraction of all the abdominal viscera; hurried respiration; great prostration and nervous debility; lameness; followed by gangrene of the extremity of the tail, and the hind-feet; terminating in mortification and death." Mr. Pierce is convinced that these symptoms are produced by the continued use of the ergot, or spur of the June grass,--the effects being similar to those produced upon the human family by long-continued use of ergot of rye. This disease assumes both an acute and chronic form. The same gentleman also says: "Ordinary observers, as well as those who claim to be scientific, have entertained very conflicting opinions as to its general character; some regarding it as epizoötic, others as contagious; some attributing it to atmospheric influence, others to foulings in the stable or yard. Others, again, attribute it to freezing of the feet in winter. Cattle-doctors in a majority of cases, fail to cure it. I have, however, by a simple course of treatment, effected many signal cures. Some parties are so confident of the contagious character of the disease that they refuse to drive cattle along a road where it is known to exist. They even, oftentimes, wash their boots previous to entering their barnyards, after walking over the ground where such diseased cattle have been running. "Caution is both proper and commendable. I do not, however, regard it as a contagious disease, nor can it be transmitted by inoculation. The calf is carried during the progress of the disease, and delivered in apparently good health. The milk of the cow appears to be unaffected and harmless. I call this disease _sphacial fever_, or _gangrenous fever_. [Illustration: THE MAD BULL.] "The ergot, or spur of the hay, is confined to the June grass, as far as my observation extends; owing, probably, to its early maturity. Most other kinds of grass are cut before the seeds have matured sufficiently to produce the spur. I was suspicious of the foulness of the feed before I examined any hay, and have found the spur in the hay wherever the disease is found. "Mr. Sanford, of Edinburgh, Ohio, purchased one half of a mow of hay from Mr. Bassett, of Randolph, which was removed to his farm in Randolph, eight miles distant. Of this hay, Mr. Sanford fed eleven cows some six or eight weeks. Mr. Bassett had been feeding the same to four cows. At about the same time, both heads began to show lameness. I visited Mr. S. after he had lost six cows, and examined the remaining five, four of which were lame and the other showed symptoms of the disease. He had two other cows, one of which was loaned to a neighbor, and the other was fed upon different hay, for convenience. The loaned cow was returned about the first of March,--the two then running with the ailing ones until the 24th of April, when I saw them sound and in good health. "I then visited Mr. Bassett's stock, which I found infected with the same disease,--he having lost one, and the remaining three being lame, and much debilitated. The hoofs were sloughing off. Some of the same hay remained in the snow, which, upon examination, exhibited an abundance of the spur. Upon inquiry, I found that no such disease existed between the two farms, or in the neighborhood of either Mr. S. or Mr. B. The peculiarity of this circumstance at once swept away the last vestige of doubt from my mind. Mr. E. Chapman, of Rootstown, accompanied me, and can vouch for the correctness of these statements. "He hooted at my opinions, asserting that he understood the disease, and that it was caused by the freezing of the feet. He has since, however, abandoned that idea, and honestly 'acknowledged the corn.' This ergot is regarded by some as a parasitic fungus, formed in other grains, an abundant vegeto-animal substance, and much disposed to putrefaction. We appear to be in the dark regarding its real composition. The little which has been written upon the subject, appears to be founded upon hypothesis, and that the most obscure. The articles to which I refer may differ in quality or property to a considerable extent, and we may forever remain in the dark, unless chemical investigation be instituted. "In this particular disease, there appears to be singularity in the symptoms through all its various stages, which is likely to originate in the peculiarity of the cause which produces them. The effects and symptoms arising from the continued use of the ergot of rye, as manifested in the human system, have been but briefly hinted at by authors, and, probably, some of them are only reasonable conjectures. All they say is, that it produces violent headache, spaculation in the extremities, and death. Hitherto, its effects upon the inferior animal have been subjected to no investigation, and its peculiarity in the symptoms, differing from like phenomena by other causes, may yet be demonstrated. I am not alone in my opinion of this disease. I have taken counsel of those whose judgment cannot be questioned. Whatever difference of opinion exists is attributable to a want of investigation, and it will continue to exist until this singular phenomenon is clearly accounted for. Every opinion should be thoroughly criticized till facts are obtained. Every man's opinion is sacred to himself, but we should yield to conviction. "Two classes of this disease are exhibited: one, of irritation, and the other, of debility; one, an acute, the other, a chronic form. The point at which it assumes the chronic form is between congestion and gangrene. By close observation we can discover these to be different and higher degrees of the same disease. All subsequent degrees are dependent upon the first. "The first symptom, or degree, is, probably, an attack upon the systematic circulation, produced by a certain medicinal and deleterious property existing in the ergot, and communicated to the blood through the absorption of the tongue. This is more evident from the fact that the digestive organs retain their normal condition till the last stages of the chronic form. The blood in the first two stages is healthy, and the peculiar influence is only apparent in the subsequent stages; as evidenced by the fact that the muscles and general good appearance, as well as life itself, last longer than could be possible, if this deleterious influence were exhausted upon the digestive organs and the blood, in its first stages. And, as we suppose that fever and congestion constitute an attack upon the red blood, which is exhibited by hurried pulsation, we might rationally infer that the next degree would be gangrene of the globule, causing sloughing, the same as if it were carried to the muscles, or surface. This sloughing of the globule would be the same as if exhibited on any other part of the organization, for the fibrin is identical with muscle, as albumen is identical with the white of an egg; and since congestion is the forerunner of gangrene at the extremities, or on the surface, so fever and quick pulsation are the forerunners of congestion of the blood. Gangrene cannot ensue without obstruction in the blood-vessels; and congestion cannot take place without obstruction in that which sustains the globule. As gangrene, then, is the first stage of decomposition of animal matter, so is congestion the first stage of decomposition of the globule; and as mortification is death in the organized body, so is congestion death in the organized globule. "It appears evident that this disease, in all its forms and degrees of intensity, seeks vent or release; in other words, Nature conflicting with it, throws it off its track, or balance, and offers means of escape, or shows it a door by which it may make its exit. In the first stage of the disease, the dermoid (skin) tissues make the effort. In the inflammatory, the serous, and the congestive, the mucous gangrene seeks vent; if obtained, mortification is prevented; if not, mortification directly supervenes, and death terminates the case. "In the case to which I refer, observation confirms my opinion that absolute mortification without vent determines the gangrene of the blood, and is hardly curable; but that gangrene's finding vent determines it to be curable, and the recovery highly probable." EPIZOÖTIC CATARRH. Catarrh frequently assumes an epizoötic form of a very virulent character, originating spontaneously and extending over a large section of country at or about the same time. A cold spring succeeding a mild winter, is peculiarly productive of malignant catarrh. This is one of the most distressing and fatal diseases to which cattle are subject. _Symptoms._--The animal appears dull, and unwilling to move about, staggering when forced to do so; obstinate costiveness is usually one of the earliest symptoms, succeeded by diarrhoea, which is equally difficult of management; sometimes, however, diarrhoea is present from the first; the animal loses flesh rapidly; the coat is staring; appetite is lost; tumors form about the head, neck, back, and joints, which appear to be filled with air, and upon pressure cause a crepitating sound; saliva flows from the mouth, becoming very fetid as the disease progresses. The animal always dies of putrefaction. _Treatment._--This disease should be treated early, or not at all. Good nursing is very essential. When costiveness is present, give Barbadoes aloes, one ounce; croton-oil, ten drops; mix together; or give one pint of linseed-oil, to which add from ten to twenty drops of castor-oil. If the bowels are not open in twenty-four hours, give four ounces of sulphate of magnesia every six hours until they are opened. Follow this with tincture of aconite, ten drops in water, every four hours, until the fever has abated. Bleeding has been recommended by some writers; but the author has failed to experience any benefit from resorting to it, but, on the contrary, has seen much injury result from the use--or, rather, the abuse--of the lancet. He is, indeed, inclined to attribute much of the fatality attending this disease to indiscriminate blood-letting. When much debility exists, the animal should be sustained by tonics and stimulants. One ounce of nitric ether and half an ounce of tincture of opium, given in a little water, will be found beneficial. It should be given twice a day. Pulverized gentian-root, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, half an ounce; pulverized cloves, half an ounce; mixed, and divided into four powders, one to be given at night and at morning; will be found useful, in place of the opium and ether. FARDEL. This disease is properly known by the name of clue-bound. The manyplus, or omasum (third stomach), frequently becomes so choked up with food that it is hard and dry, and the operation of the digestive organs is very seriously impaired. The animal eats voraciously, for a time, but stops suddenly and trembles; the countenance assumes a peculiarly haggard appearance; there is a wild expression of the eye; a foaming at the mouth; a tendency to pitch forward, and at times a falling head-foremost to the ground. Occasionally, the symptoms are very active, speedily terminating in death. There are few diseases of a constitutional character in which the stomach is not, more or less, sympathetically involved. "Toward the end of September, 1746, a great number of cows died at Osterwich, in the principality of Halberstadt. Lieberkuhn, a celebrated physician,--there were no veterinary surgeons at that time,--was sent to examine into the nature of the disease, which was supposed to be one of the species of murrain that was then committing such ravages among the cattle in various parts of the Continent. There were none of the tumors, or pestilential buboes, that, in an earlier or later period of the malady, usually accompanied and characterized murrain; but upon inspection of the dead bodies, considerable peritoneal inflammation was found; the first and second stomachs were filled with food, but the third stomach was the palpable seat of the disease; its leaves were black and gangrened. The mass contained between the leaves was black, dry, and so hard that it could scarcely be cut with a scalpel. It intercepted the passage of the food from the first two stomachs to the fourth; and this latter stomach was empty and much inflamed. Neither the heart, nor the lungs, nor the intestines exhibited any trace of disease. Twelve cows were opened, and the appearances were nearly the same in all of them." _Treatment._--Give one and a half pounds of Epsom-salts, dissolved in three pints of water; or one quart of potash, three times daily, dissolved in water, will be found useful in this disease. FOUL IN THE FOOT. This is caused by hard or irritating substances making their way in between the claws of the foot, causing inflammation, and sometimes ulceration, in the parts. The pasterns swell, and the animal becomes lame. The foot should be thoroughly washed, and all foreign substances removed. A pledget of tow, saturated with tar and sprinkled with powdered sulphate of copper, should be inserted between the claws. This usually requires but one or two applications. GARGET. This is a hard, knotty condition of the udder, which sometimes follows calving, in consequence of the sudden distention of the bag with milk; and the inflammation which supervenes causes a congealed or coagulated condition of the milk to take place, of which, if neglected, suppuration and abscesses are the result. _Treatment._--Let the calf suck the dam as speedily as possible, and, if the hardness is not then removed, foment the udder with warm water; after which, wipe it dry, and apply to the entire surface melted lard as hot as the animal will bear. This is, generally, all that is required, the most obstinate cases yielding to it. If abscesses form, they should be lanced. GASTRO-ENTERITIS. This disease--otherwise known as wood-evil, or moor-ill--arises from eating the buds of oak, young ash, and other trees, which are of a very highly stimulating or irritating character. As the intestinal canal is liable to inflammatory action from irritant substances admitted into it, animals are found to become diseased from eating too freely of these vegetable substances. _Symptoms._--Loss of appetite and suspended rumination; mouth hot; skin dry; pulse from sixty to seventy; swelling and pain of the belly; obstinate constipation; fæces hard and covered with blood; urine of a strong odor, highly colored, and voided with difficulty. _Treatment._--The animal should be bled, and a strong purgative administered, followed by aconite and belladonna, as in enteritis. Injections of Castile-soap and water should be freely used; the application of the mustard, hartshorn, and water to the belly will also be found very beneficial. HOOSE. This disease--known also as catarrh--is occasionally the sequence of coryza, but more frequently it arises from an impure atmosphere; consequently, in cow-houses where animals are crowded together in numbers, it is most frequently found. Scanty provender, and of an inferior quality, is among the exciting causes of hoose, producing, as it does, a debilitated state of the system, which, upon exposure of the animal to cold, or wet, hastens the disorder. Some breeds of cattle are peculiarly liable to this disease, which, if not arrested in its early stage, runs on, involving the lungs, and frequently terminating in consumption. Of all our domestic animals, neat cattle are most subject to pulmonary diseases. This is attributable to the neglect and exposure which are far too often their lot. Butchers will testify that a large portion of all cattle slaughtered have abscesses and other diseases of the lungs. _Symptoms._--Loss of appetite; muzzle dry; coat rough, or staring; respiration quickened; horns hot; ears, nose, and legs cold; husky cough; pulse from sixty to seventy, small and thready; bowels frequently constipated. _Treatment._--Give one ounce of the following powders every six hours, until the bowels are opened: Barbadoes aloes, one and half ounces; nitrate of potassa, half an ounce; ginger, six drachms; mix and divide into six powders. Setons in the dewlap are often of great benefit. HOOVE. Hoove, or blown, so common, and often so speedily fatal in cattle, is the result of fermentation in the _rumen_, or paunch, in consequence of the animal's having eaten large quantities of wet grass, luxuriant clover, turnips, etc. An accumulation of gas is the result of this fermentation, which greatly disturbs the haunch and left side of the belly, causing much pain to the animal, and frequently threatening suffocation. _Treatment._--Drench the animal with one ounce of spirits of hartshorn in one quart of water, the object being to neutralize the gas which is present in the rumen; or, two ounces of table salt dissolved in one quart of water will be found very effectual. If these do not speedily give relief, an active purge should be given. Injections of soap and water should be freely used. If the case still proves obstinate, and the life of the animal is threatened, the paunch should be punctured. For this purpose, the trochar--an instrument specially adapted--should be used; but, in the absence of an instrument, an ordinary pocket-knife may be employed, taking care not to make a large opening. The proper point to operate is midway between the last rib and the prominent point of the hip-bone, about twelve inches from the centre of the back or loins. Few cases have a fatal termination where this operation has been properly performed. HYDATIDS. Worms in the brain occasionally occur, causing great uneasiness to the animal and generally proving fatal. The symptoms are, loss of appetite; suspended rumination; a fevered condition of the system; horns and ears hot; respiration disturbed; coat staring, etc. No course of treatment will prove efficacious in this disease. Pressure on the brain may occur from an accumulation of water, tumors, bruises, etc., in the cranial case. In either case, the same effects are produced as are observed in apoplexy. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. Inflammation of the bladder generally accompanies inflammation of the kidneys, though it is sometimes found disconnected and alone. It is occasionally caused by calculous concretions in the bladder,--which should be removed,--causing very acute abdominal pain to the animal. She makes frequent efforts to stale, passing but a few drops of urine at a time. The pulse is full and rapid; mouth clammy; nose dry; eyes bloodshot; appetite lost; moaning, and walking with a staggering gait. _Treatment._--Inject into the bladder one quart of tepid water, and from one to two ounces of tincture of opium mixed together. Give internally one of the following powders every hour until relieved; nitrate of potassa, one ounce; tartrate of antimony, and pulverized digitalis leaves, each one drachm; mix, and divide into six powders. Mucilaginous draughts should be freely given. Rupture of the bladder sometimes occurs, but there are no symptoms by which it may be known; and, if there were, no service could be rendered in the way of repairing the injury; the animal must die. INFLAMMATION OF THE HAW. The ox, like the horse, has a membrane of semilunar form in the inner corner of the eye, which is capable of being thrown over the entire eyeball, for the purpose of cleansing the eye from any foreign substance which may get into it. This membrane is commonly called the haw, and is susceptible of attacks of inflammation, which cause it to swell, frequently even closing up the eye. _Treatment._--Give a dose of physic, and, if the animal is plethoric, extract a little blood from the vein on the same side as the affected eye. Apply to the eye either of the following washes: tincture of opium, one ounce; rain-water, one pint; or, tincture of aconite, one drachm, to one pint of water. Bathe two or three times a day. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. This disease--sometimes called nephritis--occurs occasionally in cattle in consequence of their eating bad or unwholesome food, or of the abuse of diuretics, etc. The symptoms are very insidious in their approach. The loins are very tender upon pressure; the urine is voided in small quantities. As the disease advances, the symptoms become more marked and acute. The animal is dull, and feeds daintily; the evacuation of urine is attended with increased pain, and the urine is highly colored and bloody; the nose is dry; the horns, ears, and extremities are cold; respiration hurried; the pulse full, hard, and throbbing. _Treatment._--Give one pint of linseed-oil and ten drops of castor-oil, mixed together; follow this with small doses of salts once a day, for three or four days; give injections of water, one half a gallon to two ounces of tincture of arnica. Mustard applications to the loins are also very useful. INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. Diseases of the liver are of very common occurrence,--a fact with which all beef-butchers are familiar. Perhaps no organ in the animal economy is so liable to disease. The obscurity of the symptoms and the good condition of the animal prevent its discovery, as a general thing, during its lifetime. When, however, the disease assumes an active form,--known as the yellows, jaundice, or inflammation of the liver,--the symptoms are more readily detected. _Symptoms._--A yellowish color of the eye will be observed; skin, urine, etc., highly colored; soreness, on pressure, on the right side; loss of appetite; dullness; constipation of the bowels, etc. _Treatment._--Calomel is the most reliable medicine known to practitioners for diseases of the liver. Its abuse, however, has brought it into disrepute. Yet, as with ordinary care it may be advantageously used, we will prescribe it as that upon which the most dependence is to be placed, and in doing so, will endeavor to have it used safely. Bleeding has been recommended: but the author has never found any benefit resulting. Give Epsom-salts, in doses of four ounces each, every night, with one scruple of calomel, until the animal is relieved. Mustard and water should be frequently applied to the right side, and well rubbed in. LARYNGITIS. This disease is of rare occurrence in cattle. In it, the mucous membrane lining the larynx is in a very irritable condition; the least pressure upon the parts affected causes intensely excruciating pain; the respiration becomes quick, painful, and laborious; the animal often appears to be hungry, yet does not eat much, in consequence of the pain occasioned by the act of swallowing. _Treatment._--Apply to the throat externally strong mustard, mixed, with equal parts of aqua ammonia and water, to a thin paste, every hour, until it produces an effect upon the skin; sponging the parts each time with warm water before applying the mustard. The animal should not be bled. Give upon the tongue, or in drink, half-drachm doses of nitrate of potassa, every three or four hours, until relief is obtained. If suffocation threatens, the operation of tracheotomy is the only resort. [Illustration: AN ABERDEENSHIRE POLLED BULL.] Cloths saturated with cold water, wrapped around the neck so as to cover the larynx, frequently afford relief. A purgative will also be found useful. LICE. Cattle are very subject to lice, particularly when they are neglected, half-starved, and in poor condition. Good care and good feeding--in connection with the treatment recommended in mange, to which the reader is referred--will comprise all that is requisite. MANGE. Mange, or leprosy, is one of the most unpleasant and difficult diseases to manage of all the ailments to which cattle are subject requiring the nicest care and attention to render it easy of cure. An animal badly nursed will not, under the most skillful treatment, quickly recover. Its causes are in the main, due to poor food, which produces a debilitated condition of the system, and in connection with a want of cleanliness, causes a development of the _acari_, or minute insects, exciting very great irritation upon the skin and causing the cow to rub herself against every object with which she comes in contact. The hair falls off; a scurfy appearance of the skin is perceptible; and the animal is poor in condition and in milk. The great trouble in treating this disease springs from its contagious character; for, no sooner is the animal, oftentimes, once free from the _acari_ than it comes in contact with some object against which it has previously been rubbing, when the _acari_ which were left upon that object are again brought in contact with the animal, and the disease is reproduced. If, immediately after the proper applications are made, the animal is removed to other quarters, and not allowed to return to the former ones for six or eight weeks, there is, generally speaking, but little trouble in treating the disease. Take the animal upon a warm, sunny day, and with a scrubbing-brush cleanse the skin thoroughly with Castile-soap and water; when dry, apply in the same manner the following mixture; white hellebore, one ounce; sulphur flower, three ounces; gas-water, one quart; mix all well together. One or two applications are, generally, all that will be required. Give internally one of the following powders in the feed, night and morning: flowers of sulphur, two ounces; black antimony, one ounce; nitrate of potassa, one ounce; mix, and divide into eight powders. MURRAIN. This is one of the most malignant diseases to which cattle are liable. Fortunately, however, true murrain is comparatively rare in this great stock-raising country. The entire system seems to partake of the disease. The first indication of its approach is a feverish condition of the system, attended with a frequent and painful cough; the pulse is small, hard, and rapid. As the disease advances, the respiration becomes disturbed; the flanks heave; vesicular eruption is observed upon the teats, mouth, and feet; the horns are cold; the animal is sometimes lame; constipation and, sometimes, diarrhoea are accompanying symptoms; _fæces_ black and fetid; the eyes weep and become much swollen; great tenderness along the spine; a brown or bloody discharge from the nose and mouth; the animal moans incessantly, grinds his teeth, rarely lies down, but to get up again quickly; finally, the breath becomes very offensive; tumors make their appearance in various parts of the body, which, in favorable cases, suppurate, and discharge a fetid matter. _Treatment._--Give one fourth of a pound of Epsom-salts, with one drachm of Jamaica ginger, twice a day, for two or three days. A bottle of porter, twice a day, will be found serviceable. Very little medicine is required internally in this disease, but much depends upon good nursing. External applications are chiefly to be depended upon. A solution of chloride of lime should be applied to the eruptions, or a solution of the chloride of zinc, twenty grains to an ounce of water; or, of sulphate of zinc, two drachms to a pint of water; or pulverized charcoal applied to the parts will be found useful. NAVEL-ILL. Inflammation of the navel in calves occasionally occurs, causing redness, pain, and sudden swelling in the part affected. This disease, if not promptly attended to, speedily carries off the creature. _Treatment._--Foment the part well with warm hop-tea; after which, the application of a cloth, well saturated with lead-water and secured by bandages, should be applied. Internally, doses of Epsom-salts, of two ounces each, dissolved in half a pint of water, should be given until the bowels are acted upon. After the inflammation has subsided, to counteract the weakness which may follow, give a bottle of porter two or three times a day. OBSTRUCTIONS IN THE OESOPHAGUS. Choking in cattle is of common occurrence, in consequence of turnips, potatoes, carrots, or other hard substances, becoming lodged in the oesophagus, or gullet. These obstructions can sometimes be removed by careful manipulations with the hand; but, where this can not be accomplished, the flexible probang should be employed. This is a long India-rubber tube, with a whalebone stillet running through it, so as to stiffen it when in use. This instrument is passed down the animal's throat, and the offending substance is thus pushed down into the stomach. OPEN JOINTS. Opening of the joint generally results from accidents, from puncturing with sharp substances, from kicks, blows, etc. These injuries cause considerable nervous irritation in the system, and sometimes cause lock-jaw and death. _Treatment._--Close up the wound as speedily as possible. The firing-iron will sometimes answer the purpose very well. The author depends more upon the application of collodion--as recommended in his work upon "The Horse and His Diseases" for the same trouble--than upon any other remedy. It requires care in its application, in order to make it adhere firmly. Shoemakers'-wax, melted and applied, answers a very good purpose. PARTURITION. In natural labor--as has been suggested in a former part of this work--the aid of man is rarely required in bringing away the calf. But it not infrequently happens that, from malformation or wrong presentation, our assistance is required in order to deliver the animal. The brute force, which has been far too often heretofore resorted to, should no longer be tolerated, since the lives of many valuable animals have been sacrificed by such treatment. Very often, by gentle manipulation with the greased hand, the womb can be so dilated as to afford a comparatively easy exit for the _foetus_. If, however, the calf is presented wrong, it must be pushed back and placed in its proper position, if possible. In natural labor, the fore-legs, with the head lying between them, are presented; in which position--unless deformity, either in the _pelvis_ of the cow, or in the _foetus_, exists--the calf is passed with little difficulty, and without assistance. It sometimes happens that the head of the foetus is turned backward. When this happens, the attendant should at once strip himself to the waist, bathe his arms, and hands with a little sweet-oil, or lard, and introduce them into the _vagina_, placing a cord around both fore-feet, and then, pushing them back, search for the head, which is to be brought forward to its proper position. The feet are next to be brought up with it. No force should be used, except when the cow herself makes the effort to expel the calf; otherwise, more harm than good may be done. A case of this kind recently occurred in the author's practice, being the third within a year. The subject was a cow belonging to William Hance, Esq., of Bordentown, New Jersey. After she had been in labor for some twenty hours, he was called upon to see her. Upon inquiry, he found that several persons had been trying, without success, to relieve her. She was very much prostrated, and would, doubtless, have died within two or three hours, had no relief been afforded. The legs of the _foetus_ protruded as far as the knees; the head was turned backward, and with the body, pressed firmly into the _vagina_, so that it was impossible to return it, or to bring the head forward. The operation of embryotomy was, therefore, at once performed, by cutting away the right shoulder, which enabled the operator, with the aid of his appropriate hooks, to bring the head forward, when the calf came away without further trouble,--the whole operation not requiring fifteen minutes. The _uterus_ was then washed out, and the animal placed in as comfortable a position as possible, and a stimulating draught given, composed of two ounces of nitric ether, one ounce of tincture of opium, and a half pint of water. This was followed with a few doses of Fleming's tincture of aconite, ten drops in a little water, every few hours. In a few days the animal had entirely recovered. Occasionally, the head comes first, or the head and one leg. In such cases, a cord should be slipped around the jaw and leg, and these then pushed back, so as to allow the other leg to be brought up. When this cannot be done, the _foetus_ can, in most cases, be removed in the original position. Breech, side, back, and other presentations sometimes occur; in all of which instances, the _foetus_ must be turned in such a position that it can be brought away with as little trouble as possible. When this cannot be accomplished, the only resort is embryotomy, or cutting up of the _foetus_, which operation can only be safely performed by the qualified veterinary surgeon. Since writing the above, another case has occurred in the author's practice. The cow--belonging to Samuel Barton, Esq., near Bordentown, New Jersey--had been in labor some eighteen hours; upon an examination of the animal, the calf was found to be very much deformed, presenting backwards,--one of the hind-legs having been pulled off by the person or persons assisting her previous to the author's arrival. Finding it impossible to deliver her in the usual way, embryotomy was in this instance employed. By this means, after taking out the intestines, lungs, etc., of the _foetus_, and cutting away its hind-quarters, the fore-parts were brought away. The head presented a singular appearance; the under jaw was so twisted as to bring the front teeth on the side of the face; the spinal column or back-bone, was turned twice around, resembling a spiral string; the front legs were over the back; the ribs were much contorted; the hind-parts were as much deformed; and, taken altogether, the deformity was the most singular which has been brought under the author's observation. FREE MARTINS.--It has long been supposed by stockbreeders, that if a cow produce twins, one of which is a male and the other a female, the female is incapable of producing young, but that the male may be a useful animal for breeding purposes. Many instances have occurred when the twin sister of a bull has never shown the least desire for the male. This indifference to sexual commerce arises, doubtless, from the animal's being but imperfectly developed in the organs of generation. This fact has been established by the investigations of Mr. John Hunter, who had three of these animals slaughtered for anatomical examination. The result is thus reported: "The external parts were rather smaller than is customary in the cow. The _vagina_ passed on, as in the cow, to the opening of the _urethra_, and then it began to contract into a small canal, which passed on into the division of the _uterus_ into the two horns; each horn passed along the edge of the broad ligament laterally toward the _ovaria_. "At the termination of these horns were placed both the ovaries and the testicles. Both were nearly of the same size, which was about as large as a small nutmeg. To the _ovaria_, I could not find any Fallopian tube. "To the testicles were _vasa deferentia_, but they were imperfect. The left one did not come near the testicle; the right one only came close to it, but did not terminate in the body called the _epididymis_. They were both pervious and opened into the _vagina_, near the opening of the _urethra_. "On the posterior surface of the bladder, or between the _uterus_ and the bladder, were the two bags, called _vesiculæ seminales_ in the male, but much smaller than they are in the bull. The ducts opened along with the _vasa deferentia_. This animal, then, had a mixture of all the parts, but all of them were imperfect." Well-authenticated cases have, however, occurred where the female has bred, and the offspring proved to be good milkers. There are several instances on record of cows' giving birth to three, four, and even five calves at a time. There were on exhibition, in 1862, at Bordentown, New Jersey, three free martins, two sisters and a brother, which were beautiful animals. These were from a cow belonging to Mr. Joab Mershon, residing on Biles Island, situated in the Delaware River, a short distance above Bordentown. They were calved November 1st, 1858, and were therefore nearly four years of age. They had never shown the least desire for copulation. Their aggregate weight was 4300 pounds. We extract the following from the London Veterinarian, for 1854:--"A cow, belonging to Mr. John Marshall, of Repton, on Wednesday last, gave birth to _five, live healthy calves_, all of which are, at the time I write, alive and vigorous, and have every appearance of continuing so. They are all nearly of a size, and are larger and stronger than could be supposed. Four of them are bull-calves. "The dam is by no means a large one, is eleven years old, of a mongrel breed, and has never produced more than one offspring at any previous gestation. I saw her two days after she had calved, at which time she was ruminating, and did not manifest any unusual symptoms of exhaustion. I may mention that the first four calves presented naturally; the fifth was a breech-presentation." CLEANSING.--The _placenta_, or after-birth, by which the _foetus_ is nourished while in embryo, should be removed soon after calving. Generally, it will come away without any assistance. This is what is called "cleansing after calving." When, however, it remains for some time, its function having been performed, it becomes a foreign body, exciting uterine contractions, and therefore injurious. The sooner, then, it is removed, the better for the animal as well as the owner. To accomplish this, the hand should be introduced, and, by pulling gently in various directions, it will soon yield and come away. Should it be allowed to remain, it rapidly decomposes, producing a low, feverish condition of the system, which greatly interferes with the general health of the animal. INVERSION OF THE UTERUS.--The _uterus_ is sometimes turned inside out after calving. This is, generally, the result of debility, or severe labor. The _uterus_ should be replaced as carefully as possible with the hands, care being taken that no dirt, straw, or other foreign substance adheres to it. Should it again be expelled, it would be advisable to quiet the system by the use of an anæsthetic, as chloroform, or--which is much safer--chloric ether. As soon as the animal is under the influence of this, the _uterus_ may be again replaced. The hind-quarters should be raised as high as possible, in order to favor its retention. The animal should have a little gruel and a bottle of porter given to her every five or six hours, and the _vulva_ should be bathed frequently with cold water. PHRENITIS. Inflammation of the brain is one of those dreadful diseases to which all animals are liable. It is known to the farmer as frenzy, mad staggers, etc. The active symptoms are preceded by stupor; the animal stubbornly stands in one position; the eyes are full, red, and fiery; respiration rapid; delirium soon succeeds; the animal, bellowing, dashes wildly about, and seems bent on mischief, rushing madly at every object which comes in its way. The causes of this disease are overwork in warm weather, a plethoric condition of the system, and too stimulating food. Prof. Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Veterinary College, relates a case resulting from the presence within the external _meatus_ of a mass of concrete cerumen, or wax, which induced inflammation of the ear, extending to the brain. _Treatment._--As this is attended with considerable risk, unless it is taken prior to the frenzied stage, bleeding almost to fainting should be resorted to, and followed by a brisk purge. Take one ounce of Barbadoes aloes, and ten to fifteen drops of Croton-oil; mix the aloes with one pint of water and the oil, using the mixture as a drench. One pound of Epsom-salts will answer the purpose very well, in cases where the aloes and oil cannot be readily obtained. Application of bags of broken ice to the head, is very beneficial. Spirits of turpentine, or mustard, together with spirits of hartshorn and water should be well rubbed in along the spine, from the neck to the tail. PLEURISY. This is an inflammation of the _pleura_, or the serous membrane which lines the cavity of the chest, and which is deflected over the lungs. Inflammation of this membrane rarely occurs in a pure form, but is more generally associated with inflammation of the tissue of the lungs. If this disease is not attended to at an early period, its usual termination is in hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest. The same causes which produce inflammation of the lungs, of the bronchia, and of the other respiratory organs, produce also pleurisy. _Symptoms._--The respiration is quick, short, and painful; pressure between the ribs produces much pain; a low, short, painful cough is present; the respiratory murmur is much diminished,--in fact, it is scarcely audible. This condition is rapidly followed by effusion, which may be detected from the dullness of the sounds, on applying the ear to the lower part of the lungs. The febrile symptoms disappear; the animal for a few days appears to improve, but soon becomes weak, languid, and often exhausted from the slightest exertion. _Treatment._--The same treatment in the early stage is enjoined as in inflammatory pneumonia, which the reader will consult--counter-irritation and purgatives. Bleeding never should be resorted to. When effusion takes place, it is necessary to puncture the sides with a trochar, and draw away the fluid, giving internally one of the following purges three times a day: rosin, eight ounces; saltpetre, two ounces, mix, and divide into eight powders. Half-drachm doses of the iodide of potash, dissolved in water, to be given three times daily, will be found useful in this disease. PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. This disease, as its name implies, is an inflammatory condition of the lungs and the _pleura_, or the enveloping membrane of the lungs and the lining membrane of the chest. It is sometimes called contagious, infectious, and epizoötic pleuro-pneumonia,--contagious or infectious, from its supposed property of transmission from the diseased to the healthy animal. [Illustration: TAKING AN OBSERVATION.] A contagious character the author is not ready to assign to it,--contagious, as he understands it, being strictly applicable to those diseases which depend upon actual contact with the poison that it may be communicated from one animal to another. This does not necessarily imply the actual touching of the animals themselves; for it may be communicated from the poison left in the trough, or other places where the diseased animal has been brought in contact with some object, as is often the case in glanders in the horse; the matter discharged from the nose, and left upon the manger, readily communicating that disease to healthy animals coming in contact with it. Contagious diseases, therefore, travel very slowly, starting, as they do, at one point, and gradually spreading over a large district, or section of country. This disease is, however, regarded by the author as infectious; by which term is meant that it is capable of being communicated from the diseased to the healthy animal through the medium of the air, which has become contaminated by the exhalations of poisonous matter. The ability to inoculate other animals in this way is necessarily confined to a limited space, sometimes not extending more than a few yards. Infectious diseases, accordingly, spread with more rapidity than contagious ones, and are, consequently, more to be dreaded; since we can avoid the one with comparatively little trouble, while the other often steals upon us when we regard ourselves as beyond its influence, carrying death and destruction in its course. The term by which this disease is known, is a misnomer. Pleuro-pneumonia proper is neither a contagious, nor an infectious disease; hence, the denial of medical men that this so-called pleuro-pneumonia is a contagious, or infectious disease, has been the means of unnecessarily exposing many animals to its poisonous influence. In the _Recuéil de Médécine Vétérinaire_, for 1833, will be found a very interesting description of this fatal malady. The author, M. Lecoy, Assistant Professor at the Veterinary School of Lyons, France, says: "There are few districts in the _arrondissement_ of Avesnes where more cattle are fattened than in that of Soire-le-Chateau. The farmers being unable to obtain a sufficient supply of cattle in the district, are obliged to purchase the greater part of them from other provinces; and they procure a great number for grazing from Franche Comté. The cattle of this country are very handsome; their forms are compact; they fatten rapidly; and they are a kind of cattle from which the grazer would derive most advantage, were it not that certain diseases absorb, by the loss of some of the animals, the profits of the rest of the herd. Amongst the diseases which most frequently attack the cattle which are brought from the North, there is one very prevalent in some years, and which is the more to be dreaded as it is generally incurable; and the slaughter of the animal, before he is perceptibly wasted, is the only means by which the farmer can avoid losing the whole value of the beast. "This disease is chronic pleuro-pneumonia. The symptoms are scarcely recognizable at first, and often the beast is ill for a long time without its being perceived. He fattens well, and when he is slaughtered the owner is astonished to find scarcely half of the lungs capable of discharging the function of respiration. When, however, the ox has not sufficient strength of constitution to resist the ravages of disease, the first symptom which is observed is diminution, or irregularity of appetite. Soon afterwards, a frequent, dry cough is heard, which becomes feeble and painful as the disease proceeds. The dorso-lumbar portion of the spine (loins) grows tender; the animal flinches when the part is pressed upon, and utters a peculiar groan, or grunt, which the graziers regard as decisive of the malady. "Quickly after this, the movements of the flanks become irregular and accelerated, and the act of respiration is accompanied by a kind of balancing motion of the whole body. The sides of the chest become as tender as the loins, or more so; for the animal immediately throws himself down, if pressed upon with any force. The elbows become, in many subjects, more and more separated from the sides of the chest. The pulse is smaller than natural, and not considerably increased. The muzzle is hot and dry, alternately. The animal lies down as in a healthy state, but rumination is partially or entirely suspended. The _fæces_ are harder than they should be; the urine is of its natural color and quantity; the mouth is often dry; and the horns and ears retain their natural temperature. "This first stage of the disease sometimes continues during a month, or more, and then, if the animal is to recover, or at least, apparently so, the symptoms gradually disappear. First of all, the appetite returns, and the beast begins to acquire a little flesh. The proprietor should then make haste and get rid of him; for it is very rare that the malady, however it may be palliated for a while, does not reappear with greater intensity than before. "In most cases, the disease continues to pursue its course toward its termination without any remission,--every symptom gradually increasing in intensity. The respiration becomes more painful; the head is more extended; the eyes are brilliant; every expiration is accompanied with a grunt, and by a kind of puckering of the angles of the lips; the cough becomes smaller, more suppressed, and more painful; the tongue protrudes from the mouth, and a frothy mucus is abundantly discharged; the breath becomes offensive; a purulent fluid of a bloody color escapes from the nostrils; diarrhoea, profuse and fetid, succeeds to the constipation; the animal becomes rapidly weaker; he is a complete skeleton, and at length he dies. "Examination after death discloses slight traces of inflammation in the intestines, discoloration of the liver, and a hard, dry substance contained in the manyplus. The lungs adhere to the sides and to the diaphragm by numerous bands, evidently old and very firm. The substance of the lungs often presents a reddish-gray hepatization throughout almost its whole extent. At other times, there are tubercles in almost every state of hardness, and in that of suppuration. The portion of the lungs that is not hepatized is red, and gorged with blood. Besides the old adhesions, there are numerous ones of recent date. The pleura is not much reddened, but by its thickness in some points, its adhesion in others, and the effusion of a serous fluid, it proves how much and how long it has participated in the inflammatory action. The trachea and the bronchia are slightly red, and the right side of the head is gorged with blood. "In a subject in which, during life, I could scarcely feel the beating of the heart, I found the whole of the left lobe of the lungs adhering to the sides, and completely hepatized. In another, that had presented no sign of disease of the chest, and that for some days before his death vomited the little fodder which he could take, the whole of that portion of the oesophagus that passed through the chest was surrounded with dense false membranes, of a yellowish hue, ranging from light to dark, and being in some parts more than an inch in thickness, and adhering closely to the muscular membrane of the tube, without allowing any trace to be perceived of that portion of the mediastinal pleura on which this unnatural covering was fixed and developed. "The cattle purchased in Franche Comté are brought to Avesnes at two periods of the year--in autumn and in the spring. Those which are brought in autumn are much more subject to the disease than those which have arrived in the spring; and it almost always happens that the years in which it shows itself most generally are those in which the weather was most unfavorable while the cattle were on the road. The journey is performed by two different routes,--through Lorraine and through Champagne,--and the disease frequently appears in cattle that have arrived by one of these routes. The manner in which the beasts are treated, on their arrival, may contribute not a little to the development of the malady. These animals, which have been driven long distances in bad weather, and frequently half starved, arrived famished, and therefore the more fatigued, and some of them lame. Calculating on their ravenous appetite, the graziers, instead of giving them wholesome food, make them consume the worst that the farm contains,--musty and mouldy fodder; and it is usually by the cough, which the eating of such food necessarily produces, that the disease is discovered and first developed. "Is chronic pleuro-pneumonia contagious? The farmers believe that it is, and I am partly of their opinion. When an animal falls sick in the pasture, the others, after his removal, go and smell at the grass where he has lain, and which he has covered with his saliva, and, after that, new cases succeed to the first. It is true that this fact is not conclusive, since the disease also appears in a great number of animals that have been widely separated from each other. But I have myself seen three cases in which the cattle of the country, perfectly well before, have fallen ill, and died with the same symptoms, excepting that they have been more acute, after they have been kept with cattle affected with this disease. This circumstance inclines me to think that the disease is contagious; or, at least, that, in the progress of it, the breath infects the cow-house in which there are other animals already predisposed to the same disease. I am induced to believe that most of the serious internal diseases are communicated in this manner, and particularly those which affect the organs of respiration, when the animals are shut up in close, low, and badly-ventilated cow-houses." [_Rec. de Méd. Vét. Mai, 1833._] No malady can be more terrible and ruinous than this among dairy-stock; and its spread all over the country, together with its continuance with scarcely any abatement, must be attributed to the combination of various causes. The chief are: _first_, the very contagious or infectious nature of the disorder; _second_, inattention on the part of Government to the importation and subsequent sale of diseased animals; and, _third_, the recklessness of purchasers of dairy or feeding cattle. This disease may be defined as an acute inflammation of the organs of the chest, with the development of a peculiar and characteristic poison, which is the active element of infection or contagion. It is a disease peculiar to the cattle tribe, notwithstanding occasional assertions regarding observations of the disease among horses, sheep, and other animals,--which pretended observations have not been well attested. The infectious, or contagious nature of this virulent malady is incontestibly substantiated by an overwhelming amount of evidence, which cannot be adduced at full length here, but which may be classified under the following heads: _first_, the constant spreading of the disease from countries in which it rages to others which, previously to the importation of diseased animals, had been perfectly free from it. This may be proved in the case of England, into which country it was carried in 1842, by affected animals from Holland. Twelve months after, it spread from England to Scotland, by means of some cattle sold at All-Hallow Fair, and it was only twelve months afterward that cattle imported as far north as Inverness took the disease there. Lately, a cow taken from England to Australia was observed to be diseased upon landing, and the evil results were limited to her owner's stock, who gave the alarm, and ensured an effectual remedy against a wider spread. Besides, the recent importation of pleuro-pneumonia into the United States from Holland appears to have awakened our agricultural press generally, and to have convinced them of the stubborn fact that our cattle have been decimated by a fearfully infectious, through probably preventable, plague. A letter from this country to an English author says: "Its (pleuro-pneumonia's) contagious character seems to be settled beyond a doubt, though some of the V.S. practitioners deny it, which is almost as reasonable as it would be to deny any other well-authenticated historic fact. Every case of the disease is traceable to one of two sources; either to Mr. Chenery's stock in Belmont (near Boston, Massachusetts), into which the disease was introduced by his importation of four Dutch cows from Holland, which arrived here the 23d of last May; or else to one of the three calves which he sold to a farmer in North Brookfield, Massachusetts, last June." _2dly._ Apart from the importation into countries, we have this certain proof--to which special attention was drawn several years ago--that cattle-dealers' farms, and public markets, constitute the busy centres of infection. Most anxious and careful inquiries have established the proposition that in breeding-districts, where the proprietors of extensive dairies--as in Dumfries, Scotland, and other places--abstain from buying, except from their neighbors, who have never had diseases of the lungs amongst their stock, pleuro-pneumonia has not been seen. There is a wide district in the Vicinity of Abington, England, and in the parish of Crawford, which has not been visited _by_ this plague, with the exception of two farms, into which market-cattle had been imported and thus brought the disease. _3dly._ In 1854 appeared a Report of the Researches on Pleuro-Pneumonia, by a scientific commission, instituted by the Minister of Agriculture in France. This very able pamphlet was edited by Prof. Bouley, of Alfort, France. The members of the commission belonged to the most eminent veterinarians and agriculturists in France. Magendie was President; Regnal, Secretary; besides Rayer, the renowned comparative pathologist; Yvart, the Inspector-General of the Imperial Veterinary Schools; Renault, Inspector of the Imperial Veterinary Schools; Delafond, Director of Alfort College; Bouley, Lassaigne, Baudemont, Doyére, Manny de Morny, and a few others representing the public. If such a commission were occasionally appointed in this country for similar purposes, how much light would be thrown on subjects of paramount importance to the agricultural community! Conclusions arrived at by the commission are too important to be overlooked in this connection. The reader must peruse the Report itself, if he needs to satisfy himself as to the care taken in conducting the investigations: but the foregoing names sufficiently attest the indisputable nature of the facts alluded to. In instituting its experiments, the commission had in view the solving of the following questions:-- _1stly._ Is the epizoötic pleuro-pneumonia of cattle susceptible of being transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation? _2dly._ In the event of such contagion's existing, would all the animals become affected, or what proportion would resist the disease? _3dly._ Amongst the animals attacked by the disease, how many recover, and under what circumstances? How many succumb? _4thly._ Are there any animals of the ox species decidedly free from any susceptibility of being affected from the contagion of pleuro-pneumonia? _5thly._ Do the animals, which have been once affected by a mild form of the disease, enjoy immunity from subsequent attacks? _6thly._ Do the animals, which have once been affected by the disease in its active form, enjoy such immunity? To determine these questions, the commission submitted at different times to the influence of cohabitation with diseased animals forty-six perfectly healthy ones, chosen from districts in which they had never been exposed to a similar influence. Of these forty-six animals, twenty were experimented on at Pomeraye, two at Charentonneau, thirteen at Alfort, and eleven, in the fourth experiment, at Charentonneau. Of this number, twenty-one animals resisted the disease when first submitted to the influence of cohabitation, ten suffered slightly, and fifteen took the disease. Of the fifteen affected, four died, and eleven recovered. Consequently, the animals which apparently escaped the disease at the first trial amounted to 45.65 per cent., and those affected to 21.73 per cent. Of these, 23.91 per cent. recovered, and 8.69 per cent. died. But the external appearances in some instances proved deceptive, and six of the eleven animals of the last experiment, which were regarded as having escaped free, were found, on being destroyed, to bear distinct evidence of having been affected. This, therefore, modifies the foregoing calculations, and the numbers should stand thus:-- 15 enjoy immunity, or 32.61 per cent. 10 indisposed, " 21.73 " 17 animals cured, " 36.95 " 4 dead, " 8.98 " Of the forty-two animals which were exposed in the first experiments at Pomeraye and Charentonneau, and which escaped either without becoming affected, or recovering, eighteen were submitted to a second trial; and of these eighteen animals, five had, in the first experiment, suffered from the disease and had recovered; five had now become affected; and four had been indisposed. The four animals submitted to the influence of contagion a third time, had been affected on the occasion of the first trial. None of the eighteen animals contracted the disease during these renewed exposures to the influence of contagion. From the results of these experiments, the commission drew the following conclusions:-- _1stly._ The epizoötic pleuro-pneumonia is susceptible of being transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation. _2dly._ All the animals exposed do not take the disease; some suffer slightly, and others not at all. _3dly._ Of the affected animals, some recover and others die. _4thly._ The animals, whether slightly or severely affected, possess an immunity against subsequent attacks. These are the general conclusions which the commission deemed themselves authorized to draw from their experiments. The absolute proportion of animals which become affected, or which escape the disease, or of those which die and which recover, as a general rule, cannot be deduced from the foregoing experiments, which, for such a purpose, are too limited. The commission simply state the numbers resulting from their experiments. From these it transpires that forty five of the animals became severely affected with pleuro-pneumonia, and twenty-one per cent. took the disease slightly, making the whole sixty-six per cent. which were more or less severely attacked. Thirty-four per cent. remained free from any malady. The proportion of animals which re-acquired their wonted appearance of health amounted to eighty-three per cent., whereas seventeen per cent. died. Many minor points might be insisted on, but it is sufficient here to say, that the most careful analysis of all facts has proved to practical veterinarians, as well as to experienced agriculturists, and must prove to all who will calmly and dispassionately consider the point, that pleuro-pneumonia is pre-eminently an infectious, or contagious disease. [Illustration: THE TWINS.] _Symptoms._--From the time that an animal is exposed to the contagion to the first manifestation of symptoms, a certain period elapses. This is the period of incubation. It varies from a fortnight to forty days, or even several months. The first signs, proving that the animal has been seized, can scarcely be detected by any but a professional man; though, if a proprietor of cattle were extremely careful, and had pains-taking individuals about his stock, he would invariably notice a slight shiver as ushering in the disorder, which for several days, even after the shivering fit, would limit itself to slight interference in breathing, readily detected on auscultation. Perhaps a cough might be noticed, and that the appetite and milk-secretion diminished. The animal becomes costive, and the shivering fits recur. The cough becomes more constant and oppressive; the pulse full and frequent, usually numbering about eighty per minute at first, and rising to upwards of one hundred. The temperature of the body rises, and all the symptoms of acute fever set in. A moan, or grunt, in the early part of the disease indicates a dangerous attack, and the _alae nasi_ (cartilages of the nose) rise spasmodically at each inspiration; the air rushes through the inflamed windpipe and bronchial tubes, so as to produce a loud, coarse respiratory murmur; and the spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles indicates the difficulty the animal also experiences in the act of expiration. Pressure over the intercostal (between the ribs) spaces, and pressing on the spine, induce the pain so characteristic of pleurisy, and a deep moan not infrequently follows such an experiment. The eyes are bloodshot, mouth clammy, skin dry and tightly bound to the subcutaneous textures, and the urine is scanty and high-colored. Upon auscultation, the characteristic dry, sonorous _râle_ of ordinary bronchitis may be detected along the windpipe, and in the bronchial tubes. A loud sound of this description is, not infrequently, detected at the anterior part of either side of the chest; whilst the respiratory murmur is entirely lost, posteriorly, from consolidation of the lungs. A decided leathery, frictional sound is detected over a considerable portion of the thoracic surface. As the disease advances, and gangrene, with the production of cavities in the lungs, ensues, loud, cavernous _râles_ are heard, which are more or less circumscribed, occasionally attended by a decided metallic noise. When one lobe of the lungs is alone affected, the morbid sounds are confined to one side, and on the healthy side the respiratory murmur is uniformly louder all over. By carefully auscultating diseased cows from day to day, interesting changes can be discovered during the animal's lifetime. Frequently, the abnormal sounds indicate progressive destruction; but, at other times, portions of the lungs that have been totally impervious to air, become the seat of sibilant _râles_, and gradually, a healthy respiratory murmur proves that, by absorption of the materials which have been plugging the tissues of the lungs, resolution is fast advancing. Some very remarkable cases of this description have been encountered in practice. Unfortunately, we often find a rapid destruction of the tissues of the lungs, and speedy dissolution. In other instances, the general symptoms of hectic, or consumption, attend lingering cases, in which the temperature of the body becomes low, and the animal has a dainty appetite, or refuses all nourishment. It has a discharge from the eyes, and a fetid, sanious discharge from the nose. Not infrequently, it coughs up disorganized lung-tissue and putrid pus. Great prostration, and, indeed, typhus symptoms, set in. There is a fetid diarrhoea, and the animal sinks in the most emaciated state, often dying from suffocation, in consequence of the complete destruction of the respiratory structures. _Post mortem_ appearances.--In acute cases, the cadaverous lesions chiefly consist in abundant false membranes in the trachea, or windpipe, and closure of the bronchial tubes by plastic lymph. The air-vesicles are completely plugged by this material, and very interesting specimens may be obtained by careful dissection, in the shape of casts of the bronchial tubes and air-vesicles, clustered together like bunches of grapes. On slicing the lungs in these cases, hepatization is observed, presenting a very peculiar appearance, which is, in a great measure, due to the arrangement of the lung-tissue in cattle. The pulmonary lobules are of a deep-red or brown color, perfectly consolidated, and intersected or separated, one from the other, by lighter streaks of yellowish-red lymph, occupying the interlobular, areolar tissue. In the more chronic cases, the diseased lobes and lobules are found partly separated from the more healthy structures. This occurs from gangrene, and putrefactive changes, or in some instances, from the ulcerative process, so constantly observed in the segregation of dead from living tissues. Abscesses are not infrequently found in different parts of the lungs. Sometimes circumscribed, at others connected with bronchial tubes, and not infrequently communicating with the pleural cavity. True empyema is not often seen; but, at all times, the adhesions between the costal and visceral pleura are extensive, and there is much effusion in the chest. In dressed carcasses of cows that have been slaughtered from pleuro-pneumonia, even though the disease has not been far advanced, it will be found that the butcher has carefully scraped the serous membrane off the inner surface of the ribs, as it would otherwise be impossible for him to give the pleura its healthy, smooth aspect, from the firm manner in which the abundant false membranes adhere to it. The diseased lungs sometimes attain inordinate weight. They have been known to weigh as much as sixty pounds. _Treatment._--The veterinary profession is regarded by many who have sustained heavy losses from pleuro-pneumonia, as deeply ignorant, because its members cannot often cure the disease. Persons forget that there are several epidemics which prove equally difficult to manage on the part of the physician, such as cholera, yellow fever, etc. The poison in these contagious, epizoötic diseases is so virulent that the animals may be regarded as dead from the moment they are attacked. Its elimination from the system is impossible, and medicine cannot support an animal through its tardy, exhausting, and destructive process of clearing the system of so potent a virus. All antiphlogistic means have failed, such as blood-letting and the free use of evacuants. Derivatives, in the form of mustard-poultices, or more active blisters, are attended with good results. Stimulants have proved of the greatest service; and the late Prof. Tessona, of Turin, strongly recommended, from the very onset of the disease, the administration of strong doses of quinine. Maffei, of Ferrara, states that he has obtained great benefit from the employment of ferruginous tonics and manganese in the very acute stage of the malady, supported by alcoholic stimulants. Recently, the advantages resulting from the use of sulphate of iron, both as a preventive and curative, have been exhibited in France. It would appear that the most valuable depurative method of treatment yet resorted to is by the careful use of the Roman bath. Acting, like all other sudorifics in cases of fever and blood diseases, it carries off by the skin much of the poison, without unduly lowering the vital powers. _Prevention._--The rules laid down in Denmark, and indeed in many other places, appear the most natural for the prevention of the disease. If they could be carried out, the disease must necessarily be stopped; but there are practical and insuperable difficulties in the way of enforcing them. Thus, a Dr. Warneke says, prevention consists in "the avoidance of contagion; the slaughter of infected beasts; the prohibition of keeping cattle by those whose cattle have been slaughtered, for a space of ten weeks after the last case occurring; the disinfection of stalls vacated by slaughtering; the closing of infected places to all passing of cattle; especial attention to the removal of the dung, and of the remains of the carcasses of slaughtered beasts; and, finally, undeviating severity of the law against violators." Dr. Williams, of Hasselt, suggested and carried out, in 1851, the inoculation of the virus of pleuro-pneumonia, in order to induce a mild form of the disease in healthy animals, and prevent their decimation by the severe attacks due to contagion. He met with much encouragement, and perhaps more opposition. Didot, Corvini, Ercolani, and many more accepted Dr. Williams's facts as incontestable, and wrote, advocating his method of checking the spread of so destructive a plague. The first able memoir which contested all that has been said in favor of inoculation, appeared in Turin, and was written by Dr. Riviglio, a Piedmontese veterinary surgeon. This was supported by the views of many others. Prof. Simonds wrote against the plan, and, in 1854, the French commission, whose report has been before mentioned, confirmed, in part, Riviglio's views, though, from the incompleteness of the experiments, further trials were recommended. Inoculation is performed as follows: A portion of diseased lung is chosen, and a bistoury or needle made to pierce it so as to become charged with the material consolidating the lung, and this is afterward plunged into any part, but, more particularly, toward the point of the tail. If operated severely, and higher up, great exudation occurs, which spreads upward, invades the areolar tissue round the rectum and other pelvic organs, and death soon puts an end to the animal's excruciating suffering. If the operation is properly performed with lymph that is not putrid, and the incisions are not made too deep, the results are limited to local exudation and swelling, general symptoms of fever, and gradual recovery. The most common occurrence is sloughing of the tail; and in London, at the present time, dairies are to be seen in which all the cows have short-tail stumps. Dr. Williams and others have gone too far in attempting to describe a particular corpuscle as existing in the lymph of pleuro-pneumonia. All animal poisons can be alone discovered from their effects. In structure and chemical constitution, there is no difference, and often the most potent poisons are simple fluids. The Belgian Commission, appointed to investigate the nature and influence of inoculation for pleuro-pneumonia, very justly expressed an opinion that Dr. Williams had not proved that a specific product, distinguished by anatomical characters, and appreciable by the microscope, existed in this disease. The all-important question, "Is inoculation of service?" has to the satisfaction of most been solved. The Belgian and French commissions, the observations of Riviglio, Simond, Herring, and many others, prove that a certain degree of preservative influence is derived by the process of inoculation. It does not, however, arrest the progress of the disease. It certainly diminishes to some extent--though often very slightly so--the number of cases, and, particularly, of severe ones. This effect has been ascribed to a derivative action, independent of any specific influence, and, indeed, similar to that of introducing setons in the dewlap. In London, some dairymen have considerable faith in inoculation, though its effect is uncertain, and the manner of its working a mystery. The best counsel, in the premises, which can be given to the keeper of dairy stock is, to select his own animals from healthy herds, and strictly to avoid public markets. In many instances, a faithful observance of these injunctions has been sufficient to prevent the invasion of this terrible disease. [Gamgee.] The existence of this disease in the United States was not generally known until the year 1859, when Mr. Chenery, of Belmont, near Boston, Massachusetts, imported several cows from Holland, which arrived in the early part of the spring of that year. Some of the animals were sick when they arrived, but the true nature of the disease was not at that time suspected. Several of them were so bad that they were carried in trucks to Mr. Chenery's barn. Some two months passed away before the character of the disease was discovered. Upon the facts becoming known, the citizens of Massachusetts became panic-stricken, as the disease was rapidly spreading over that State. An extra session of the Legislature was speedily convened, when a Joint Special Committee was appointed, to adopt and carry out such measures as in their judgment seemed necessary for the extirpation of this monster, pleuro-pneumonia. The Committee met in the Hall of the House of Representatives, Thursday, May, 31, 1860, to receive evidence as to the contagious or infectious character of the disease, in order to determine concerning the necessity of legislative action. Mr. Walker, one of the commissioners appointed by the Governor, made the following statement: "The disease was introduced into North Brookfield from Belmont. Mr. Curtis Stoddard, a young man of North Brookfield, went down, the very last of June, last year, and purchased three calves of Mr. Chenery, of Belmont. He brought these calves up in the cars to Brookfield. On their way from the depôt to his house, about five miles, one of the calves was observed to falter, and when he got to his house, it seemed to be sick, and in two or three days exhibited very great illness; so much so, that his father came along, and, thinking he could take better care of it, took the calf home. He took it to his own barn, in which there were about forty head of cattle; but it grew no better, and his son went up and brought it back again to his own house. In about ten days after that, it died. His father, who had had the calf nearly four days, in about a fortnight afterward observed that one of his oxen was sick, and it grew worse very fast and died. Two weeks after, a second also sickened, and died. Then a third was attacked and died, the interval growing wider from the attack of one animal to that of another, until he had lost eight oxen and cows. Young Stoddard lost no animal by the infection,--that is, no one died on his hands. Prior to the appointment of this Commission, about the first of November,--for reasons independent of this disease, which I don't suppose he then knew the nature of,--he sold off his stock. He sold off eleven heifers, or young animals, and retained nine of the most valuable himself; which shows that he did not then know any thing was the matter with them. "These nine were four oxen, and five young cattle. The four he took to his father's, three of the others to his uncle's, and the remaining two to his father-in-law's; distributing them all among his friends,--which furnishes another proof that he did not suppose he was doing any mischief. He disposed of his herd in that way. From this auction, these eleven animals went in different directions, and wherever they went, they scattered the infection. Without a single failure the disease has followed those cattle; in one case, more than two hundred cattle having been infected by one which was sold at Curtis Stoddard's auction, when he was entirely ignorant of the disease. "When the commission was appointed, they went and examined his cattle, and were satisfied that they were diseased,--at least, some of them. They examined his father's herd, and found that they were very much diseased; and when we came to kill Curtis Stoddard's cattle, seven of the nine head were diseased. Two were not condemned, because the law says, 'Cattle not appearing to be diseased, shall be appraised.' Nevertheless, it proved that these animals were diseased; so that his whole herd was affected. "In regard to Leonard Stoddard's cattle, he lost fourteen of his animals before the commissioners went to his place. They took eighteen more, all of which were diseased,--most of them very bad cases,--indeed, extreme cases. That left eight heads, which were not condemned, because not appearing to be diseased. Here I remark, that when this disease is under the shoulder-blade, it cannot be detected by percussion. The physicians did not say that the animal was not diseased, but that they did not see sufficient evidence upon which to condemn. Such animals were to be paid for, upon the ground of their not appearing to be diseased. Nevertheless, it is proper to state that the remaining eight which were not condemned, were suspected to be diseased, and we told Mr. Stoddard that we had the impression that they were diseased, notwithstanding appearances. He said, 'There is a three-year-old animal that has never faltered at all. She has never manifested the slightest disease. If you will kill her, and she is diseased, I shall make up my mind that I have not a well animal in my stalls.' We killed the animal, and found her to be badly diseased. "Thus, the first two herds were all infected by the disease; and in the last of Curtis Stoddard's oxen which we killed, we found a cyst in the lungs of each. One of these lungs is now in this building, never having been cut open, and medical men can see the cyst which it contains. I have said in what manner Mr. Curtis Stoddard's cattle spread the infection. "In regard to Mr. Leonard Stoddard's: in the first place, he kept six or eight oxen which he employed in teaming. He was drawing some lumber, and stopped over night, with his oxen, at Mr. Needham's. Needham lost his whole herd. He lost eight or ten of them, and the rest were in a terrible condition. Seven or eight more were condemned, and his whole herd was destroyed, in consequence of Mr. Stoddard's stopping with him over night. Mr. Stoddard sold an animal to Mr. Woodis of New Braintree. He had twenty-three fine cows. It ruined his herd utterly. Seven or eight animals died before the commissioners got there. Mr. L. Stoddard also sold a yoke of cattle to Mr. Olmstead, one of his neighbors, who had a very good herd. They stayed only five days in his hands, when they passed over to Mr. Doane. In these five days they had so infected his herd that it was one of the most severe instances of disease that we have had. One third were condemned, and another third were passed over as sound, whether they were so, or not. They did not appear to be diseased. The cattle that were passed from Mr. Stoddard through Mr. Olmstead to Mr. Doane, were loaned by Mr. D. to go to a moving of a building from Oakham to New Braintree. They were put in with twenty-two yoke of cattle, and employed a day and a half. It has since been proved that the whole of these cattle took the contagion. They belonged to eleven different herds, and of course, each of these herds formed a focus from which the disease spread. Now, in these two ways the disease has spread in different directions. "But, when the commissioners first commenced, they had no idea that the disease extended further than those herds in which there were animals sick. Hence, their ideas and the ideas of those who petitioned for the law, did not extend at all to so large a number of herds as have since been proved to be diseased, because they only judged of those who manifested disease. As soon as we began in that circle, we found a second circle of infection, and another outside of that; and by that time it had branched off in various directions to various towns. It assumed such proportions that it was very evident that the commissioners had not the funds to perform the operations required by the law. The law confines the commissioners to one operation,--killing and burying. No discretionary power is given at all. The commissioners became entirely dissatisfied with that condition of things, because other measures besides merely killing and burying, are quite as necessary and important. When they arrived at that point and discovered to what extent the infection had spread, they stopped killing the herds, and I believe there has not been a herd killed for twenty days. "The policy was then changed to circumscribing the disease, by isolating the herds just as fast as possible and as surely as possible. A man's herd has been exposed. There is no other way than to go and examine it, and take the diseased animals away. Then he knows the animals are diseased, and his neighbors know it. That has been the business of the commissioners for the last twenty days; and the facts that they have no discretionary power whatever, and that they were entirely circumscribed in their means, and that it was hard for the farmers to lose their stock and not be paid for it,--induced them to petition the Governor, in connection with the Board of Agriculture, for the calling of a session of the Legislature, to take measures for the extinction of the disease." In response to a question, "Whether any animals that had once been affected, had afterward recovered?"--the same gentleman stated that instances had occurred where cattle had been sick twice, and had, apparently, fully recovered; they ruminated readily, and were gaining flesh. Upon examination, however, they were pronounced diseased, and, when killed, both lungs were found in a hopeless case, very badly diseased. Dr. George B. Loring, another of the commissioners, stated that eight hundred and forty-two head of cattle had, at that time, been killed, and that, from a careful estimate, there still remained one thousand head, which should either be killed, or isolated for such a length of time as should establish the fact that they had no disease about them. Twenty thousand dollars and upwards had already been appraised as the value of the cattle then killed. As to disinfecting measures, the farmers who had lost cattle were requested to whitewash their barns thoroughly, and some tons of a disinfecting powder were purchased for the advantage of the persons who wished to use it. An early application was advised, that the barns might be in readiness for hay the then coming season. The practice adopted by the commissioners was, to appraise the cattle whenever a herd was found which had been exposed, and a surgeon was appointed to pass judgment upon the number of diseased animals. After that judgment, the remaining animals that were pronounced sound were killed and passed to the credit of the owner, after an appraisement made by these persons. The fair market-prices were paid, averaging about thirty-three dollars a head. At the time of the meeting of the committee, some seventy cattle had died of the disease. An examination was made of some of the animals killed, and the following facts obtained:-- Case 1.--This cow had been sick for nineteen days; was feeble, without much appetite, with diarrhoea, cough, shortness of breathing, hair staring, etc. Percussion dull over the whole of the left side of the chest; respiration weak. Killed by authority. Several gallons of serum were found in the left side of the chest; a thick, furzy deposit of lymph over all the _pleura-costalis_. This lymph was an inch in thickness, resembling the velvety part of tripe, and quite firm. There was a firm deposit of lymph in the whole left lung, but more especially at its base, with strong adhesions to the diaphragm and _pleura-costalis_ near the spine. The lung was hard and brittle, like liver, near its base. No pus. Right lung and right side of chest healthy. Case 2.--This cow was taken very sick, January 30th. In fourteen days, she began to get better. April 12th, she is gaining flesh, breathes well, hair healthy, gives ten quarts of milk a day, and in all other respects bids fair for a healthy animal hereafter, except a slight cough. Percussion dull over base of the left lung, near the spine, and respiration feeble in the same regions. Autopsy.--Left lung strongly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura; the long adhesions well smoothed off; _pleura-costalis_ shining and healthy. Also, the surface of the lung, when there were no adhesions, sound and right; all the lung white, and free for the entrance of air, except the base, in which was a cyst containing a pint or two of pus. Loose in this pus was a hard mass, as large as a two-quart measure, looking like marble; when cut through its centre, it appeared like the brittle, hardened lining in case 1. It appeared as though a piece of lung had been detached by suppuration and enclosed in an air-tight cyst, by which decomposition was prevented. The other lung and the chest were sound. It is to be inferred, as there were adhesions, that there had been pleurisy and deposit of lymph and serum, as in case 1, and that Nature had commenced the cure by absorbing the serum from the chest, and the lymph from the free pleural surface, and smoothed off every thing to a good working condition. The lump in the cyst was brittle and irregular on its surface, as though it was dissolving in the pus. No good reason can be given why Nature should not consummate the work which she had so wisely begun. Case 3.--This cow had been sick fourteen days; was coughing and breathing badly; percussion dull over both chests and respiration feeble. Killed. Autopsy.--Both chests filled with water; deposits of lymph over all the _pleura-costalis_, presenting the same velvety, furzy appearance as in Case 1. Both lungs were hardened at the base, and the left throughout its whole extent, and firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura, near the spine. The right lung had nearly one-third of its substance in a condition for the entrance of air; but this portion, even, was so compressed with the water, that a few hours longer would have terminated the case fatally without State aid. This case had not proceeded far enough for the formation of the cyst or pus. In Mr. Needham's herd, about twenty-eight days intervened between the first and second case of disease, instead of about fourteen, as in Mr. Olmstead's. Case 4.--A nice heifer, in fair condition, eating well, only having a slight cough. Percussion dull over base of the left lung. Autopsy.--Base of left lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura; lung hardened. On cutting into base, found ulceration and a head of Timothy grass, four or five inches long. Animal in every other way well. Case 5.--This cow was taken, January 1st, with a cough, difficulty of breathing, and the other symptoms of the disease, and continued sick till March 1st. On taking her out, April 12th, to be slaughtered, she capered, stuck up her tail, snuffed, and snorted, showing all the signs of feeling well and vigorous. Autopsy.--Right lung firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura, near the spine. Base of lung hardened, containing a cyst with a large lump, of the size of a two-quart measure, floating in pus; outside of the lump was of a dirty yellow-white, irregular, brittle, and cheesy; the inside mottled, or divided into irregular squares; red like muscle, and breaking under the finger, like liver. Costal pleura smooth, shining; adhesions where there was motion; card-like and polished; no serum; lung apparently performing its functions well, except for a short distance above the air-tight cyst, where it was still hardened. It would seem as though Nature was intending to dissolve this lump, and carry it off by absorption. She knows how, and would have done it, in the opinion of the writer, had she been allowed sufficient time. Case 6.--Was taken December 18th, and was very sick; in three weeks she was well, except a cough, quite severe, and so continued till about the first of March, when she coughed harder and grew worse till seven days before she was killed, April 12th, when she brought forth a calf, and then commenced improving again. Autopsy.--Right lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura. At its base, was a flabby, fluctuating cyst. In cutting into it, the lump was found to be breaking up by decomposition, and scenting badly. Every thing else normal. Was not the cyst broken through by some accident, thus letting in the air, when she grew worse? Would she not, probably, have overcome this disagreeable accident, and recovered, in spite of it? This cow's hair did not look well, as did that of those in which the cyst was air-tight; but still she was beginning to eat well again, and appeared in a tolerable way for recovery. Case 7.--This heifer had coughed slightly for six weeks, but the owner said he thought no one going into his herd would notice that any thing was the matter with her. [Illustration: A RURAL SCENE.] Autopsy.--Slight adhesions of lung to diaphragm. Near these adhesions are small cysts, of the size of a walnut, containing pus and cheesy matter; about the cysts a little way the lung was hardened, say for half an inch. There were several cysts, and they appeared as though the inflammation attacked only the different lobes of the lungs, leaving others healthy between,--Nature throwing out coagulable lymph around the diseased lobe, and forming thereby an air-tight cyst, cutting around the diseased lobe by suppuration, so that it could be carried off by absorption. In the herd to which this animal belonged, nine days after the first cow died, the second case occurred. First cow was sick five weeks. The time of incubation could not have been over six weeks,--probably not over three weeks. Of these cows, one improved in eight weeks, the other in three weeks. Case 8.--This cow had been sick three weeks. Killed. Autopsy.--Large quantities of serum in left chest; lung adherent, and hardened at base. On cutting into the hardened lung, one side of the lump was found separated from the lung, with pus between the lines of separation, and the forming coat of the cyst outside of the pus; the other side of the lump was part and parcel of the hardened lung which had not yet had time to commence separation. The costal pleura was covered with organized lymph to the thickness of an inch, with the usual characteristics. The right chest contained a small quantity of serum, and had several small, hardened red spots in that lung, with some tender, weak adhesions; but most of the right lung was healthy. Case 9.--Sick four weeks. Killed. Autopsy.--Right lung hardened at base; adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura; lump separated on one side only. Cyst beginning to form, outside of separation; pus between cyst and lump, but in a very small quantity. These two cases settle the character of the lump, and the manner of the formation of the cyst; the lump being lung and lymph, cut out by suppuration,--the cyst being organized, smoothed off by suppuration, friction, etc. Case 10.--Killed. Hair looked badly; but the cow, it was said, ate, and appeared well. This case, however, occurred in a herd, of which no reliable information, in detail, could be procured. Autopsy.--Base of lung hardened, adherent to diaphragm; containing a cyst, in which was a lump, of the size of a quart measure, but little pus. This lump had air-tubes running through it, which were not yet cut off by suppuration; and in one place, the cyst was perforated by a bronchial tube, letting in the external air to the lump, which was undergoing disorganization, and swelling badly. When cut into, it did not present the red, mottled, organized appearance of those cases with air-tight cysts. Quite a number of other cases were examined, but these ten present all the different phases. One or two cases are needed of an early stage of the disease, to settle the point, whether, in all cases, the primary disease is lung fever, and the pleurisy a continuation, merely, of the primary disease; together with some six or eight cases, during five, six, seven, eight months from attack, and so on till entire, final recovery. Some cases were sick almost a year since, and are now apparently quite well; perhaps all the lump and pus are not yet gone. Many practitioners think that no severe case will ever recover, and some think that none ever get entirely well. Others, however, can see no reason why, as a general rule, all single cases should not recover, and all double cases die. The disease was the most fatal in Mr. Chenery's (the original) herd, although it was the best-fed and the warmest-stabled. He attributed the fatality, in part, to a want of sufficient ventilation. The other herds, in which all the fatal cases occurred in two hours, consisted, originally, one of forty-eight head, of which thirteen died, or were killed, to prevent certain death; of twenty-three head, of which seven died; of twenty-two head, of which eight died; of twenty-two head, of which eight also died; and of twenty-one head, of which four died. A little less than thirty per cent., therefore, of these herds died. This estimate excludes the calves. Most of the cows which had not calved before being attacked, lost their calves prematurely. The probable time of incubation, as deduced from those Massachusetts cases, is from two to three weeks; of propagation, about the same time; the acute stage of the disease lasting about three weeks. The author's attention was first directed to this disease, upon its appearance in Camden and Gloucester counties, New Jersey, in the year 1859, at about the same time it made its advent in Massachusetts. The singularity of this coincidence inclined him for the time to regard the disease as an epizoötic--having its origin in some peculiar condition of the atmosphere--rather than as a contagious, or infectious disease, which position was at that time assumed by him. This opinion was strengthened by the fact, that no case occurring in New Jersey could be traced to a Massachusetts origin, in which State it was claimed that the disease never had existed in this country previous to its introduction there. It was, therefore, denied by the veterinary surgeons in the Eastern States, that the disease in New Jersey was the true European pleuro-pneumonia, but it was called by them the swill-milk disease of New York City, and it was assigned an origin in the distillery cow-houses in Brooklyn and Williamsburg. In 1860 it found its way across the Delaware River into Philadelphia, spreading very rapidly in all directions, particularly in the southern section of the county, known as The Neck,--many of the dairymen losing from one third to one half of their herds by its devastating influence. In order to save themselves--in part, at least--from this heavy loss, many of them, upon the first indications of the malady, sent their animals to the butcher, to be slaughtered for beef. In 1861 the disease found its way into Delaware, where its ravages were severely felt. So soon, however, as it became known that the disease was infectious or contagious, an effort was made to trace it to its starting-point; but, in consequence of the unwillingness of dairymen to communicate the fact that their herds were affected with pleuro-pneumonia, all efforts proved fruitless. In 1860 the disease found its way up the Delaware to Riverton, a short distance above the city of Philadelphia. A cattle-dealer, named Ward, turned some cattle into a lot, adjoining which several others were grazing. The residents of this place are chiefly the families of gentlemen doing business in the city, many of whom lost their favorite animals from this destructive malady. The first case occurring at this place, to which the author's attention was called, was a cow belonging to Mr. D. Parrish, which had been exposed by coming in contact with Ward's cattle, had sickened, and died. An anxiety having been manifested to ascertain the cause of the death, the author made an examination of the animal, which, upon dissection, proved the disease to be a genuine case of the so-called pleuro-pneumonia. This examination was made August 20th, 1860, at the time of the Massachusetts excitement. Two cows, belonging to Mr. Rose, of the same place, had been exposed, and both had taken the disease. His attention having been called to them, he placed them under the author's treatment, and by the use of diffusible stimulants and tonics, one of these animals recovered, while the other was slaughtered for an examination, which revealed all the morbid conditions so characteristic of this disease. The next case was a cow belonging to Mr. G. H. Roach, of the same place, which had been grazing in a lot adjoining that of Mr. Parrish. This cow was killed in the presence of Charles Wood, V.S., of Boston, Mass., and Arthur S. Copeman, of Utica, N. Y., who was one of a committee appointed by the New York State Agricultural Society for the purpose of investigating the disease. Both of these gentlemen having witnessed the disease in-all its forms, as it appeared in Massachusetts, were the first to identify this case with those in that State. Upon opening the cow, the left lung was found to be completely consolidated, and adhered to the left side, presenting the appearance usual in such cases. As she was with calf, the lungs of the foetus were examined, disclosing a beautiful state of red hepatization. The author's attention was next called to the herd of Mr. Lippincott, a farmer in the neighborhood, who had lost several cattle by the disease; but as he had been persuaded that treatment was useless, he abandoned the idea of attempting to save his stock in that way. From Riverton it soon spread to Burlington, some ten miles farther up the river, where it carried off large numbers of valuable cattle, and it continued in existence in that neighborhood for some time. The disease was not then confined to these localities alone, but has spread over a large extent of country,--and that, too, prior to its appearance in Massachusetts, as will be shown by extracts from the following letters, published in the _Country Gentleman_:-- "We have a disease among the cattle here, I will class it under these names,--congestion of the lungs, terminating with consumption, or dropsy of the chest. Now, I have treated two cases; one five years since, as congestion,--and the first is still able to eat her allowance, and give a couple of pails of milk a day,--and the other, quite recently. The great terror of this disease is, that it is not taken in its first stages, which are the same in the cow as in the man--a difficulty in breathing, which, if not speedily relieved, terminates in consumption or dropsy. I have no doubt that consumption is contagious; but is that a reason why every one taken with congestion should be killed to check the spread of consumption? So I should reason, if I had pleuro-pneumonia in my drove of cattle. J. BALDWIN. "NEWARK, N. J., June 11, 1860." "I notice that a good deal of alarm is felt in different parts of the country about what is called the cattle-disease. "From the diagnosis given in the papers, I have no doubt this is pleuro-pneumonia, with which I had some acquaintance a few years ago. If it is the same, my observation and experience may be of some service to those suffering now. "It was introduced into my stock, in the fall of 1853, by one of my own cows, which, in the spring of that year, I had sent down to my brother in Brooklyn, to be used during the summer for milk. She was kept entirely isolated through out the summer, and in November was sent up by the boat. There were no other cattle on the boat at the time, nor could I learn that she had come in contact with any in passing through the streets on her way to the boat; and she certainly did not, after leaving it, until she mingled with her old companions, all of whom were then, and long afterward, perfectly well. After she had been home about two weeks, we noticed that her appetite failed, and her milk fell off: she seemed dull and stupid, stood with her head down, and manifested a considerable degree of languor. "Soon her breathing became somewhat hurried, and with a decided catch in it; she ground her teeth; continued standing, or, if she lay down, it was only to jump up again instantly. Her cough increased, and so, too, a purulent and, bloody discharge from her nostrils and mouth. The excrement was fetid, black, and hard. "In this case, we twice administered half a pound of Epsom-salts, and afterward, a bottle of castor-oil. Very little, but a temporary effect was produced by these doses. "The symptoms all increased in intensity; strength diminished; limbs drawn together; belly tucked up, etc.; until the eight day, when she partly lay, and partly fell down, and never rose again. "In a _post-mortem_ examination, the lungs were gorged with black, fetid blood; the substance of them thickened and pulpy. The pleura and diaphragm also showed a good deal of disease and some adhesion. This cow, on her arrival here, was put in her usual place in the stable, between others. She remained there for two or three days after she was taken sick, before we removed her to the hospital. "In about three weeks from the time she died, one and then the other of those standing on either side of her were attacked in the same way, and with but two days between. This, certainly, looks very much like contagion; but my attention had not before been called to this particular disease, and to suppose inflammation or congestion of the lungs contagious was so opposed to my preconceived notions, that I did not even then admit it; and these animals were suffered to remain with the others until their own comfort seemed to require the greater liberty of open pens. "One of them was early and copiously bled twice, while Epsom-salts were administered, both by the stomach and with the injective-pump. The other we endeavored to keep nauseated with ipecacuanha, and the same time to keep her bowels open by cathartic medicine. All proved to be of no avail. They both died,--the one in ten, the other in thirteen days. Before these died, however, others were taken sick. And thus, later, I had eight sick at one time. "The leading symptoms in all were the same, with minor differences; and so, too, was the appearance after death, on examination. "Of all that were taken sick (sixteen) but two recovered; and they were among those we did the least for, after we had become discouraged about trying to cure them. In all the last cases we made no effort at all, but to keep them as comfortable as we could. In one case, the acute character of the disease changed to chronic, and the animal lived six or eight weeks, until the whole texture of the lungs had become destroyed. She had become much emaciated, and finally died with the ordinary consumption. "At the time the first case appeared, I had a herd of thirty-one animals, all valuable Ayrshires, in fine condition and healthy. In all the first cases, I had a veterinary surgeon of considerable celebrity and experience, and every ordinary approved method of treatment was resorted to and persevered in. The last cases--as before intimated--we only strove to make comfortable. "After I had paid the third or fourth forfeit, I began to awake up to the idea that the disease was, in a high degree, contagious, whether I would have it so or not; and that my future security was in prevention, and not in remedy. I therefore separated all the remaining animals; in no instance having more than two together, and generally but one in a place. "All were removed from the infected stalls, and put into quarantine. Isolated cases continued to occur after this for some weeks, but the spread of the disease was stayed; nor did a single case occur after this, which we did not think we traced directly to previous contact. "It is impossible to account for the first case of which I have spoken. But, as the cow in that case was put into a sale-stable in New York while waiting for the boat,--though there were no cattle then present,--yet I have supposed it not unlikely that diseased animals had been there, and had left the seeds of the disease. "But, account for this case as we may,--and I have no doubt it is sometimes spontaneous,--I feel convinced it is very highly contagious; and that the only safety to a herd into which it has been introduced, is in complete isolation,--and in this I feel as convinced that there is safety. My cattle were not suffered to return to the barnyard or to any part of the cattle-barns, except as invalids were sent to 'the hospital' to die, until late the next fall, _i.e._, the fall of 1854. In the mean time, the hay and straw had all been removed; the stables, stalls, cribs and all thoroughly scrubbed with ashes and water, fumigated, and white washed with quicklime. I have had no case since, and am persuaded I should have avoided most of those I had before, if I had reasonably admitted the evidence of my senses in the second and third cases. E. P. PRENTICE. MOUNT HOPE, June 14th, 1860." The author's experience with the disease, during the last year in New Jersey, proves the efficacy of remedial agents when applied in the early stages of the disease. Late in the spring of 1861, Mr. J. E. Hancock, of Burlington County (residing near Columbus, N. J.), purchased some cattle in the Philadelphia market, which, after they were driven home, he turned in with his other stock. Soon after this purchase, one of the animals sickened and died. This was in August; after which time Mr. H. lost eight cows,--having, at the time of the death of the last animal, some five others sick with the same disorder. The author was called in, December 8th, 1861, and the five animals then placed under his treatment. On the 12th of December, in the same year, one of these cows, at his suggestion, was killed, which, upon the _post-mortem_ examination, beautifully illustrated the character of the disease. The right lung was comparatively healthy; the left one completely hepatized, or consolidated, and so enlarged as to fill up the left cavity of the chest to it's utmost capacity. This lung weighed thirty pounds. There was no effusion in the chest, but there was considerable adhesion of the _pleura-costalis_ and _pleura-pulmonalis_. All the other tissues appeared to be healthy. To the remaining animals, was administered the following: aqua ammonia, three drachms; nitric ether, one ounce; pulverized gentian-root, half an ounce; mixed with one quart of water, and drenched three times a day. The last thing at night was given a teaspoonful of phosphate of lime, mixed in a little feed, or in gruel. Setons, or rowels, in the dewlap are also very beneficial. Under this treatment they all did well. Soon after the introduction of the disease into this herd, it found its way to the herd of William Hancock, a brother of the former gentleman, who had an adjoining farm. In this herd one cow died, and the disease was found by the author developed in four more cows and two oxen, all of which--with a single exception--did well under the above treatment. The disease afterward showed itself in the herd of John Pope, half a mile distant, who lost nine animals by it. Thursday, December 19th, was selected for the purpose of making an examination of the Hancock herds; but, after some ten or twelve animals had been examined and all pronounced tainted with the disease, the owners concluded to stop the investigation, expressing themselves dissatisfied with the result, as not one of the animals examined had shown any symptoms of disease. In order to convince them of the correctness of the diagnosis, a cow was selected and destroyed, which the Hancocks believed to be in perfect health. Upon opening the animal, several small patches of hepatized lung were brought into view. Upon making a longitudinal section of the lump, as both were involved, they presented a red, speckled appearance. All the other tissues were healthy. The symptoms in these cases were quite different from any which had been previously seen in an experience of three years with the disease in and about Philadelphia, inasmuch as they were not preceded by cough; in fact, cough did not appear in many of the animals at any time during the progress of the disease. The animals looked, ate, and milked well, previously to the development of the disease, so that the owners were thrown completely off their guard by these deceptive symptoms of health. Knowing the uncertain character of this disease, and wishing to stay its ravages, a suggestion was made by the author as to the propriety of having the entire herd killed for beef. This was done the more readily, as the sale of the meat is legalized in Europe, it being regarded as uninjured, and therefore wholesome meat. This suggestion was acted upon, and thus these two farms were rid of this dreadful scourge at one blow. Mr. A. Gaskill, of Mount Holly, N. J., purchased a cow from one of the Hancocks, for his own family use, which was sent to Mr. Frank Lippincott's to pasture and turned in with Mr. L.'s own herd. Soon after, this cow sickened and died. This was soon followed by the loss of six of Mr. L.'s own cattle,--three oxen, two cows, and one steer. From this herd, it was communicated to the Widow Lippincott's, who occupied a neighboring farm; as also to Mr. Cleavenger's, who lost four animals; and to Mr. Smith's, who had, at one time, seven animals sick; and from Cleavenger's to Noaknuts, who lost two cows. Some two or three cows, belonging to Mr. Logan, in the same neighborhood, got upon the road and broke into Mr. Lippincott's pasture, mixing with his herd. As soon as Mr. Logan was informed of the fact, he isolated these cows by enclosing them in a pen at some distance from his other cattle; but they managed to break out, and mingled with his other stock. It could scarcely be expected that his herd could escape the disease, considering the exposure to which they had been subjected. The disease manifested itself in the herds of several other farmers in the country, but space will not allow a more extended notice of the subject. The treatment which has been found most successful in this country is as follows, all of which has been tested by the author upon various occasions: In the acute, inflammatory stage of the disease, give ten drops of Flemming's tincture of aconite in water, every four hours, until a change takes place; follow this with aqua ammonia, three drachms; nitric ether, one ounce; pulverized gentian-root, one half an ounce; water, one quart. Drench three times a day, and give, late in the evening, a tablespoonful of phosphate of lime, in a little feed, or drench with gruel. Put setons, or rowels in the dewlap, so as to have a dependent opening. This course has been found very advantageous. Or, the following will be found quite satisfactory; nitrate of potash, two drachms; camphor, half a drachm; tartrate of antimony, half a drachm; mix, and give in a little gruel, night and morning. Or, the following: Glauber-salts, four ounces; water, one pint; give twice a day. A gill of cold-drawn castor-oil, added to the above, would be beneficial. Continue until the bowels are freely opened. The following has also been found efficacious: sulphate of magnesia, eight ounces; nitrate of potash and pulverized Jamaica ginger-root, of each one ounce. Repeat as often as may be required. Apply externally the following ointment to the sides; biniodide of mercury, four drachms; castor-oil, half an ounce; lard, four ounces; mix for use. Preventive measures.--1st. The complete isolation of all herds in which the disease has made its appearance. 2d. Such animals as show symptoms of the disease should be placed under proper treatment. 3d. In England, it is recommended that animals recovering from the disease should be fattened and slaughtered for beef, as they are not safe even after their apparent recovery. 4th. All animals beyond medical treatment should be killed and buried; recompense in part, at least, being made to the owners. 5th. No animal, healthy or diseased, should be allowed to run at large upon the public highway so long as the disease may exist in its neighborhood. [Illustration: TAKING IT EASILY.] The united action of all those interested would soon rid the country of a disease which has smitten all Europe. The author takes this occasion to acknowledge the receipt of two very ably written articles upon this subject, which, in consequence of their length and the comparatively limited space allotted, he is reluctantly compelled to omit. One is from the pen of R. McClure, V.S., and the other from Isaiah Michener, V.S. For the benefit his readers, however, he desires to make a single extract from the last-named communication, without being considered as endorsing the opinion advanced therein:-- "I am inclined to favor the hypothesis that pleuro-pneumonia is produced by animalculæ, and that these enter the lungs by myriads, and thereby set up irritation and inflammation, which lead to all the phenomena and pathological conditions which are to be found upon dissection. This is my opinion of the cause of the malignant pleuro-pneumonia which has existed in the United States for the last seven years." After writing the foregoing, the author was informed that this disease had made its appearance in Mr. Logan's herd, already mentioned as exposed. He was called to visit the herd of Mr. G. Satterthwaite, who likewise lost two cows, and had two cows and a calf sick at the time of sending for him. PNEUMONIA. There are two conditions of the lungs known as pneumonia,--one, the inflammatory, and the other, the congestive stage. The former may follow an attack of bronchitis, or it may have a spontaneous origin. The congestive is generally the result of cold suddenly applied to an overheated animal, causing a determination of blood to the lungs, which sometimes causes death by suffocation. _Symptoms._--The disease is preceded by a shivering fit; dry skin; staring coat; clammy mouth; short cough; Schneiderian membrane (of the nose) very much reddened; respiration hurried or laborious. In the congestive stage, upon applying the ear to the sides, no sound will be detected; While in the inflammatory stage, a crackling or crepitating sound will be distinctively heard. _Treatment._--In the congestive stage, plenty of pure air will be necessary. Bleed freely; and give in drench one pound of Glauber-salts, with two drachms of Jamaica ginger. Nothing more will be required by way of treatment. In the inflammatory stage, bleeding should seldom be resorted to, except where the animal is in full condition. Apply the following blister to the sides, well rubbed in: oil of turpentine, one ounce; croton-oil, twelve drops; aqua ammonia, half an ounce; linseed-oil, four ounces; mix all together. Give internally one pound of salts in drench, and follow with one of the following powders every four hours: nitrate of potash, one ounce; tartrate of antimony and pulverized digitalis leaves, of each, one drachm; mix all together, and divide into eight powders. Or the following may be given with equal advantage: nitrate of potash, one and a half ounces; nitrate of soda, six ounces; mix, and divide into six powders; one to be given in wash or gruel every six hours. PROTRUSION OF THE BLADDER. This sometimes occurs during the throes in difficult cases of parturition in cows, and the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon is requisite to replace the inverted bladder. PUERPERAL FEVER. This disease--milk fever, or dropping after calving--rarely occurs until the animal has attained mature age. The first symptoms make their appearance in from one to five or six days after parturition. It appears to be a total suspension of nervous function, independent of inflammatory action, which is suddenly developed, and, in favorable cases, as suddenly disappears. It is called dropping after calving, from its following the parturient state. _Symptoms._--Tremor of hind legs; a staggering gait, which soon terminates in loss of power in the hind limbs; pulse rises to sixty or eighty per minute; milk diminishing in quantity as the disease progresses; the animal soon goes down, and is unable to rise, moans piteously; eyes set in the head; general stupor; and slow respiration. _Treatment._--This disease, though generally regarded as a febrile disorder, will not yield to the general practice of taking blood, as a large majority of the cases so treated die. The bowels must be opened, but the veins never. Give Epsom-salts, one pound; Jamaica ginger, two ounces; dissolve in warm water, one quart, and drench. The author usually gives with good effect, some five or six hours after the salts, two ounces of nitric ether and one ounce of tincture of opium, in half a pint of water. Rub well in, along the back and loins, the following: strong mustard, three ounces; aqua ammonia and water, each one and a half ounces. Some modifications in the treatment of this disease, as well as of most others, will be necessary under certain circumstances, which can only be determined by the veterinary practitioner. QUARTER EVIL. In some sections of the country, this disease--known by the other names of black quarter, and joint murrain--is quite common among young cattle, and is generally fatal in its termination. There is little or no warning of its approach. The first animals in a herd to be attacked are generally those in a full, plethoric condition. _Symptoms._--The joints suddenly become swollen, and so painful as to produce severe lameness, particularly in the hind parts. General irritative fever exists in the system, attended with great tenderness of the loins; the head is poked out; eyes red and bulging; the roots of the horns, as well as the breath, are hot; the muzzle dry, and nostrils expanded; pulse rises to seventy or eighty, full and hard; respiration is hurried; the animal is constantly moaning, and appears to be unconscious of surrounding objects; the swelling of the limbs extends to the shoulder and haunch; the animal totters, falls and dies in from twelve to twenty-four hours. _Treatment._--Early bleeding is requisite here, to be followed by active purgatives; after which, give one of the following powders every half hour: nitrate of potassa, two ounces; tartrate of antimony and pulverized digitalis, of each one and a half drachms; mix, and divide into eight powders. These should not be renewed. Cold linseed tea should be freely given. RABIES. Hydrophobia in cattle is the result of the bite of a rabid dog, from which bite no animal escapes. The effects produced by the wound made by the teeth of such an animal, after the virus is once absorbed into the circulation of the blood, are so poisonous that all treatment is useless. The proper remedies must be instantly applied to prevent this absorption, or the case is utterly hopeless. Among men, nine out of every ten bitten by rabid dogs escape the terrible effects resulting from this dreadful disorder, without resorting to any applications to prevent it. It is a well-established fact, that men, when bitten by dogs, are generally wounded in some part protected by their clothing, which guards them from the deleterious effects of the saliva which covers the teeth, and which, at such times, is deadly poison. The teeth, in passing through the clothing, are wiped clean, so that the virus is not introduced into the blood; hence the comparatively few cases of rabies occurring in man. When, however, the wound is made upon an exposed surface, as the flesh of the hand, or of the face, this fatal disease is developed in spite of every precaution, unless such precautions are immediately taken. For this reason, cattle when bitten, do not escape the disease. _Symptoms._--The animal separates itself from the rest of the herd, standing in a kind of stupor, with the eyes half-closed; respiration natural; pulse quickened; temperature of body and limbs natural; the slightest noise agitates, causing the eyes to glare and exciting bellowing; the bark of a dog produces the most violent effects; the animal foams at the mouth and staggers as it walks; if water is offered, the muzzle is plunged into it, but the victim cannot drink; in making the effort, the most fearful consequences are produced. The animal now seeks to do mischief,--and the quicker it is then destroyed, the better. _Treatment._--This must be applied quickly, or not at all. The moment an animal is bitten, that moment the wound should be searched for, and when found, should be freely opened with a knife, and lunar caustic, caustic potash, or the permanganate of potash at once applied to all parts of the wound, care being taken not to suffer a single scratch to escape. This, if attended to in time, will save the animal. RED WATER. This disease derives its name from the color of the urine voided in it. It is one of the most common complaints of horned cattle, and one of the most troublesome to manage. _Symptoms._--Respiration hurried; rumination ceases; a high degree of fever presented; the animal moans, arches the back, and strains in passing the urine, which is tinged with blood, or presents the appearance of pure blood. Prof. Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Veterinary College, says: "The cause is almost invariably feeding on turnips that have grown on damp, ill-drained land; and very often a change of diet stops the spread of this disease in the byre. Other succulent food, grown under similar circumstances, may produce the same symptoms, tending to disturb the digestive organs and the blood-forming process. "In the course of my investigations as to the cause of various cattle-diseases, and of red water in particular. I have found that it is unknown on well-drained farms and in dairies where turnips are used only in a moderate degree. The lands of poor people furnish the roots most likely to induce this disorder; and I can confirm the statement of the late Mr. Cumming, of Elton, who, in his very interesting essay upon this subject, says, particularly in reference to Aberdeenshire, that it is 'a disease essentially attacking the poor man's cow; and to be seen and studied, requires a practice extending into the less favorably situated parts of the country. On large farms, where good stock is well kept, and in town dairies, where artificial food is used to supplement the supply of turnips, it is seldom now seen.' "_Symptoms._--General derangement attracts the dairyman's attention, and, upon observing the urine which the animal has voided, it is seen to be of a red, or of a reddish brown, or claret color; sometimes transparent, at others clear. The color increases in depth; other secretions are checked; the animal becomes hide-bound, and the milk goes off. Appetite and rumination are suspended; the pulse becomes extremely feeble and frequent, though--as in all debilitating, or anæmic, disorders--the heart's action is loud and strong, with a decided venous pulse, or apparent regurgitation, in the large veins of the neck. "In some cases, if even a small quantity of blood be withdrawn, the animal drops in a fainting state. In red water, the visible mucous membranes are blanched, and the extremities cold, indicating the languid state of the blood's circulation and the poverty of the blood itself. Constipation is one of the most obstinate complications; and many veterinary surgeons--aware that, if the bowels can be acted on, the animal is cured--have employed purgatives in quantities far too large, inducing at times even death. Occasionally, diarrhoea is one of the first, and not of the unfavorable, symptoms." _Treatment._--Give one pint of linseed-oil; clysters of soap and water should be freely used; and give plenty of linseed-tea to drink. When the urine is abundant, give one ounce of tincture of opium, with one drachm of powdered aloes, three times, at intervals of six or eight hours. RHEUMATISM. This is a constitutional inflammatory affection of the joints, affecting the fibrous tissue and serous, or synovial membrane. It is caused by exposure to cold and wet; being quite common in low, marshy sections. _Symptoms._--Loss of appetite; upon forcing the animal to move, every joint seems stiffened; nose dry; coat staring; constipation is also an attendant symptom; the joints, one or more, become swollen and painful. This may be regarded as a metastic, or shifting disease; first one part, and then another, seems to be affected. _Treatment._--Mild purgatives should be used; one-half-ounce doses of colchicum-root pulverized will be found useful; one-ounce balls of pine-tar may also be given with advantage. As a local application, the author has found nothing to equal kerosene oil, one pint, to two ounces of aqua ammonia, well rubbed in, two or three times a day. STRANGULATION OF THE INTESTINES. This disease in cattle,--popularly styled Knot, or Gut-tie,--in consequence of the peculiar arrangement of the abdominal viscera, is of very rare occurrence. When, however, it does occur, the symptoms accompanying are those of inflammation of the intestines. No kind of treatment will be successful, and the poor brute must suffer until death comes to its relief. THRUSH IN THE MOUTH. Aptha, or thrush in the mouth, is a vesicular disease of the mouth, sometimes occurring as an epizoötic. It is often mistaken for blain,--inflammation of the tongue, or black tongue,--and usually occurs in the winter, or early in the spring. It appears in the form of vesicles, or pustules all over the mouth, occasionally extending to the outside of the lips. These pustules break, discharging a thin, sanious fluid, leaving minute ulcers in their places. This disease yields readily to treatment, when it is properly applied. Three ounces of Epsom-salts, once a day for three or four days, should be given in drench; wash the mouth well with a solution of alum, tincture of myrrh, or vinegar and honey, and it will disappear in a few days. TUMORS. These enlargements so common in cattle, have been so admirably described, in the Veterinarian for 1843, by John Ralph, V.S.,--who has been so successful in the treatment of these morbid growths, that the benefit of his experience is here given. He says: "Of all the accidental productions met with among cattle, with the exception of wens, a certain kind of indurated tumor, chiefly situated about the head and throat, has abounded most in my practice. "The affection often commences in one of the thyroid glands, which slowly but gradually increases in size, feels firm when grasped, and evinces very little tenderness. Generally the attendant is alarmed by a snoring or wheezing noise emitted by the animal in respiration, before he is aware of the existence of any tumefaction. This continues to increase, embracing in its progress the adjacent cellular and muscular tissues, and frequently the submaxillary and parotid glands. It becomes firmly attached to the skin through which an opening is ultimately effected by the pressure of pus from the centre of the tumor. "The swelling often presents an irregular surface, and various centres of maturation exist; but the evacuations only effect a partial and temporary reduction of its bulk, in consequence of the continued extension of the morbid growth and ulcerative process which often proceed towards the pharynx, rendering respiration and deglutition still more difficult, until at length the animal sinks from atrophy or _phthisis pulmonalis_. "In the early part of my practice, having been frustrated in my attempts to establish healthy action in these ulcers, and referring to the works that I had on surgery for information, I concluded that they bore some resemblance to cancer in the human being, and determined to attempt extirpation. Subsequently, numerous cases have occurred in which I have successfully carried that determination into effect. I have had some instances of failure, which failure always arose from some portion of the morbid growth having been left. "In the first stage, I have reason to believe that the tumor may be dispersed by the general and topical use of the iodurets. After the suppuration, I have tried them in vain. "As soon as the nature of the tumor is clearly developed, I generally attempt its removal, and, when most prominent by the side of the larynx, I proceed in the following manner:--Having cast the beast, turned the occiput toward the ground, and bolstered it up with bundles of straw, I proceed to make an incision through it, if the skin is free, parallel with, and over, and between the trachea and _sterno-maxillaris_, extending it sufficiently forward into the inter-maxillary spaces. If I find it firmly attached to the apex of the tumor, I then enclose it in a curvilinear incision and proceed to detach the healthy skin to beyond the verge of the tumor. "Its edges being held by an assistant, the knife is directed downwards through the subcutaneous parts, and all those that exhibit the slightest change from healthy structure are removed. "By tying any considerable blood-vessel before dividing it, and by using the handle of the scalpel and the fingers in detaching the portion of the parotid gland towards the ear the hemorrhage was always inconsiderable. "The wound is then treated in the ordinary way; except that detergents and even antiseptics are often needed to arouse healthy action, and the addition of some preparation of iodine is often made to the digestive. In directing the constitutional treatment, our chief aim must be to support the animal system with plenty of gruel until rumination is restored. "I need not note that the operation should be performed after the animal has fasted some hours. "As the success of the operation depends on an entire removal of the diseased parts, and as the submaxillary and parotid glands, with important branches of nerves and blood-vessels, are often enveloped therein, we must not hesitate to remove the former, nor to divide the latter. It has occasionally happened that a rupture has been made in the oesophagus, or pharynx, during the operation. In that case, a portion of the gruel with which the animal is drenched escapes for a few days; but I always found that the wound healed by granulation, without any particular attention. "The weight of these tumors varies from a few ounces to some pounds. One that I removed from a two-year-old Galloway bullock, weighed six pounds and a quarter. A considerable portion of the skin that covered it was excised and included in the above weight. It comprehended one of the parotid glands, and I had to divide the trunk of the carotid artery and jugular vein. "This affection may be distinguished from parotiditis and other _phlegmasiæ_ by the action of constitutional disturbance, and heat, and tenderness, and by the lingering progress it makes. I was once called to a bull laboring under alarming dyspnoea that had gradually increased. No external enlargement was perceptible; but on introducing my hand into the mouth, a large polypus was found hanging from the _velum palati_ into the pharynx, greatly obstructing the elevation of the epiglottis and the passage of food. After performing tracheotomy, to prevent suffocation, I passed a ligature around its pedicle in the way suggested by the old anatomist, Cheselden. "A section of one of these tumors mostly displays several abscesses, with matter varying in consistency and often very fetid, enclosed in what seems to me to be fibro-cartilaginous cysts, the exterior of which sometimes gradually disappears in the surrounding more vascular abnormal growth. Osseous matter (I judge from the grating of the scalpel upon it) occasionally enters into the composition of the cysts. "I have treated this affection in cattle of the Long-horned, Short-horned, Galloway, and Highland breeds; and from the number of bulls in this class of patients, have reason to conclude that they are more liable to it than the female. "About twelve months ago, I examined the head of a cow, on the right facial region of which there existed an enormous tumor, extending from the eye to the lips, and which I mistook during life for a periosteal enlargement. On cutting into it, my mistake was evident. There was scarcely a trace of the original bones beneath the mass; even those forming the nasal sinuses on that side were replaced by a formation much resembling the cysts before alluded to, and full of abscesses. The progress of the disease was decisively marked in the inferior rim of the orbital cavity, where the osseous matter was being removed, and the morbid structure deposited." ULCERS ABOUT THE JOINTS. Occasionally, the joints assume a tumefied appearance, generally ulcerating, and causing painful wounds. _Treatment._--The application of one part of alum to two parts of prepared chalk, powdered and sprinkled upon the parts, is usually all that is required. WARBLES. It has been a prevalent opinion among farmers, that warbles are so many evidences of the good condition of their cattle. It must, however, be borne in mind that the warbles are the _larvæ_ of the _oestrus bovis_, which is said to be the most beautiful variety of gad-fly. This fly, judging from the objects of its attack, must be particularly choice in its selection of animals upon which to deposit its eggs, as it rarely chooses those poor in flesh, or in an unhealthy condition. From this circumstance, probably, has arisen the opinion above-mentioned. [Illustration: HOME AGAIN.] These warbles--or _larvæ_ of the _oestrus bovis_--so nearly resemble bots in the horse--or _larvæ oestrus equi_--that, were it not for their increased size, they might readily be mistaken the one for the other. There is, however, one other difference, and that is in the rings which encircle the body; those of the former being perfectly smooth, while those of the latter are prickly, and from one third to one half smaller. The author was called, in the year 1856, to see the prize cow, Pet, belonging to James Kelly, of Cleveland, Ohio, whose extraordinary yield of butter and milk had been reported in the _Ohio Farmer_, a short time previous to his visit. This animal was found by him in rather poor condition; the causes of which he could only trace to the existence of these worms, comfortably located, as they were, beneath the animal's hide, and forming small tumors all along the spinal column, each being surrounded by a considerable quantity of pus. A number of these were removed by means of a curved bistoury and a pair of forceps, since which time--as he has been informed--the animal has rapidly improved, regaining her former good condition. Some may urge that this is an isolated case; but an examination of cattle for themselves, will convince them to the contrary. It may be added, that two other cows, belonging to the same gentleman, were also examined at the same time,--one of them being in good condition, and the other, out of condition. From the back of the latter several of these insects were removed, since which time she also has much improved. The former was entirely free from them. These cows were all kept in the same pasture, received the same care, and were fed on the same food, and at the same time; and as the removal of these larvæ has been productive of such beneficial results, have we not a right to infer that these insects are injurious? If we go further and examine, in the spring of the year, all cattle which are subject to them, instead of finding them in the fine condition which one would naturally expect,--considering the abundance of fresh young grass whose vigorous life they may incorporate into their own,--they are out of condition, and out of spirits, with a laggard eye, a rough coat, and, in some cases, a staggering gait, as though their strength had failed in consequence. How shall such attacks be prevented? During the months of August and September this gad-fly is busily engaged in depositing its eggs. Some are of the opinion that they are placed on the hairs of the animal; others, that the skin is perforated, and the egg deposited in the opening, which would account for the apparent pain manifested by cattle at and after the time of such deposit. Be this as it may, it is certain that the maggot works its way into the muscular fibre of the back, and depends upon the animal's blood for the nourishment which it receives. The author has been informed, by persons in whom he ought to have confidence, that the _free use of the card_, during the above-named months, is a specific protection against the attacks of the _oestrus bovis_. He repeats this information here, not without diffidence; since so large a majority of stock-owners evince, by their lack of familiarity with the practical use of this convenient and portable instrument, an utter disbelief in its reliability and value. WORMS. Cattle are not so subject to worms proper as are the other domestic animals; nor, when these parasites do exist, is any injurious effect apparent, except it be in the case of young calves of a weakly constitution. Worms are most commonly located in the small intestines, and cause there considerable irritation, and consequently, general emaciation, or at least a tendency to it. The cause, however, is easily removed by administering doses of sulphate of iron, one-half drachm each, in molasses once or twice a day. WORMS IN THE BRONCHIAL TUBES. Inflammation of the bronchial tubes is often caused by worms of the _strongylus_ species. Upon examination after death, the bronchial passages are completely blocked-up by these hangers-on. _Symptoms._--A rough, staring coat; hide-bound; painful cough; respiration hurried, etc. _Treatment._--But little can be done by way of treatment in this disease. The administration of small doses of spirits of turpentine has, in some instances, proved successful. SURGICAL OPERATIONS. CASTRATION. The period most commonly selected for this operation is between the first and third months. The nearer it is to the expiration of the first month, the less danger attends the operation. Some persons prepare the animal by the administration of a dose of physic; but others proceed at once to the operation when it best suits their convenience, or that of the farmer. Care, however, should be taken that the young animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly practised was simple enough:--a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly as possible around the scrotum. The supply of blood being thus completely cut off, the bag and its contents soon became livid and dead, and were suffered to hang, by some careless operators, until they dropped off, or they were cut off on the second or third day. It is now, however, the general practice to grasp the scrotum in the hand, between the testicles and the belly, and to make an incision in one side of it, near the bottom, of sufficient depth to penetrate through the inner covering of the testicle, and of sufficient length to admit of its escape. The testicle immediately bursts from its bag, and is seen hanging by its cord. The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string around the cord, and having thus stopped the circulation, cuts through the cord, half an inch below the ligature, and removes the testicle. He, however, who has any feeling for the poor animal on which he is operating, considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress the blood-vessels and prevent after-hemorrhage, and, therefore, saves a great deal of unnecessary torture by including them alone in the ligature, and afterwards dividing the rest of the cord. The other testicle is proceeded with in the same way and the operation is complete. The length of the cord should be so contrived that it will immediately retract, or be drawn back, into the scrotum, but not higher, while the ends of the string hang out through the wound. In the course of about a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds will speedily heal. There will rarely be any occasion to make any application to the scrotum, except fomentation of it, if much swelling should ensue. A few, whose practice cannot be justified, seize the testicle as soon as it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break the cord and tear it out. It is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it forcibly contracts, and very little bleeding follows; but if the cord breaks high up, and retracts into the belly, considerable inflammation has occasionally ensued, and the beast has been lost. The application of _torsion_--or the twisting of the arteries by a pair of forceps which will firmly grasp them--has, in a great degree, superseded every other mode of castration, both in the larger and the smaller domesticated animals. The spermatic artery is exposed, and seized with the forceps, which are then closed by a very simple mechanical contrivance; the vessel is drawn a little out from its surrounding tissue, the forceps are turned around seven or eight times, and the vessel liberated. It will be found to be perfectly closed; a small knot will have formed on its extremity; it will retract into the surrounding surface, and not a drop more of blood will flow from it; the cord may then be divided, and the bleeding from any little vessel arrested in the same way. Neither the application of the hot iron, nor of the wooden clamps, whether with or without caustic, can be necessary in the castration of the calf. A new instrument was introduced in France, some few years since, for this purpose, called the _acraseur_,--so constructed as to throw a chain over the cord, which is wound up by means of a screw working upon the chain, and at the same time the cord is twisted off. No bleeding follows this method of operating. This instrument is constructed upon the same principle as the _acraseur_ for use in the human family, for the removal of hemorrhoids, etc., the dimensions of the two only varying. The advantages resulting from the use of this instrument over all other methods are, that the parts generally heal within a week,--the operation is not so painful to the animal,--it is less troublesome to the operator,--also to the owner of the animal,--and lastly, it is a safer and more scientific operation. Its success in France soon gave it a reputation in England, and recently it has been introduced by the author into this country, and with the best results. Contractors, hearing of the success attending this new mode of operating, have visited him from all parts of the country to witness its performance, and not one has returned without leaving an order for this instrument,--so well convinced have they been of its decided superiority over all other methods. TRACHEOTOMY. In consequence of the formation of tumors about the throat in cattle, from inflammation of the parotid gland, blain, etc., so characteristic of this species of animals, it sometimes becomes necessary to perform this operation in order to save their lives. It never fails to give instant relief. After the animal has been properly secured,--which is done by an assistant's holding the nose with one hand, and one of the horns with the other,--the operator draws the skin tight over the windpipe with the thumb and fingers of his left hand; then, with the scalpel in his right, cuts through the skin, making an incision about three inches long, dissecting up the skin on each side, which brings the _trachea_, or windpipe, in full view. He then cuts out a piece of the cartilaginous rings, about two inches long and about half an inch wide. This simple operation has saved the lives of very many valuable animals. The wound readily heals, and seldom leaves any perceptible blemish, if the work is properly performed. SPAYING. To secure a more uniform flow and a richer quality of milk, cows are sometimes spayed, or castrated. The milk of spayed cows is pretty uniform in quality; and this quality will be, on an average, a little more than before the operation was performed. In instances where the results of this operation have been carefully noted,--and the operation is rarely resorted to in this country, in comparison with the custom in France and other continental countries,--the quality of the milk has been greatly improved, the yield becoming regular for some years, and varying only in accordance with the difference in the succulence of the food. The proper time for spaying is about five or six weeks after calving, or at the time when the largest quantity of milk is given. There seems to be some advantages in spaying for milk and butter dairies, where attention is not paid to the raising of stock. The cows are more quiet, never being liable to returns of seasons of heat, which always more or less affect the milk, both in quantity and quality. They give milk nearly uniform in these respects, for several years, provided the food is uniformly succulent and nutritious. Their milk is influenced like that of other cows, though to a less extent, by the quality and quantity of food; so that in winter, unless the animal is properly attended to, the yield will decrease somewhat, but will rise again as good feed returns. This uniformity for the milk-dairy is of immense advantage. Besides, the cow, when old and inclined to dry up, takes on fat with greater rapidity, and produces a juicy and tender beef, superior, at the same age, to that of the ox. The following method of performing this operation is sanctioned by the practice of eminent veterinary surgeons in France:-- Having covered the eyes of the cow to be operated upon, she is placed against a wall, provided with five rings firmly fastened and placed as follows: the first corresponds to the top of the withers; the second, to the lower anterior part of the breast; the third is placed a little distance from the angle of the shoulder; the fourth is opposite to the anterior and superior part of the lower region; and the fifth, which is behind, answers to the under-part of the buttocks. A strong assistant is placed between the wall and the head of the animal, who firmly holds the left horn in his left hand, and with his right, the muzzle, which he elevates a little. This done, the end of a long and strong-plaited cord is passed, through the ring which corresponds to the lower part of the breast, and fastened; the free end of the cord is brought along the left flank, and through the ring which is below and in front of the withers. This is brought down along the breast behind the shoulder and the angle of the fore-leg in order to pass it through the third ring; then it must be passed around against the outer angle of the left hip, and fastened after having been drawn tightly to the posterior ring, by a simple bow-knot. The cow being thus firmly fixed to the wall, a cord is fastened by a slip-noose around her hocks, to keep them together in such a manner that she cannot kick the operator, the free end of the cord and the tail being held by an assistant. The cow thus secured cannot, during the operation, move forward, nor lie down, and the operator has all the ease desirable, and is protected from accident. The operator next--placed opposite to the animal's left flank, with his back turned a little toward the head of the animal--cuts off the hair which covers the hide in the middle of the flanks, at an equal distance between the back and hip, for the space of thirteen or fourteen centimetres in circumference (the French _centimetre_ is rather more than thirty-nine one hundredths of an inch); a convex bistoury is placed, opened, between his teeth, the edge out, the joints to the left; then, with both hands, he seizes the hide in the middle of the flank, and forms of it a wrinkle of the requisite elevation, running lengthwise of the body. The assistant seizes with his right hand the right side of this wrinkle; the operator takes the bistoury and cuts the wrinkle, at one stroke, through the middle; the wrinkle having been suffered to go down, a separation of the hide is presented, of sufficient length to admit the introduction of the hand; the edges of the hide are separated with the thumb and fore-finger of the left hand, and in like manner the abdominal muscles are cut through, for the distance of a centimetre from the lower extremity of the incision made in the hide,--the _iliac_ slightly obliquely, and the _lumbar_ across; a puncture of the peritoneum, at the upper extremity of the wound, is then made with the straight bistoury; the buttoned bistoury is then introduced, and moved obliquely from above to the lower part, up to the termination of the incision made in the abdominal muscles. The flank being opened, the right hand is introduced into the abdomen, and directed along the right side of the cavity of the pelvis, behind the paunch, and underneath the rectum, to the matrix; after the position of these viscera is ascertained, the organs of reproduction, or ovaries, are searched for, which are at the extremity of the matrix; when found, they are seized between the thumb and fore-finger, detached completely from the ligaments which keeps them in their place, and by a light pull, the cord and the vessels, the uterine or Fallopian tube, are separated at their place of union with the ovarium, by means of the nails of the thumb and fore-finger, which present themselves at the point of touch, thus breaking the cord and bringing away the ovary. The hand is again introduced into the abdominal cavity, and the remaining ovaries brought away in like manner. A suture is then placed of three or four double threads, waxed at an equal distance, and at two centimetres, or a little less, from the lips of the wound, passing it through the divided tissues; a movement is made from the left hand with the piece of thread; having reached that point, a fastening is made with a double knot, the seam placed in the intervals of the thread from the right, and as the lips of the wound are approached, a fastening is effected by a simple knot, with a bow, care being taken not to close too tightly the lower part of the seam, in order to allow the suppuration, which may be established in the wound, to escape. The wound is then covered up with a pledget of lint, kept in its place by three or four threads passed through the stitches, and the operation is complete. It happens, sometimes, that in cutting the muscles before mentioned, one or two of the arteries are severed. Should much blood escape, a ligature must be applied before opening the peritoneal sac; since, if this precaution is omitted, blood will escape into the abdomen, which may occasion the most serious consequences. For the first eight days succeeding, the animal should have a light diet, and a soothing, lukewarm draught; if the weather should be cold, cover with a woollen covering. She must be prevented from licking the wound, and from rubbing it against other bodies. The third day after the operation, bathe morning and evening about the wound with water of mallows lukewarm, or anoint it with a salve of hog's lard, and administer an emollient glyster during three or four days. Eight days after the operation, take away the bandage, the lint, the fastenings, and the thread. The wound is at that time, as a general thing, completely cicatrized. Should, however, some slight suppuration exist, a slight pressure must be used above the part where it is located, so as to cause the pus to leave, and if it continues more than five or six days, emollients must be supplied by alcolized water, or chloridized, especially in summer. The animal is then to be brought back gradually to her ordinary nourishment. In some cows, a swelling of the body is observable a short time after having been spayed, attributable to the introduction of cold air into the abdomen during the operation; but this derangement generally ceases within twenty-four hours. Should the contrary occur, administer one or two sudorific draughts, such as wine, warm cider, or a half-glass of brandy, in a quart of warm water,--treatment which suffices in a short time to restore a healthy state of the belly,--the animal at the same time being protected by two coverings of wool. The only precaution, in the way of management, to be observed as a preparative for the operation is, that on the preceding evening not so copious a meal should be given. The operation should also be performed in the morning before the animal has fed, so that the operator may not find any obstacle from the primary digestive organs, especially the paunch, which, during its state of ordinary fullness, might prevent operating with facility. The advantages of spaying milch-cows are thus summed up by able French writers: First, rendering permanent the secretion of milk, and having a much greater quantity within the given time of every year; second, the quality of milk being improved; third, the uncertainty of, and the dangers incident to, breeding being, to a great extent, avoided; fourth, the increased disposition to fatten even when giving milk freely, or when, from excess of age or from accidental circumstances, the secretion of milk is otherwise checked; fifth, the very short time required to produce a marketable condition; and sixth, the meat of spayed cattle being of a quality superior to that of ordinary cattle. This operation would seem to have originated in this country. The London Veterinary Journal of 1834 contains the following, taken from the United States Southern Agriculturist:--"Some years since, I passed a summer at Natchez, and put up at a hotel there, kept by Mr. Thomas Winn. During the time that I was there I noticed two remarkably fine cows, which were kept constantly in the stable, the servant who had charge of the horses, feeding them regularly three times a day with green guinea grass, cut with a sickle. These cows had so often attracted my attention, on account of the great beauty of their form, and deep red color, the large size of their bags, and the high condition in which they were kept, that I was at length induced to ask Mr. Winn to what breed of cattle they belonged, and his reasons for keeping them constantly in the stable in preference to allowing them to run in the pasture, where they could enjoy the benefit of air and exercise, and at the same time crop their own food, and thereby save the labor and trouble of feeding them? Mr. Winn, in reply to these inquiries, stated that the two cows which I so much admired were of the common stock of the country, and he believed, of Spanish origin; but they were both spayed cows, and that they had given milk either two or three years. Considering this a phenomenon (if not in nature at least in art), I made further inquiries of Mr. Winn, who politely entered into a very interesting detail, communicating facts which were as extraordinary as they were novel. Mr. Winn, by way of preface, observed that he, in former years, had been in the habit of reading English magazines, which contained accounts of the plowing-matches which were annually held in some of the southern counties of England, performed by cattle, and that he had noticed that the prizes were generally adjudged to the plowman who worked with spayed heifers; and although there was no connection between that subject and the facts which he should state, it was, nevertheless, the cause that first directed his mind into the train of thought and reasoning which finally induced him to make the experiments, which resulted in the discovery of the facts which he detailed, and which I will narrate as accurately as my memory will enable me to do it, after the lapse of more than twenty years. Mr. Winn's frequent reflections had (he said) led him to the belief "that if cows were spayed soon after calving, and while in a full flow of milk, they would continue to give milk for many years without intermission, or any diminution of quantity, except what would be caused by a change from green to dry, or less succulent food." To test this hypothesis, Mr. Winn caused a very good cow, then in full milk, to be spayed. The operation was performed about one month after the cow had produced her third calf; it was not attended with any severe pain, or much or long continued fever. The cow was apparently well in a few days, and very soon yielded her usual quantity of milk, and continued to give freely for several years without any intermission or diminution in quantity, except when the food was scarce and dry; but a full flow of milk always came back upon the return of a full supply of green food. This cow ran in the Mississippi low grounds or swamp near Natchez, got cast in deep mire, and was found dead. Upon her death, Mr. Winn caused a second cow to be spayed. The operation was entirely successful. The cow gave milk constantly for several years, but in jumping a fence stuck a stake in her bag, that inflicted a severe wound, which obliged Mr. Winn to kill her. Upon this second loss, Mr. Winn had two other cows spayed, and, to prevent the recurrence of injuries from similar causes with those which had occasioned him the loss of the first two spayed cows, he resolved to keep them always in the stable, or some safe enclosure, and to supply them regularly with green food, which that climate throughout the greater part of, if not all, the year enabled him to procure. The result, in regard to the last two spayed cows, was, as in the case of the first two, entirely satisfactory, and fully established, as Mr. Winn believed, the fact, that the spaying of cows, while in full milk, will cause them to continue to give milk during the residue of their lives, or until prevented by old age. When I saw the last two spayed cows it was, I believe, during the third year that they had constantly given milk after they were spayed. The character of Mr. Winn (now deceased) was highly respectable, and the most entire confidence could be reposed in the fidelity of his statements; and as regarded the facts which he communicated in relation to the several cows which he had spayed, numerous persons with whom I became acquainted, fully confirmed his statements." In November 1861, the author was called to perform this operation upon the short-horn Galloway cow, Josephine the Second, belonging to Henry Ingersoll, Esq., of this city. This cow was born May 8th, 1860. The morning was cold and cloudy. About ten o'clock the cow was cast, with the assistance of R. McClure, V.S., after which she was placed under the influence of chloric ether. He then made an incision, about five inches in length, through the skin and walls of the abdomen, midway between the pelvis bone and the last rib on the left side, passing in his right hand, cutting away the ovaries from the Fallopian tubes with the thumbnail. The opening on the side was then closed by means of the interrupted suture. The animal recovered from the influence of the anæsthetic in about fifteen minutes, when she was allowed to rise, and walk back to her stall. Upon the morning of the second day succeeding the operation, the animal was visited and found to be in good spirits, apparently suffering very little pain or inconvenience from the operation, and the wound healing nicely. Since that time, he has operated upon some twenty cows, all of which, with a single exception, have thus far proved satisfactory. Several of these cows are under the direction of a committee from the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture, whose duty it is to have a daily record kept of each cow's yield of butter and milk, for one year from the time of spaying. Their report will be perused by the agricultural community with much interest. The author's own experience will not justify him in speaking either in favor of, or against, this operation; as sufficient time has not as yet elapsed to satisfy him as to its relative advantages and disadvantages. He, however, regards the operation as comparatively safe. The French estimate the loss at about fifteen per cent., and the gain at thirty per cent. Of those upon which he has operated, not a single animal died. A LIST OF MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE. The medicines used in the treatment of the diseases of cattle, are essentially the same as those in vogue for the diseases of the human being and the horse,--the only difference being in their combination and the quantities administered. ABSORBENTS.--Medicines which destroy acidities in the stomach and bowels; such as chalk, magnesia, etc. ALTERATIVES.--Medicines which restore the healthy functions of secretion, by gradually changing the morbid action in an impaired constitution. Those in most common use are Æthiops mineral, antimony, rosin, sulphur, etc., which form the principal ingredients in all condition-powders, and are chiefly useful in diseases of the skin, such as hide-bound, mange, surfeit, etc. ALTERATIVE POWDER.--Sulphur pulverized, one pound; black antimony, one half a pound; nitrate of potassa, four ounces; sulphate of iron, one half a pound; linseed meal, one pound; mix well; dose, one half an ounce, night and morning. ANTACIDS.--Agents which neutralize, by their chemical action, acids in the stomach; as ammonia, carbonate of potassa, chalk, lime-water, magnesia, and soda. ANTHELMINTICS.--Remedies used for the expulsion of worms from the stomach and intestines. These may act chemically or by their cathartic operation. The most reliable are Æthiops mineral, nux vomica, preparations of mercury, wormwood, etc. ANTHELMINTIC POWDERS.--Nux vomica, in one half-drachm doses, two or three times daily, to an ox or cow; for calves, the dose must be diminished, according to age. ANTIDOTES.--Medicines which neutralize the effects of poisons by a chemical union, forming an insoluble compound, or a mild, harmless one. Alkaline solutions are antidotes for the mineral acids; as soap in solution, a simple remedy, and always at hand. Lard, magnesia, and oil are antidotes for poisoning by arsenic; albumen,--in the form of the white of an egg,--milk, etc., for corrosive sublimate, and other mercurial preparations. ANTISEPTICS.--Medicines which prevent putridity in animal substances, and arrest putrefaction, when already existing. These are used both externally and internally. The chief specifics of this class are the acids, alcohol, ammonia, asafoetida, camphor, charcoal, chloride of lime, cinchona, ether, and opium. ANTISPASMODICS.--Medicines which exert their power in allaying inordinate motions or spasms in the system, arising from various causes, such as debility, worms, etc. Those most generally in use are ammonia, asafoetida, camphor, cinchona, ether, lactacarium, mercury, and opium. ANTISPASMODIC DRAUGHT.--Tincture of opium, one ounce; nitric ether, two ounces; water, one-half pint. Mix for drench; if repeated, it should be followed by a purgative, as soon as the spasms have subsided. Or, use the following: sulphuric ether, one to two ounces; water, one-half pint Mix for drench; repeat every hour, if necessary. AROMATICS.--Medicines possessing a grateful, spicy scent, and an agreeable, pungent taste; as anise-seed, cardamoms, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, etc. They are principally used in combination with purgatives, stomachics, and tonics. ASTRINGENTS.--Medicines which serve to diminish excessive discharges, as in diabetes, diarrhoea, etc. The principal agents of this class are the acids, alum, chalk, lime-water, opium, and the sulphate of copper, lead, iron, or zinc. ASTRINGENT POWDER.--Opium, one drachm; prepared chalk, half an ounce; Jamaica ginger, six drachms. Mix, and divide into four powders; one to be given every hour, in a little flour gruel. Or, the following: opium, one drachm; catechu, two drachms; prepared chalk, one ounce. Mix, and divide into four powders; to be given as before. CARDIACS.--Cordials--so termed, from their possessing warm and stimulating properties--given to invigorate the system. CATHARTICS.--Medicines--also known as purgatives--which cause free evacuations of the bowels. The only purgatives used by the author in his cattle practice, as a general rule, are aloes, cream of tartar, Epsom-salts, lard and linseed-oil. These answer all the indications, where purgatives are useful; indeed, no better purgative for cattle can be found than Epsom-salts, combined with a carminative or aromatic drug, such as ginger. CAUSTICS.--Substances which burn or destroy parts, by combining with them and causing their disorganization; used to destroy unhealthy action, or morbid growths, such as foul ulcers, foul in the foot, warts, etc. The most powerful remedial of this class is actual cauterization with a red-hot iron; caustic potash, lunar caustic, nitrous and sulphuric acids, permanganate of potash, etc., are also used. CORDIALS.--Best brandy, three ounces; orange peel, one drachm; tepid water, one pint. Mix all together, for one dose. Or, this for a single dose: ale, one pint; Jamaica ginger, two drachms. Or, the following, also a single dose: allspice, three drachms; ginger, one drachm; caraway seeds, two drachms. DEMULCENTS.--Mucilaginous medicaments, which have the power of diminishing the effects of stimulating substances upon the animal system. Of this class, garden rue, or marsh-mallow, gum-arabic, and gum-tragacanth are the most useful. DETERGENTS.--Agents which remove foulness from ulcers. DETERGENT POWDER.--Prepared chalk, two ounces; alum, one ounce. Mix; to be sprinkled on the part, after washing with Castile-soap and water. This powder is also an admirable application for foot-rot in sheep. DIAPHORETICS.--Agents which increase the natural discharge through the pores of the skin, and in some animals induce perspiration. DIGESTIVES.--Medicines which promote suppuration. DIGESTIVE OINTMENT.--Mix together equal portions of spirits of turpentine and lard. Or, mix together with a gentle heat the following: Venetian turpentine, one ounce; lard, one ounce; pulverized sulphate of copper, two drachms. Or this, mixed: rosin, two ounces; spirits of turpentine, one ounce; red precipitate, one-half an ounce; lard, two ounces. DIURETICS.--Medicines that stimulate the action of the kidneys, and augment the secretion of urine. These are very useful in swellings of the legs, or body. Take of nitrate of potash and rosin, each six drachms; mix, and divide in three powders; one to be given daily. Or, the following: spirits of turpentine, half an ounce; Castile-soap, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, one drachm; opium, one drachm. Mix: and divide in two balls; one to be given each day. EMOLLIENTS.--Medicines which relax the lining tissues, allay irritation, and soften the parts involved,--generally of a mucilaginous, or oily character. Lard, linseed meal, and marsh-mallows are chiefly used. LITHONTRIPTICS.--Medicines possessing the power of dissolving _calculi_, or stones in the urinary passages; composed principally, according to the researches of modern chemists, of lithic or uric acid. The preparation most successfully employed by the author in such cases is muriatic acid, in doses of from one to two drachms, in a pail of water, once or twice a day. NARCOTICS.--Medicines that stupefy, and produce sleep. Belladonna, camphor, hyoscyamus and opium, are among the narcotics in common use. NAUSEANTS.--Agents which cause loss of appetite, and produce the sensation of vomiting, without affecting it. For this purpose, aloes, tartrate of antimony, white hellebore, etc., are used. PARTURIENTS.--Agents which act upon the uterus. In cases of difficult parturition, or calving, resort is occasionally had to them. Ergot of rye is the most powerful. REFRIGERANTS.--Cooling applications, which reduce the temperature of the blood and body; as cold water, ether, lead-water, etc. RUBEFACIENTS.--Medicines which gently irritate the skin, producing redness on white surfaces. Of this class, are aqua ammonia, creosote, mustard, turpentine, etc. SEDATIVES.--Agents which depress the vital energies, without destroying life; as aconite, digitalis, hellebore, hydrochloric acid, hyoscyamus, opium, and tartrate of antimony. TONICS.--Medicines which increase the action of the muscular system, giving strength and vigor to the animal. These are among the most useful remedies known to man, and are beneficial in all cases of debility, toning up the stomach, and improving the appetite and condition of the animal. TONIC POWDER.--Pulverized gentian-root, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, one half an ounce; anise-seed, six drachms. Mix, and divide in eight powders; one to be given night and morning. TRAUMATICS.--Medicines which excite the healing process of wounds; as aloes, friar's balsam, myrrh, rosin, sulphate of copper or zinc, tar, etc. TRAUMATIC LOTION.--Mix tincture of aloes, one ounce; tincture of myrrh, two ounces. Or, melt together, tar, one ounce; rosin, two ounces; lard, four ounces. Or, mix sulphate of zinc, one drachm; rain-water, one half pint. Or, use the following, the celebrated friar's balsam; benzoin, in powder, four ounces; balsam of Peru, two ounces; Socotrine aloes, one half ounce; rectified spirits, one quart. Digest for ten or twelve days; then filter for use. DOSES OF VARIOUS REMEDIES USED IN CATTLE PRACTICE. ACONITE.--[_Monk's hood_; _Wolf's bane_.] An active poison. Used as a sedative in tincture; ten to twenty drops in water. ÆTHIOPS MINERAL.--[_Hydrargyri Sulphuretum._] One to two drachms. ALCOHOL.--A stimulant; three to six ounces. ALLSPICE.--[_Pimento berries._] Aromatic; two to four drachms. ALOES.--Cathartic and tonic; tonic dose, one half to one drachm--cathartic, one to two ounces. ALUM.--[_Alumen._] Irritant, astringent, and sedative; two to four drachms. AMMONIA.--[_Aqua ammonia_; _Liquor ammonia_; _Hartshorn_.] Principally used in combination with mustard, as an external irritant, and internally, as a diffusible stimulant; two to six drachms. Of carbonate of ammonia, three to six drachms. ANISE-SEED.--[Fruit of the _Pimpinella Anisum_.] One to two drachms. ANTIMONY.--[_Sulphate of Antimony._] Used in condition-powders; one to three drachms. Muriate of antimony. [_Oil, or butter, of antimony._] Caustic; very good in foul in the foot. Tartarized antimony. [_Tartar emetic._] One to four drachms. The author, in the last instance, varies from the dose prescribed by veterinary authors, never giving it in more than one-half-drachm doses, believing its action thus more certain and satisfactory. ASAFOETIDA.--Stimulant; two to four drachms. AXUNGE.--[_Hog's Lard._] Ointment, principally; may be used as purgative in doses of from one to one and a half pounds. BALSAM OF PERU.--Stimulant, and tonic; two to four drachms. BELLADONNA.--[_Deadly Nightshade._] Narcotic, anti-spasmodic, and irritant poison; one to two drachms. BENZOIN.--[_Gum Benjamin._] Ointment; see Traumatics. CALOMEL.--[_Hydrargyri Chloridum._] One half to one drachm. CAMOMILE.--[_Anthemis._] Stomachic, carminative, and tonic; one to two ounces. CAMPHOR.--[_Camphora Officinarum._] Narcotic and irritant; in small doses, sedative and stimulant; one to four drachms. CANTHARIDES.--[_Spanish Flies._] Internally, stimulant and diuretic; twenty to thirty grains. Externally, vesicant; used in form of ointment, or tincture. CARAWAY.--[Fruit of the _Carum Carisi_.] Used chiefly for flavoring purposes. CARDAMOMS.--[Fruit of the _Elettaria Cardamomum_.] Used to communicate an agreeable flavor to other medicines. CATECHU.--[_Acacia Catechu._] Astringent, and antiseptic; three to six drachms. CHALK.--[_Carbonate of Lime_; _Calcis Carbonas_.] Two to three ounces. CHARCOAL.--[_Carbo Ligni._] Antiseptic; one half to one ounce. CINCHONA.--[_Peruvian Bark._] Astringent and tonic; one to two ounces. COPPER, SULPHATE OF.--[_Blue Vitriol._] Tonic and astringent; two to four drachms. CREOSOTE.--[_Creosotum._] A sedative, anodyne, astringent, narcotic, and irritant poison; fifteen to twenty drops. CROTON OIL.--[_Crotonis Oleum._] Internally, as a cathartic, six to ten drops in linseed-oil; externally, as a counter-irritant. DIGITALIS.--[_Fox Glove._] Sedative and diuretic; one to two scruples. EPSOM-SALTS.--[_Sulphate of magnesia._] Cathartic; one pound, combined with ginger. ERGOT.--[_Spurred rye._] Parturient; two to six drachms. ETHER.--Stimulant, narcotic, and anæsthetic; one to two ounces. GENTIAN.--[Root of _Gentiana lutea_.] Stomachic and tonic; one to two ounces. GINGER.--[_Zengiber officinale._] Stomachic, carminative, and slightly tonic; one to two ounces. GUM-ARABIC.--[_Gummi Acaciæ._] Demulcent and emollient; one to two ounces. GUM-TRAGACANTH. Same action and same doses as the former. HELLEBORE.--[_Helleborus._] Irritant poison, and sedative; twenty to thirty grains. HYOSCYAMUS.--[_Henbane._] Narcotic, anodyne, and anti-spasmodic; ten to twenty grains. IODINE.--[_Iodineum._] Internally, as a tonic; two to three scruples; also as a tincture, and in ointments for reducing enlargements of the soft tissues. IRON, SULPHATE OF.--[_Ferri Sulphas_; _Green Vitriol_, _Coppera_.] Irritant, astringent, and tonic; two to four drachms. KOOSSO. Anthelmintic; two to four drachms. LIME, CHLORIDE OF.--Antiseptic; dose internally, one to two drachms. LINSEED OIL.--Cathartic; one pint. LUNAR CAUSTIC.--[_Nitrate of Silver._] Used as a caustic. MAGNESIA.--[See EPSOM-SALTS.] MARSH-MALLOW.--[_Altheæ Radix._] Demulcent and emollient; principally used for poultices and fomentations. MURIATIC ACID.--[_Hydrochloric Acid_; _Spirit of Salt_.] Tonic, irritant, and caustic; dose internally, one to two drachms. MUSTARD.--[_Sinapis._] Counter-irritant; used principally as an external application. MYRRH.--Stimulating tonic to unhealthy sores; seldom used internally. NITRIC ACID.--[_Aqua fortis._] Astringent and tonic; one to two drachms in water. Used also as a caustic. NUX VOMICA.--[Seeds of _Strychnos_.] In large doses, a deadly poison; in medicinal doses, a powerful tonic and anthelmintic; one half to one drachm. OPIUM.--[_Papaver Somniferum._] Narcotic, sedative, anodyne, stimulant, and anti-spasmodic; two to four drachms. POTASH, CARBONATE OF.--[_Potassæ Carbonas._] Antacid and diuretic; three to six drachms. POTASH, CAUSTIC.--[_Potassa fusa._] Used only as a caustic. POTASSA, PERMANGANATE OF.--Used externally as a caustic. ROSIN.--Diuretic; two to three ounces. SALT, COMMON.--[_Chloride of Sodium._] Irritant, cathartic, stimulant, and antiseptic; one to one and a half pounds. SALTS, GLAUBER.--[_Sulphate of Soda._] Cathartic and diuretic; one to one and a half pounds. SALTPETRE.--[_Nitrate of Potassa._] Diuretic, febrifuge, and refrigerant; one half to one ounce. SUBLIMATE, CORROSIVE.--[_Protochloride of Mercury._] Seldom used internally; externally, caustic and stimulant. SULPHUR.--[_Brimstone._] Stimulant and laxative; three to four ounces. SULPHURIC ACID.--Irritant, caustic, and astringent; two to three drachms. TARTAR, CREAM OF.--[_Potassæ Tartras._] Cathartic; three to four ounces. TURPENTINE.--Stimulant, anthelmintic, diuretic, and laxative; one to two ounces. ZINC, SULPHATE OF.--[_White Vitriol._] Astringent and tonic; one to two drachms. NEW AND LATE BOOKS FURNISHED BY THE Publishers of this Volume. MAILING NOTICE.--_Any books on the following list will be sent, post paid, to any address, on receipt of price._ _Address_ THE PUBLISHERS OF THIS VOLUME. See title page. HISTORICAL AND SECRET MEMOIRS OF THE EMPRESS JOSEPHINE. A secret and truthful history of one of the most remarkable of women, uniting all the value of absorbing facts with that of the most exciting romance. Translated from the French of M'lle Le Normand, by JACOB M. HOWARD, Esq. 2 vols. in one. Cloth. Price $1 75. MEMOIRS OF THE COURT OF MARIE ANTOINETTE. An instructive work--one of the most intensely interesting ever issued from the American press--the events of which should be familiar to all. By MADAME CAMPAN. With Biographical Introduction by M. DE LAMARTINE. 2 vols. in one. Cloth. Price $1 75. MEMOIRS OF THE LIFE OF MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. Affording a complete and authentic history of the unfortunate Mary, with materials and letters not used by other authors, making up a volume of rare interest and value. 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With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75. MRS. PARTINGTON'S KNITTING WORK, AND WHAT WAS DONE BY HER PLAGUY BOY IKE. In which all will see the acid and sugar, and spirit and water--forming an intellectual punch, of which all can partake without headache or heartache. Wrought by the old lady herself. With characteristic Illustrations, including a portrait of the old lady in specs, surrounded by the Partington family. Cloth. $1 75. WAY DOWN EAST; OR, PORTRAITURES OF YANKEE LIFE. Embodying some of the raciest stories of the "Down Easter" ever published by this humorous author--containing much of genuine wit and attractive thought. By SEBA SMITH, the original Major Jack Downing. With several rich and original Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75. * * * * * Transcriber's Note: Summarized here are the corrections applied to the text. List of Illustrations: "Frolicksome" was spelled "Frolicsome" as opposed to the illustration In color, the pure Ayrshires are generally red "Ayrshires" was printed as "Aryshires" Some packers put meat in a copper which is rendered air-tight "meat" was printed as "meal" The principal substances of which _glue_ is made "substances" was printed as "subtances" degeneracy of acute into chronic dysentery "disentery" was printed as "dystentery" It most frequently occurs in dry, hot weather. "frequently" was printed as "freqently" acquired additional deleterious agency "acquired" was printed as "accquired" and have found the spur in the hay wherever the disease is found. "disease" was printed as "diesase" differing from like phenomena by other causes "phenomena" was printed as "phenonema" until this singular phenomenon is clearly accounted for "phenomenon" was printed as "phenonemon" embryotomy was in this instance employed "embryotomy" was printed as "emrbyotomy" The diseased lungs sometimes attain inordinate weight. "diseased" was printed as "direased" supported by alcoholic stimulants. "alcoholic" was printed as "alcholic" When cut into, it did not present the red, mottled, organized appearance of those cases with air-tight cysts. "present" was printed as "prevent" It comprehended one of the parotid glands "comprehended" was printed as "comprehened" drawn tightly to the posterior ring, by a simple bow-knot. "knot" was printed as "not" must be supplied by alcolized water "alcolized" was printed as "alcotized" 
39850	----	(This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive.) CATTLE RANCH TO COLLEGE. [Illustration: A XXX BUNCH. (_Page 290._)] CATTLE-RANCH TO COLLEGE THE TRUE TALE OF A BOY'S ADVENTURES IN THE FAR WEST BY RUSSELL DOUBLEDAY "A GUNNER ABOARD THE YANKEE" NEW YORK DOUBLEDAY & McCLURE Co MDCCCXCIX COPYRIGHT, 1899, BY DOUBLEDAY & McCLURE CO TO MY MOTHER, KINDLY CRITIC, COUNSELLOR, AND FRIEND, THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED. PREFACE. This is a true tale of a boy's life in the West twenty-five years ago. It is an account of his amusements, his trials, his work, his play. The incidents described actually happened and are described substantially as "the boy" related them to the writer. The "wild and woolly" West is fast vanishing, and a great deal of the adventurous life is going with it. Buffalo hunts are things of the past; encounters with Indians that were experienced in the time of John Worth's boyhood are now happily very rare; railroads have penetrated the cattle country, and vast herds of cattle are no longer driven long distances to the shipping point, so that the consequent danger, hardship, and excitement are largely done away with. In places the great prairies have been fenced, in others grain grows where heretofore only buffalo, cattle, and horses ranged, and much of the free, wild life of the cowboy, the ranchman, and the miner is gone for all time. It is hoped that this book will be of interest, not because of its novelty but of its truthfulness. The author feels that the story of a boy who has passed through the stern training of a frontier life to an honorable place in an Eastern university will be acceptable to boys young and old. CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE I. AN INDIAN ATTACK 1 II. THE YOUNG BRAVE'S DARING 20 III. A NARROW ESCAPE 36 IV. HITTING THE TRAIL 54 V. IN A MINING CAMP 73 VI. A SNOWSHOE RACE 91 VII. A BUFFALO HUNT 106 VIII. A CLOSE FINISH 122 IX. A "BAD MAN'S" END 140 X. BATTLE ROYAL 157 XI. A TRYING JOURNEY 177 XII. A CHANGE OF SCENE 195 XIII. HERDING HORSES AND PANNING GOLD 214 XIV. A MIGRATION 229 XV. "RANGE-RIDING" 245 XVI. A BRONCHO BUSTER 261 XVII. A COW-PUNCHER IN EARNEST 273 XVIII. A MIDNIGHT STAMPEDE 289 XIX. AN AWAKENING 304 XX. A TRANSFORMATION 317 XXI. TWELVE HUNDRED MILES AWHEEL TO COLLEGE 331 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. A XXX BUNCH _Frontispiece_ FACING PAGE MOUNTING A BUCKING BRONCHO 14 GLANCING OVER SAW AN INDIAN VILLAGE 32 CUSTER'S COMMAND 50 THE TAIL OF THE COOK'S WAGON WAS LET DOWN 62 THE STOCK OF THE RIFLE RESTED CLOSELY AGAINST HIS CHEEK 86 BEN WENT OVER TO WHERE THE GAME LAY 86 ROPING AN UNBROKEN HORSE 98 "CROW HAT'S FACING THIS WAY" 104 THE INDIAN CAMP 104 THE BIGGEST GAME THE COUNTRY AFFORDED 118 A SQUAW ... JUST SAW SOME BUFFALO 118 A SHEPHERD ... ALONE WITH HIS FLOCK 136 A DIFFICULT TASK IF THERE ARE MANY LAMBS IN THE FLOCK 146 MR. WORTH HAD BUILT FOR HIMSELF A NEW HOUSE 158 THE SHEEP RANCH HOUSE 158 HE ... BUCKS, PITCHES, KICKS 170 CURRAN, BRADY'S NIGHT WRANGLER 190 THE MEN BROKE UP INTO LITTLE GROUPS 210 A ROPE CORRAL WAS DRAWN ABOUT THE SADDLE BAND 220 EACH MAN TOOK HIS ROPE AND FLUNG IT OVER THE HORSE HE WANTED 236 A LITTLE BOX OF A CABIN IT WAS 248 THE SNUBBING POST HOLDS HIM FAST 264 JERRY TAKES IN THE SLACK 264 JOHN KNOTS THE ROPE LOOSELY ROUND HIS NECK 264 ROPED 278 THROWN 278 WHOSE IS IT? A QUESTION OF OWNERSHIP 278 DRAGGED IT UP TO THE FIRE 290 ... WHILE THE IRON WAS APPLIED 290 HERDS WERE POURING IN FROM EVERY DIRECTION 308 THE DRIVE ... FORDING A STREAM 320 THE SUN RIVER RANCH HOUSE 334 * * * * * MARGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS BY JANET MAC DONALD. The drawings of beaver, etc., on pages 75, 84, and 90, by Ernest Seton Thompson are reproduced through the courtesy of _Recreation_. CATTLE RANCH TO COLLEGE. CHAPTER I. AN INDIAN ATTACK. A solitary horseman rode into the little frontier town of Bismarck, shortly after dark one evening, about twenty-five years ago. Horse and rider passed up the single unpaved street; in the darkness no one noticed the fagged condition of the animal, nor the excitement of the rider, betokened by the continued urging of his weary pony. The town was unusually full of the nomadic people who made up its population, cow-punchers, saloon keepers, gamblers, freighters, and outlaws. The evening quiet was constantly broken by the sounds of revelry, and the report of a pistol occasionally punctuated the general noise as some hilarious cowboy playfully shot at the lights. In the dim ray cast across the street through the small windows of the saloons and dance halls, no one saw the horseman ride up the street to "Black Jack's," one of the most conspicuous saloons; here he stiffly dismounted and tied his pony to the pole where stood a row of other horses. After glancing around to see that all was secure, he entered. He was hailed with a chorus of shouted greetings and questions. "Hello, Harry! what's the matter?" "Why, there's Harry Hodson! What drove you down the trail to-night?" "Are you dry, old man? Come and drive a nail with me." These and many more questions poured in on him so thick and fast that no chance, for some time, was given him to speak. As the crowd drew around the newcomer, who was a sober, steady cattleman from twenty-five miles up the river, they noticed that there was something out of the ordinary in his manner. Even the fact of his appearance at that place and hour was unusual. "No, boys," he said, in answer to the many invitations to drink. "I think we'll all need clear heads before daylight." "Why, what's the trouble?" chorused the crowd. "The fact is," continued Hodson, hurriedly, "I _cached_ my cattle and then came down to tell you that a big bunch of Indians crossed the river above my place this afternoon, and they looked as if they were on the war path." All were attentive now, and even the most reckless of these wild men, living continually in the midst of dangers, wore grave faces. "I didn't stop to investigate. I wasn't taking any chances, you see," he went on. "So I ran my cattle over onto Woody Island and then started down the trail, giving the word to the fellows along the road. Hostiles have been pretty thick across the river lately, and I've had to watch out." By this time all hands were thoroughly interested. As Hodson went on with his tale, the men drew nearer to him, their faces showing how keenly they realized what his news might mean to all. Questions followed thick and fast. "How many were there? Where did they cross?" asked one. "How many horses? Did they have any squaws with them?" Without giving Hodson a chance to answer, they all began to talk in an excited babel of voices, advancing opinions and theories as to what had taken place. One big fellow, in a red flannel shirt, asserted that they must have crossed the river at Elbow Island; another contradicted this statement and said that the stream was too wide at this point and that they crossed in "bull boats," as the rude craft made of buffalo or cow hides stretched over strong light frames of willow were called. Hodson stood apart while this discussion was going on, with the bored air of one who was fully acquainted with the facts and could end the unnecessary talk in a moment if he was allowed an opportunity. "Big Bill" Smith, one of the older men, took in the situation. "Dry up," said he; "let Harry talk, will you? He's the only one who knows anything." "Well," said Harry, as the crowd once more turned to him, "there isn't much talking to do, but there's plenty of hustling ahead for us. About two hundred Indians crossed the river up at Sioux Ford. They were travelling pretty light, and I guess they are looking for beef or anything else they can lay their hands on; probably they think they can scare us off with a few shots and then run the stock off. They had a lot of horses--not enough to go around--but a lot. We've got to get ready for them on the jump, for if they're coming they'll be here before daylight, and the stock and wagons will have to be got in right away." "Somebody go for Jim Mackenzie," said Big Bill. As one of the men started for the door to carry out this order, a tall, commanding figure, grizzled and somewhat bent, but more from hardship than from age, entered the room. He was recognized at once as the sheriff: the central figure when trouble was brewing, but a retiring, inconspicuous citizen when all was peaceful. When action was required he was in his element. A man to depend on in time of trouble, one to command in an emergency. It was very noticeable that these rough cattlemen, accustomed to depend upon themselves, who when off duty acknowledged no law except their own wishes, instinctively looked for a leader when confronted with this common danger. No one thought for an instant of questioning his orders, but obeyed with military precision. For the time, his word was law. "Harry," said the sheriff, turning to the bringer of these bad tidings, after the above facts had been told him, "you put your saddle on my bay and take a couple of men with you back on the trail. Bring back Jim White and his outfit of wagons and stock; he's camped down on Hay Creek. There are some smaller outfits on the Black Hills road; better help them get in. You'll want to hustle," he added, as Hodson and his two helpers went out. "Smith," continued the sheriff, issuing orders as fast as a pony could trot, "take a couple of men and get in the circle bar [symbol: large circle with bar under it] stock, there's only a night-herder with them. The rest of you who have wagons and stock out, bring them in yourselves. All you loose men," he added, as he noticed that several men still lingered in the hot, close, smoke-filled room, "get your guns, saddle up, and come to my shack." The sheriff had been in the place but five minutes, but now fat Sam Whitney, a frequenter of the place, Black Jack, the saloon keeper, and a couple of soldiers from the fort across the river, were all that remained with him. The men outside could be heard saddling up, struggling with their refractory horses, and calling out to each other; from time to time the rapidly diminishing sound of galloping hoofs came to the ears of the silent men who for the moment remained motionless. The sheriff was planning his defence against the expected Indian attack, and the men who were with him, without a word, waited for the announcement of his next move. It was Jim Mackenzie, and they put themselves in his hands with blind confidence. Bismarck was a frontier town in the full sense of the word. A collection of rude houses, more or less strongly built of logs and dried mud, straggled along the single street. Placed at the intersection of the expected railroad and the Missouri River, a town of considerable size was mapped and many streets with high-sounding names were projected. But only Main Street was actually laid out. The houses, which their inhabitants called shacks, were built on the north side of the street facing the south, in obedience to the natural law of cold climates, so Bismarck boasted really of but half a street, and that a short one. Fort Abraham Lincoln, situated directly across the river, was supposed to afford protection to the settlers from the Indian marauders, but the hardy, self-reliant frontiersmen were generally able to take care of themselves. Not many of the inhabitants stayed the year round. The few who did remain through all seasons--the saloon keepers, horseshoers, stable keepers, and the three families--dwelt in the more pretentious houses. The other residences were mere temporary shelters, which their owners would not have considered worth fitting up had they been able to do so. Around the outskirts of the town were always a number of freight outfits, and this night was no exception to the general rule. The cumbrous wagons were drawn in a circle, harnesses lying in a seemingly hopeless tangle on the wagon tongues, and the tents were pitched against their sides or canvas lean-to's were rigged up. A number of greasy men lounged around the campfires, some sleeping, some re-braiding whips, some mending harness or chopping out new brake blocks. The work stock were grazing at a little distance where the grass was good, guarded by an armed herder. To these freighters' camps came the sheriff himself to warn them of the impending danger. Immediately all was activity. The work stock were brought, and, in a trice, harnessed to the heavy wagons. The mules were urged forward with shouts and cracking of whips, and soon the whole outfit was on its way to form a cordon around the town, or, at least, on the side that was most likely to be attacked. Mackenzie rode with the wagon-train for a short distance, then branched off after giving some final orders, or rather suggestions, for any emergency that might arise. "So long," he said. "So long," said the driver of the leading team. (Whether a man was leaving for a trip across the street or across the continent, the parting words were, invariably, "So long.") Mackenzie went on his way, skirting the town, keeping his eyes and ears wide open. There was nothing within hearing to indicate that the settlement was in danger of attack from the dreaded Indian. The teamsters could still be heard shouting to their mules, and an occasional creaking squeak from the wagons broke the stillness. The sheriff listened in vain for more ominous sounds. "The reds are still pretty far off, or they are keeping mighty dark," he said to himself, as he put spurs to his horse and galloped towards one of the better-looking houses that stood on a little rise some distance from the Main Street settlement. Messengers had been sent in every direction, to warn sleeping citizens, and all had been arranged for except this household, one of the three families of the town. Mackenzie rode up to the door and, without dismounting, knocked. In an instant there was a sound of bustling, for the Westerner sleeps with one eye open, and is ready at a moment's notice for anything that may occur. "Who's there?" shouted a voice. "Mackenzie," answered the sheriff. Almost at the same moment the door opened, and a man stepped out. "Hello, Worth!" said the sheriff. "You'd better bring the wife and children further down. Harry Hodson just came down the trail and reports a big bunch of Indians a few miles up, and----" But Worth did not wait to hear any more. "John," Worth shouted back into his shack; "you and Ben help your mother pack up the bedding and take care of the baby. We've got to be lively. You know what to do. You see, Mac," he said, turning to the horseman, "I thought I might as well get things started while you were telling me about these hostiles." "All right," said the sheriff. "Good scheme. You might as well saddle up and come along with me so you can find a place beforehand for the wife and kids." In a few minutes both men were on their way to the centre of the town: Mackenzie, to send out his pickets and guards, and to arrange the placing of stock and wagons; Worth, to find a temporary shelter for his family. The boys, John and Ben, were left behind to look after the home, pack up the goods, catch and saddle the horses. It was a seemingly big task for boys of ten and twelve, but from the time these boys were able to walk they--in common with other boys of the frontier--had to look out largely for themselves. They were strong, sturdy little chaps. John, the elder, was his father's right-hand man, and when Mr. Worth was away on one of his frequent freighting trips, John was often called upon to take care of the family in emergencies much like the present one. In this frontier town, the reports of bands of hostile Indians coming to raid and kill were not uncommon. The single man, active, mounted, armed with weapons as familiar to him as his right hand, had no fear of not being able to outwit or escape the enemy, wily as the redskins were. In fact, the Indians themselves were well aware of the ability of the plainsmen to cope with them when unhampered by women and children, so they practically never began hostilities until they could get their white enemies at a disadvantage. The few families were, therefore, their especial point of attack. It was their helplessness that tempted the onslaught and aroused the savage instincts of these marauders. When the head of the family, the bread winner, was away, the dread of these fearful, relentless attacks on his helpless ones abode with him always. The mother and children, left at home, lived always under the shadow of the same fear. John and his brother, therefore, fully understood the danger and the need for speedy and careful preparation. They had often, at the warning of the hostiles' approach, helped their mother make a fort of the solid log house by piling up the scanty furniture and bedding against the doors and windows, leaving only loopholes for their rifles; and though the present situation was one that would make ordinary boys useless through fear, John and Ben, on the contrary, were too busy to worry; they knew exactly what was to be done, and in their sturdy, independent way went to work to do it. "Say, Ben," said John, as they went toward the corral (the circular inclosure in which the saddle horses were kept), "I'll bet it's just those Indians we saw across the river, day before yesterday, while we were hunting Gannons' horses. There was a lot of squaws in that bunch, do you remember?" "That's right," assented Ben; "and I'll bet that some of Gannons' horses were in that lot of Indian ponies. If it was ten dollars reward instead of five, it might have been worth while to run the risk of trying to find out; but five dollars is too little to go fooling around a strange Indian's camp for." The talk was ended by their arrival at the corral and the subsequent busy time catching and bridling of the horses. The ponies were then led to the door, where they were saddled. As they were cinching them up--as the tightening of the girths is called--Mr. Worth returned. In a few minutes the whole family were on their way to the Sebells', one of the other Bismarck families who lived on Main Street. In town they found all activity. Horsemen were galloping to and fro, cattle, horses, and mules dashed in and out, wagons driven at full speed crossed and recrossed the dusty street. As soon as they were installed at their new-found shelter and their household goods disposed of, John went with his father to get in the extra stock of horses and mules, for, next to his family, these are the freighter's chief care. They found their stock together, as was expected, for animals, particularly horses, that come from the same place, always stay together. This instinct made it much easier for the herder to gather his own, when there were many animals belonging to different outfits on a common grazing ground. The Worth stock was promptly driven inside the now almost complete circle of wagons, and there tied. A group of men were busy piling up boxes, barrels, and bales, taken from the freighters' wagons, into the semblance of breastworks. As John and his father approached, the sheriff came forward and joined them. "Family all right, Worth?" he asked, kindly. "I sent up a couple of men to help you and they reported that your shack was deserted and the place locked up for keeps. You didn't waste any time." "That was good of you, Mac," said Mr. Worth, holding out his hand. "How you're able to think of so many things at once, beats me. Yes, we got out in pretty quick shape; you see my boys, Johnny here and Ben, are first-rate hands to depend on in an emergency. They did pretty near the whole thing to-night. By the way, the boys were hunting horses up the river day before yesterday, and saw quite a large bunch of Indians in the brush below Harry Hodson's." [Illustration: MOUNTING A BUCKING BRONCHO.] "Why didn't you say something about this before?" interrupted the sheriff, turning to John. "Ben and I have seen plenty of Indians," said John, eagerly. "There were a lot of squaws in this bunch, so I didn't believe they were a war party. We didn't think anything more about them until this scare came up to-night." "Well, you have got a good head on you, young man. I don't know but you are right, and this may be a false alarm. Still Hodson generally knows what he's talking about." The sheriff was speaking more to himself than to his hearers. "I'm glad we've got a lot of first-rate scrappers with us; I guess the reds would think twice if they knew what they were running up against." All was now comparatively quiet. The work and strain of preparation was succeeded by a time of waiting, a period of suspense that was, perhaps, harder to bear than the first shock of the unpleasant news. John and his father returned to their temporary home to calm the mother's fears. Mrs. Worth had the family rifle ready, and Ben had polished and oiled every cartridge in the belt, so that they would slip in without jamming. Mr. Worth shouldered the gun and went out, leaving the boys with their mother. Though all was now quiet and his mother and brother were asleep, John could not close his eyes. He understood, as his younger brother could not, the danger that menaced the household and the town. Death, swift, by knife or bullet, or slow through torture, was sure to come if that band of Indians got inside the inclosure. He had heard gruesome tales describing the treatment that the savages meted out to their prisoners and the horror of it would not leave him. At last he could stand it no longer. Quickly he rose from the heap of bedding and stole to the door. He was fully dressed, and his little six-shooter still slung on his left hip where he had buckled it when the sheriff first knocked at the home shack. All was still outside, except for the occasional stamping of a pony or the distant wail of a coyote. Pickets were posted just over the rise to the north of the town, from which direction the attack was expected. They were to give warning of the approach of the Indians by a rifle shot. Suddenly there was borne on the breeze to the waiting men the sound of galloping horses. Louder it grew, then fainter; then again still louder. So the sound wavered, but ever came nearer. The watchers sprang to their feet, rifles ready, eyes gleaming. "Steady, boys," said the calm voice of Mackenzie. "Wait a bit." Still the thumping of many hoofs approached nearer. What had become of the pickets? Had they been all killed with the enemy's noiseless arrows? Or had they been lured away beyond hearing and shot? Daylight was breaking; the enemy could now be seen, that was one comfort. And as they stood, ears alert, eyes strained, their nerves keyed up to the tensest pitch, awaiting the onslaught, that ominous noise of hoof-beats came ever nearer, nearer, nearer. Suddenly a horse's head appeared above the brow of the hill, then another and another until quite a score or more were in plain view. They dashed down the incline toward the corral of wagons. But they were all riderless! Presently two riders appeared. They shouted a greeting as they came down the hill and explained that they were of the N bar N outfit (that is to say, their brand bore these marks:) [Symbol: N over N with line between]. A space was hastily cleared between the wagons to allow these newcomers' horses to enter the inclosure; but it was too late; the bunch parted, turning to right and left. The two herders also separated in pursuit, each following a bunch. Immediate danger over, the waiting men relaxed their extra vigilance, and all hands watched the efforts of the two herders in their vain attempts to head off their charges. The sheriff was just saying, "I wish some of you fellows would help round up that bunch; we want to get them all in before the hostiles show up," when a third horseman appeared, riding like the wind. "Say, that chap has got a fresh horse," said "Casino," one of the freighters. The new arrival, after a headlong dash, regardless of ditches, brush, and badger holes, succeeded in rounding up the frightened horses, and with the help of the herder, drove them into camp. A similar performance soon brought in the other bunch. As the new rider trotted in through the gap, some one shouted: "What'll you take for that horse? He's a regular whirlwind." "Yes," said one of the herders, "he's a dandy, isn't he? My stock would have got away if Johnny Worth hadn't come out on Baldy." "So it's Johnny Worth, eh!" said Bill Smith. "Good work, kid." "Oh!" said Johnny, "they're only worn-out, winded plugs; they were easy for Baldy. He was saddled and all ready," the boy added in explanation. "Well done, Johnny," said the sheriff, who had once before that night praised the boy's pluck. Then, turning to the group about him, "Some of you boys had better get breakfast," said he; "there's no telling when that war party may turn up, and you must eat now when you have the chance." CHAPTER II. THE YOUNG BRAVE'S DARING. While the men were eating (a sufficient number being left to keep watch and guard) in one of the dance halls, which was hastily impressed for the purpose, the herders of the N bar N outfit were questioned as to their knowledge of the Indians. They reported that the redskins were in force and were coming rapidly in the direction of the town. That while they were guarding their stock, they were startled by the sudden appearance of an Indian near them, who yelled and waved his blanket, and finally succeeded in stampeding the animals. They started off at a gallop after the horses, and this solitary brave forthwith disappeared. The stock stampeded but the herders stayed with them, riding full speed over all sorts of rough country. The Indians appeared at intervals in pursuit of them, and added to the confusion and danger by keeping up a running fire. The herders said they were about to give up the attempt to keep their charges out of the savages' hands when they came in sight of the town. "Even then," said one of the men, called Singing Jim, "we couldn't have corralled the beasts if that youngster hadn't chased out to help us on a fresh horse, and a fast one at that." "We'll have troubles yet," said the other herder, Calamity Jake he was called, because of his ability to see small black clouds of evil a great distance off. "Plenty of trouble, too, in the shape of Indians on the warpath. They were not far behind us when we reached these diggin's." "What became of your wagons?" said Harry Hodson, a mouthful of beans interfering somewhat with his speech. "Oh, I guess they're done for. Probably makin' light for the Indians to do a war dance by," remarked Singing Jim, cheerfully. "I reckon not," said Mackenzie, who had appeared in time to hear the last; "they'll not show their location by making a big blaze like--" "I heard a shot fired from over the hill," shouted Johnny, who stuck his head in at the door that moment. "Maybe it's one of the pickets." The men jumped up and made a rush for the door. The herder, Singing Jim, who was the last man out, exclaimed as he disappeared, "Well, if that kid ain't ubikkertous, as the States' papers say!" Several shots were now heard and then the pickets topped the rise and made a break down the slope to the town. The enemy was close, but still invisible behind the ridge. The men lay crouched behind their barricade, silent, alert, ready for what might come. The three pickets made their way back to the breastworks and reported that the advance guard had shown itself coming down a _coulie_ half a mile away, and the main body, probably fifty strong, was straggling after when the pickets last looked back. A long night of vigil and hurried preparation had told on these watchers and they were anxious to begin the work and end the suspense. The short ten minutes which elapsed seemed ten hours. Then two Indians rode to the top of the ridge and looked down upon the preparations for their reception. They were a long rifle shot distant and the defenders had no ammunition to spare. Moreover, if unprovoked, the redskins might go without firing a shot. To tell the truth, however, especially when they saw the unlikelihood of making a successful assault, most of the little garrison were in the mood to feel disappointed if the attack ended so harmlessly. "If those fellows are hard up for a fight," said Big Bill Smith, "maybe they'll tackle us; but I never saw an Indian yet that would ride a quarter of a mile in the open under fire even when he wanted something to eat,"--and Bill knew Indians. "They won't leave without tryin' us," said Casino. "You'll see if I ain't right." A moment later two painted and befeathered savages appeared to the left, and rode full tilt along the hillside in direct view of the camp, yelling and waving their blankets in derision: a tantalizing sight to the waiting men. "Keep steady, there," called Mackenzie, sternly, as several rifles were raised. "There's no use shooting now; they're only trying to draw our fire and find out how strong we are. There'll be more presently. Wait for them." A few minutes later half a dozen braves repeated the ruse. The flying figures, almost naked, being poor targets, the fire of the little garrison was still reserved. A dozen then made the run, one following the other, at regular intervals. More and more of the painted, yelling, gesticulating savages followed, dashing along the slope in single file and disappearing over the ridge to the right, until what was a short line became a procession. Presently they began to creep down the hill, each rider advancing beyond the one preceding him, all yelling epithets of contempt as they came ever nearer the silent garrison. This was the regular mode of Indian attack; it afforded them an opportunity to fire and yet gave their enemy a very poor chance to do any damage. A desultory firing began; each Indian letting go his reins, fired his rifle as best he could as he rushed past. The shooting was naturally bad, for there was no chance to take careful aim. If the savages planned, however, to draw the fire of the besieged and so determine their strength, the scheme failed, for not a shot was fired from the camp, though the provocation was great. The rushing line came closer and closer. The colors of the war paint and fluttering feathers could now be plainly seen. It was within easy range, but still the fire was withheld. Each Indian had worked himself into the frenzy which is so necessary a part of a brave's courage. As the distance was lessened, the savages' aim became better, and several bullets struck the wagons and the barricade. The situation began to be interesting; any shot might now reach its human target, and the temptation to return the fire was almost irresistible. But the sheriff only said, "Not yet." The bullets were striking freely and the yelling enemy were within easy revolver range. At last Mackenzie, who showed signs of suppressed eagerness, said, just loud enough to be heard: "Boys, don't shoot when your man is opposite; wait till he has passed, then aim at his back and shoot straight. You can't hit him otherwise. Ready now. Fire!" This was not a military company, but a band of frontiersmen, which a common danger united under the leadership of one man. The volley which followed, therefore, was not one of precision, for every man took his time and pulled the trigger when he was ready. The Indians, anticipating a return fire, rode by at full speed, their bodies hugging their horses closely. They made difficult targets, so the first few shots did nothing more than kill and disable a horse or two; but soon the fire became more rapid and accurate. A big buck was seen to fall out of his saddle, another was thrown violently from a wounded horse, several were hit in arms and legs. The yelling diminished and the line moved further up the slope, scattering as it went. As the file, now rather scattered, turned the ridge at the right, firing as it moved, a young buck, in full war regalia and mounted on a beautiful bay pony, bounded into view. He dashed out of the circle of Indians, and rode boldly down toward the white men, yelling defiance. He was a young chief endeavoring to earn the approval of his tribe and the consequent advancement and influence, according to the custom of the Sioux. Down the hill he came with a rush right into the thick of the fire, and yet, though the bullets whistled on all sides of him, he was unharmed. Nearer and nearer he drew, until he reached a point within two hundred yards of the white man's guns. Then he stopped, turned his pony half-way round and flourished his revolver derisively, yelling imprecations at the garrison the while. He then fired a shot which came so close to John, that he was sure he could feel the wind of it--the sound was unmistakable. After this reckless feat, the young chief trotted slowly back to his own people, but kept his face always towards his enemies. The daring of the deed took both sides by surprise, and for a time hardly a shot was fired by white man or red. It was a tribute to the young brave's courage and bravado. It would not do, however, to let him escape unharmed. Other warriors might be inspired to emulate the rash act, and if they took it into their heads to rush the stockade there would certainly be much loss of life. The Indians now began firing again, covering as well as possible their comrade's retreat. Those behind the barricade also woke up. "Shoot that fellow, boys," cried Big Bill. "He mustn't get away unhurt. We've got to discourage that sort of thing." Every man aimed at the fleeing Indian, but still he rode with his face towards his foe, gesturing defiance. The feathers in his war-bonnet fluttered in the wind, and the quirt hung on his upraised right wrist swayed with the motion of his pony. Of a sudden a single rifle spoke from the white man's intrenchments, and, in an instant, the young chief was changed from a superb living bronze statue to a lump. He fell, clawing at his saddle and yelling shrilly. His well-trained war pony slowed down and circled back to where his master lay. All this occupied much less time than it takes to tell it. During this distraction, half a dozen Indians, who had been unhorsed, rose from their brush coverts and ran for their lives to gain the more substantial refuge which the ridge afforded. Four escaped, but two were dropped in their tracks before they could reach the shelter. Though bullets had dropped all around the white men, none had been hit. "Had enough?" said the sheriff. "Found the camp stronger than you thought, eh?" Such seemed to be the case, for, after a long parley, which was held discreetly out of range, the band disappeared, leaving their dead on the prairie. An attempt had been made to rescue the fallen, but the risk was too great, and it was given up. The Indians had been gone some time before the little garrison crept carefully from under cover, for the Sioux were notoriously tricky and their apparent departure might simply be a ruse to put their enemies off their guard. Finally, however, the sheriff turned to his men. "Casino," said he, "you, Singing Jim, and Calamity Jake follow their trail and see what becomes of them. If they start to come back you hump yourselves and let us know. You'd better go along, Hodson, and look after your stock." The men appointed saddled up and started out without delay. The good wishes of those remaining went with them. It was a perilous undertaking, for there was no telling where the war party might be or what they might do. After the scouts had left, guards were set to keep watch and prevent a surprise, though it was thought that there was little danger of an attack by daylight. The sheriff and the rest of the men began to count noses, not only of men but of stock, for it might be that in the excitement some one or some animal had been hit unknown to the others. In fact, it would be a marvel if one bullet had not reached its mark, since, at times, they had dropped around like hail. All were found intact, but several of the wagons had been pretty badly riddled. A barrel of molasses which rested in one of the wagons was punctured by a 45-calibre bullet, and the sticky stuff leaked down on and in a trunk marked "Charles R. Green, Boston." "Belongs to a tenderfoot who got stalled with the rest of his outfit near the railroad," Casino had explained, when some one remarked on the strange object. Certainly the "tenderfoot" was having rather a novel introduction to the hardships of frontier life. As Charley Green said afterwards, "he was stuck on himself for fair." Mr. Worth and John now thought of the family at the Sebells', and at the first lull they made their way back between wagons, around and through bunches of cattle, mules, and horses to the house. It was hard to tell which was most glad to see the other, but a stranger coming in would not have realized that this was the return of a father and son after several hours' exposure to all the perils of Indian warfare. There were no tears of joy, no outward demonstration of happiness. The frontiersman had learned, perhaps from the Indian, perhaps from stern nature herself, to keep his feelings to himself. Even John and Ben were not demonstrative. "I suppose you did 'em up?" said the latter to his more fortunate brother. "How many were there in the party?" John dropped to the floor, for the experience of the night before was, at least, trying. "Sure we did," he answered. "They didn't come till daylight and so were in plain sight, while we were under cover, see? Same bunch we saw the other day, I guess. Phew! I'm tired." He had hardly got the words out of his mouth before he was sound asleep, and, not long after, his father was also in the land where none but phantom enemies are seen. The Indians evidently had enough, for they disappeared, taking with them, however, some of the N bar N stock. The two herders accepted the situation, each in his own fashion. "I told you so," groaned Calamity Jake. "These pesky Indians ought to be wiped off the face of the earth." Singing Jim, however, merely grinned, and said as he ran his fingers through his hair: "Well, I'm glad this thatch is not decorating some Sioux tepee. I think it looks better on me than it would on a lodge pole." After this, things went on in much the same old way in the little frontier town, for the Indians did not venture another attack. In spite of its small size, Bismarck was a busy place and was the distributing point for a large unsettled territory. Freighters came in from points on the distant railroad with provisions for the cattlemen, trappers, and miners, and the constantly changing population of the town. Their wagons were in long trains, one hitched to the other, the whole drawn by many teams of mules and driven by one man, who rode the near mule next the first wagon, controlling his team by a single "jerk line," which ran to the front near animal. This mule, who was picked for his intelligence, knew that one pull on the line meant turn left, and two short jerks indicated that a right turn was wanted; moreover, he knew just how wide a sweep to make to clear an obstruction. When the trapper came to town to bring in his pelts for shipment East, and to get a supply of pork, beans, and coffee---his standbys in the matter of diet---and when the cowboy raced in with a couple of pack ponies to get supplies for his outfit, the rare opportunity was always taken advantage of to enjoy what pleasures the town afforded. The gamblers and saloon keepers did a thriving business, though a perilous one, for, on the slightest provocation, the frontiersman was ever ready with his shooting irons. It was only a few weeks after the Indian attack described before the parching heat of summer began to give way before the dreaded wintry breath of the North. John and Ben, when they went out to guard their father's stock, gave up their daily swimming in the river and took up horse racing instead; and many a race was hotly contested. The boy, however, who rode Baldy, the big bay, always won. Mr. Worth, as has been noted before, was a freighter; he was also a miner, opening up mines of coal in the deep-cut river banks, the coal so obtained being sold to the government for the fort garrisons. [Illustration: GLANCING OVER SAW AN INDIAN VILLAGE. (_Page 37._)] On these coal-prospecting trips he usually went alone, carrying on his back the bare necessaries of life: a blanket, perhaps a string of bacon, a bag of beans, and a little coffee, besides the never-absent rifle and revolver. Late in the fall, Mr. Worth set out on a prospecting trip. The garrisons of Fort Lincoln and other outposts situated up the river were clamoring for more fuel, and no time must be lost if they were to be supplied before the heavy snows set in. John went with his father a half day's journey, helping to carry his equipment. They started out afoot, and the mother, holding the baby in her arms, watched them. "So long," called back Mr. Worth, as he started out. "So long," returned his wife. At dark, John returned and, in his self-sufficient way, began to prepare for the night. He and Ben each saddled a horse, of which there were several tied to a pole, and set out to round up the "saddle band" (as the ponies which were reserved for riding were called), and the work stock of mules and pack horses. They were not far off, nibbling the tufted buffalo grass, and soon were turned toward the corral, the boys riding on either side, ready to head off any animal that showed a disposition to separate or lead the "bunch" astray. The stock safely disposed of, John and Ben went back to the shack, but were promptly sent out again for wood and water. "Let's get a lot of wood," said Ben, "for it's colder than blazes. Hope the governor will find a good place to turn in to-night." "Oh, he's all right," replied John, between grunts, for the load of wood he was carrying was both heavy and bulky. An hour or so later, the windows and door were barred, the embers of the fire scattered, and all hands turned in for the night. The beds were really bunks built into the wall, and were not exactly luxurious, spring mattresses being quite unknown; but the boys found them comfortable, and in a minute or two were rolled in their blankets like great cocoons and fast asleep. * * * * * Mr. Worth was not expected back for several weeks, for his journey was to be a long one and subject to many delays on account of bad weather and, worse, Indians. It was about a week after he had left that Charley Green came up to where the boys sat on the door-step braiding whips or quirts. "Hullo, kids," he said, "Mr. Mackenzie wants--what are you doing?" His curiosity made him forget his errand. "Braidin' a rope to hang a couple of horse thieves," said John, facetiously. "What did you think we were doing, branding calves?" Even the kids made fun of the "tenderfoot," who was really a good fellow, just out from an Eastern college, but densely ignorant as far as Western ways went. He saw he was being laughed at, and so hastened to come back to his errand. "Mr. Mackenzie wants some old clothes, blankets, and other warm things for a man who turned up just now, half-dressed. He's almost frozen. White man, too," he added. In a few minutes John and Tenderfoot Green reached the sheriff's shack, bearing clothes and blankets. The crowd that stood before the door parted and allowed them to pass. In the far corner of the room, leaning over the fire, sat a man who turned his head as John and Green came in. "Why, it's my father!" cried John. CHAPTER III. A NARROW ESCAPE. The boy rushed forward and asked what had happened. The small, rough living-room in the sheriff's shack was soon crowded with men who pressed forward eager to hear the story. When Mr. Worth was rested somewhat and thoroughly warmed through, he began: "After leaving home, I travelled for two days and nothing happened. There were plenty of Indian signs about, marks of moccasined feet and prints of unshod horses' hoofs." "Where were you bound?" asked some one. "Up the river near Fort Stevenson. Got a coal mine up there, you know," the narrator answered. "Well, I kept a pretty sharp lookout for hostiles--and all the Indians are hostile around Fort Stevenson--but up to the time I'm going to tell you about I didn't see any. I followed the old trails made by the buffalo and deer across the prairie, and did my best to cover up my own tracks--wore moccasins till the cacti cut 'em too much, then shifted to boots. Of course boots made a much clearer print and would give me away sure if they were seen." "Why?" whispered Tenderfoot Green to Casino. "Because, you chump," retorted Casino, "the Indians never wear boots, so they know right away when they see marks of heel and sole that a white man has been that way. See?" Worth continued, without noticing this whispered colloquy: "I was getting nearer and nearer the river every minute, and I knew that when I got there my chances of getting through all right would be better, for the brush and banks would afford the cover that the prairie lacked." His hearers nodded their heads understandingly, and even Tenderfoot Green seemed to take in the situation. "The wind was getting pretty keen, and I was afraid it would snow; if it did, I knew my trail would be as plain as a column of smoke in a clear sky, so I hustled for the river at a good pace. In spite of my hurry, though, I managed to keep a sharp lookout for Indians. As I topped every rise I took a good survey of everything in view, and it was well I did, for about dusk I reached the crest of a low hill, and on glancing over saw an Indian village. It lay directly in my path, not far from the river. It was still too light to attempt to go round it, so I lay down behind some sage brush and watched what was going on. The village, which contained about fifty tepees, was placed within easy distance of the river and was well supplied with cottonwood." "Used the cottonwood for fuel, I suppose?" broke in Green. "Yes, and the green bark to feed the horses on in heavy snowy weather," volunteered Mackenzie. "Excuse me, Mr. Worth," apologized Tenderfoot, "I didn't mean to interrupt." "That's all right," said Worth. "A lot of squaws were busy doing men's work, as is the way of the poor things, scraping hides that were staked on the ground, mending buffalo-skin tepees, pounding berries, carrying wood and water. Some were busy with easier jobs, such as making deerskin clothes and ornamenting moccasins with beads. I could see only a few bucks; the others were probably off on a hunt. There was danger in that, for if they found my trail on their way back to camp they would of course follow it, and then--well, I should be lucky to come out of it alive." The listening men began to show signs of impatience. All this was an old story to them; they wanted to hear the end of the tale, and how he came to be in such a plight. "Well, to make a long story short," said Worth, beginning to realize that he was telling much that was obvious to most of his hearers, "while I lay there, planning and idly watching the Indian camp, the hunting party was actually returning. Suddenly I felt the weight of a man on my back. I struggled and fought, and finally threw him off. Jumping to my feet, I faced two savages who had come in advance of the main party and had stolen on me unawares. Both now rushed at me, but I dodged one and tripped the other. Before I could finish the man I had thrown, the first was at me again. Loaded as I was by my pack, I was soon fagged. My gun had been taken by the redskin when he fell on me. Why he didn't use it on me I cannot understand--perhaps I didn't give him time. Now both of them jumped for me, and try as I might I could not dodge or disable them. I had already begun to fear that the game was up, when I saw a whole bunch of Indians, the rest of the hunting party, coming along the trail. "There wasn't any use fighting a mob like that, so I stopped struggling, let my captors hold me, and waited for whatever might come. "The redskins crowded around me, and I thought that my time had come. "'Stev'son, you come in,' says one brave. 'Hoss, pony, you got 'em?' calls out another big scowling savage. I shook my head. "Then I caught sight of a face I knew--old Chief Looking Glass. (I warmed him up with coffee once when he was near frozen to death. Indians will do most anything for a cup of coffee.) He pushed forward through the crowd and shook hands with me. I could see he was trying to get his men to separate and leave us, but it wasn't any sort of use; they pressed around, and it was very evident that they wanted my pack. Looking Glass finally started alone towards the camp, calling to his braves to come along, but this plan didn't work at all; for the minute he got out of sight over the brow of the hill the thieving gang began to strip me. There was no use resisting; they were too many for me. Before I knew where I was I was stark naked, except for a few rags. Even my boots were yanked off. We were almost in the village by this time, for I had been pulled and pushed over the crest and down the slope of the hill. My tormentors then left me and began to divide my outfit, so I crawled off, shivering and sore, anxious to get out of sight as soon as possible." "Wasn't it cold?" said Tenderfoot Green. "Rather," said Mr. Worth, a grim smile showing on his weather-beaten face. "A man does not go tramping across the bare prairie in weather like this dressed in a few rags, bare-footed, and feel as if he was in a hot spring. It was fully as cold as it is now, and this is a pretty sharp day." He shivered at the mere remembrance, while his listeners gave a general laugh at the simplicity of the question. "Where did you get your blanket and moccasins?" asked Green, anxious to divert the crowd's attention. He pointed at the articles that Worth seemed to be guarding with unnecessary care. "These here blanket and moccasins saved my life," continued the latter. "As I was pushing along I heard a woman's voice calling. I turned and saw a squaw running after me with a blanket and a pair of moccasins in her hands. 'Looking Glass blanket and moccasins,' she said, as she handed them to me. Then she turned timidly and ran back to the camp. "It was almost dark now, and growing colder every minute. I put on the moccasins, wrapped the blanket around me, though it smelled strong of Indian, and set out at a dog-trot in the direction of a wagon trail. If I could reach that I might be lucky enough to strike a white man's camp or a freighter's outfit, and then I should be all right. "I travelled all that night, keeping in the right direction by a sort of instinct that my knowledge of the lay of the land gave me. It was a pretty tough journey though, I can tell you. I had to fight hard to keep off the sleepy feeling that comes before freezing, and for hour after hour I dragged myself along numb and aching with the cold, but hoping against all reason and probability that I might run across some of the boys before it was too late. Toward daybreak I must have got kinder lonely, for I lost track of things, and only came to myself in the freighters' camp that I had run into half asleep." He paused here, and John saw that his eyes were half closed and his head nodding. The ordeal had told on even his sturdy health. In a thick, sleepy voice he added: "Ask Jim White; he knows the rest--he brought me in." Jim White could add little to the story. Worth came into his camp, he explained, more dead than alive and "clean out of his head." He and his partner had cared for him and brought him to town as fast as the teams could go. John's father was taken over to his own shack, where his wife greeted him like one come back from the dead. Under her good nursing he recovered from his terrible experience in a marvellously short time and became again his own sturdy self. The frontiersman must of necessity be possessed of an iron constitution, for he must be able to endure hardships of all kinds--intense heat and piercing cold, hunger and thirst, fatigue and pain, that would either kill an ordinary man outright or cripple him for life. It was with inward dread that the little family watched its head start off again, after a few weeks' stay in town. Outwardly, however, cheerfulness, almost indifference, was manifested. This time he went with a party which was going in the same direction; the danger was, consequently, not so great. Then, too, the cold weather kept the Indians pretty close to their own camps, and as the locations of these were generally known, they could be easily avoided. * * * * * The boys' hearts were gladdened by the news that, perhaps, the home shack would be abandoned in the spring, when their father returned. If so, the whole family would "hit the trail" to the north and west. Up to this time the Worth boys had been town dwellers, though in these days Bismarck could hardly be dignified even by the name of village. John and Ben, in common with the few other boys, had enjoyed the comparatively tame pleasures afforded by the town and the surrounding prairie. All large game had been driven west, and only prairie dogs, gophers, coyotes, and occasionally wolves remained; these and the birds the boys used to shoot at day after day with their ever-ready revolvers. The sport in the river was not all that could be wished for either, for the water was muddy and the bottom was full of quicksands. And if summer lacked diversions, winter was a still more uninteresting season, in that the pleasures were fewer and the discomforts greater. It was therefore with great glee that John and Ben looked forward to this pilgrimage. A hilly country was to be visited, where game of all sorts abounded, where clear streams were plenty, and where new sports of all kinds were in prospect. Marvellous tales of trapping beaver, and hunting antelope, bear, and even buffalo, were brought in by hunters, so the boys were wild to enjoy these new pleasures. The Government was trying to confine the Indians to the reservations that had been set apart for them, but the redskins had been accustomed to roam over the country at will, to follow the game wherever it went, to make war upon each other whenever they felt like it or needed horses; so they resented any attempt to interfere with their entire freedom, and turned fiercely on their white foes wherever they found them, singly or in camps and settlements. The Government, in order to better protect its citizens, erected at intervals outposts garrisoned by troops. There being no railroads across the continent at this time, goods of all kinds had to be carried in wagons from the nearest railroad station to the fort or point of distribution. The supply of fuel, too, was a matter of great importance. It was in the main a treeless country and wood was scarce. The early prospectors and pioneers had noticed the outcroppings of coal from the deep-cut river banks, but little advantage was taken of this store of fuel till the forts were established and the little steamboats began to ply up and down the Missouri loaded deep with skins and buffalo hides. Mr. Worth was one of the first to see the value of these coal veins, and he was a leader in developing the mineral resources of the section. He opened and worked mines as near the different outposts as possible and at convenient points for the supply of coal to the river boats. The Eastern railroads were stretching their long steel arms westward, and they also needed to be supplied with food for their furnaces. Mr. Worth had contracted with these coal consumers to open mines which, when in good running order, were to be turned over to them to work. In order to do this it was necessary to travel from place to place, starting the work at intervals along the proposed line so as to be ready when the "steel trail" actually reached them. It was this contract that made it necessary for them to give up the home shack at Bismarck and to journey into hostile country. Mr. Worth could not return to the settlement to his family; the family must therefore come to him in the wilds. Much of the long winter was spent by the boys in talking over the good times they were going to have when they reached the new country. At times a trapper would come in to get a stock of supplies, and John and Ben listened eagerly to every word he said about his experiences. These tales were old stories to most of the men of the little town, who paid no attention to such commonplace matters, but Charley Green, like the boys, was seeking information, and he drank in every word as eagerly as they. Much of Green's ignorance had disappeared, though "Tenderfoot" was still his nickname, and by that he would be called as long as he lived there. He had changed outwardly as well. The Eastern pallor had given place to a good, healthy, bronzed tint, his eye was clear and his hand steady; he had lost weight but had gained in endurance. His gay, expensive outfit of clothes had been succeeded by the more sober and serviceable apparel of the plains: wide, heavy felt hat, flannel shirt, rough trousers with protecting leather overalls or chaps, and high boots. He had learned enough about Western ways to avoid making many blunders, and took a joke at his expense good naturedly when he did occasionally betray himself. It was not considered polite in Bismarck to inquire anything about a man's past--that was his own business. It was not necessary for a man to give his pedigree and family name in order to be received into the society of his fellows. It was not his past that concerned them, but his present. "Lariat Bill" was quite as good for all practical purposes as his real name, perhaps better, for it was descriptive and identified him at once. In accordance with this unwritten law, no one asked what Charley Green's idea was in leaving the civilization and culture of Boston for the wild, free, albeit rough, life of the plains; but rumor had it that he came there with the intention of going into ranching. If so, he was wise beyond his generation, for unlike most of his fellows he looked before he leaped. Tenderfoot and the two boys had struck up quite a friendship. It was quite natural, therefore, knowing as he did the Worths' plans, for him to say one day, towards the end of the winter: "Do you suppose, John, that your dad would take me along on his mining expedition?" "I dunno," said John, "you'll have to ask the governor when he comes back. I guess he would." "You see," continued Tenderfoot, "I'm about as tired of this place as you are, and I want to see a little of the country. I guess I could earn my salt as a mule-wrangler anyway." So it was decided that the young Easterner was to go with the Worths if the head of the house consented. The dreary winter was beginning to give way to the soft south winds. The snow was fast disappearing and buffalo grass was showing brightly green here and there. The boys had an unusually bad attack of spring fever, for the long-looked-for time of the pilgrimage was drawing near. Their father might be expected any day, and then--their delight and anticipation could not be put into words. Mr. Worth at length came in, loaded down with his pack, his arms, and his heavy winter furs. Keen and bitter disappointment was in store for the impatient boys. They were told that it would not be safe to move away from the town, for the whole country was full of hostile, well-armed, well-fed Sioux. The Black Hills of southwestern Dakota had been found to contain gold in paying quantities. This region was considered almost sacred by the Indians and jealously guarded. It was now aggressively penetrated by the bold miners, and this naturally created much bad feeling between them and the original owners. In order to allay this feeling the Government made a treaty with the Indians by which it was agreed that the encroaching miners should be driven out. The disregarding of this treaty or its ineffective enforcement roused the Sioux to open warfare. The tribes were collecting under the leadership of Sitting Bull and Rain-in-the-Face. Several small skirmishes had been fought and numbers of men on both sides had been killed. Small outfits, too, had been wiped out completely by the savage red foe. It would have been suicidal, therefore, for the Worth family to venture within the enemy's country, as had been previously planned. Indeed, while there was probably little danger of an attack at this time on Bismarck, the centre of hostilities being many hundred miles to the westward, great precautions were taken even there every night to guard against surprise, and the people, especially the children, never went far afield. The spring passed and another summer's scorching heat began. Occasionally accounts came in of battles fought and victories won, sometimes by one side, sometimes by the other. It was a time of uncertainty; business enterprise was at a standstill, and, since there was little to do in the frontier town, diversion of any kind was hailed with delight. So the Fourth of July celebration that was to be held at Black Jack's dance hall was looked forward to with great expectations by old and young. [Illustration: Custer's command. (_Page 53._)] Independence Day at length arrived, and was greeted at the first showing of light in the east by a volley of revolver shots. The celebration was kept up with enthusiasm all day. Tenderfoot made a patriotic speech that took the crowd by storm--he was no tenderfoot in that line, for his college debating society experience served him in good stead. At sundown the guests began to arrive at Black Jack's, and before an hour had passed the ball was in full swing. It could hardly be called a fashionable assemblage: the men, of whom there were three or four to every woman, were dressed much as usual, spurs and all, except that in compliance with the request placarded prominently, their "guns" were laid aside. A single fiddler served for an orchestra, and also acted as master of ceremonies, calling out the figures of the dances. The violin was squeaking merrily and the feet of the dancers thumped the rough boards vigorously, while the lamp lights silhouetted the uncouth figures as they passed between them and the open window. John and Ben, who were watching from the outer darkness, were suddenly startled by hearing the long, deep whistle of the little steamboat. "What's that?" exclaimed Ben. "Sounds like the _Will o' the Wisp_, but she hasn't been along the river for a long time." "Let's go and see," said John. "Must be something doing to bring her down at this time." The two boys mounted their horses, which stood already saddled, and galloped down to the landing. In a few minutes the boat steamed up out of the darkness, slowed down and made fast to a cottonwood stump. Hardly had it come to a stop when a man made a running leap to the platform and dashed toward the boys, who were the only persons at the place. "Where's all the people?" he cried excitedly. "Let me take that horse a minute, sonny." "Up at Black Jack's," said John, sliding off Baldy's back without delay, for it was evident that the newcomer brought important news. The stranger mounted and set off at a hard gallop for Main Street. Reaching the brightly lighted place, he jumped off and stumbled through the doorway into the centre of the room. The fiddler stopped in the middle of a bar, the dancers, who were in the full swing of "all hands around," stood still in wonder, and every eye was fixed upon the intruder. He looked like the bearer of bad news. His clothes showed that he had travelled far and fast, and his manner evidenced anything but peace of mind. For an instant all was still. Then Black Jack broke the silence: "Speak out, man! What's up?" "I've been travelling two days and nights to bring the news," he panted. "Custer----" he paused for breath. "Well, hurry up, will you!" exclaimed Mackenzie, shaking his arm. "Custer and his party have been wiped out by the Indians on the Little Big Horn!" CHAPTER IV. "HITTING THE TRAIL." The Custer massacre threw the whole country into a spasm of fear. The killing of three hundred trained fighters and a general, all renowned for their daring and knowledge of Indian warfare, must give the enemy a confidence that would be hard to overcome. Every one wondered where the next blow would be struck and who would be the next victim. All enterprises were checked, all peaceful journeys postponed. Not till the autumn of the following year was it deemed safe for the Worth family to carry out their plan of "pulling up stakes" and leaving Bismarck. During the year which had elapsed John and Ben had grown in mind and body. They were sturdy, strong boys, and were a great help to their father. Perfectly able to take care of the stock, they could ride like centaurs and shoot with their "guns" (as the Westerner calls his revolver) with astonishing accuracy. They used to practice at tomato cans fifty yards away and soon became so expert that for nearly every shot a neat round hole appeared in the tin. If you think this easy, try it. One can will probably last you a long while. Long before, Charley Green had made a formal request to be included in the migrating party and had been accepted. He was really quite a valuable man now, for he had been tried in a number of ticklish places and had shown a solid strength and coolness in the face of danger. One bright autumn day the pilgrimage began. Several men were to accompany the family to a mine that had already been located fifty miles away. Here the winter was to be spent, and then, if all went well, another mine might be opened further westward. The final preparations for moving were soon complete. The household goods were packed into the great lumbering prairie wagons, canvas-topped and wide of beam; the little log-built shack was left intact, its rough, heavy door swinging open. The frontiersman's household outfit was very simple. The bedding consisted of blankets; cooking utensils of iron and tin, dining-table furniture of the same materials, a few chairs, a table or two, and the baby's crib completed the list. The Worth family had the largest library in town. It contained their great, brass-bound Bible, "Pilgrim's Progress," the Catechism (and how the boys dreaded it!), "Robinson Crusoe," "Scott's Poems," and the "Arabian Nights." These precious books were of course taken along, for though the boys' father read little and lacked even the rudiments of education, he had the pride of ownership. It can be seen at once that this simple collection of necessaries would not take long to pack and load. Charley Green remarked that "the whole outfit wouldn't be considered security enough for a week's board in Boston." "That's true," answered Mr. Worth, as he lifted the sewing machine (the only one for miles and miles around) tenderly into the wagon. "But our household stuff is considered very fine, and people come from long distances to use this sewing machine." "The first of May can't have any terrors for you," persisted the ex-collegian. Mr. Worth frowned a little, for although Charley's fun was good-natured, he had a keen dislike to being ridiculed, and had always been accustomed to considering his equipment as something rather grand--as indeed it was, compared with his less fortunate neighbors. After a final glance around to see that nothing had been left, the head of the family put his wife and baby into the first wagon, but before climbing in himself he called out to John and Ben to go back to the corral, saddle two of the horses, and drive the remaining ones after the wagon train. The two boys were soon busy catching and saddling the horses. As John was "cinching" up Baldy, he heard the snap of his father's long black-snake whip and the creak of the heavy wheels. Then for the first time he realized that the only home he had ever known was to be left permanently. The old place suddenly became very dear to him, and the thought of leaving it was hard to bear; in fact, he had to bury his face in Baldy's rough, unkempt side to hide the tears that would come despite his efforts. Ben, on the contrary, was very cheerful and whistled between the sentences of talk he flung at his brother. The two years' difference in their ages showed very plainly in this matter. "Here, get a move on you, John," he shouted, "my horse's all ready." The older boy bestirred himself, and in the rush and hurry that followed he soon forgot his momentary regret. When they caught up with the wagons they found the procession headed toward the centre of the settlement and almost in its outskirts. The town had grown considerably both in population and area since we first saw it, and ordinarily the departure of a freighter's outfit would excite but little remark. The exodus of the Worths, however--one of the few families, and one of the very first settlers--was quite an event. Many of their friends were on hand to wish them good speed. The boys felt like "lords of creation" indeed. Were they not bound on a journey of unknown duration, liable to have all sorts of delightful adventures? They held their heads up and pitied their boy friends who were to be left behind--and it must be confessed that the stay-at-homes pitied themselves. The wagon train made its way slowly down to the river, where the sheriff bade them good-by. "I'm sorry to have you go," he said, nodding to Mr. and Mrs. Worth. "And those kids of yours," he added, "I wish you could leave them behind; it will be pretty tough on them, and besides, I'm fond of the little beggars. However," he went on, as the boys' father shook his head, "I suppose you know what you're doing. Well, good luck. So long." "So long," replied the travellers in chorus. The whole outfit was ferried over the river, passed through the little village of Mandan clustered around the fort, and then struck out across the open prairie. It made quite a procession, the light wagon in front, drawn by two horses and driven by Worth, then a long string of mule teams hitched to the first of a train of prairie schooners, whose white canvas-hooped tops shone in the sun. The cooking utensils in the vehicles and hung under them banged and clattered, the wheels creaked, the teamsters' long whips, which took two hands to wield, cracked and snapped. At the head of the party rode Charley Green, with his long-eared charges, busy at his self-imposed task of "mule-wrangling." He was new to the business, and it seemed as if the beasts he was herding were aware of this. For a while all would go smoothly, the animals closely bunched, heads down, ears drooped forward, the picture of innocence and dejection; then suddenly a lanky brute would start out from one side as if propelled from a gun, and no sooner had Charley dug the spurs into his pony in his efforts to head it off than another mule would start off on the other side. Then the whole bunch would scatter, radiating from a common centre like the spokes of a wheel. John, Ben, and one of the men (called Tongue-Tied Ted, because of his few words) took a hand in the game at last, and together they rounded up the stock into a compact bunch again. All this was very amusing for the old hands, but Charley did not seem to enjoy it. "Mule-wrangling is no snap," he grumbled. "Why, it's easier to stop a whole rush line than to take care of that gang of long-eared, rail-backed, dirt-colored, knock-kneed horse imitators." He had to tackle the job alone, however, for only by experience could he learn, and experience is a hard and thorough teacher. The boys trotted alongside, now riding far ahead, now making their ponies show off near the wagons. Excursions were made from time to time to shoot at prairie dogs, rabbits, and coyotes. But even this grew monotonous after a while, and they began to cast about in their minds for amusement. "Let's go to the river where it makes a bend over there and take a swim," said Ben, at last. It was no sooner said than done. They were left to look out for themselves much of the time, so they went off without saying a word to any one. Soon the caravan was lost to view, and after a few minutes' more riding even the shouts of the men and the barking of the dogs could not be heard. The boys had that delightful feeling of entire freedom and half fear which comes to the inexperienced thrown upon their own resources. The prairie was perfectly still and the heat was scorching, for the sun was still high. It was a little awesome, and for a minute John and Ben wished they were back with their friends. The thought of a cool dip was very enticing, however, and they would both have been ashamed to turn back now, so they cantered along, keeping up each other's courage by shouting and laughing. Reaching the river, they scrambled down the steep slope, leaving their horses to graze on the level, and in a jiffy were enjoying a swim in the "Big Muddy." The bottom was free from quicksands, so the brothers enjoyed themselves to their hearts' content. They swam, ducked, and dug in the mud, as full of glee as could be. For an hour or more they revelled in their sport; then John dropped the handful of dirt he was about to throw and looked around, half scared. "Hallo," he said, "it's getting dark. We'd better get a move on." They slid into their clothes as only boys can, and in a few seconds had regained the top of the bank. The sun, a fiery red ball, was low down in the western sky and almost ready to drop out of sight altogether. "Why!" exclaimed Ben. "Where are the horses?" They looked hurriedly around and then scanned the rolling prairie and sage bushes in every direction. But the horses were not to be seen. Nor was the wagon train in sight. Not a living thing was visible on the horizon; not a sound could be heard anywhere. On every side there were only monotonous clumps of sage, and the sun was getting lower and lower every moment. They rushed to a knoll and searched again. All around stretched the prairie--bare, still, hopeless. Then they looked at each other for the first time. Ben began to whimper. "Come, brace up," said John, taking the elder brother's part. "I know the trail; we'll catch up to them in no time." His tone was cheerful, but he appeared more at ease than he really was. It was not a pleasant situation for even a full-grown man, one well versed in the signs of the plains, its landmarks, and deceptions. [Illustration: THE TAIL OF THE COOK'S WAGON WAS LET DOWN. (_Page 276._)] The boys were in an unfamiliar section of the country, without food or means of transportation, at nightfall. Their lessons of self-reliance stood them in good stead now, and they started off bravely, striking away from the river in the direction of the wagon trail. After walking a half hour they came across the distinct deep rut of wagons. This was a great encouragement; it was like a friendly grasp of the hand, for they felt that they were now in touch with men and living things, though neither was within sight or sound. Only the palest kind of twilight now remained, but the trail could be seen quite distinctly and both boys took heart. "I'd give my gun for a piece of jerked buffalo meat," said Ben. "Well, I wouldn't mind munching a bean myself," replied his brother. "But say, won't that feed taste good when we get to the camp? Just think of that big fire with the men lying around it, and the wagons drawn in a circle outside all." "Oh, stop," broke in Ben, peevishly. "I'm hungry enough and tired enough already, and your talk makes me ten times worse." Hour after hour they tramped along, their courage ebbing with every step. Expecting when they reached the crest of each little rise to see the bustling camp at the foot of the slope, each time they again took up the weary march with a heavier load of disappointment and uneasiness. Thirst, as well as hunger, now began to attack them. It was dry weather, and the dust rose into their faces as they walked, tickling throat and nose, and causing the greatest discomfort. From time to time they lingered to rest, but when they stopped the darkness frightened them, and the awful stillness, broken only by the wailing howl of a coyote and the low moan of the rising wind, drove them on relentlessly. At last Ben declared that he couldn't go any further, but as soon as they stopped his courage failed him and he burst into tears. John comforted him as well as he could, but he was himself at his wits' ends. "Come along, old man," he urged after a while, "let's have one more try at it." Again they started off wearily and slowly, John with an arm about his younger brother. They had walked only a few minutes when Ben felt his brother's arm clasp him tighter and heard him give a hoarse shout. He strained his eyes ahead. There in the darkness was an indistinct moving mass. They redoubled their efforts, and presently discovered that it was a wagon drawn by a single team that seemed hardly able to stand and moved forward at a snail's pace. "Did you see anything of a freight outfit along the trail to-night?" said John huskily to the driver. The man half raised himself from his lounging position. "Freight outfit?" said he, sleepily. "No." Then he woke up a little more as Ben broke into tears again. Perceiving their woebegone appearance, he sat erect, and for the first time took in the situation. "Why, what are you kids doin' here this time of night? Where's your horses? Where's your people?" John told the story in a few words, while Ben, quite overcome, leaned his head against his brother's arm and went fast asleep standing up. "And haven't you had anything to eat since noon?" queried the driver in wonder. "No, nor nothing to drink," answered John, his voice shaking a little in spite of himself at the remembrance. "Well, I'm sorry, but I'm afraid I can't help you much. I haven't got a bit of grub myself. Thought I would only be out a little while, and expected to reach the rest of my outfit by dinner time, so I didn't bring any feed myself. One of my nags gave out, so I couldn't catch the teams. I guess I can give you a little lift, anyhow. But see here!" he ejaculated, "I guess you're on the wrong trail, ain't you? Your folks must have took the other branch way back yonder; they wouldn't be likely to come over this side." Brave John collapsed at this. He and Ben had been travelling all this weary time in the wrong direction! "Never you mind, sonny," said the man, kindly. "We'll find some way out of it," he went on after a minute's silence; "those trails join again after a piece. Perhaps you may meet your outfit there. This branch follows a bend in the river, while the other cuts across country and meets it. See?" "Yes, sir," said John, dejectedly. "Come, help me get this team of mine started; you'll be sure to find your outfit camped near the fork; there's good water there and they'll wait for you." Encouraged once more by his words, John lifted Ben bodily and laid him in the wagon. Then, after a good deal of urging with voice and whip, he got the worn-out team in motion. For half an hour they moved along without a word being spoken; their new friend relapsed into his huddled-up position, Ben lay asleep in the bottom of the wagon, and John communed with himself. He wondered what his mother thought of their absence, and he felt the responsibility of an elder brother. He knew that the horses would turn up riderless, and that his father would send back over the trail that had been covered by the train, but would not find them. The thought of their anxiety made him doubly impatient at the slow progress made. He longed for Baldy to gallop on and set their minds at rest. Still, they moved along at a pace little faster than a walk. Each step of the weary beasts seemed as if it must be the last. At length John, who was the only person awake, noticed that the off horse began to sway as he stumbled along. He roused the man at his side and told him he thought the animal was about done for. But the words of warning were hardly out of his mouth when the poor beast dropped like a lump, made a few fruitless attempts to regain his feet, and then lay quiet. Here was a pretty mess for all hands! The man, with one fagged horse and one almost as bad, ten miles from camp, with no food or water, on a trail over which hardly any one passed. The boys, footsore from the long tramp, with a gnawing hunger and parching thirst and nothing to satisfy either, their destination they knew not how far off, and no means of reaching it other than afoot. There was but one thing to do: set out once more and trust to Providence that the camp would be found at the junction of the two trails and that their strength would hold out long enough to accomplish the journey. John promised to send some one back with horses and food, if the stranger did not turn up within a reasonable time, and the youngsters then resumed their weary march, John almost carrying his brother. The moon had come out and showed the boys the deeply marked road. They had but to follow the track, so it became simply a question of endurance and pluck. The simple, hardy life they had always led, and the constant exposure to heat and cold had toughened their little bodies and had given them a reserve fund of strength which now responded to the call upon their utmost powers. Strained as every faculty was, they plodded on doggedly, hour after hour. Just after midnight they topped a little rise, and involuntarily cried out in unison. There ahead of them was a blaze that gave them new life. They had reached the junction of the two trails, and the camp. The wagons were drawn in a circle just as they had pictured to themselves, the camp fire was burning brightly in a shallow pit (to prevent its spread to the surrounding prairie) and some of the men, wrapped in their blankets, were lying like long, bumpy bundles on the ground, while a bunch of mules were feeding at a little distance, guarded by the "night wrangler." In the centre of the enclosure, where the ruddy light of the campfire brought out their anxious faces in strong relief, stood the boys' father and mother. John and Ben ran forward as fast as their tired legs could carry them. They shouted--as loud as their dry, dust-coated throats would allow. It made them gulp simultaneously to see how the expression of the two faces changed; the woman's growing wholly tender and joyful, the man's altered to that of relief rather than joy. John knew from past experience that while the mother would be glad to comfort and caress, the father would not permit any such soft treatment. They would be lucky if they got off with a sharp rebuke. Mrs. Worth rushed to meet them, but her husband restrained her. "You boys go over to the cook-wagon and get something to eat, then turn in. We've got to get off soon after daybreak. I'll see what you have to say for yourselves to-morrow." The cold supper John and Ben indulged in that night would probably not interest the ordinary pet dog of your acquaintance. It consisted of cold, greasy pork and beans, poor cold coffee without milk, and soggy bread, but they thought it was food fit for the gods. Hunger satisfied and thirst quenched, they were glad enough to curl under a wagon, a blanket their only covering and a saddle for a pillow. Before getting to sleep they heard the teamster who had befriended them come into camp; his team had revived enough to painfully cover the remaining distance to the Worths' outfit. They had hardly dozed off, it seemed to them, when they heard the cook's shrill call, "Grub p-i-i-i-le," and knew that breakfast was ready and all hands must be astir. After the blankets had been made into a neat roll and put away in a wagon, breakfast was despatched promptly, for cook, even on the frontier, is an autocratic person, not to be kept waiting. The meal was much like the supper of the previous night, except that the food was hot. The boys then went down to the creek and soaked off the dust that had gathered during their long tramp. In an incredibly short time the train had broken camp and was on the move again. The cook's few dishes and pots were given a hasty rinse in the creek and packed, the mules and horses driven in, and the fresh ones harnessed and saddled. The "day wrangler" took the place of the "night wrangler," who promptly lay down in one of the wagons and went to sleep. The procession fairly moving, John and his brother were called up to explain their absence of the afternoon and night before. This John did with fear and trembling, for he feared his father's wrath. He got off, however, with a severe reprimand and positive orders not to go out of sight of the wagons at any time, and the boys went off congratulating themselves on their lucky escape. All that day the caravan travelled steadily, stopping only at noon for dinner and for water. Towards evening they came near their destination, reaching a clear creek bordered with green. Up from the stream rose a hill, and half way up was a strange-looking house, part of which seemed to be buried in the side of the slope. The boys were somewhat surprised when they were told that this was to be their home for the winter. "Look, John," exclaimed Ben, "we're going to live in a hole in the ground." CHAPTER V. IN A MINING CAMP. "More like a tunnel with a porch to it, I should say," said John, as they approached the "dug-out." Indeed, the Worths' new home was an unprepossessing abode even after the familiar furniture was in position, the bunks made ready for use, and a fire built in the fireplace. As its name showed, it was merely a hole or tunnel in the slope of the hill, with a small log house built out from it. But though it was not luxurious, it was warm in winter and cool in summer, the earth protecting it from extremes of both heat and cold. The bare ground packed hard served for a floor, and the fireplace was set far back in the underground portion of the room, its smoke outlet being a chimney of sod projecting through the roof. Into this new and strange dwelling the household goods were carried, a fire was built, and in a short while the place began to assume the appearance of a home. While this was being done, the men looked up their own habitations, and found that other dug-outs, not so large or well finished, but fairly comfortable, were all ready for occupancy. The mine had been opened already, and the workmen had previously constructed these huts, half caves, half houses, for themselves and for the "boss's" family. It was all a new experience for the boys, and they investigated everything with great interest. The idea of living in a hole in the ground struck them for quite a while as very funny, and they made jokes without end about it to each other. The wagons had been placed in the wide creek "bottom"--the space cut out of the bank by the current, which had since retreated to its present narrower channel. This "bottom," for years and years the stream's bed, was well supplied with rich alluvial soil, and was in consequence luxuriantly covered with fresh grass and vegetation of all kinds. "I tell you, Jack," called Ben, when the boys scrambled down the steep path to the creek, "this is something like. Why, I can see bottom--and I declare, if I didn't see a fish sneak out of that rooty place there." He hopped on one foot and then on the other in his excitement, and then, somehow--neither he nor John could ever explain it--he suddenly found himself splashing in the clear stream. John caught hold of his heels and dragged him out face down. His head had scraped the soft bottom and his nose had made a beautiful furrow in the mud. "What were you trying to do?" inquired John, as soon as he could get his breath. "Catch the fish in your mouth?" When Ben turned, spitting mud and digging it out of his nostrils, John almost exploded with laughter. "Maybe you think it's funny," spurted the younger boy, "but wait till you come to make a mud scow of yourself; then you won't laugh quite so much." John struggled to suppress his mirth, and after a while succeeded--as long as his brother's mud-be-plastered visage was not in sight. [Illustration: Instantaneous sketches of the positions in slipping and diving.] Face washed and good humor restored, the boys wandered further down the stream on a trip of discovery. New delights opened at every turn. A mile or so below the camp a beaver dam was found, and as they drew near, one of those clever, industrious little beasts shot down the slide they had constructed, with a _kerflop_ into the pool. Here was sport indeed. The boys wondered how many of the curious animals the brown, mud-plastered, dome-shaped houses contained. The doors to these houses were under water, and only the second story was above its level. "I tell you what," said John, "we'll have to catch some of those beggars. Their skins are worth money." And so they vowed to remember the spot and capture some of the inhabitants of this semi-submarine village. A little further along they came to a clearly marked path, the edge of which (the centre was beaten hard) was indented with small hoof prints of deer and antelope. They saw, too, the cushioned print of the great prairie wolf. Evidently this was the haunt of game of all kinds. On the way back the boys had little leisure to examine the paradise they had discovered, for the sun was sinking fast and they had wandered further than they realized. An inviting pool was noted, however, that would serve for a swimming hole, and Ben unhesitatingly dubbed this "plumb bully." John prevented him from plunging into it right away only by main force and the reference to his ducking, but he could not keep him from taking off his moccasins and wading in whenever an opportunity occurred. As they neared the camp the last rays of the sun glinted down on them. The preparations for the evening meal were in full swing: the clatter of tin dishes mingled with the clatter of tongues, and the smoke pouring from the sod chimneys bore a most savory odor that made the boys realize they were hungry. "I wish we had a rifle," John was saying. "We could have got one of those ducks we saw down the creek for supper." "Well, I'm going to have one, and a repeater, too," returned Ben. "I'll have one if I----" "Look out!" yelled his brother, interrupting him. At the same moment he jumped to his side and pulled him violently back. Ben almost fell, but his brother held him up and dragged him still further. "Look!" he said, breathless with excitement. Ben's eyes followed the direction of his pointing finger. There in the trail on which they had been walking, on the exact spot where he had been about to plant his bare foot, lay a big diamond-backed rattler, asleep in the last rays of the setting sun. "Phew! that was a close call," exclaimed John. "You want to keep a sharp lookout when you go barefoot. I can't watch out for you all the time." The younger boy, pretty badly scared, put on his moccasins without delay and kept his eyes on the trail after that. The rest of the way was covered in almost absolute silence, for the escape had been a narrow one, and both were sobered by it. The plain, wholesome supper over, the boys were glad enough to turn in, and though the bunks were anything but soft and the surroundings unfamiliar, the exertions of the day before and the hardships of the night preceding it put them to sleep in short order. It was not long before the whole camp was wrapped in slumber. The stock had been allowed to run free, it being well known that they would not stray far from the good feed that the creek bottom afforded. All was silent without and only the heavy breathing of the sleepers disturbed the quiet within. "Spuds," the dog, from time to time growled and barked inwardly as he dreamed of a fierce chase after a gopher or jack rabbit. At last even he subsided. This absolute quiet was presently disturbed by a howl,--long, wailing, and dreadful,--that sounded through the low roof as if the thing that caused it must be in the room itself. Ben jumped up so suddenly that he struck his head on his brother's bunk above him. "What's that?" he cried, shaking with fear at a sound he could not explain. John, his head stuck out of the berth above, was frightened himself, and could not explain the noise. Again the fearful wail came, this time not so distinct, but quite as awe-inspiring. The boys drew a long breath of relief when their father got up, took the rifle from the two pegs that supported it, and went to the door. His evident calmness reassured them. As he reached the door and fumbled with the latch, John and Ben heard a soft but rapid patter of feet and then his muttered exclamation: "Plague take those pesky wolves, howling at a man's door in the dead of night." So the boys made acquaintance with the great, gray prairie wolf at close quarters the first night of their stay afar from civilization. In a few days the men were in full swing at the work for which they had come to this point. The boys were too young to take part in the mining operations, but even they had their chores to perform at certain times of the day, after which they were at liberty to do much as they pleased, within certain well-known limits. Their first duty on being wakened between four and five was to round up the stock and drive it in. This was not such easy work as it sounds. The journey in search of the animals was long, and was made on an empty stomach in the cold, raw morning air. Even when they were found, it was difficult to get them moving towards the camp. The animals seemed at times to be endowed with diabolical perversity, and would resist all efforts to start them running in the right direction. The mules and horses once corraled, the boys had an appetite for breakfast that a dyspeptic would give a fortune to acquire. After that hearty meal the brothers supplied the camp with wood and water and did what odd jobs were required about the home. This completed their work for the time. After these duties were performed one morning, John and Ben bethought them of the beaver village, and their spirits rose in anticipation of the sport. A full trapper's outfit had been brought to the camp. They got this out and made up a pack containing several steel traps (having strong jaws armed with sharp teeth and set off by pressure of the animal's foot on the trigger plate), an axe, some fishing line and tackle in case a good pool was encountered, the always present revolvers and ammunition, and a small store of food. Though it was their first experience in trapping beaver, the boys were well versed in the theory of the business; they had never let an opportunity go by to learn all they could about such sport. So they started with a fair knowledge at least of the habits and ways of the beaver whom they were to outwit. Their journey down to the dam led them along the creek, and they noted several inviting pools where bullheads and trout were likely to lurk, planning to come back and try to catch a string after they had set their traps. Reaching the dam, they set to work. John being the elder, at once took command of the expedition. "You chop down some brush," he ordered, "while I go over and punch a few holes in the dam. These little beggars know a thing or two and won't run into an uncovered trap." "What do you want to cut down brush for?" questioned Ben, as he shouldered the axe and prepared to obey. "Why, you see, when I break the dam the water will rush out and show up the entrance to the houses; then after we go away the beaver will get to work to build it up again, and will go for the brush you have chopped down and get caught in the traps we will set in it. See?" Ben's eyes danced at the prospect, and he raced off to do his part. The boys were soon out of sight of each other, and John busied himself on the top of the dam with a strong stick, poking holes ruthlessly through it. He found it firmer than he had expected, and it took all his strength and skill to tear it open. He pushed his stick in vertically, in order to get a good purchase, and, encountering an unexpected obstacle, put his whole weight into the thrust. All of a sudden the obstruction gave away, the stick sank down till his hands struck the ground, he lost his balance and fell headlong into the deep part of the stream. The water was well over his head, and after a few minutes' struggling, he began to realize that he was in a nasty situation. The dam was composed mostly of slippery mud, which gave him no hold, and burdened by his soaked clothing, he could not swim to the bank. The water was icy cold, and he felt almost numb at once. He called to Ben, but could not make him hear. Then he sank beneath the surface. Again he went down, but he kept his presence of mind and struggled with might and main to gain a foothold on the slimy slope. In spite of his efforts to keep on top, he sank a third time, but this time barely below the level of his eyes. His work on the dam had accomplished its purpose and the water was rushing out through a leak, so that the depth was decreasing every minute. He realized that if he could keep up a little longer he would be all right. Again he sank, too tired to do more, but this time was able to keep his mouth above water by standing on tiptoe and stretching his neck to its fullest extent. Before long the water had receded so much that he could wade ashore, though at times his feet slipped into holes that let him down until he was entirely under water. Reaching the bank, he dragged himself up and lay down flat, for the time quite exhausted. He was more breathless than hurt, however, and in a short time was able to get up and crawl over to a sunny spot. Ben came up presently and was inclined to joke with his brother on his mishap; but after John had told his story he took it more seriously. The boys noted with satisfaction that the water was now so low that the submerged entrances to the beaver houses were visible. They therefore hastened to place their traps in the brush that Ben had cut. They then moved up the creek to the fishing hole they had noted, to await developments and at the same time try their luck at fishing. Ben took the line while John stripped off his water-soaked clothes, hung them up to dry, and then lay down in a warm sunny spot. It was late in the fall, and the wind proved too searching for comfort in this condition, so a fire was built, by which he dried and warmed himself. The fish were hungry and bit early and often, with the result that the pile of bullheads and trout on the bank was soon a goodly sight to behold. A few of them John cleaned and hung over the fire with a forked stick. The meal which followed was enjoyed to the full, and by the time it was finished John's wet clothes were fairly dry. Ben was for looking after the traps right away, but his brother's more experienced counsel prevailed, and they agreed to visit them at the earliest opportunity the following morning. The first minute after the next morning's work was finished they hurried to the scene of John's accident. After considerable searching (for they had neglected to chain the traps fast to a log) they found one. In it was a beaver's foot, well provided with claws for digging, and gnawed off clean above the joint. The brave little beast had cut off his own leg to save his life. [Illustration: Beaver Chip.] "Well, I'm jiggered," said Ben. "If that don't beat all. Don't you wish you had come back when I wanted you to?" "No; the beaver didn't show up till after dark, probably. Besides, there are three other traps, and there must be something in 'em or they would be where we left 'em." They searched and searched and called each other names because of their carelessness in not making the traps fast. Finally they bethought them of the possibility of the little animals' dragging the cruel steel jaws with them to their houses, which, instinct would teach them, were their only safe refuges. Sure enough, there were two of them dead, drowned at their own door; the third was alive and full of energy. Timid usually, the beaver when caught or brought to bay will fight courageously. Ben stooped to drag the trap and its captive out, but drew back so suddenly that his head struck John, who was also leaning over, a scientific blow on the nose. That maltreated and indignant organ began to bleed freely, and it did not console John to any great degree to learn that the little beast had turned on Ben and that he had come within an ace of having a finger bitten off by its long yellow teeth. He was so alarmed at this savage pugnacity that, without paying any attention to the rap he had given John, he still retreated, keeping his eyes on the hole. This was needless, however, for the animal was hopelessly entangled. A shot from John's revolver soon put the little creature out of its misery and enabled them to drag it out without danger. They returned to camp, triumphantly bearing three splendid beavers. But John held his hand over his swelling nose and fast blackening eyes: he could afford to accept with equanimity all taunting references to his injured member, such as, "Your nose is out of joint," and "What a black look you have," for he had turned the tables on Ted, who had laughed at him, calling out: "Sonny, you think you're going on a beaver hunt, but you're really going on a wild goose chase." Many more trips did the two boys make to this and other beaver villages, and the pile of salted skins grew to quite respectable proportions by the time the ice began to form on the creek. With winter came many added pleasures and some extra work and discomfort. Paths to the mine and to water had to be dug in the early morning through the snow that had drifted during the night, and this work was added to the boys' regular tasks. The drawing of water had now become more difficult, for a hole had to be cut in the ice every time. Gathering wood, too, was not easy, since it was necessary to burrow for it through the white blanket of snow. [Illustration: THE RIFLE RESTED CLOSELY AGAINST HIS CHEEK. (_Page 99._)] [Illustration: BEN WENT OVER TO WHERE THE GAME LAY. (_Page 100._)] One of the men of the camp was a Swede called "Yumping Yim," because of his racial inability to pronounce the letter "J." He showed the boys how to make snowshoes or skees, long strips of wood curved up at the front, the bottom slightly concave to give a purchase on the crust and prevent them from slipping sideways, the top convex and rising slightly from toe and heel to the centre where the foot rested. The boys soon became proficient in the use of these and sometimes travelled considerable distances on them. Exhilarating trips they were, over the crusted snow, when swift, breathless slides were taken down the hills, and skimming jumps from one level to another. It was on one of these trips that John and Ben saw for the first time a herd of buffalo, their great, brown, closely-packed bodies looking like an undulating sea of fresh earth against the whiteness of the snow. With them were large numbers of antelope, these weaker animals profiting by the ability of the powerful buffalo to break into the drifts and uncover the scanty herbage. The boys skimmed back to camp, and soon all the men formed themselves into a hunting party. Luck was with them. The whole party crept softly up, using every bit of cover that could be found. Then there was a whispered consultation, rifles were levelled, Mr. Worth kicked a lump of snow as a signal, and five guns barked out together. John and Ben dashed forward in wild excitement to find three antelopes lying dead. Without stopping, the hunters pressed on after the flying animals, and by nightfall a row of antelope hung high up against the log portion of the dug-out. Since the boys had no rifles of their own and the family Winchester was in use, they had to be content with long shots with revolvers. During the excitement following one of the volleys, Ben, who had lingered behind, saw what he thought was a wounded animal. He quickly raised his pistol and fired. As he did so, the figure rose and stood upright. It was Charley Green! His winter clothing, like that of the boys, was made of deerskin, his cap of the pelt of the musk-rat--even his hands and feet were covered with deerskin soled with buffalo hide. The deception had been complete, all too complete, Charley thought, when he heard what a narrow escape he had had. Ben shivered when he realized what might have happened, and registered a mental vow to let any future deer get away rather than run the risk of its being deer only in hide and man beneath. The boys had learned to cut out and make their own winter deer-hide clothing, caps, shirts, mittens, and "packs," or boots, soled with buffalo hide, hair side in; so they always had plenty to do when indoors. Most of the days were spent on their skees. They learned many new things and many ways of getting along under their new conditions. For instance, a snow house had been dug in a big drift which extended out over the ice-covered creek, and a fire was built inside which speedily melted a hole through to the water. It was so much warmer under the blanket of snow that this did not freeze over. Through it the boys drew the supply of water and caught many a fine string of fish. The long winter evenings were spent around the big fireplace, where the men made or patched clothes, told stories, played cards, and smoked. The camp was cut off from the world by the miles and miles of deep white snow which overspread the land in every direction. There was no danger from Indians, for even they could not move under difficulties so insurmountable. Wolves nightly came down from the hills and left their footprints on the snow about the house, and especially under the row of frozen deer which swung from a high support--the winter supply of meat killed after freezing weather set in. Both night and day the coyotes howled and answered each other from the high points round about, with their wuh, wuh, wuh-aou-u-u-u-u-wuh-wuh. On moonlight nights the scene from the front door was entrancing. The wide, white valley stretched up and down as far as the eye could see, and the reaching white ridges of snow and utter silence suggested illimitable distance. When the wind blew, the fine snow slid along the encrusted surface, making a noise like hissing water on a pebbly beach, while the finer particles, rising in the air, created lunar rainbows of surpassing beauty. Here indeed was loneliness, loveliness, and solemn immensity. [Illustration: Snap shots.] CHAPTER VI. A SNOWSHOE RACE. "I tell you what," said Ben, one day when the boys were off on their skees, "if we only had a sled, what fun we'd have down these hills!" "Well, what's the matter with making one?" answered John, the ever-ready. "It would be great; this crust is smooth as glass; we'd just fly." At once they turned in their tracks and sped for home to carry out their plan. "I'll beat you in," said Ben. "I'll bet you won't." They started off evenly at the top of a slope. A few long, half-stepping, half-sliding strokes gave them impetus enough to slide. Both crouched now in order to lessen the wind resistance and to avoid the chance of losing their balance. They were very evenly matched; for while John was the stronger, his brother was light and not so apt to break through the crust. Down they rushed with ever-increasing speed, the particles of snow rising like spray before them. The swishing, crunching noise grew into a hum as they sped faster and faster. At first Ben forged ahead--he had got a better start--then John's weight began to tell and he gained inch by inch. Ben crouched down still lower, making his body in a compact little ball, but in spite of all he could do his brother gained on him. Now he was even, now a little ahead, and now only his back could be seen by the younger. The end of his scarf was standing out behind him like a painted stick. The distance gradually increased until perhaps twenty yards of glistening snow lay between them. Ben was watching intently for any slight grade of which he might take advantage. All at once he noticed that John had disappeared. Almost at the same moment he too began to drop. The racers had been watching each other so closely that neither had noticed that they were approaching the edge of a great drift. John had sailed over first and landed right side up some eight feet below, but so solidly that he broke through the crust and stopped short, falling forward on his face. The instant of warning that Ben had, had put him on his guard: he landed lightly and sped on, hardly checked. "You will beat me, eh!" he shouted derisively to his discomfited brother, as he shot past. John scrambled up and started again, but the incline was now very short, and by the time he reached the level Ben was far in advance and going well. It was a long, stern chase. However, the older boy's strength and weight were great advantages now, and within half a mile the two were on even terms again. For a time they raced side by side, arms swinging in unison, legs going like piston rods. Their feet were kept absolutely straight, and so the long skates ran exactly parallel, for if either foot should be turned in or out ever so lightly, one skate would cross the other and the skater would be tangled up so quickly that he would not know what was the matter. The brothers were now sliding along side by side, each straining every nerve to pass the other; breath came in short puffs and showed on the frosty air like the exhaust steam of a locomotive; perspiration began to appear, and the effort they were putting forth was evidenced in the strained look on their faces. Faster and faster they went, skimming along the level like a pair of swallows. They were going too fast to be careful of their steps, and Ben turned his right foot a little in. Instantly the skates crossed in front, tripped him, and down he went head foremost into the snow. His left skee slipped off, flew towards John, caught between his legs, and threw him over backwards. For a moment there was the utmost confusion. The boys were stretched out, heads almost buried in the snow, feet kicking wildly, and the long skees beating the air like flails. Finally these were kicked off, and the crestfallen racers managed to get right side up. After much floundering they got their skees on again and continued their journey, this time at a more deliberate pace. They disputed all the way home as to which was the faster, and finally agreed that the momentous question could only be settled satisfactorily by another match. When they reached camp, a couple of boards, a saw, a hatchet, and some nails were secured. They sawed and chopped out the sides, nailed on a couple of cross pieces for the seat and a diagonal strip to brace the whole thing. This much was easy, but both were at a loss to find anything for runners until Ben remembered that strips of flat steel had been used on some of the canned meat boxes. These were stripped off, hammered flat, and nailed at each end to the sides of what really began to look like a conventional sled; the seat board was fastened on and holes were bored for the leading rope. The boys looked at their handiwork with no little pride and pronounced it as fine a cutter as the eastern variety. To be sure it was not beautiful to look at, and did not bear any highly nourished name like "Flyaway" or "P. D. Q.," but it did not lack decoration altogether, for on one side was branded "Use Higgins' Soap," while the other commemorated "Ruby Brand Tomatoes." In spite of its roughness and clumsiness it was possessed of good speed and strength enough to withstand all the ill-usage the boys gave it. When the snow was soft they used broad runners made of barrel staves, which they made fast to each side, and thus turned their sled into a toboggan. If John and Ben wanted anything; they had to make it or earn enough to buy it--money was not so plentiful that it could be spent on toys and mere amusements, and so they frequently had to devise ways of getting the things they longed for. John had made up his mind that he must have a saddle, bridle, spurs, and quirt (a short, flexible, braided whip) of his own; and when he found that none of these things would be given him, he determined to earn enough money to buy them. Ben, too, had set his heart on owning a repeating rifle (a style of arm that was rather rare in those days) and so the brothers agreed to work together at trapping, mining, or turning a penny in any way that offered. The sum total was to be divided in the spring, when each would buy the long-desired articles. As spring drew near, Mr. Worth decided to move along and open another mine to the westward, the first one being now in good working order. Again the family packed up their household goods, abandoned the dug-out that had sheltered them during the long winter months, and started off on a pilgrimage. The spring was well advanced and the verdure of the prairie was in its prime. Wild flowers were plentiful and the air was filled with the melody of the song birds, that of the meadow lark being sweetest and most sustained. Robins, thrushes, plover, and curlews--all did their share to make spring beautiful. Many prairie-dog villages were passed. The queer little beasts sat on the mounds of earth beside the holes that served for homes, their curiosity drawing them out. The travellers took snap shots at them, but they were as quick as lightning and never stayed above ground long enough to allow of careful aim. John's industry had made him the proud possessor of a new saddle, whose creaking was music in his ears, and even old Baldy seemed to be pleased with his finery, for he pranced around like a two-year-old and arched his neck in a way that seemed to say, "I'm about the finest thing a-top of this earth." Ben had achieved his aim also, and was the owner of a brand-new repeating Spencer rifle, the result of the sale of the winter's catch. As the train went further westward the trail grew more and more indistinct, and it became the duty of the boys to go ahead and trace it out. Later, when even the barely discernible wheel tracks had disappeared, it was necessary for them to pick out the best route and also to find the camp sites. This duty was a delightful one, for new country was continually opening before them, and adventures of all kinds might offer at any moment. "Ain't those antelopes over there by that little hill?" said John one day, pointing to one side. "That's right," answered Ben. "What's the matter with chasing them?" He spoke with the authority of the hunter. Possessing the rifle, no opportunity to exploit it was ever allowed to slip; nor, if the truth be told, was John slow in calling attention to his saddle, spurs, and fringed leather chaps. "All right," said John. "We've never been on an antelope hunt alone." The boys went off at right angles from the direction they had been taking and rode down a shallow ravine or coulie in order to keep out of sight of the game. They rode slowly along till they reached the end of the depression; here they dismounted and each tied the forelegs of his horse with the rope he carried on his saddle-horn: they were not going to travel afoot again if they could help it. It was now necessary to cross the open prairie in plain view of the animals they sought. Advantage was taken of a well-known characteristic of antelopes--their curiosity. John pulled the handkerchief from his neck and began to wave it slowly to and fro over his head as he walked. Ben followed in his brother's tracks, making himself as inconspicuous as possible and fingering the lock of his repeater to be sure that it was in good working order. The boys drew nearer and nearer, and the flagging was kept up persistently; but it did not seem to have any effect, for the animals were all looking the other way. Still they drew nearer; their eyes were fixed on their quarry, the rifle held ready, every nerve tense, each heart beating furiously with excitement. [Illustration: ROPING AN UNBROKEN HORSE.] Then it was seen that the antelopes were attracted by the white tops of the wagons, which were moving slowly along over the plain. The wagon train was "flagging" them. Now if the hunters could get within range before the spell of curiosity had been satisfied, all would be well. The boys moved cautiously along till they came to a sunken "buffalo wallow," a muddy place frequented by the bison for the sake of the moisture. This afforded the shelter that was needed. Attracted by the flapping canvas wagon-tops, the unsuspecting animals drew slowly near the hiding place. "Oh! if they would only come just a little closer," said Ben under his breath, "I'd have them sure." Once they stopped and sniffed the air, but just as Ben was about to chance a long-distance shot, they moved on again. "Now, Ben!" said John, excitedly. For an instant the stock of the rifle rested closely against the boy's cheek--then the shot rang out. Almost simultaneously the biggest of the herd leaped into the air, then fell flat to the ground. The others stood still, bewildered. "Good! Now for another one," whispered John. Again the rifle was raised and again its deadly crack sounded forth. Another antelope bounded up, ran frantically a few yards, and dropped. At this the rest of the herd made off like the wind, and in a few minutes were mere specks on the horizon. "Well, I must say," said Ben, exultingly, "I thought once that I would rather have your saddle and outfit, but now--" he slapped the stock of his rifle affectionately--"I wouldn't swap if you gave me Baldy to boot." "Baldy to boot, eh? Why, I wouldn't swap that horse for a whole stack of rifles." And John moved off in indignation to get the horses, while Ben went over to the spot where the game lay. The carcasses were packed on Ben's horse, both boys mounting Baldy. They were welcomed heartily at the camp, for fresh meat was at a premium, and any change of diet was an event of prime importance. "That gun of yours must be chained lightning," said Ted. "I didn't suppose you could hit the side of a hill at fifty yards." Many days of travelling followed over country that had apparently never been covered by a wagon before. During this long journey the boys came to know the men of the party very well. They were apt to be sharply divided into good and bad, for in those rough times people showed their real characters without reserve. Charley Green still continued with the company, and he was the boys' greatest friend; but Tom Malloy, who joined the expedition just before it started out for the new camp, soon got into John's good graces. He was a man of varied talents: a gambler and saloon keeper when times were good; a miner, cow-puncher, or hunter when his money ran out. Rough, quick-tempered, and as ready with his fists as with his "gun," he was nevertheless possessed of a great heart and a loyalty to his friends that nothing could shake. Like many of his race he loved a fight and delighted to have a lively "argument" with a man. John's boldness and aggressiveness pleased him greatly, and he looked the boy over, enumerating his good points over to himself: his broad chest, sturdy legs and arms, his clear eyes and fearless look all showed to Malloy's experienced eye that he would make a first-rate boxer. "I'll show that youngster how to put up his hands sure," he said to himself. It was a tiresome journey, long and monotonous, but enlivened now and then by a hunt or an excursion. The train was to go by way of the Hart River road, and it seemed to the younger members of the expedition as if it would never be reached. But find it at last they did, a few wagon ruts not very clear nor strongly marked. The boys' task was now much easier, for the way was marked plainly before them and it was comparatively smooth travelling. Many wide excursions were made on either side of the trail, and many hunting expeditions were indulged in. Ben became a very good shot, and the constant supply of fresh meat gave evidence of his skill. After many days' journey the "Bad Lands" were reached. That desolate country, scarred and pitted, was void of vegetation except on the bottoms and near the infrequent water courses. Here the wagon road disappeared altogether, and the pioneers found it necessary in many cases practically to build one, to level some places and make inclines down steep banks at others. Often all the teams had to be hitched to one wagon in order to drag it up a sharp ascent or through a miry place. In many spots the ground was very treacherous, especially at the edge of a cut. The soil was loose, pliable stuff, liable to give way under the weight of a horse. Badger and gopher holes added to the danger by undermining the banks in unexpected places. One morning John was sent out on Baldy (his constant companion and faithful friend) to pick out, if possible, an easier way. Boy and horse started out on a smart trot, each having full confidence in the other--as was necessary, for almost as much depended on the sagacity of the steed in the matter of picking a way on dangerous ground as in the intelligence of the rider. It was a task of considerable responsibility that was put on John's shoulders; the route was difficult enough to puzzle a professional civil engineer. Baldy was left to find his own way while his rider looked ahead to choose a road that could be travelled by the wagons. From time to time it became necessary to go down the almost perpendicular side of a coulie, when the horse would hunch his hind-legs, keeping his forelegs stiff and stretched out to their fullest extent. Then he would fairly slide down on his tail. John had found a place that he thought suitable for the night's camp, had traced out a way by which it might be reached, and had turned his pony back towards the wagons. He thought to himself, as they slid down one bank and scrambled up the other, that it would be a bad place to be thrown. The surface was pitted with half-concealed badger holes, and in the bottoms were many spots where a horse might easily be mired. Baldy, however, knew his business and carried his rider over awkward places safely. John was congratulating himself on the successful conclusion of his errand when he came to the bank of what was in the early spring a roaring torrent, but which now lacked even a trickle of water. To the edge of this cut Baldy approached cautiously. John, anxious to get back to the wagons and report, urged him on. With a shake of his head that seemed to say: "Well, you are the boss, so here goes; but I don't like the looks of it," the pony went forward, gathering his hind legs under him to make his usual slide--when the ground beneath him gave way. Horse and rider went rolling down the slope, but as John felt himself falling he loosened his foot from the stirrup and leaped off, just in time. Boy and steed arrived at the bottom about the same time, but separately. John's mouth, eyes, nose, and ears were full of dirt and dried grass; in fact, he always declared that he ate his proverbial peck of dirt then, all at once; but he soon discovered that, barring a few bruises and a badly hurt pride, he was all right. As soon as he got the dust out of his eyes and realized that the earth had not risen, out of special spite against him, he looked for his horse, and was much relieved to find that his four-footed partner had received nothing more than a bad shaking up. Baldy's attitude, however, was anything but dignified. His feet were waving in air, his head was buried in the loose soil, his body was so covered with mother earth that he seemed like some strange freak of nature. As the boy got up, the horse looked at him, he thought, reproachfully and seemed to say: "I told you so." [Illustration: "CROW HAT'S FACING THIS WAY." (_Page 117._)] [Illustration: THE INDIAN CAMP. (_Page 116._)] "Yes, old chap," replied John aloud, "you do know a thing or two, and I'll trust you more next time." John never told of his mistake and tumble, but explained the dusty appearance of himself and horse by reference to the well-known characteristic of the "Bad Lands," its stifling alkali dust. CHAPTER VII. A BUFFALO HUNT. Many weeks were spent in the migration, and it became exceedingly monotonous and tiresome before their destination was at last sighted. When, one beautiful afternoon, Mr. Worth pointed ahead to a rolling knoll covered with trees and announced that there was their future home, John and Ben set up a wild cheer and dashed ahead to examine the spot. Camp was pitched on the banks of the Yellowstone, and dug-outs were made--the cave part first and then the outer portion of substantial logs. Two large cabins were constructed for the family's dwelling and kitchen, and several more for the men, of whom there were many, this being an important mine. No time was lost in settling, and in an incredibly short while the household belongings were in place, the provisions stowed away safely, and the regular camp routine begun. It was necessary to get a considerable portion of the tunnel driven before frost came. The opening was made horizontally into the side of the hill and continued in a straight line until the vein of coal was struck, when the tunnel had to follow it in whatever direction it went. The boys were to be initiated into real miner's work at this camp. They were well grown, strong lads, fully able to do their share. During the preliminary digging of the drift they did little beyond their regular chores, except to drive the teams that carted away the earth from the mouth of the cave. The important duty of supplying the camp with fresh meat was also entrusted to them, and it was not long before every haunt of furred and feathered thing that lived within a radius of miles around was known to them. Within a few weeks after the establishment of the camp all preliminary work had been completed and the mine was ready for business. To facilitate the delivery of coal to daylight, a rough railroad had been built; its tracks were of wood, its rolling stock one small, four-wheeled box car, its motive power, Jerry the mule. Of this underground railway John was installed as president, board of directors, general manager, inspector general, passenger and freight agent, chief engineer, and superintendent of motive power. One day he was engaged in his many brain-taxing duties, the most trying of which was keeping the motive power "moting." The flaring lamp in his hat showed but little of the mule's tough hide, but that little the superintendent belabored lustily. The little car rumbled and bumped along the rough wooden rails on its way to one of the rooms where the coal was being dug. John whistled cheerily to himself and occasionally interrupted the melody to shout into the mule's wagging ears: "Git up, Jerry!" Soon a point of yellow light appeared far off in the darkness, and as the lumbering car went on it grew in size and strength until its nature could be made out distinctly. "Hello, Ben," shouted the young driver to his brother, whose cap-light had showed so clearly up the tunnel. "You'd better oil the hinges of that door; they squeak like a hungry rat." The mule had stopped before a great door which blocked the way; it was so placed as to change the ventilating current of air, and it was Ben's duty to open and close it after each loaded or empty car. He sat in a little recess of the wall and pulled the door open and shut with the aid of a rope. "It's mighty lonesome here," said he. "Seems as if I couldn't stand it sometimes, so I brought along the 'Arabian Nights' to-day. Been reading about Aladdin; he was underground, too, but all he had to do was to rub a lamp and he just wallowed in pearls, diamonds, and things, while I sit here all day for half a dollar, and do nothing but open and shut this door for you and your old mule." "Yes, I know all about him," answered John, as he drove through the doorway. "'Tisn't true, any way," shouted Ben after him. "Couldn't be. Aladdin was a Chinaman, and no Chink ever made even a dollar a day." "Guess you're right, but don't get lonesome," the voice came echoing back through the darkness, mingled with the rumble of the car and the sharp slap of the stick on poor Jerry's flank. For a month or more John continued to drive the mule and Ben tended the door. It was late one afternoon, and the younger boy was feeling very tired of living away from the sun and the bright fresh air; the darkness and dankness oppressed him not a little, so he was glad to hear John's strong voice singing: "Down in the coal mine, Underneath the ground, Digging dusky diamonds All the year around." "I'd sing too if I was getting a dollar 'stead of a half, and had a chance to see daylight once in a while," grumbled Ben as his brother stopped to talk a bit. "Hold on a while and don't get excited," counselled the elder. "I'm going to be promoted, and what's the matter with you moving up too?" "Why? How?" inquired the discontented one eagerly. "I'm going to be a regular miner; going to work with Bill Cooper, best miner out, father says." "Then I'll drive Jerry and gather in the dollar," cried Ben. "But who'll tend door?" For a minute the boy's face showed his disappointment; then he smiled again as the thought came of a way out of the difficulty. A friendly Indian camp was located across the river, and the boys, white and red, often came together for all sorts of sports. "Why not get 'Coyote-on-a-hill' to work the door while I run the car?" said Ben exultingly. "He'd be scared to death at first, but I'll tell him about the fifty cents a day and that will brace his nerve." And so it turned out. The Indian boy took Ben's place, while John turned over Jerry to his brother and cast in his fortunes with Bill Cooper. "Coyote-on-a-hill" was pretty badly scared the first day, but Ben gave him a word of encouragement whenever he went by, and never failed to remind him of the money he was making, so he stuck it out like a man, and presently got quite used to the dreary darkness. Both of the Worth boys expressed themselves as pleased with the change; what Jerry thought of it he never remarked. John found his new work anything but easy. Bill Cooper was a fearless miner and a hard worker, and his assistant had all he could do to keep up with the task set for him. It was necessary first to cut under the mass of coal that was to be dislodged; to do this John had to lie on his side and so swing his pick in a cramped position. To make the vertical cut was not much easier, for he found it hard to work squeezed in between the walls of coal as the crevice deepened. The bottom and side cuts made, he bored holes (round holes with a flat drill, the knack of which he acquired only after long practice and a choice collection of smashed fingers) and then tamped in the paper cartridge of powder. When the fuse was in place, all that was needed to complete the work was a light from his lamp. The former was plain, straightforward hard work, the latter sport. The fuse lay like a snake just sliding into its hole, the place was quiet as death and as dark as a tomb, except where the flickering glare of the young miner's lamp shone; his face was covered with coal dust, through which his eyes peered with unnatural prominence. He would take the lamp from his cap, stoop down and touch the bare flame to the end of the snake fuse; it would immediately begin to sputter sparks, and as John drew back for safety he could watch it eat its way towards the black wall and the powder within it. The red sparks drew nearer and nearer the hole, then, after a spiteful little shower, disappeared. It seemed a long time to the miner waiting behind his protecting shield before the rending, shaking report sounded, followed by the glare of the explosion and the rattle of the falling coal. Then Ben soon turned up with Jerry, and both boys shovelled the loose coal of varying-sized lumps into the car. Bill Cooper, though insisting that John must do his share, generally took the hardest and most dangerous places himself; so it came about one day that the boy worked at the vertical cut while his partner cut under, propping up the mass of coal (with wooden logs cut for the purpose) as he went in deeper. The work was hard, and neither man nor boy spent any breath in talking. The dull ring of the pick was the only sound. Deeper and deeper grew the crevice; soon only John's foot was visible and Cooper had disappeared entirely under the overhanging ledge of coal; only the faint glowing of the light and the sound of the tools betrayed the workmen. It was dirty, tiring, dangerous work. At any moment that great mass of mineral might fall if the supports were not properly placed or the king-brace happened to be lodged in a soft spot. "Come out if you want to save your skin, Bill," cried John suddenly. "I hear it popping and working all around, and it's beginning to move." "In a minute. Wait till I dig out this far corner." His voice seemed to come from the bowels of the earth and had such an uncanny sound that John shivered. "Hurry! Never mind the corner--it's going to fall. Come out, quick!" John's voice had such a note of fear and entreaty in it that the man below was impressed. "All right," he said, "I'll come right along." The boy stopped working and listened. There was a peculiar sliding sound that filled the air all about him, and from time to time a stone dropped to the floor with an echoing rattle. "Come out." With an appalling roar the great mass of coal came down. John was badly squeezed, his light was extinguished, and all the breath was knocked out of him, but he managed to work himself free and make his way to the room. His only thought was of Bill, under that heap of coal somewhere, and of the need of help. He rushed along blindly through the solid darkness, his hands outstretched before him, shouting as he went, "Help, quick!" Some men who were working in the entry answered him. "What's up?" they asked. "Help! Bill lies under a whole lot of coal." They hurried to the coal face, and John showed them where he thought the imprisoned man lay, buried under tons of coal; the men, seizing picks, wedges, and sledges, began working frantically to rescue their comrade. For half an hour they toiled as they never toiled before. Then there was a cry of horror. The body was found. The poor fellow's arms were raised in the very act of swinging his pick, and he evidently had had an instant and well-nigh painless death. "Well, boys, I hope mine comes as easy as his," said old Mike McGuire, who had witnessed many a similar scene. They took up the body gently and tenderly laid it in the car, the mule was unhitched, and the miners pushed it slowly to the open air, the whole force following. On Sunday Bill's sorrowing comrades buried him. Mr. Worth read a few verses from the camp's only Bible, offered a short prayer, and the simple ceremony was over. Of Bill Cooper, like many of the men of that time, little was known, and if any one should question as to his origin he would probably be answered with, "Came from the East, I guess." He had made many friends, but none felt his tragic death more than his young partner. After this the work became irksome. John did not get along so well with his new partner, and often when he stopped to rest the sight came before his eyes of his dead friend as he lay under the black shroud of coal. Nevertheless, he toiled away faithfully, and seemed in a fair way of becoming an expert coal miner. It was now well towards midwinter, and the boys began to long after some skating on the clear ice which had for some time covered the river completely. Alec was a handy blacksmith, and at their entreaties he set to work and fashioned them two pairs of rough but very serviceable skates. Since skating on the ice was something the boys had never learned, they had to get Yumping Yim, the Swede, to teach them how to use these new acquisitions. Though they were rude affairs, the boys, whose muscles were developed by snowshoeing, soon managed to make good headway on the river. In a sharp spin down the glassy surface after the day's work was over they could forget that their backs ached and their arms were heavy as lead. The brisk wind and change of exercise was like a tonic to them, and though the air-holes in the ice made night skating rather dangerous, it only added zest to their enjoyment. As the boys skimmed past the Indian camp, which was a large one, they sometimes found a whole delegation of young savages out to watch their progress. The Indians had never seen skates before, and their wonder and interest were great. This camp, in turn, greatly interested the white boys; as they lay in bed they could hear the _bum-bum-bum-bum_ of the medicine man's tom-tom come booming monotonously over the river. This sound continued so everlastingly every night that the boys' curiosity was aroused and they determined to see what the medicine man did besides making such a row. After dark one night, they stole out and over to the red men's lodges, traced the booming noise, and finally, after great care and much dodging--for the Indian will not tolerate any spying on or interference with what he considers sacred--they reached the tepee from which the sound came; then they crept round to the opening flap and John cautiously thrust his head in, but quickly withdrew it. "What's the matter?" whispered Ben. "Old Crow Hat's facing this way. I was afraid he'd see us," John answered. "Let's look under this side." Suiting the action to the word, the boys lifted the side of the tent-like lodge and gazed at the old medicine man. He was seated before the fire, his tom-tom between his knees, his head bowed low, and his long hair hanging over his face (an uncommon condition, for the red men generally keep their hair most neatly parted). Crow Hat swayed to and fro in time with the slow beating of his drum, and as he swung he chanted, "_Eeyuh! Eeyuh! Eeyuh!_" raising and lowering his voice as the tom-tom was beaten loudly or softly. Long the boys watched him, fascinated by the weird sound. Suddenly he began to thump his drum furiously and his voice rose from a low half-grunt to a shriek. The "_Eeyuh! Eeyuh!_" was now like the wail of a fierce wind. This was too much for the boys' strained nerves. They backed away hurriedly and made for home, and it was some time before the sound of that last frenzied cry died out of their ears. Bill Cooper's end had a great effect on John, and he was glad of the first opportunity to get out of the black hole and into the open air. Indeed, both boys welcomed the work of cutting and hauling props for the mine, which fell to them soon after their night visit to the Indians. The elder was busily working unloading props at the mine entrance one day when Ben came down to him excitedly: "Say, John," he cried, "a squaw just came down from the big flat and she says she saw some buffalo over beyond the camp. The Indians over the creek are saddling up to go for them. Can't we go?" "I don't know," said John, excited in turn. "You'll have to ask father. Go on up and see him while I finish this job." The youngster went off on the run, and in a moment returned. One look at his face was sufficient to show John that he had the desired permission. The mules were unhitched and turned out for the day. Baldy and Ben's horse were quickly saddled, rifles, belts, and cartridges were slung on, and in a twinkling the two young hunters were off after the biggest game the country afforded. [Illustration: THE BIGGEST GAME THE COUNTRY AFFORDED. (_Page 119._)] [Illustration: A SQUAW . . . JUST SAW SOME BUFFALO. (_Page 118._)] When they got to the camp they found that most of the bucks had already started, but old "Wolf Voice," a minor chief with whom the boys had made friends, still remained. "There's Wolf Voice; he'll let us go with him," said John. "Hello, can we go with you?" he shouted to the old man. "You got good horse? Me go quick," grunted the brave. "I guess we'll keep up," and Baldy danced as if to show his mettle. In a few minutes they were on their way up the slope to the plateau which surrounded the camping place. Baldy kept up easily with the Indian's pony and Wolf Voice turned after they had covered a mile at a round pace. "Heap good horse," said he. "Yes," replied John. "He can beat anything around here in a half-mile run. Want to try now?" The temptation was great, for the pony the chief rode was his best, but the thought of the chase restrained him. "Plenty ride soon," he said. The level reached, the boys found that the great shaggy beasts were already surrounded, so they took a place in the circle and waited impatiently for a chance at the game. With a yell the Indians rode towards the dazed animals, who now separated and began to run frantically in all directions. The party of hunters, of whom there were about twenty-five, also split up into little groups, and each party chased a buffalo. One of the animals came towards the boys. "Get out of his way," yelled John to his brother, "and let him pass between us. Then fire as he goes." The great lumbering beast came nearer and nearer, and as they watched, ready to spring away in case he should charge them, they noticed that he was being followed far off by an Indian. "Now shoot," shouted John, as the quarry rushed by. Both rifles rang out, but the buffalo passed on without showing a sign of being hit. Immediately Ben's horse bolted with him, but Baldy stood his ground till his rider urged him after the fleeing game. John held his rifle ready to make a safe shot when opportunity offered. The horse was now gaining rapidly, but hearing the thump of hoofs behind him and then an Indian yelling, he turned his head and saw that Big Hawk, a young brave, was shouting something. He could not hear what it was, however, and paid no attention. The race continued, and John's whole thought was to get in a good shot. _Zip_! it was the unmistakable sound of a bullet, and as the boy turned to see from whence it came, _zip_! another bullet went humming by: the Indian was firing from behind, and the shots were coming unpleasantly close. John drew Baldy to one side just in time to get out of the pathway of another leaden pellet. This last shot caught the buffalo in the leg, and he lunged forward on his massive head. Big Hawk then rode up and riddled him with bullets. John was angry clear through. "The coward," he muttered. "Might have hit me--'twasn't his fault he didn't either. Anybody could do up a buffalo from behind. 'Fraid I'd get him, I guess. See that?" He added as Ben came up. Ben was indignant too, and both boys went up to where the young buck was skinning the scarcely dead beast, determined to have their share. The Indian protested against sharing the game, but Wolf Voice happened to come up at this moment, and, with the authority of a chief, soon settled the dispute by giving the boys a fine hind quarter. This they lashed securely with a lariat on Ben's horse. Then both rode off triumphantly on Baldy. CHAPTER VIII. A CLOSE FINISH. "Boys, you'll have to go and hunt those spare mules to-morrow; they haven't been seen for a week." Thus Mr. Worth greeted the boys as they came shuffling in after a long day of mingled work and play one evening not long after the buffalo hunt. The following morning the youngsters mounted their horses, after completing their early chores, and started out. "Where shall we go?" asked Ben. "Let's look among the Indians' ponies; those mules are always following their cayuses around." The plan was no sooner made than executed. They trotted along the edge of the river for several miles, the crisp morning air acting like a tonic on horse and rider. Baldy was too old and dignified to be foolish, but his springy stride, wide-awake look, and quick response to each word of urging betokened his good condition and enjoyment. Ben's horse, a little bunchy cow pony with an occasional wicked streak in him, danced about as if he were worked by electricity and the current was being turned on and off. The ford reached, the ponies waded in till the boys had to cross their legs in front of the saddles to keep from getting wet. On the other side they found a bunch of a couple of hundred horses, and as they drew near the herders came charging down on them. They feared horse thieves, but John explained matters, and after a long sign-language talk learned that there were six of the long-eared runaways tied at the camp. They had been put there for safe keeping, since they had been killing colts and were in danger of being roughly used by the horses in consequence. A grown "pony," though generally smaller, will drive out a mule in short order, and these plucky little animals are never afraid to tackle their vicious antagonists. The boys went back on the opposite side of the river from which they had come until the camp was reached. They found the Indian village all agog with excitement, and for a time could not get any of the braves to answer their inquiries about the missing mules. A horse race was to be held, and the usually stoical bucks could for the time being think of nothing else. The whereabouts of the missing animals was learned before long, however, and an Indian went with them to see that they really belonged to the Worth outfit. On their way they had to pass straight through the village of several hundred tepees, and many were the greetings of "How!" that were shouted to them. On the outskirts of the camp many braves were standing around, making bets, grooming their horses, and comparing notes. Little redskins darted everywhere in and out between their elders' legs and shouted shrilly to each other. The boys found it hard to go on to attend to their errand, and though neither said anything for a while, they looked appealingly at each other. "If we find the mules belong to us," said John, finally, in answer to Ben's questioning look, "we'll take 'em part way back, tie 'em, and then come here and see the races." So they went on reluctantly, leaving the gesticulating, grunting crowd behind them. The captive animals were, as they hoped, the ones they had been seeking, and if the guide had any doubts of their ownership the big W branded on the shoulder of each beast soon dispelled them. "Lucky there's a fort near by," said John. "We'd never have seen those critters again if there hadn't been." The mules were driven back to a point convenient of access on the trip back to the mine and tied securely. Then both boys rushed over to the course as fast as their ponies could go. Nothing had changed; the men still talked excitedly, and on either side of the level space where the horses were to run lay little heaps of personal belongings that had been bet on this or that horse--saddles, blankets, gay bead-embroidered moccasins, and belts, rifles, and cartridges. As the boys drew near, old Wolf Voice started toward them with greater speed than befitted a chief of his dignity and years. "You got white-faced horse?" he shouted as he came near. "You run race? Me bet you now, me beat you." The grave old buck was almost childish at the prospect of racing a running horse. Before answering, John looked over the horses that were to compete, and then consulted with his brother. "What do you think?" said he. "Wolf Voice is crazy for a race, and I think Baldy can beat anything here." "But we haven't any money," said Ben. "Me bet you pony, you bet um pony," said the Indian, coming up at this instant and speaking as if in answer to Ben's remark. John would not put up Baldy as a stake for anything in the world, but he took off his saddle. "I'll bet saddle against your ponies," he said, pointing to two horses a boy was leading forward. The old brave demanded more, so John added bridle and silver-mounted bit to the pile; still he was not satisfied, but John refused to give anything more. Wolf Voice haggled and demanded larger stakes on the boy's part and finally pointed to his spurs; these were unbuckled and thrown on the ground, and at last the bargain was completed. At this juncture Big Hawk joined the group. He was eager to bet against Baldy, but all John's possessions were already pledged. It was a trying situation for the boy, for he wanted to get even with him, and he felt sure that his horse would win. A happy thought struck him. "Say, Ben," he called out. "Lend me your saddle to put up against Big Hawk's pony. I haven't got anything left." The younger boy was also eager to pay back the young brave for his work at the buffalo hunt, so he complied with this request unhesitatingly. The wagers arranged, John looked to his horse. Baldy was now without saddle or bridle, but his owner speedily made a _hackamore_ or halter out of a piece of rope and climbed on his back; he had decided to ride bare-back. A number of braves were clearing the course for the racers, who had already lined up at the starting point, but old Wolf Voice rushed down and asked them to wait a minute for the new entry. In the meantime John was trotting up and down, warming up his mount. In a few minutes Baldy was in his place with the others. The horses all knew what was to be done, but Baldy did not become excited and tire himself as did some of the others. They all lined up a hundred feet from the starting place. The course, which was merely a level, grassy place, stretched out invitingly before them; the Indian spectators formed the boundaries on either side, their usually impassive, dark-red faces working with excitement. At a word from the starter the horses went forward at a trot, then changed to a lope, and were breaking into a run when, a few yards from the scratch, the boy riding Wolf Voice's bay shot out of the line and ahead. Of course they had to be called back, and the boy was sharply reprimanded for spoiling the start. Then again the horses started and came down to the scratch steadily. At the starter's yell of approval, they sprang ahead with a dash. After the jolting scramble of the start, John began to plan his race. He pulled his horse out of the bunch and ran on the outside. Baldy and he were about the middle of the string as the fast ones led away. The little bay, which was the old chief's pride, led, running beautifully; at his heels was a big gray, fully holding his own. The distance of half a mile was more than half covered and both bay and gray were ahead of Baldy, who was third and well in advance of the bunch. The crowd was yelling wildly, each man shouting encouragement to his favorite in a way that would make an Eastern baseball "rooter" turn pale with envy. John lay down closer upon his horse's neck and chirped gently in his ear. There was a perfect understanding between them, and the old steed stretched out his neck a little more, laid his ears hard against the side of his head, and set out to overhaul the leaders, now running nose and nose. Baldy's long stride told, and he gained steadily, but the race was not yet over. If he could get abreast of the two leaders John knew that he could win out on a twenty-foot spurt if need be--he had done it before. It was but fifty yards from the finish. The two Indian ponies were tiring, but they kept up the pace gamely. The crowd was yelling insanely, uttering threats, encouragements, entreaties in the Indian dialect, which neither John nor Baldy understood; but just at the critical moment a clear, shrill voice rose above the din: "Now, Baldy, hit it up! Get a move on, John!" Horse and rider braced. John set his lips tighter: they were gaining, gaining perceptibly each second. The two leaders were whipping their ponies spasmodically, but John and Baldy kept their heads. Now Baldy's nose was on a line with the gray's hind quarter, now even with his shoulder, and now all three horses were running as if harnessed in one team. And still he gained. John was becoming excited and raised his quirt. "Come, Baldy, do it!" he cried, and at the same moment brought down the lash on him. The game old horse responded magnificently. A few great jumps and they gained three-quarters of a length. Another instant and they dashed past the finish line. Baldy had won! John slipped from his back and patted his nose affectionately. "Good work, old chap. I knew you could leave that lot of cayuses behind." "Hurrah for you, John!" cried Ben as the victors drew near. "Baldy, you're a trump, sure enough." The boys were soon the centre of a circle of red faces, excited, threatening, joyful, or merely interested, according to their bets. All were anxious to race again, but John refused. Realizing that he and Ben would be expected home, he broke through the ring, put his saddle and bridle on one of the horses he had won from Wolf Voice, mounted, and started off, leading the other two and Baldy. Ben managed as best he could with the mules, and so they returned to the mine, the richer by three ponies, several trinkets, moccasins, etc. It was not till a good deal later in life that the boys learned how much better worth while it is to race merely for the sake of the sport itself, and what a surprising amount of trouble a man can bring on himself and other people by forming a habit of betting. At present they unthinkingly followed the examples of the rough men around them. In the year and a half that was spent at this mine on the Yellowstone many opportunities were offered for Baldy to show his speed, but the redskins had learned caution and were never again so reckless as on this memorable occasion. The friendly feeling between the red and the white boys grew as time went on, and many excursions were taken in company. The Indians told John and Ben things about birds and beasts of which they never dreamed, and showed them games that were a constant delight. They made a kind of combination spear and skate from the curved rib of a buffalo to the end of which were fastened three feathers; the highly polished convex surface offered little resistance to the ice, so the whole could be thrown a long distance on the glassy surface. The Worth boys grew to be very expert throwers of this queer bone skate, and many were the exciting matches they participated in. Our boys in turn taught their coppery friends some civilized games. Trials of strength and skill were frequent, and in most of them the honors were about even. While the red boys could give points on the art of wrestling, and never lost an opportunity to show their superiority, the Worth youngsters got even by initiating them in the "noble art of self-defence." John put in practice the points given him by Tom Malloy, much to the discomfiture of the Indian boys and the corresponding satisfaction of his teacher and the men of the mining camp. The new sport did not become popular, however, in the redskins' camp; John was too successful--his opponent was invariably worsted. And so the days passed, with more work and less play, perhaps, than most boys are accustomed to. Many pleasant evenings, after the day's work was done, were spent by the men telling yarns. John and Ben slipped out often, joined the group, and listened eagerly to the tales that were told. It was on one of these nights that Charley Green told a tale that entirely eclipsed Munchausen; a tale that would never have occurred to a Westerner. "You know Big Hawk?" he began, looking at the men around him and then out of the corner of his eye at John. "Well, Big Hawk has seen the boys, and especially John, box, and made up his mind that he could do something in that line himself--at least that is my idea of his method of reasoning." He interrupted himself to explain: "He challenged John something in this fashion, 'You heap big fighter,' he said, 'me show you.'" The men in the circle began to grin; they were beginning to take in the joke. John and his brother gazed in amazement; all this was new to them. "Though he is a pretty big chap," Green continued, "the kid didn't seem to be scared; he knew how to put up his hands and the big red duffer was entirely ignorant of fistic tactics. Anyhow the boy called the bluff by responding, 'Well, I don't know, I reckon I can do you up.' Ben was sent for the gloves, those primitive, deerskin-stuffed-with-grass affairs. A space was cleared on the dry grassy river bottom, and the spectators marked the boundaries. The spectators were mostly red," added Green. "Produce a spectator," shouted a listener. "Proof, proof, we want proof of this." "Never mind him," exclaimed another; "go on, Charley." "I'm not making affidavits. I'm simply telling a story," Charley explained. "Big Hawk, knowing it to be a kind of battle, had arrayed himself in full war regalia, which consisted chiefly of a big, feathered bonnet and a decorative effect in yellow, red, and green paint." The group of interested listeners chuckled, but offered no remarks or objections. John and Ben appeared to be dazed. "Tom Malloy was the referee, and I acted as John's second. Wolf Voice did the same service for Big Hawk. "When the two stepped into the ring," Green continued, "the tall, paint-decorated, feather-tufted Indian and the short, pink-skinned boy, a smile appeared on the usually grave-faced red men. I said to myself, Is this a Punch and Judy show or a scene from the Inferno come to the surface? 'Time!' sang out Tom Malloy, watch in hand." Green stopped to take breath, then continued: "The two stepped to the centre, and the red man decided to settle matters at once. A strong right-arm jab followed. John dodged, and the force of the blow nearly jerked the Indian off his feet, and at the same time pulled the war bonnet over his eyes. The boy took advantage of this and thumped Big Hawk on the chest. The Indian cleared his eyes and came at him like a wounded buffalo, head down, hands going like flails; avoiding them, John hit out for the nose and landed square on his beak. The buck tripped and fell on his back and the blood began to flow freely from the bruised member, mingling with the yellow and green paint, forming a very weird design. It was enough, Big Hawk was satisfied and hastened to get off the gloves and bathe his nose at the river's edge." From time to time during the recital of this tale Green glanced at the boys to see the effect of his absurd story. That they were greatly amused was evident. Cries of "Come off!" "What are you giving us?" and the like followed the conclusion, and Charley Green subsided, congratulating himself on his vivid imagination. The feeling between the two camps, or rather the younger members of them, was not always friendly, and the boys were glad when their father came back after opening a new mine, told them that he had bought a sheep ranch, and asked them if they wanted to go to work on it. The brothers accepted eagerly, for they were possessed with the restless spirit of the Westerner and were anxious for new scenes and new experiences. Much had transpired during the long stay at the Yellowstone mine. The railroad, with its busy construction gang and its noisy, short-breathed engine, had reached and passed the little camp and had left behind its steel trail. The tracks were not used for regular traffic as yet, but the little dinky engine went by frequently, dragging flat cars loaded with rails, ties, and other construction material. The boys became great friends of the engineer, and he allowed them to ride with him in the cab of the locomotive occasionally. [Illustration: War-dance postures.] It was with real regret, therefore, that one morning, as the iron horse stood near the mine, hissing and grunting in impatience to be off, the boys climbed up the step and into the cab to bid their friend Mr. Jackson good-by. "What! going to pull up stakes?" he inquired. "I've got three boys about your size back in the East at school, where you ought to be," he added. "Well," John replied, "mother has talked about school, but father says he's going to teach us to work first." "Father's great on work," interposed Ben. In answer to Mr. Jackson's inquiry, John said that they were to start in a day or two and would go alone, driving a buckboard; and that though they did not know the road the horses had been over it, so with that aid and the description given they would be able to find the way. "Well, so long, boys," said the kindly engineer, after they had shaken hands and thanked him for the many engine rides, "I shall miss you." "Same here; so long!" called Ben and John in chorus. The little engine began to cough, the steam puffed and hissed, and in a few minutes it was out of sight around the turn. [Illustration: A SHEPHERD ... ALONE WITH HIS FLOCKS. (_Page 151._)] A day or two later the boys climbed into the buckboard, and, after bidding a matter-of-fact farewell to all, started off: on a journey to a place neither of them had been to before, over a road that was entirely unfamiliar to both. With their father's last instructions ringing in their ears, they set out at a good pace. The hundred-and-fifty-mile drive lasted five long wearisome days. Day after day they travelled, sitting still on the bouncing, rattling buckboard. The white-topped wagons that came into view occasionally were hailed with relief, for they somewhat broke the monotony of the journey; a word or two with these drivers and a question as to the location of the best grass, wood, and water--camp necessaries--was all that passed, but even that was a comfort after the desolation and loneliness through which they had been passing. On the fourth day the Big Horn River came into view and was crossed in safety. The appearance of the country changed, and the boys for the first time saw real mountains. Living, as they had been, on the flat prairies, their surprise was as great as their interest and delight at these massive hills uprearing themselves against the sky. The day following they drove up to the door of the ranch house and were received cordially by Abe Miller, the foreman in charge. In obedience to their father's command they delivered a letter of instructions, and while Abe was painfully studying this out, his hardened forefinger pointing to each word as he went along, the boys had ample time to observe him as well as their new surroundings. They saw that he was short and rather fat and blessed with the face that is apt to go with that build: it was decidedly cheerful, for the corners of his mouth turned up; even now there was a half smile on his lips, though his brow bore a perplexed frown from his literary struggle. The ranch buildings, which consisted of half a dozen rough sheds and as many more corrals, beside the ranch house or log shack, lay in a valley. On one side rose a high range of mountains, wooded to the summit; on the other, a long, rolling, grass-covered plain. "I don't see any sheep," said John, after scanning; the country in every direction. Abe looked up, but held his stubby forefinger pressed firmly on the last word he was deciphering, as if to make sure of its safety. "Oh, they're twenty-five miles down the creek now," he answered. "We only keep them here in the winter. We'll go there to-morrow; it's too late now." By the time the ranchman had finished the letter the sun was nearing the mountain crest and the boys' appetites assured them it was time to eat. In the shack a low fire was burning, which blazed cheerfully when John added an armful of dry twigs and brush. While the boy was mending the fire, Abe went to one corner of the cabin and from a tall pole which stood there let down part of a sheep's quarter. "Why do you keep it up there?" asked Ben, who now noticed it for the first time. "No flies up there," explained Abe. "Meat keeps in this climate till it dries up if the flies don't get at it." The boys went out and sat on the door-step to wait till the meal was cooked, for though they were more tired than they realized, they had the greatest curiosity to see everything connected with this new home. After sitting silent a while, their heads resting on the door-jamb, their eyes on the crest of the mountain where the sun shone with its last departing glory, John turned toward his brother. "Those mountains are great. We didn't have--Say, Mr. Miller, what's this?" he asked excitedly, interrupting himself and pointing, first to some bullet-holes in the logs and then at a blood stain on the block below. CHAPTER IX. A "BAD MAN'S" END. "That's where Mexican Jack was killed," answered Abe, coming in the doorway, frying pan in hand. "He was shot just where you sit. I'll tell you about it after supper." John moved away from the spot. Before long the ranchman called them in, and they enjoyed a supper the like of which had not fallen to their lot since they left the mine. The compliment the boys paid Abe's cooking did much to win his heart. Though they were anxiously waiting to hear the story of the bullet holes and the spot of blood, Abe continued to talk about gravies, the advantages of a very hot pan in cooking, and other culinary topics that would have interested John at another time, for he rather prided himself on his ability as cook, but which now seemed more than trivial. The boys lent a hand, and soon the tins were washed and the heavy deal table cleared. The fire replenished, and Abe's pipe fairly started, all three drew their stools up to the blaze. "Well, how about Mexican Jack?" ventured Ben at last, unable to restrain his curiosity longer. "Oh, yes, I was going to tell you about that, wasn't I? Well, he was a hard case," continued the speaker. "Half Mexican, half white man--and all bad, he was. I made his acquaintance about ten years ago at Boisé City, and the first thing I heard of him was that he'd just killed a gambler--gambler was a hard case, so nobody cared much--and Jack skipped. Shortly after that he went to Denver and bullied the town. Oh, he was a regular 'bad man.' You know what a 'bad man' is, don't you?" "Sure," said John. "Tough customer who knows he's tough and takes pride in it. They're always mighty quick with their guns, and dead shots. One of 'em shot a man in the arm, near our shack back in Bismarck, and mother tied it up. It was queer; the bullet went right through and it looked like a rose where it came out." "Well," continued Abe, "Jack was a 'bad man,' and he didn't care who knew it. He had a shooting scrape in Denver and had to jump the town in pretty lively style. The sheriff's posse got after him, but he killed two of 'em and got off. After that every sheriff in the country was looking for him, so he turned outlaw and road agent near Virginia City, and held up Ben Halliday's stages till the vigilance committee hung some of his partners and got too hot on his trail. Not a thing more did I hear of him till he turned up about two years ago with this bunch of sheep of your father's. He had turned herder and driven 'em all the way in from Utah." Miller stopped to relight his pipe, for he had forgotten to keep it going in the interest of his tale. The boys were impatient at the least delay; the ruddy firelight lit up their faces and showed their eager interest. "Your father had bought this ranch and put me in charge just a little while before Mexican Jack came along; I spotted him at once and he spotted me, but I didn't let on, for I knew he was all-fired quick with his gun and I wasn't looking for trouble. Of course he never went to town: it wasn't healthy for him there; and if he wanted anything he had to wait till somebody who was going in would get it for him. Even with such care, though, he knew it wasn't safe for him to stay in one place very long, so one day in spring he told me he was going to quit and move on. Don't you boys ever turn 'bad men,'" said Abe, with a laugh; "it don't pay. Brave as that poor chap was, he was fairly afraid of his shadow when he got to thinking of sheriffs' posses. One man isn't much good against the law, even out here. Well," he went on, "I went to town to get another man--it's thirty miles, so I stayed over night. Charley Boyd, who runs a liquor joint there, told me a young feller, an Englishman, he thought, had been in there several times asking about sheep. Charley said there might be some business in it, so I dropped in later. "Boyd went up to a young chap who was sitting watching a faro game. 'Here's your man, Mr. Simmons,' said he. The stranger wanted to know all about the different bunches of sheep near there, so I told him and talked a good deal about one thing or another having to do with them. I remember I told him I was looking for a herder to take the place of a Mexican that was going to quit. Soon after that he left. I could not quite make him out, but it was plain enough he wasn't buying." "What's all this got to do with Mexican Jack?" inquired Ben, who didn't see the drift of the narrative. "If you wait a minute, I'll tell you." Abe was vexed at the thoughtless interruption, and Ben subsided, realizing that he had been rather foolish. "In the morning I packed my stuff on the led horse, mounted my own cayuse, and started out. I had just topped the rise near the shack when a bullet went by with a hum, and then another and another, so I chased back for cover to the other side. I dismounted, crawled up to the top, and looked over. There at the door sat Mexican Jack, six-shooter in hand. I couldn't understand why in the world he should shoot at me, so I rode over to look up Billy, the other herder, and find out what was up. He hadn't been to the shack since morning and knew nothing about it, so he left the sheep and we went down the coulie, which runs just below here, you know, till we got behind that clump of brush--perhaps you saw it. We peeked through pretty cautious, I can tell you. The Mexican was still there, but his body was all hunched up; he seemed drunk or asleep, for his six-shooter lay on the ground by his side. "We covered him with our guns, for he was chained lightning with his shooting irons, and then yelled at him. He didn't answer or move an inch. We jumped out then, still keeping him covered, and walked slowly up, ready to riddle him if he should make a move with that deadly pistol hand of his. Once he quivered a bit and his right hand stirred toward his gun. I almost plunked him then, I was so nervous, but there was no other sign of wakefulness or life. We decided he must have gotten hold of some liquor somewhere, but when we got within about fifty feet of him Billy noticed a pool of blood at his side. Then we rushed forward--guns still ready, however--and just as we reached the steps he lurched forward and fell full on his face--dead! "A couple of bullets had gone clean through him. We found out when we turned his body over to the authorities in town that Simmons, the young Englishman I had met, had come over to America a year before expressly to kill Mexican Jack, who had shot his brother in some quarrel. I had supplied the missing link of information, and he had gone early in the morning to our shack, where he had shot the Mexican twice. Jack evidently thought I had given him away purposely and tried to settle me." "My! what a fiend," said John. "But what became of Simmons?" "Oh, he went back to town and gave himself up, was tried, and acquitted; for no jury out here would convict such a man for shooting a bad lot like Mexican Jack." "I should think you'd be glad to get rid of him," exclaimed both boys in chorus. "Weren't you afraid to have him round so long?" "Oh, no; he wouldn't trouble me, I guess, as long as I let him alone; he was a blamed good herder, and it was worth while to keep on the right side of him. Now, you boys want to tumble in, for we'll be going out right early in the morning to the range." The twenty-five-mile trip next day to the range where the sheep were grazing was made without incident, but the country was all new to the boys and they plied their guide with questions. They learned that Abe Miller was to stay with them on the range and teach them their duties, another man taking charge at the ranch house during his absence. It was expected that Mr. and Mrs. Worth would move to the new mine (about fifteen miles from the ranch house) in a couple of months. Their education as herders completed, the boys would be given sole charge of a large bunch of several thousand sheep. A kind of shed, open in front and built of round, chinked logs, entirely lacking in comforts of every kind, was to be their home. Polly, Dick, and Pete, the three sheep dogs, and the great flock of woolly animals would then be their only companions. Abe initiated them at once into the routine of their new occupation and introduced them to "Polly" and her two sons, Dick and Pete, the ever-vigilant, intelligent dogs who were to be their capable assistants. [Illustration: MANY LAMBS IN THE FLOCK. (_Page 149._)] It was hardly the work that an enterprising, wide-awake, active person, young or old, would choose. Untiring vigilance was the one thing necessary. Watchfulness never ceasing, day and night, rain and shine, was the chief occupation of the sheep herder. Polly, the dog, was a much better herder than her young masters at first, and Dick and Pete were not far behind. They moved the "bunch" to fresh feeding grounds at the command, and fully understood the wig-wag code of the plains. When driving at a distance from camp Polly would trot to a hill top and watch for the boys' signal: if John waved horizontally she would drive them farther, Dick and Pete assisting; when the bunch had been driven far enough John's hat would be flapped up and down, and the dogs, with almost human intelligence, would at once stop their charges. The attacks of coyotes, wolves, and, more rarely, mountain lions were the greatest danger to the sheep that the young shepherds had to guard against. Some of these four-footed enemies were almost always prowling about, looking hungrily for a chance at a stray sheep or lamb. A coyote or wolf among an unprotected flock will destroy a surprising number of sheep in a few minutes, seemingly for the pure love of killing, so there was good reason for the sharpest kind of lookout. After the novelty of the life wore off, the boys began to wish themselves back at the mine. For weeks at a time they did not see another human being. Each day was like every other day; in the morning the rope corral enclosing the flock was let down, and the sheep were driven by the dogs to a place where the feed was good; then the boys mounted their horses and followed to the grazing ground. During the two mid hours of the day the animals rested, lying down quietly, and the brothers would take advantage of this time to get in as much sport as the spot afforded. Rifles were always slung on the saddle, and the slinking coyotes gave plenty of opportunity to show good marksmanship. Occasionally the curiously marked antelope appeared, looking, as Charley Green once said, "as if some one had started to paint the whole lot tan but had got tired of the job and left patches of white at odd places"; then the young hunters would set out, and in the excitement of a hunt forget for a time the monotony of the life. Seldom was it safe for both to go at once; only at noon, when the sheep were lying down in open, level country, could the dogs be left wholly in charge. Towards evening the bunch must be corraled for the night--a difficult task if there are many lambs in the flock. The boys found, often to their disgust, that a lamb can run like a deer when it gets thoroughly frightened. It was shortly after Abe had left them that, in accordance with his teaching, they began to "round up" the flock preparatory to stretching the rope corral. Ben was on one side with Polly and Dick, John on the other with Pete; all was going well, and John and Pete, neither very experienced in the business in hand, began to feel the pride that goeth before a fall. Suddenly the sheep fifty yards from where John stood began to scatter. Pete was sent forthwith to force them back, and while he was busy there a lamb, long and clumsy of leg, apparently not strong enough to stand alone, started out on a voyage of discovery not ten yards from the boy. It would not do to let it stray far, for a coyote would make short work of it, so John sped off in pursuit. As he drew near the little woolly thing it increased its speed, running as you would imagine a rickety table would run, but it kept going faster and faster. John, who unfortunately was on foot, found to his mortification that he could not overtake it. It looked as if he would have to give up the chase. At last, however, he tried gradually turning to one side and heading it back to the bunch; even then it might have got away if Polly, taking in the situation, had not flown to the rescue. John came back panting, hot, and tired, only to find Ben sitting calmly in his saddle with a broad grin on his countenance. Even the dogs seemed to be laughing, their open mouths and lolling tongues giving their faces a look of keen enjoyment over his discomfiture. Even after the flock was safely corralled it required almost as much watching as if in the open. The boys usually took turns, each watching half the night. A fire was built on one side of the enclosure, and the watcher lay on the other. The sheep, probably the most helpless animals one could find, lay right up against each other, their closely packed bodies looking at night like a patch of snow. As the young herder fought with himself to keep awake, the howl of a coyote often broke the stillness; then he must start up, gun in hand, and make a round of the flock. From time to time he replenished the fire and made a careful scrutiny of the country round in search of the lurking enemies of his charges. Till he woke his brother about midnight there was hardly a minute's rest. Then Ben took up the vigil, while John slept till daylight; and so began another weary day exactly like the preceding one. While in summer sheep are docile and amiable, though never so interesting as are cattle, horses, or mules, in winter they become stupid, intractable, and aggravating to the herder. It was in the winter that the boys' greatest hardships were encountered, for they found it necessary more than once literally to carry some of the flock through snow drifts to the ranch. They would not be driven or led, but when a trail had been made, and a number carried and forced along it, the remainder would pluck up courage to follow through the bank of snow. The boys spent all one summer and winter with the sheep. From time to time Mr. Worth, who had moved his entire outfit over to the new mine, came out to the range to inspect the animals; and towards the end of the year the boys each time besought their father to let them go back with him. For the first time they realized the meaning of an expression they had often heard: "as crazy as a sheep herder." The shepherd's life in the far West is as uninteresting, ambitionless, and lonely an existence as falls to the lot of man. For long periods of time a shepherd is so entirely alone with his flock and his dogs that the experience not infrequently costs him his reason. It was a terribly lonely life for youngsters such as they; though each was company for the other, they both longed to hear the home sounds and see the familiar faces. Mr. Worth, however, would not consent to their return till the year was up. He felt that the discipline was good for them, and besides he was never willing to have them let go of anything without finishing it. The new mine was the most important and largest that had been opened. It was situated on the line of the railroad that had just been constructed, and was of a more permanent character than the preceding ones. Many of the miners brought their wives and families with them, so that they formed quite a settlement. Occasionally the miners' sons would ride out to visit the Worth boys, who were delighted to see them, though there was little in common between them. The miners were Easterners, as a rule, and knew nothing of horsemanship, hunting, or plains-craft; but they were boys and were gladly received as such. They regaled John and Ben with accounts of the happenings at the mine, but while they listened eagerly, this only added to their impatience to return and made them more discontented with their present life. When the snow began to melt and the grass to grow green again, the brothers occupied most of their time in thinking what they would do when they got back to civilization, for the time of their release was drawing near. "I'd go crazy if I had to stay here with these woolly idiots another year," said John one day. "Yes," returned Ben, "it's about as tame as anything could be. But what are we going to do when we get back? You can bet your bottom dollar father won't let us sit round and enjoy the view." "I suppose we'll have to get to work at something." John stroked Polly's head reflectively as he spoke, and the good dog, undemonstrative always, showed her pleasure only by the slow wagging of her bushy tail. "But what?" It was Ben who spoke. "I'll be switched if I want to go to coal mining, and I guess you don't care about it either." "That's right," replied John, laconically. "I've had enough of mining to last me a lifetime." He shivered a little at the remembrance of his experience. For a time both were silent; each was trying to think of something he might turn his hand to that would suit his father and at the same time please himself. It was not an altogether cheerful prospect that lay before them. They would soon change the solitude for their bustling, busy home. It was home, and that was good to think of. Yet it was a home where a boy's love of fun and his healthy animal spirits were not considered: his capacity for work was what counted. A home where uncongenial, hard labor awaited them unless they could think of some other occupation that would satisfy their stern, just, absolutely honest but unyielding father. "Well?" said Ben at last. "Well!" returned John in much the same tone, "there is one thing we might do--perhaps." "Well?" said Ben again, eagerly. "You remember when young Watson was over here the other night," John began. "He said that a mail route was to be run from Ragged Edge Camp to the railroad, through the pass in the mountain----" "Yes, and he had the job. That shuts us out, doesn't it?" "Wait a minute!" exclaimed John, impatiently. "He's a tenderfoot, and he'll never in the world be able to make that trip on time, in winter--he'll never be able to make it at all. You'll see that after he has been late a few times we'll have a chance. Then I intend to apply for the job. See?" John was the more aggressive, the stronger of the two, both in mind and body. The younger brother had learned to lean on his more independent spirit, so it was John who always had the deciding voice when there was a doubtful plan. Ben's yielding disposition enabled him to get along more comfortably with every one, and especially with the supreme authority in the household. The Worth boys soon learned from their occasional visitors that they would be expected to show their prowess as boxers and wrestlers on their arrival in camp, so they determined to practise up. Every day at noon, when the sheep lay down, the two went at each other, good humoredly but with seriousness, advising one another when a mistake was made. Every blow, every trick, that Tom Malloy had taught John they tried till they knew it perfectly. Every feint, every fall, that the Indians practised they perfected, till by the time their term with the sheep was up their bodies were as supple and their muscles as strong as constant exercise and clean, healthy living in the open air could make them. At last the new men arrived, the boys turned over the sheep to them, and promptly saddled up for their ride across the mountains. They were glad to get away from the ranch, but when they reviewed the passed long months and realized that they had not flinched, they experienced that peculiar pleasure that comes from carrying through a hard job. CHAPTER X. BATTLE ROYAL. Mr. Worth had built for himself a plank house with shingled roof--the first real house the boys had entered since they left Bismarck. Their father was away when they arrived, to be gone for some weeks, so the boys had a chance to have some of the fun they had longed for. They expected to have great sport with the miners' sons, but were keenly disappointed to find that their tastes were utterly different. The latter were as a rule Eastern boys, and were versed in civilized amusements: baseball, marbles, tops, and all the games of skill and strength dear to the town dwellers. Of all these our boys knew nothing; their amusements were akin to their work--to ride well and shoot straight was a matter of business as well as pleasure for them. And so the Worth boys and those of the camp stood aloof from one another, and John and Ben were soon almost as unhappy as they had been on the sheep range. They still hoped to have an opportunity to show their skill as wrestlers and fighters in the emphatic way that was the custom in that day and place, but for a long time the camp boys gave them no provocation. As time went on, however, the mining boys grew overbearing and insulting and never lost an opportunity to taunt and aggravate the young Westerners. "I'm going to lick that Jake Adams within an inch of his life," said John, wrathfully, one day to his brother. "He's the worst one of the lot." "All right," said Ben. "I'm with you." Pretty soon an opportunity came, and John challenged Jake to fight. He accepted at once. A ring was formed on the outskirts of the camp by the boys and some of the men who guaranteed fair play. The contest that followed was short, sharp, and decisive. John kept his head and made every blow tell, while Jake in his anger forgot all he knew and defended himself so poorly that his opponent soon satisfied him he was the better man. After this such contests, generally not quite so earnest, were frequent. From most of them John came out victorious, and for a time the others ceased to taunt the Worth boys. But the feeling was far from being as friendly as it ought to have been between the two factions. Even the settlement of the arguments in so thorough a manner failed to clear the air entirely. [Illustration: MR. WORTH HAD BUILT FOR HIMSELF A NEW HOUSE. (_Page 157._)] [Illustration: THE SHEEP RANCH HOUSE. (_Page 137._)] The miners admired pluck and skill, and John had many friends among them. His father, too, did not disapprove, for he also admired one who could give and take hard knocks. His approval was never outspoken, however; on the contrary he made John's bruises the subject of his chaffing. To John--who, in spite of his apparent indifference, was very sensitive and craved sympathy--this was almost unbearable. As John predicted, young Watson failed to get the mails in on time. John at once offered to undertake the job, and after some questioning the authorities decided he was capable of accomplishing it. Here was something he could do that would test his intelligence, his strength, and his courage. It was work and amusement at the same time, and he accepted it gladly. Ragged Edge had sprung up in a gulch fourteen miles from the coal camp. It was a new camp of the mushroom variety, called suddenly into being by the discovery of some gold-bearing gravel in the creek there. Deep snows on the range nearly cut off communication with the outer world for three months in the year. By following the high, wind-swept ridge, the mountain could be crossed by a venturesome horseman till winter came on and the snows grew too deep, when snowshoes must be resorted to. Even late in the summer snowshoes were necessary to travel over the soft masses of the snow which always crowned the summit. When John presented himself as a candidate for mail rider, Burns, the boss at Ragged Edge, looked at him in good-natured amusement. "Well, kid, if you think you can do it, go ahead and try. But it means work and p'raps danger." John told of his snowshoeing experiences in Dakota modestly but straightforwardly, and satisfied him by his resolute mien that he had the pluck to do it if any one could. The boy spent several days in going over the ground, noting the best line to follow and making sure of his landmarks before the snows should cover up everything. He found at the top of the pass an old, abandoned cabin and marked its location in his mind in case of future necessity. This bit of precaution served him well before the winter was over. "You had better get a good strong horse," said Mr. Worth, as John was mounting Baldy--for the trips had already begun. "Baldy's too old. You'll need a good young horse." John said nothing for a minute, but patted his steed as if to express his confidence in him. "Oh, no, sir. Baldy knows me and I know Baldy, and I think I can get along better with him than I could with any other horse," he said, rather anxiously, for he was afraid that his companion would be denied him. "Besides," he continued, "Baldy can smell a trail through two feet of snow, and isn't he in good condition? You can't see a rib." "All right," returned his father. "He's yours, and the job's yours. Go ahead and work it out the way you think best." So boy and horse encountered the perils of the mountain pass together, friends always, but now sole companions. While there was no sign of snow in the valleys, it was falling steadily in the mountains. John did not carry out his first plan of tethering Baldy at the snow line on the mine side of the mountains and covering the rest of the distance on snowshoes. He found that by following the bare ridges he could go the whole distance on horseback. His route was changed almost every day, for the wind formed drifts in different places and blocked the old way ten feet deep over night. In certain places cuts in the ridge would become filled with snow, and through this horse and rider had to flounder till a hard trail had been packed. It was in such spots that Baldy's cleverness manifested itself; he rarely missed the narrow, packed path, though it might be buried two feet or more. An incautious step to one side was sure to cause both horse and rider to disappear in the soft mass. "Well, I must say you have done pretty well so far," said Burns one day, as John dismounted and handed him the packet of mail. "Yes; haven't missed a trip," he answered rather proudly. "Don't know if I'd have made such a good record if I hadn't the best snow horse going though. Been snowshoeing it two weeks ago if it wasn't for Baldy." He stopped to stroke the animal's nose affectionately. "I vowed this should be his last trip, it's getting harder and harder; but he's such good company I hate to give him up." Next morning, as Burns handed out the return mail, he warned the boy that bad weather was coming, and suggested that he leave the horse behind, for he would be more of a hindrance than a help. "Those black clouds mean that we're in for a big storm," he said, "and I tell you that you and your horse had better stay here. I can't boss you, kid, but I advise you not to fool with that storm--it's coming sure and you don't know what it means up here." In spite of this John decided to go on Baldy, for he wished to leave him safe at his father's camp. The hard travelling had begun to tell on the sturdy little horse; his body was not so round as formerly, nor his step so springy, but he carried his young rider well for all that and was as knowing and careful as ever. John tucked the package of precious letters in his saddle-bag, and after calling out a good-by to Burns he set out. He had barely reached high ground when snow began to fall heavily and with it came a blustering, roaring wind that buffeted the travellers roundly. The horse slackened his speed, and, by signs that John knew well, advised retreat. The boy urged him forward, however, saying aloud--for he always felt as if Baldy could understand everything he told him--"No, old man, if we go back now you'll have to winter in the Ragged Edge gulch and you'll die sure. We can make it all right." The good beast seemed to acquiesce in his master's judgment, for he went along without further hesitation. The trail now was covered almost knee deep, and the blinding mist and whirling flakes blotted out nearly all landmarks. They pushed forward, at one moment right in the teeth of the blast, at the next turning a sharp corner and running before it, heads down, eyes almost closed, the rider depending on the keen senses of his steed to find the way. At length Baldy stopped, and John felt, with a thrill of real alarm, that he had lost the trail. To go forward seemed impossible, to go back almost as bad. To and fro they went, in vain efforts to find the way. Baldy still floundered along, his hoofs covered with gunny sacks to prevent their sharp edges from cutting through the crust; but his sides began to heave and his legs to shake under him, for the exertion of breaking through the drifts from one wind-swept ridge to another was most exhausting. John could stand it no longer; he slipped off his back and caught his head in both arms: "Why did I bring you out here?" he said, in bitter self-reproach. It was evident that if he did not find shelter soon his old friend would freeze to death. There was one chance for himself: he was light and might be able to make his way over the snow to Ragged Edge Camp, perhaps; but what would then become of his faithful friend? Could he leave him to such a fate after he had so spent himself for his master's sake? Baldy stood knee deep in the cruel, treacherous, white snow, his head down, quick, spasmodic puffs coming from his nostrils, his body steaming, and his flanks all in a tremble. There was only one chance for the lives of both. John remembered the abandoned hut at the top of the pass--if they could possibly reach that, they might be able to weather the storm together. He determined to try. Fastening Baldy's bridle rein to his fore leg, so that he could not follow, and giving him an affectionate pat on the nose, he started off, his teeth set determinedly. A few yards away the driving snow shut Baldy off from his sight entirely, but a gentle whinny reached him and brought a lump into his throat. "That's all right, old boy," he called aloud; "I'm not going to leave you. I'll be back." He turned in the direction he thought the cabin should be and fought his way on. The wind seemed like a howling fiend; it tore at his clothing, blew the particles of snow into his eyes, and raised such a veil of mist and frost that he could not see ten yards ahead of him. On the high, bare ridges the blast nearly took him off his feet and in the hollows the snow banks engulfed him. Still he struggled on, straining his eyes forward into the gray chaos that confronted him, determined to find the shelter. A vision of Baldy standing dejectedly alone, his rough brown coat turned white by the sleet, his faithful old eyes half closed, drove the boy on irresistibly, for, next to his brother, he loved his horse better than anything else in the world. He ploughed through drift after drift, following one ridge, for only by keeping one such landmark in sight was it possible to go in any given direction. Would that haven of rest ever come into view? Even his stout heart began to despair; he was weary, his body bathed in sweat, yet his face, feet, and hands numb with cold; the elements seemed to conspire against him. He was only a boy, and it seemed hard that he should give up his life. He stood still and looked drearily down the hillside. Nothing, nothing but the deadly snow. He began to wonder if it was worth while to fight against such odds any longer. And then in this abjectness he suddenly gave a cry of delight. For the wind rent the snow apart for an instant and he caught a glimpse through the driving flakes of a dead tree and near it a peculiarly shaped, great gray rock. They seemed positively human, like old friends, for the shelter he sought stood just to the left of them. He began at once to look for a place where Baldy might be led down in safety. This was impossible where he stood--it was far too steep and rocky. A detour made with infinite pains and exertion brought him to the cabin by a path that he thought the sure-footed beast might follow. How John found his way to the half-frozen beast and then slowly got him back to the cabin he never knew. Only his indomitable pluck and his training pulled him through. But at last the terrible journey was safely accomplished, and boy and steed stood before the low door. John took off the saddle, and the intelligent animal, bending his knees a little, squeezed through. The boy followed, throwing the saddle blanket over the horse's shivering flanks and wondering if they were safe, even now. At best it was a poor shelter; the wind blew the sharp, powdery snow through the chinks in the logs and kept the temperature almost as low within as without, but at least there was a roof and a wind break. After a short rest, John scrambled up the slope to the dead tree and broke off some branches. The wood was still dry, except on the very outside, and made good kindling. Soon a fire was blazing, and boy and beast absorbed the heat gratefully. Only those who have suffered great and deadly cold can realize the delight of sitting before a blaze once more. The very sight of the flames puts life into the veins and makes a mere nightmare of what was just now a grim and awful reality. Thoroughly warmed, and with new courage and strength, John went outside again and began to stop up the chinks with snow and to scrape banks of it up against the walls. The heat from within melted the inner surface, which afterwards froze and prevented the wind from blowing it away. All day John was kept busy gathering wood and patching the walls. By nightfall a good supply of fuel had been collected and the little cabin was by comparison comfortable. There was little sleep for the boy that night, however. The fury of the storm did not abate; the wind howled round their little refuge, shaking it so it seemed as if it would be impossible for it to withstand the blast. All night long he listened to the roaring of the wind, taking "cat naps" during the short lulls that came at intervals. The fire required constant replenishment, and Baldy, unaccustomed to confinement in such a small space, was so restless that continual watchfulness was necessary to keep from under his feet, though the good horse would never have harmed his young master except by accident. Both boy and beast began also to suffer greatly from hunger. At dawn the gale subsided somewhat, and John realized that he must get food at once if his life and that of his horse were to be saved. Breaking through the snow bank which had piled up against the rude door, he made his way to a creek half a mile down the mountain and cut with his knife an armful of poplar saplings and carried them back to the hut. Baldy tore off the bark from these and munched it contentedly; another armful was added to the store, and then John bade his equine friend good-by and started off to find food and shelter for himself. The six miles that separated the lonely cabin from the mining camp were the longest and most trying that John had ever travelled, he thought. Great drifts barred his way, the wind, still strong, blew in his face and seemed bent on his destruction, his empty stomach weakened him, and lack of sleep undermined his resolution. From dawn till noon day he battled with the snow, and when at last he reached his father's house he was hardly able to answer the questions which his overjoyed family put to him. A man was sent back to look after Baldy. He found that good horse chewing poplar bark as calmly as if he was in his own stable, though the cabin was so small and the horse so large in comparison that it appeared to be resting on his back, like the howdah on an elephant. For several days Baldy was kept in the cabin and fed on hay, which had to be carried to him on foot; then, after considerable trouble, for a trail had to be stamped down much of the way, he was led back in triumph to the camp, where John, rather weak in the knees, greeted him joyfully. For a week Ragged Edge Camp did not receive any mail. Late one afternoon John appeared on snowshoes, bearing the precious packet. He had to repeat his story many times, and Burns had the satisfaction of qualifying his admiration of the boy's pluck with an emphatic "I told you so." John continued to carry the mail between Ragged Edge Camp and the railroad every three or four days: at first on foot, then, as the snow melted, on his faithful Baldy once more. Though his work took him away from camp much of the time, John was continually running foul of the boys who belonged to the other faction, and Ben was the object of their unceasing abuse. A crowd of these fellows would stop their games and yell at them those taunts which are so exasperating to a boy: "There go those Western jays." [Illustration: HE ... BUCKS, PITCHES, KICKS. (_Page 265._)] "Look at the kids that don't know the difference between a baseball and a lump of mud." It was true that our boys were not up on the national game or any other game played simply for amusement; their sports were merely another form of some kind of work. Then the camp boys began to taunt John on his fighting abilities, their object being to get him to stand up against some one who would be sure to beat him. This was one of John's weak points; he was immensely proud of his prowess as a fighter; so when one of the boys said in his presence: "Worth said to-day that he could lick Casey," he did not correct the falsehood there and then, but put on an air of superiority that had the effect desired. Casey, though not a big fellow, was out of his 'teens, and had the reputation of being a "scrapper from 'way back," as the boys said. He also heard the young mischief-maker's statement. "Jab him, Casey; he's only a bluffer," said several of his companions. He could not ignore the challenge which was plainly indicated, and, according to boy customs, not to be avoided. Few boys know how much bravery it takes to dare an unjust imputation of cowardice. John and Casey were soon talking hotly--not that they had anything against each other, but they were being egged on and neither could withstand the pressure. The result was a fight, the consequences of which had great influence, on one of the principals at least. Casey was really a grown man, and John had never fought in earnest with one old enough to wear a mustache, but his blood was up now and he would not back down. The two retired behind a large stable and a crowd of men and boys formed a ring. "Keep him at arm's length," whispered Ben, as he took off his brother's coat and _cinched_ up his belt firmly round his waist. "Don't let him hug you and you'll lick him, sure." Ben spoke confidently, but he was in reality consumed with anxiety. John said nothing, but the look of reckless determination on his face spoke volumes. The two antagonists now stood face to face, but neither had yet struck a blow. "How do you want to fight?" Casey asked. "You fight your way and I'll fight my way," John answered; and at the word struck out. The crowd yelled "Foul," but neither took any notice. The blow was not a hard one, but it served its purpose, for it stopped the talk and began open hostilities. Casey came at John, his arms jerking back and forth, but hitting nothing. John drew his lead and then, as his guard was lowered, threw in his own left with staggering effect. This angered Casey greatly, and he rushed his opponent in a vain effort to get in a deciding blow at once; but his rushes were avoided nimbly, and as his defence was careless many blows were rained on his head and body. Evidently the boy knew more about boxing than he did, Casey thought, and as the method of fighting was left undecided he determined to change his tactics. In a rough-and-tumble fight he knew his age and strength would tell. To close in and grapple with John was his purpose now. So far the battle was in the boy's favor, and a number of the wavering ones came over to his side. "He's getting low now, Worth. Swing on him," said one of them; and John, acting on the advice, quickly landed a stiff one on the jaw. Casey fell, but John stood to one side and waited till he got up. He was angry clear through. Again and again he rushed, but was beaten off each time. He aimed a savage blow, which John almost succeeded in dodging. It landed lightly, but gave Casey the opportunity he sought and they clinched, the miner hugging with all his might. "Oh, John!" muttered Ben. "Good work," yelled the crowd, who had suddenly deserted to Casey's side. It was the greatest squeeze that John had ever had. The blood rushed to his head, his breathing became more and more difficult, but still he struggled, twisted, and strained, and at last both fell and the man's terrible grip was loosened. He did not let go, however, and in a couple of seconds both were on their feet and struggling with might and main to gain the mastery. Again they went down, this time John underneath and on his back. The crowd paused an instant before pulling Casey off, but during that pause he made good use of his time, raining blow after blow on John's upturned face. John was licked. Most of the spectators followed the victor, but some remained behind, not to sympathize and condole, but to jeer at John's defeat and laugh at his discomfiture. It was gall and bitterness to the boy, and he was glad to get away out of earshot. Ben helped him put on his clothes and led him down to the creek to bathe his bruised face. "What's the matter with your hand?" Ben said suddenly, as he noticed the blood trickling over the knuckles of his brother's right hand. "He chewed it," John answered. "What! bit you!" Ben exclaimed. "My arm was around his neck and he grabbed my thumb in his mouth. He wouldn't have got me so easy but for that." For a time neither boy said a word. How a man could do such "dirty work" as Ben said, was more than he could understand.[A] [Footnote A: John Worth bears the marks of Casey's teeth on his thumb to this day.] On the way back to the house several fellows stopped to call at John as he went by, for the news had spread. He realized that it would take a long time to live down this disgrace. His heart was sore; it seemed as if this was the culmination of all his hardships; he felt as if his life had been all work and no play, that his efforts to do his duty had not been appreciated, that though other boys might enjoy themselves much of the time (and he had seen them in this very camp) he must work, work, work; he felt, in short, very much abused and at swords' points with everybody--his brother excepted. One more blow of bad luck, he thought, would "cap the climax" and would result in he knew not what desperation. Before the boys had reached the house the news of his defeat had been made known there, and Mr. Worth, thinking that John had become more or less a bully, determined that the lesson he had received should be a lasting one. "Hello, John!" he said jovially, as the two boys came slowly in, "you met your match to-day, I hear. Whipped you well, didn't he?" John hung his head and tried to hide the tears that would rush out over his swollen cheeks. "Hold up here, let me see your face," said the father roughly. "Well, he did give it to you: eyes blacked, face scratched, mouth swollen--you're a sight. You'll be more careful next time, I guess," he added. John turned on his heel and left the room. "Ben," he said, on meeting his brother outside, "I'm going away." "Going away?" Ben repeated in wonder. "Where are you going?" "I don't know; I don't care. I'm not going to show my face in camp again; even father at home laughs and jeers at me. I'm going to leave to-night." CHAPTER XI. A TRYING JOURNEY. "I'm glad I'm going, Ben, but I'm sorry to leave you; you'll go back and tell them I've gone--and be good to Baldy, won't you? I'll write to you when I get to Helena." It was long past midnight, and Ben was starting his brother on his journey to the great city that neither had seen. It was his present objective point; how far beyond he would go he did not dream. "How much money have you?" inquired Ben anxiously. "Nearly ten dollars, with your three. That'll keep me going till I get a job." "But say, John, wait a few days and we can sell a horse or a saddle." Ben hung on to his brother's arm and tried to pull him back; his small, freckled face was full of entreaty and trouble. "Regan will buy the three-year-old after pay day. You'd better wait." "Oh, I've thought of all that," said John. "I could ride the colt off, for that matter, but I'm not going to take away a thing--except enough money to last till I get work." "Don't forget to write, John, will you? They'll blame me at home for not telling about this, so don't make it too hard for me." Ben's voice was not very steady, and the note of appeal in it affected John greatly. "Tell me if work is plenty, for I'm going myself before long--I'll be so lonesome." They shook hands without a word, each turning his face away, ashamed of the tears that would come despite their efforts to suppress them. "Good-by." "Good-by." Ben turned down the trail toward home and John continued on in the opposite direction. Day was just breaking; the stars still shone above, while the sun's mellow light brightened the east. Neither boy had any eyes for the beauties of the sunrise; it was hard for them to part and neither could think of anything else. They had been not only brothers but "pardners." Never before had they been separated. Rocked in the same shoe-box cradle, playing with the same rude toys, sharing the same pleasures and the same fears, braving the same dangers, and dividing bread or blanket when need be, they had grown up so closely that they did not realize the bond till it was about to be broken. Brothers still they would be, but "pardners" never again. When out of sight, each, unknown to the other, dropped to the earth and cried bitterly. Ben's share of grief was the heavier. No change of scene for him; no excitement of anticipated adventure; no new sights, experiences, or friends; the world was not spread out before him to enter at will and to roam over; none of the delights of freedom were to fall to his lot. Only duty, weary, commonplace, devoid of companionship and boyish sympathy. He went sorrowfully home. John, his cry over, felt better. The sun was now coming out in his full strength, the birds poured forth melody, the cool morning was refreshing. In spite of the parting wrench he could not help feeling exhilarated, and the thought that, no matter what might happen, he was free, made him almost joyous. He sprang up, dashed the tears from his eyes, and started along the trail, shouting aloud: "I don't care." He repeated it again and again, trying to convince himself that he really didn't care. It was too late to turn back now, even if he wanted to; he knew his father's character, and he did not fear pursuit. He wished now that he had walked manfully up to him and told him. "But he laughed at me," he said aloud, arguing with himself. "I do _not_ care," this between his teeth; and then he marched on, his head held high, defiantly. It was fifteen miles to the railroad, John knew; but how much further to Helena he had no idea--he had not thought of it before. The trail he was following led him across the range down to the main road on Savage Creek. The mountain walk was fine, the air cool and bracing, the sounds of bird and insect grateful. Before long he reached the creek and drank deeply of its clear waters, washing his bruised face and hands. This he did gingerly, for his wounds were still fresh and his bitten thumb, which no one at home had seen, pained him exceedingly. The danger from a wound by the human tooth is very great, but John realized nothing but the pain. The slices of bread and meat which Ben had wrapped in an old newspaper for him were eaten with relish. Though he was somewhat tired, and his body still stiff from the hard usage of the day before, he could not bear to sit still and think. At intervals the tears welled up in spite of his efforts to keep them back. "I won't think," he said, and repeated his assertion, "I don't care," to keep his courage up. A piece of bread still in his hand, munching as he walked, he struck off down the trail at a strong pace, resolved to reach the railroad and get to Helena quick. After several miles of sharp walking along the Savage Creek road, he heard the heavy _chug-chug_ and rattle of freight wagons ahead of him. He soon overtook them and hailed the driver. "Hello, kid; where'd you come from?" called that worthy cheerily, from his perch on the near wheel mule, his leg thrown carelessly over the horn of the saddle, the picture of contentment. "Up the road a way," answered John evasively. "How far is it to the railroad?" "What d'ye want of the railroad?" asked the "mule skinner" sharply, bringing his foot down and sitting erect. John knew that these freighters did not look with favor on the railroads or with any one or thing connected with them, for they declared bitterly that the railroads robbed them of their business. "It's only a couple of miles to the railroad," the man continued. "But it's eighteen miles to a station. A railroad's no good without a station; climb in this and take a ride." John climbed up as the wagon moved slowly along. He was tired, and the cheerful "mule skinner" was a desirable companion, for the time at least. The man lifted his leg again and turned in his saddle, the better to talk to his passenger. "I was comin' down the road last month," he began, "and the pesky train half a mile away scared my mules nigh out of their wits. Mules don't like trains; don't blame them neither. It's thrown the critters out of work and is forcin' me clear out o' business--how there, you Mag!" he interrupted himself to shout, as the dainty-footed mule swerved to avoid a mud-hole. "Notice that mule?" queried the teamster. John nodded an assent. "She's one of the finest near leaders in the country; watch her gee." A long jerk line ran from the driver's saddle to the bit of the near leader of the eight-mule team. He pulled the line gently and the leader swung promptly to the right. He pulled steadily and the intelligent animal swung back into the road. "See that? Only a touch and she's awake. That mule's a dandy; been offered two hundred for her--she's little, too." John only nodded, but the teamster, glad enough to have a listener, rattled on about his grievances, the all-absorbing railroads and the men who ran them and spoiled his business. The wagon did not travel fast enough for the impatient passenger, so before long he scrambled down again. "Must you go?" inquired the teamster. "Well, you leave the wagon road at the third bridge ahead, and if you cut across to your left you'll come to the railroad." The boy thanked him and started off on a brisk walk down the road. "But it's eighteen miles to a station, and a railroad's no good without a station," shouted the mule skinner, determined to have one more rap at the iron trail. "So long," yelled the boy in return, and continued at a brisk pace, in his effort to drown gloomy feelings by rapid motion. At the third bridge he left the road, struck across to the left, and came upon the railroad. It was a disappointment, though he found all that could be expected when a "station is eighteen miles away." The shining rails stretched away, before and behind him, till they ran together in the distance. The journey was a weary one, the track rough with boulders, the ties hard and unyielding to his heel, and just too near together to allow of an easy stride. Momentarily the heat of the sun increased, and the track seemed to reflect it back more intensely. There was no shade and the heavens were brazen. He stopped at every brook to drink and bathe his blistering feet and cool his aching hand. Though he had eaten nothing since early morning he did not feel hunger, except in its weakening effect. On and on he trudged, hour after hour, until swinging his legs became mechanical and he ceased to feel even weariness. At length a cooling rain began to fall, wetting him thoroughly and arousing him to faint gratitude for the relief it brought. Just before nightfall an object loomed up far down the track; it was the station at last! The boy struggled on, limping, his mouth open and dry, his bitten hand swollen to twice its usual size; and now reaching a water tank near the platform, he dropped down by it, cruelly tired. After a short rest, he raised his head and looked around. Not another building was in sight but the station, and not a morsel of food had he eaten since early morning. "I'll tackle the station people for something to eat," he said to himself, and, suiting the action to the word, presented himself at the door. A woman was there, but in the dusk she took him for a tramp, slamming the door in his face when he asked for food. His only hope now was to catch a train and reach some settlement. The station agent dashed his last hope by saying that the last train for the night had gone; but noticing the boy's forlorn appearance he spoke to him kindly, so John plucked up courage to say: "Where can I buy something to eat?" The man responded by bringing him food, and, while the boy was gratefully eating, told him that he would be glad to let him rest on the waiting-room floor during the night, but since the rules of the road did not permit of this the best shelter he could offer was a vacant building across the track. John accepted the suggestion gladly, for he was tired in every fibre. "Good night; that supper was bully, thank you," he said to the agent. "Looks like rain," said the other, following to the door. "Hello, there's a fire in that house already; must be some other fellows there for the night. You'll have company, but look out that they don't rob you. Good night." As John approached the outhouse he saw through the half-open door a blazing fire and a half dozen tough-looking men seated around it, warming themselves and drying their tattered clothes. A hesitating knock on the door frame received a chorus of "Come ins." The old door swung back on its leather hinges with a jolt and John entered. The ruddy firelight gleamed on the face of a slovenly fellow who sat beyond the fire. It was a well-fed face, rounded, and not ill-looking in contour, but grimy and littered with little tufts of whisker; a gray flannel shirt, red neckerchief and greasy-collared tan canvas coat clothed the upper part of his body, and John cast his eye about on four other specimens of the same type, seated on ties about the blaze. "Where from, kid?" asked one, as all turned to observe the newcomer. All they saw was a weary, hesitating boy. "Come up to the fire," they said cordially, and moved to make room for him. "Which way you goin'?" "I'm going West," he answered, his glance taking in the whole crowd. "We're goin' West too. Did you come in on that last freight?" asked one. John shook his head. "No? Well, we all got put off here a little while ago; the con and other brakies got onto us and fired us. We wanted a sleep anyhow--been ridin' two days straight." (John wondered for a time what "con" and "brakies" meant, but finally concluded that the words might be translated into conductor and brakeman.) "I walked in," said the boy innocently. A look of pity showed plainly on each hobo's face as he echoed "Walked?" That any one would walk, with a railroad near, was beyond the comprehension of these tramps, for tramps they were--the regulation kind. "You're green on the road, kid," said one, whose name was Jimmy, as John soon learned. "You'll soon get sick of counting ties," he continued, gazing curiously at the boy, as did they all. "Why, kid, I've travelled this country from side to side and from top to bottom in the last fifteen years and I've yet to walk a step--except off one side to get feed," he added in explanation. "But I hadn't money to ride," said John, innocently. "Money? Ho! ho! Why I haven't seen the color of coin this summer. What d'ye want of money? Beat 'em; we'll show you." He spoke with a sort of professional pride, and the expression was reflected on the faces of the other men. John's bruised countenance had been noticed, but as he had evidently been whipped in some fistic argument it was etiquette not to question too openly, but to approach the matter indirectly. By degrees they learned that he had had trouble and left home. "I left home just at his age, boys," said Big Larry, an American-born Irishman. "That so?" said one encouragingly. "Yep, 'twas like this. Back in the East--" And Larry launched forth on a recital of the circumstances which led him to "take to the road" and follow it ever since. Two others had similar experiences. Jimmy, however, frankly admitted that he took to it from choice. "When I was twenty-one," he began, "I was engaged to be married, and expected to settle down and be a family man." This statement seemed to amuse the hoboes, for they laughed uproariously. "My mother--she's a widow," Jimmy continued unmoved, "gave me five hundred dollars to set me up in the butcher business in our town in Ohio. Well, things went on fine till pretty near the happy day, when I began to see that the girl was getting offish and I told her so. She got hot and said something about another chap that I didn't like, and I quit her--quit her cold." A grunt of approval went round the circle. "It cut me up some and I got to drinkin' a little, and soon I was drinkin' harder. The five hundred my mother gave me and the five hundred I had already saved up went in no time, for before long I was drinkin' like a fish all round the town. My mother wanted me to swear off, and said she'd give me another start, but I knew it wasn't no use and told her so and pulled out of the town on a freight train. Been at it ever since." "Pretty tough on your mother," said Larry. "You must 'a' had about a thousand, Jimmy," ventured a less thoughtful one. "Yes, it was pretty tough on the old lady, but I was no good for that place, and she'd spent enough money on me. Had about a thousand, an' it's more than I've had since all put together, an' more than I'll ever see again," the tramp added, musingly. "I'll never leave the road now; I like it. A man doesn't have to worry about anything, he's better without money an' he gets enough to eat, always seein' new places, learnin' about the country, and findin' new friends." Most of this speech was made for John's benefit, and he listened with interest. "Now, boys, not one of us had seen the other forty-eight hours ago, and yet here we are round our fire talkin' sociable, spinnin' yarns and hearin' 'em told; and I'll bet we're happier than any six millionaires in New York city." "Yes, we are," they said emphatically, in chorus. John thought much and said nothing. "People s'pose we don't have to work," said Shorty, another of the group, "but I'd like to see them dudes work from Chicago to 'Frisco on a freight train. Why, them fellers don't know a brake beam from a drawhead, to say nothin' of ridin' rods, breakin' seals on box cars, foolin' brakies, and a hundred other of the little fine points of our trade." "An' then," chimed in another, "if we don't work much, we don't get much, so what's anybody else got to kick about, s'long's we're satisfied?" Everybody agreed, and the group dropped into a cheerful silence. John had listened, it must be confessed, rather admiringly; the freedom and apparent ease of the life fascinated him, and he had half a mind to become a hobo. He did not realize the degradation that went with it, the dishonest acts that were necessary to secure food without money, the hardship it entailed, and the constant uncertainty of it all. [Illustration: CURRAN, BRADY'S NIGHT WRANGLER. (_Page 227._)] The thing that bothered him was the food supply, and he finally ventured the question: "Where will you get your breakfast in the morning?" "Breakfast? Well, we may not get it till dinner time, but we'll get it. There are a few houses at a gravel pit half a mile ahead, where we got supper last night, but they're hard to work and we'll have to get to Helena before we chew," explained Larry cheerfully. "But you're all right with that hand of yours," broke in Jimmy. "You can work the sore-hand racket all right; just show that to a motherly-looking woman and she'll fill you up quick." "I worked the sore-hand dodge myself for a beautiful hand-out last night down at the gravel pit," said Shorty. John began to realize that it was a pretty precarious and mean way of living, to depend on people's generosity for sustenance. As the evening passed the talk subsided, and when the suggestion to sleep was given there was not a dissenting voice--from John least of all. All lay down in a row, their feet toward the fire. The coats had been taken off and spread over the row so that each made a covering of two thicknesses. Toward morning the boy was awakened by a hand that fumbled about his pocket--the one which contained his money. Fortunately he had taken the precaution before going to sleep to put his own hand in and grasp the money. His hand was being slowly withdrawn when he quickly turned over, and then, fearing to sleep again, he rose and sat down by the wall, his head against the rough boards. At daybreak a freight train came rumbling into the station and stopped. In an instant the tramps were up, and, separating, ran for the train. John was left alone, wondering what to do, but only for a minute, for Jimmy came running back, and with a hurried "I'll help you," rushed him over to a pile of ties. When the trainmen had gone into the station, Jimmy took the boy over to a car and pointing under it said: "Never rode a brake beam? Well, I'll show you. See that brake beam?" He pointed out the bar that held the brake shoes and crossed from wheel to wheel under the car. "And those rods running lengthwise from it? Well, you sit on the bar and hold on to the rods. See, like this," and he slipped under the car and sat down on the wooden bar, his legs dangling and his hands grasping the rods. "I see," said John, and in a second had taken Jimmy's place. "Good, here's my board; I'll get along with my coat wrapped round if I need to," and he handed a board a foot long and eight inches wide, having a slot cut in one end. This John fitted over the rod, and it gave him a safer and more comfortable seat. "Here they come; keep dark." Jimmy disappeared, and the conductor's lantern came swinging down toward the engine; his feet crunched the gravel as he passed, and John's heart was in his mouth. "Pull out at once," was the order, and the engine backed viciously for its start, nearly jerking John from his perch. "Say, kid, I forgot to tell you"--it was Jim alongside again--"look out and don't get pinched in the air-brake rods; they're bad. When the train's stopping, keep low and you'll be all right. I'm on the next car behind." The train was now gathering headway, and John wondered how Jimmy would reach the wheel trucks between the now fast revolving wheels. A peculiar sensation came over the boy--half fear, half exhilaration. The whirring wheels clacked and thumped the rail joints, the ties flew underneath dizzily, the dust rose like a fog, and the wind of the train rattled the small stones of the roadbed together; the heavy car swayed above him dangerously near, and John, half choked and wholly terrified, wondered if he would come out of this irresistible whirlwind of a thing alive. All he could do was to grip the rods at his head and hang on. CHAPTER XII. A CHANGE OF SCENE. For a time John could do nothing but hang on like grim death. He was half unconscious; the noise was so great, the dust so thick, and the motion so altogether terrifying that he was nearly stupefied. After a while, however, he noticed that the dreadful racket did not increase, that the clicking of the wheels over the rail joints had become regular, and that all the sounds had a sort of humming rhythm. His nerves quieted down somewhat, and he realized that he was still alive. His grasp on the braking rods overhead relaxed slightly, and he began to look around him--as much as the dust would allow. The train was moving at good speed. The ties below seemed first to rush at the boy threateningly, and then in a twinkling disappeared behind; the telegraph poles along the track had the same menacing attitude and seemed bent on his destruction; objects further off went by more leisurely. It looked as if the whole earth, and everything on it, was trying to run away from the standing train. John soon found that it made him dizzy to watch the earth slip away from under him, so he turned his eyes to his surroundings. The wheels moved so swiftly that they would have seemed to be standing still were it not for the side motion, alternately checked by the flanges; a spot of mud on the rapidly turning axle looked like a white ring. Though this mode of travelling was dangerous, dirty, and unpleasant in many ways, John decided, in the recollection of his fatigue the day before, it was at least better than walking. In half an hour the wheels thudded heavily over a switch joint, the speed of the train slackened, and the cylinder of the air brake under the centre of the car groaned a warning. John remembered his instructions and bent low to avoid the big iron lever. He watched it swing slowly toward him--nearer, nearer; the rod attached to it tightened until its vibrations sung in his ear. The train slowed up and then stopped with a jolt. "Phew! that was close," he murmured to himself. He did not dare to get out of his cramped position for fear he would be run over. His eyes, nose, and mouth were filled with dust, his back ached from his stooping posture, and the smell of grease and foul air escaping from the released brake was overpowering. "Come out, kid, it's all right." It was Jimmy who spoke. John crawled out, glad of a change. A short stop was made at the station, during which the boy and the tramp lay in hiding in a ditch. The engine tooted, and they rushed up the embankment, but before either man or boy could reach his perch the train had begun to move. John managed by following Jimmy's directions to scramble under and on to his brake-beam seat, but by the time he was safely stowed away the car was going at a good speed. The boy feared greatly for his friend's safety. Jimmy, however, seemed entirely unconcerned; he ran alongside and caught one of the side rods that run under every freight car and look like the truss of a bridge; putting his foot on the end of the brake beam, he swung himself under and was soon sitting in state opposite John, but half a car's length from him. This was in reality a very difficult feat, though it seems simple. If, in jumping from the ground to the bar, his foot should slip, it might easily get caught in the revolving wheels, or it would be easy for him to lose his hold when swinging under--sure death would follow in either case. John only breathed comfortably when he saw his companion seated in comparative safety on the other braking gear. Before Helena was reached several such stops were made and John learned to swing himself under to his perilous perch, when the car was in motion, with comparative ease. It was a long and most tiresome trip for the boy. Although he got accustomed to this mode of travelling before long, the dirt and smells, the constrained position, and the necessity for caution and concealment were all very disagreeable to him. He was overjoyed when he heard one brakeman call to another: "Well, Dick, you'll see your old woman in three hours now." The train came to a halt before entering the railroad yards of Helena, and Jimmy (who seemed to consider it his duty to look after John) was alongside in a minute. "We'll leave here, kid," he said. "There's p'lecemen in Helena, so I hear, and they nab a man climbing from under a car." A collection of wooden houses huddled round the station and "yard" was all they saw at first, and John at least was disappointed, for he had heard much of the magnificence of the place. He learned soon that this was but the extreme suburb and that the town itself was some two miles away. Jimmy was for separating there and then, each to forage for food on his own hook, but John, mindful of his many kindnesses, insisted that they should share the meal which he procured. The supply of ham and eggs and steak that they put away testified not so much to the excellence of the fare as to the keenness of their appetites. This important business finished, they inquired about the town itself and learned that it was reached by a trolley car. Here was a brand-new experience right away. John had heard of electric cars, but had never seen one, and he thought it a wonderful machine; but even more wonderful was the fact that for a ride of two miles a fare of only five cents was charged. He wished that he had a hundred eyes and almost as many ears, so that he might take in all the strange sights that greeted him at every turn. Jimmy, with transcontinental experience, explained many things in language interlarded with strange hobo slang. When the yellow trolley car finally reached the town, the boy opened his eyes in wonder--here was the real city. The companions walked along the busy street, which to John's amazement was paved with stone blocks, the sidewalks being covered with bricks and flags. As he saw the crowds of people he thought there must be some sort of a celebration going on. In front of a saloon a number of men were gathered, and among them Jimmy recognized some friends. John, however, was not content to stand and listen to long discussions as to the best routes to travel, the most likely places where "hand-outs" might be had, and all the rest of the talk that tramps indulge in; so he started off on his own hook on a tour of discovery. "Don't get lost, kid," Jimmy shouted, as the boy went off. All his life he had been accustomed to almost unlimited space, to nearly perfect quiet, except the noise of the elements, the voices of wild things and of the few human beings. All at once he was thrown into the midst of a bustling Western city, packed solid with business buildings and dwellings, the surface of the earth shod with iron and stone, the very sky stained with smoke, and the air filled with the roar of traffic, the whistle of locomotives, the clang of the electric-car bells, and the shouts of street hucksters. He was almost stupefied with wonder. Then natural boyish curiosity took possession of him, and he began to notice things separately and in detail. He walked along with eyes, ears, and mouth wide open; his head turning constantly as some strange object caught his gaze. The frequent big "saloon" sign did not surprise him, nor did the "Licensed Gambling House" placard cause him to wonder; he knew them of yore, they were all a matter of course to a Western boy. But when he came to a building six or seven stories high he stopped short in the human tide, like a spile in a rushing stream, and stood with mouth agape in amazement. The plate-glass windows and the gay display behind them, the brilliant signs and elaborate decorations delighted him. He was walking along slowly, when he caught sight of the most wonderful "outfit" he had ever seen, and stood still in his tracks to take it in. It was a closed carriage with a fine big pair of horses whose trappings were decorated in bright silver. His fresh young eyes took these details in at once, but what caused him to stare was the big man on the box. Perfectly motionless, a stony stare on his smoothly shaven face, John wondered if he was made of wood. His whip, held at just the proper angle in heavy tan gloves, white trousers painfully tight, high top boots, and green coat shining with brass buttons, the whole get-up topped by a big, shining silk hat. For several minutes he watched him, but not a sign of life did he betray. Then a woman, richly dressed, came out of a nearby store and entered the carriage, saying as she did so, "Drive home, James." The dummy made a motion with his hand toward his hat, flicked the whip over the horses' flanks, and the carriage moved off. John's awesome gaze gave way to a laugh: "Why, he isn't an English lord," he said to himself, "he's only a teamster," and he laughed again. A boy with a package stopped to look at him. "Whatcher laughin' at?" said he. "Didn't you see that outfit?" said the other, between chuckles. "Mean the kerrige?" John nodded. "That's Fleischman's rig. Never seen one before?" "I've seen 'em in pictures, but I never thought they were true," and John laughed again. "I suppose people _do_ go down to dinner at six o'clock as I've read they do," he said at last, a puzzle that had long baffled him clearing away. "Sure. Whatjer think they did, go up to dinner?" returned the other boy scornfully. "Why, I didn't see how they could go down 'less they ate in a cellar," said John in explanation. "Who ever heard of people eating dinner at night, anyway?" From this talk and the big white felt hat that he wore, the boy with the parcel gathered that the other was a stranger to the town and town ways. He felt quite superior and determined to make the most of it. "Come on down the street with me," he said, and John followed, elbowing his way among the people as he saw the other boy do. They went along together, Charley Braton (John soon learned his name) pointing out the principal buildings, grandiloquently. Charley, who was an errand boy in a dry-goods store, reached his destination and invited his new-found friend to come up, so both stepped into the hallway and then through an iron doorway into a sort of cage, where several other people were already standing. John wondered what it was all about, and was just framing a question when a man slammed the gate and grasped a wire rope that ran through floor and ceiling of the cage. Of a sudden the floor began to rise, not smoothly, but with a jerk that drove the boy's heels into the floor. John's breath caught and he clutched Charley's arm. "Seven," called out the latter, and the car stopped with a jar. "Elevator?" inquired John. "Yep. 'Fraid?" questioned the other with a grin. "Nah. Little bit surprised though; never rode on one before." "Lots of people get scared, though," said Charley, and began a long account of how an old ranchman and Indian fighter lost his nerve completely during his first elevator ride, and finally pulled his pistol on the elevator man to make him "stop the thing." Charley's errand done, they entered the elevator again, which descended so suddenly that John felt as if the bottom had dropped out of his stomach. Both stairs and elevators were new to our country boy, and he concluded that he did not care for either, but he was far too proud to show any trepidation before his new acquaintance. The boys separated, Charley returning to the store and John to the group of tramps at the saloon. It was not an attractive circle round the beer keg that the boy joined, and even he realized that they were more dirty and shiftless than any men he had known. But one at least of them had been kind to him, and he was grateful. "Well, kid, wha'd'ye see?" shouted Jimmy as he drew near. John told the story with gusto of all the wonders he had seen, and especially his view of the "carriage teamster." "That's nothin'," said one man. "You see them on every corner in N'York." Immediately there arose an animated discussion as to the possessions of this or that millionaire, and there was not one of the tramps who did not know some one in the household of a plutocrat. The talk grew apace, and each narrator put forth all his available knowledge of the traits and habits of millionaires. All referred familiarly to individuals of seven-figure fame as "Tom" or "Joe" or "George." John and Jimmy meanwhile withdrew unnoticed, and the latter evidently had some definite destination in view, for he started off at a brisk pace along the street, commanding the boy to come on. John did so without question, and soon they reached an office building, which Jimmy entered. They finally stopped before a door bearing the sign "Doctor Hamilton," and at this the tramp knocked. A boy opened the door and ushered in the two rough-looking specimens. "Doctor in?" asked Jimmy, hat in hand. The doctor, a mild old gentleman, approached, and John's protector spoke up: "Doctor, beg yer pardin for comin' in, but this here kid has a pretty bad hand," and he held up the boy's swollen member. "There ain't nobody to look after it and it needs a good washin' at least." "Let me see it," and the doctor unwound the dirty rags, handling the wounded hand ever so tenderly. It was treatment to which the boy was entirely unaccustomed, and he did not know just what to make of it. Jimmy warned the physician that neither had any money, but nevertheless he proceeded to attend to the sore hand, washing it first, then dressing it and bandaging the whole in clean white linen. John was ordered to come next day. And so, with a kindly smile on his benevolent face, he bade them good day. The grateful patient tried hard to thank the doctor and harder to thank Jimmy, but he did not succeed very well with either. "Now, kid, you've got to sleep in a bed till that hand heals up," said the latter, when John tried to voice his gratitude. "I've got a stable full of hay that I'm goin' to sleep in; but you hunt up a lodgin' house and save your money all you can." John followed the advice at once and found a place where he could sleep in a bed for twenty-five cents a night. A week passed, Jimmy had taken to the road again, and the boy was left alone for the first time in a great town. He had been lonely before, but it was as nothing compared to the feeling that now possessed him. To be surrounded with people, all of whom were strangers, seemed to him more depressing than to be absolutely alone with rugged nature. By this time John's hand had nearly healed, but his money had about given out, and he was looking for work. It wasn't hard for a man in those booming days to find work, but the boy was in the awkward stage of growth when he was too small for a man's work and too big for a boy's--though he had a full-grown appetite and clothes to pay for. He hunted diligently for a job; day after day he tramped the streets in search of one; he looked into thousands of faces for one he knew. He asked continually for work, and at last, after a particularly trying day, heard of a restaurant where a dish-washer was wanted. He went there at once, but was told that the boss would not be there till evening; later he called again and was told that it was still too early. The restaurant was set back of a saloon, which also bore the legend, "Licensed Gambling House." Instead of going away to return again, John determined to wait. He loitered around the bar-room, sick at heart. It was not a pleasant place to wait in; it had no attractions for the boy, accustomed as he was to open-air life. Several tables were scattered about, and at these sat the gamblers, their faces stony and expressionless, perfectly calm, no matter how luck turned--the result of long and severe discipline. It seemed as if "the boss" would never come, and John was about to give up when he chanced to look at a table in a far corner and saw, he thought, a familiar face. He was all alertness in an instant, and went over to make sure. Yes, it was Tom Malloy, John's instructor in "the noble art of self-defence." How glad he was to see him! Yet he must not interrupt, for Tom was playing cards for a considerable stake. He must wait and watch his chance to speak. Tom won steadily, and soon the boy became so absorbed in the game that he forgot all about the dish-washing; a friend was involved, so he "took sides" at once. One by one Malloy's opponents dropped out, remarking that it was "Malloy's night," till he alone remained at the table. Raking the chips into his hat he went over to the bar to turn them into the money they represented; John followed, and when the currency was being counted out he approached: "Hello, Tom," he said. "Why, hello, kid," answered the man carelessly. "Don't you know me?" said John, rather hurt at this reception. "I'm John Worth; you worked for my father down in Dakota." "The deuce you say! You little John Worth? Not so little, either," said Tom in a breath. "Where'd yer come from? What you doin' round a gamblin' house? It's no place for you." John remembered his mission and explained. "Job? Well, I'm just the man to get you one," said Tom cordially. He went back to the restaurant door and called a waiter to him. "Tell Albert I want to see him," he ordered. Albert, the restaurant keeper, soon appeared. "I hear you want a man," Malloy began. "Here's a boy who's as good as any man and an old friend of mine; if you've got a good job, give it to him." Malloy was a leading character among the gamblers of the town; he won freely and spent freely, and was therefore to be propitiated. Albert graciously admitted that he had a job and that John might have it; he even went so far as to say that "sure he would make a place for a friend of Mr. Malloy's." So it was arranged that the boy was to begin work the next day. The two passed out together, and Tom noticed the condition of the boy's clothes; they were dusty, torn in many places, and generally disreputable-looking. "Those all the clothes you have?" John nodded. "Well, I'll see if I can't get you fixed up to-morrow." True to his word, John's friend in need took him to a clothing store and saw to it that he was supplied with a complete outfit. John was togged out as he had never been before in all his life; he looked at himself in the glass, feeling awkward and clumsy and wishing his face wasn't so big and red under the small derby hat. He couldn't get used to that hat, so he slyly rolled up his big, old felt one and tucked it under his arm when they left the store. Before Malloy parted from him he made him promise that he would call on him if he had any trouble or did not get along well with Albert. John began work at once. He yanked off his new coat, rolled up his shirt sleeves, and started in washing dishes as if his life depended on it. It was a way he had when anything had to be accomplished. For several months the boy stuck to his job, working steadily and well. The town, or at least the meaner part of it, became very familiar to him. Schools, churches, concerts, and society events abounded, but they might have been in another planet so far as John was concerned. The saloon, the "Licensed Gambling House," the cheap theatre, and the back streets were his haunts. The rough teamsters, miners, and gamblers were his associates. Tom Malloy was his hero; the man's generosity and kindly spirit won the boy's heart, but the former kept a strict watch over him for all that, and it is doubtful if John could have got into very bad habits if he had desired. The boy soon learned to know all the celebrities of the under-world in which he lived: Peter Aston, or Poker Pete, "handy with his gun"; Charley, or Snoozer, Johnson, also known as "Gain," who played a "close, hard game"; Tom Malloy, with the widespread reputation of being a man "hard to lick." [Illustration: THE MEN BROKE UP INTO LITTLE GROUPS. (_Page 276._)] The class John associated with was a restless lot, seldom staying long in one place, and soon the same spirit infected him. He longed for the open air and open country; the interminable walls of the city oppressed him. It was with great interest therefore that he listened to a chance acquaintance who told of a new job on railroad construction he had secured. John asked several questions and learned that many men were needed, and that there might be a chance for him. "Where's the contractor?" he asked suddenly, his mind made up. "I'm goin' to ask him for a job." "I met him half an hour ago at the 'Bucket of Blood,'" answered his new friend. "I'll go along with you; perhaps we'll find him there." They soon reached the saloon with the sanguinary name, and luckily found the contractor. John stated his errand and stood while the man looked him over. "Perhaps you might work in the cook house," he said at length. "You're too light to drive a scraper." "Yes, I could do that, but I don't want to. I want out-of-door work. Have you got a horse-wrangler yet?" As luck would have it, the job John wanted was not given out, and, after telling of his experience, he was appointed night horse-wrangler. To get a saddle and riding outfit was the next thing necessary, and this Tom Malloy lent him from the store of such things he had won at cards. John found that to part from the man who had befriended him in his need was the only really trying thing in connection with leaving Helena. Squalid as were most of his associations with the place, he was really sorry to go away from Tom Malloy. The thought of being once more in the saddle, however, delighted him, and it was with a preponderance of joy rather than sorrow, therefore, that he clambered early one morning into the rough wagon that was to convey his party to the scene of operations and saw the city disappear in the distance. Soon he would be astride of a horse, out in the open. No walls to encompass him, no roofs to shut out the sky--what a glorious and inspiring thought it was! CHAPTER XIII. HERDING HORSES AND PANNING GOLD. "Seems to me," said John to his new partner, Frank Bridges, "that this is a pretty tough gang. Half of 'em drunk, and the rest of 'em ready to take your head off if you speak to 'em." "Oh, well," answered the other, "some of them got out of money quicker than others and so got out of liquor quicker. It's kinder hard to go back to work in the wilds after loafing round the town a good while. You'll find that they're not such a bad lot when they're sober and get to workin'." The two were sitting on one of the scrapers that trundled behind the wagons--a vehicle which, though not exactly comfortable, was exclusive--they had it entirely to themselves. All day long they had travelled thus, except at dinner time, when a short halt was made. John said he would almost as lief ride a brake beam as a "break-back," for so he had christened this jolting equipage. Long after dark they saw the white tents of the camp loom up, and in a minute after their arrival it was the scene of bustling activity. Orders were bawled, greetings were shouted, the teamsters yelled and swore at their horses. But above the din rose the voice of Old Murphy, the contractor: "Here, boys, rustle round and get these horses out of the harness. Worth, saddle up and take these horses to the other bunch and watch 'em all till morning." Then, turning to his foreman: "Ricks, get this fellow a saddle horse." "The others are tied up yet, Mr. Murphy," the man ventured. "What! Not out yet?" roared the boss. A regular tirade followed, and John realized that he must do his work well to escape a tongue-lashing. He was rather staggered at the order to saddle up and get out at ten o'clock at night, with a lot of strange horses, in a country he did not know. "Say, Frank," he said to his friend, who was busy unloading the rolled-up "beds" or bedding, "this is no joke; I don't want to lose a lot of horses and maybe kill myself in the bargain--it's going it blind with a vengeance." "You'd better make a stab at it, anyhow," he was advised. "The old man's raging, and you might lose your job if you showed the white feather." "You ready yet, Worth?" It was Murphy's voice, and John jumped at the sound of it. "Give me a hand, Frank, will you. Bring the blasted old cayuse over here while I get the saddle ready. I'll do it or bust," and John suited the action to the word. In a few minutes the boy was in the saddle and following the already straggling bunch of horses. "Keep your eye open for prospect holes," shouted Frank. "You want to watch those horses like thunder, Worth," called out Murphy, who seemed to be everywhere at once. "They're strangers to each other, and they'll split up and scatter to the four winds if you don't watch 'em. Some's from Oregon and some's from Utah, and if they get separated it'll cost mor'n they're worth to get 'em back again. You've got fifty-six head--keep counting 'em." The "old man" apparently did not want him to get beyond the sound of his voice, but kept following and shouting instructions. Perhaps he realized that he was giving the boy a trying, and possibly dangerous, task. "All right," shouted John cheerfully, but at heart he was not so confident. It was long after ten and quite dark; the horses in front were mere shadows and could only be distinctly made out by the tramp of their hoofs. To count them exactly was almost impossible, for it was hard to tell where one horse began and another ended. The old beast John was riding, however, knew his business, and it was well he did, for it was necessary to trust almost entirely to his acuteness and keen sense of smell. Horses and herder splashed across the creek and pushed their way through the brush and up the hill opposite. The boy realized that his work was cut out for him, and he determined he would see the thing through. The hills and gulches round about were new to him. There might be precipices, quicksand bottoms, bogs, and, worst of all, the night-rider's menace, old prospect holes. These were short, narrow, and often deep ditches dug by miners in their search for the precious metal. Besides all this, he was on a horse he had never thrown a leg over before and of whose disposition and capabilities he knew nothing. "If I only had Baldy!" he thought as the cayuse he was riding plunged into the brush after the retreating bunch. Immediately his trouble began. The old horses, old companions, jealous of the newcomers, tried to elude them, and the latter were none too anxious for their company. John could only gallop forward and back and all around, restraining this scattering tendency as best he could, and depending on his mount's sagacity to avoid holes and obstructions. A merry dance his charges led him--merry in the lively sense only--up and down, in and out, over what kind of country he could only guess. All he could see of his troublesome charges was a shadowy back now and then, or a high-thrown head silhouetted against a lighter patch of sky or a bank of sand. He judged himself to be two miles from camp before the animals seemed to think of stopping to feed. Even then they were determined to separate, and it taxed John's vigilance to the utmost to keep them together. His horse began to tire, it was many hours before daylight, and something had to be done--at once. An old gray mare carried a bell on her neck and John noticed that the rest of the bunch followed her blindly. If he could catch and tie her up the others might be more inclined to stay in one spot. How to do this was the question. She was too wily to be caught by hand, and if in throwing the rope the loop missed, she would scatter the entire herd in a minute. For a while he gave up the plan, but it grew more and more difficult for his weary horse to keep up the continued darting to and fro. At last he decided to make the trial--it was the last resort and the cast must be successful. He made ready his lariat, holding a coil in his left hand and the wide loop in his right, and waited an instant for a good opportunity. The gray mare stood out more distinctly than the other horses and made a better mark, but at best it would be a difficult throw. For several seconds John sat still in his saddle, the noose circling slowly round his head, his arm still, only the supple wrist bending. The old mare was watching him. The rope now began to whistle as its speed increased. Suddenly the belled mare snorted and started off on a run; John shut his teeth hard, threw at what looked like a neck, took a couple of turns round the horn of the saddle with the slack rope, then waited. Almost at once the line tightened. A gentle pressure was put on the bridle rein, and the pony's weight checked the mare in her flight. The throw was a good one, and the mare was caught. The shock was great, and John's pony was green at this sort of business and the tightening cinches made him jump in lively fashion. The mare too had not learned that it is useless to "run against a rope," and for a while kept John and his mount busy; but the increasing tightness of the slip noose round her neck soon quieted her and enabled the boy to tie her up short to a tree. The remedy proved to be effective; soon all the horses were feeding quietly round the tied leader. John congratulated himself on his success and prepared to take a much-needed rest, but was interrupted by the sound of another bell far up the gulch. Evidently there were other horses feeding near, and it was essential to keep them separated; so he trotted to a point between the herd and the place from which the ringing came. Again he dismounted from his sweating pony and sat down to rest, when, chancing to glance over his shoulder, he saw a small fire blazing a quarter of a mile away. "No rest for the weary," he grunted resignedly, mounted once more and started out to investigate. As he rode slowly nearer he made out a man sitting cross-legged by the fire, his face in strong relief, his back almost lost in shadow. Behind stood a saddled horse, barely showing in the gloom. John rode up, slapping his chaps with his quirt to let the stranger know that he was a horseman also and giving fair warning of his approach. Otherwise he might be taken for a horse thief and shot on sight. [Illustration: A ROPE CORRAL WAS DRAWN ABOUT THE SADDLE BAND. (_Page 281._)] The stranger rose quickly and retreated into the shadow. John did not like this. "Hullo, pardner!" he called, drawing nearer. "Hullo, stranger," replied the other. "Are you lost?" "No. I'm Murphy's night herder. Pretty dark night, isn't it?" The man returned to the circle of firelight, his suspicions allayed, thus evidencing his own honesty. John dismounted and came up to him, glad to have some one to talk and listen to. "You night-herdin' too? I heard a bell ringing up the gulch and I guessed there was another bunch of horses up there." "Yep. I've got Brady's horses up there," and he nodded in the direction of a dimly visible lot. John described the difficulties he had experienced and asked if there were many prospect holes about. "Yes, lots of 'em," answered the Brady man. "An' they're deep too. I was ridin' along with my bunch last spring, spurrin' my horse to get ahead of the critters, when he went plump into a blamed hole--and he's there yet. I only got away by the skin of my teeth." "I guess I'm in great luck to get through this safe," said John. "I was never on this range till after dark to-night." "Horses all there?" inquired the other, nodding towards John's charges. "Sure. But I guess I'd better count 'em." "My horses are like a lot of sheep. I'll go along with you." The two rounded the animals together again and counted them as well as the darkness would allow. They agreed that they numbered fifty-six and John breathed easier. And so the first night passed, the two herders chatting pleasantly till dawn, when they parted, agreeing to meet some other night. A little before daybreak John rounded up his bunch and began driving them in the direction of the camp. When daylight came he counted them again and to his satisfaction found them all there. In spite of the tiresome trip of the day before, the hard riding of the preceding evening, and the long night's vigil, he felt as gay as the lark that soared overhead pouring out a song entirely out of proportion in volume to its size. He hummed blithely an Indian war chant, made over for the occasion, and breathed in the early morning fragrance with a feeling of exhilaration that made him forget for the time that he had gone to work the night before supperless and had not put his teeth into anything edible since. The sight of the cook preparing breakfast speedily reminded him that he had an "aching void," which seemed to extend to his very heels. The boss's query, "Got 'em all, Worth?" was answered, with pardonable pride, in the affirmative. For John felt that he had done good work. The breakfast was soon over, and what a breakfast! Baked beans, bacon, bread, and coffee, a feast fit for the gods, John thought, as he rolled into the bed that Frank had previously showed him. He was sound asleep in a minute and entirely unconscious of the bustle and noise about him. Murphy was giving orders in stentorian tones that could be heard half a mile away; the unwilling horses were being harnessed to the big scoop-like scrapers and to the wagons containing tools; the men were divided into gangs, the new arrivals, cross, surly, and suffering from aching heads, starting with irritating slowness. Soon all hands were hard at work, "moving hills to fill up hollows," making a level trail for the iron horse. At this point there was much digging and scraping to be done, a deep cut and a long "fill" on the other side. At noon the men trooped back to dinner--silent until their hunger was satisfied, then noisy and boisterous--but John slept peacefully through it all. About four o'clock he woke up and gazed about him wonderingly. He was lying in a tent, through the open flap of which the sunlight streamed. A dip in the stream that ran close by refreshed him greatly and dispelled the sleepy, heavy feeling that had possessed him. The creek was clear and cool, and John lingered on its banks half clothed, digging in the sand and mud with his bare feet and hands. As he was dabbling in the moist earth, he came across some sand that had black streaks in it. His curiosity was aroused, for he had not seen the like before, and he gathered some in his hat, intending to ask what it was. The cook was busy washing beans for supper, so John sat down on a log near by and watched him idly. His thoughts wandered back to the coal camp, and he wondered about Ben and Baldy; he longed for both, and for the moment was tempted to go home and see them; then he realized that he had chosen the path he was now travelling for himself and felt that he must follow it out to the end. He thought of the journey to Helena, of Jimmy the hobo, and of the life he had just left. His brown study was interrupted with a jolt. "What's that you've got in your hat?" It was the cook, speaking rather excitedly. "Oh, that? That's some sand and gravel I picked out down the creek; brought it up to ask what it is." "Well, it looks to me like gold." This impressively. "But it's black," objected John. "Yes, the black is magnetic iron and often holds gold--maybe there's enough to pay. Do you know how to work the pan?" Cook was evidently interested. The boy professed his ignorance, and the other volunteered to show him. The pan, a flat, round, shallow tin affair, was taken down to the spot indicated by John and the lesson began. A little gravel, which included some of the black sand, was scooped up. Then the pan was taken to the creek, dipped under, and the water was allowed to run out slowly. This was repeated over and over, and each time a little sand and gravel was washed over the edge. At last only the black sand, being heavier, remained. This the cook showed triumphantly. "Only a little black sand! Where's the gold?" inquired John. "It's in the sand, and has to be separated from it by quicksilver, which absorbs the gold; then you can throw away the sand," explained cook, who had put away the residue carefully in a bottle and was dipping up more gravel. "But how do you take the gold out of the quicksilver?" The boy was determined to get to the bottom of this thing. "Why, you can put it in the sun and let it evaporate, leaving the gold, or you can send it to town to be separated and run the risk of losing both quicksilver and some of your gold." John tried panning, but he found it needed a much more practised hand than his; he spilled out water, gravel, and all, or else he didn't accomplish anything. Cook's teaching was careful, however, and before long his pupil was able to gather enough sand, after sleeping and before beginning his night's work, to realize fifty or sixty cents' worth of gold when separated. Immediately after supper John had to saddle his horse and drive the work stock out to feed. This task was becoming more and more easy as the horses learned to know each other. He met Curran, Brady's wrangler, regularly now, and the companionship helped to while away the long night hours very pleasantly. Curran was of medium height, stoop-shouldered, and rather bow-legged from long contact with a horse's rounded body. He was awkward and stiff when afoot, an appearance accentuated by the suit of canvas and leather that he wore. In the saddle he was another being, graceful, supple, strong--seemingly a part of the beast he rode. His skin was tanned and seamed by long years of exposure to the sun. He might be the very hero himself of a song he sang to John one night. BOW-LEGGED IKE. Bow-legged Ike on horseback was sent From some place, straight down to this broad continent. His father could ride and his mother could, too, They straddled the whole way from Kalamazoo. Born on the plains, when he first sniffed the air He cried for to mount on the spavined gray mare. And when he got big and could hang to the horn 'Twas the happiest day since the time he was born. He'd stop his horse loping with one good, strong yank, He'd rake him on shoulder and rake him on flank. He was only sixteen when he broke "Outlaw Nell," The horse that had sent nigh a score men to--well! He climbed to the saddle and there sat still, While she bucked him all day with no sign of a spill. Five years later on a cayuse struck the trail Whose record made even old "punchers" turn pale. He was really a terror; could dance on his ear, And sling a man farther than that stump--to here! A man heard of Ike; grinned and bet his whole pile His sorrel would shake him before one could smile. So the crowd they came round and they staked all they had, While Ike, sorter innocent, said: "Is he _bad_?" And durin' their laugh--for the sorrel, you see, Had eat up two ropes and was tryin' for me-- Ike patted his neck--"Nice pony," says he, And was into the saddle as quick as a flea. That sorrel he jumped and he twisted and bucked, And the man laughed, expectin' that Ike would be chucked. But soon the cayuse was fair swimmin' in sweat While Ike, looking bored, rolled a neat cigarette. And then from range to range he hunted a cayuse That could even _in-ter-est_ him, but it wasn't any use. So he got quite melancholic, wondering why such an earth, Where the horses "had no sperrits," should have given himself birth. CHAPTER XIV. A MIGRATION. All that summer John tended the work stock, keeping them together on good feeding ground during the short night and driving them into camp soon after daylight. Much of this work was very pleasant; the two herders, Curran and John, met regularly and many were the long talks and interchanges of experiences they enjoyed. The rainless summer nights were cool enough to be refreshing and yet warm enough to make the time spent in the open air delightful. But when rain came all this was changed. The horses became nervous and restless and required constant watchfulness and continual riding, regardless of treacherous foothold and hidden, water-filled prospect holes. The long, yellow "slicker" or oilskin coat, being cut deep in the back and hanging over the rider's legs to his spurred heels, served but poorly to keep out the driving rain, and by morning he was fairly soaked. Arriving in camp with his dripping charges, he would dismount stiffly, and after a half-cold breakfast crawl into a damp bed under an oozing tent. John, however, learned to take things as they came, good or ill, gathering valuable experience from right and left. Curran was a horseman of long standing, and gave the fast-maturing boy a great many points that served him in good stead later in life. He taught him how to detect any uneasiness in the stock that might grow into fright and start a stampede; how to check this by voice and by constant active presence; and, above all, by force of example he showed that only through quick thought and unhesitating exposure of himself to danger could harm to his charges be averted. By nature courageous, almost to recklessness, John learned these lessons unconsciously. And so the summer passed--herding horses at night, sleeping and panning gold by day. By the latter operation he was able to add, on an average, fifty cents a day to his hardly princely income of seven dollars a week. As the warm season drew to a close, the night wrangler's work became more of a hardship and less a pleasure; only by dint of constant exercise and a roaring fire was the life made endurable. The night's work over, horse and rider would come in stiff with cold and not infrequently wet as well. "Well, kid, the outfit breaks camp this week," said cook to John one cold, wet morning in November as he slid off his patient beast. "Here's your coffee; keep it out of the wet." "Can't break any too soon for me," said John, sipping the steaming beverage and clinging tightly to the tin cup with both hands for the sake of the warmth it contained. "Must be pretty tough this time o' year," said cook sympathetically. "More coffee?" "You bet," answered the other. "I couldn't stand it if I wasn't all-fired tough. I'll have to be tough if I go range-ridin' this winter." Curran put this thought into his head, where it had been growing until it became a resolve. "So you're goin' range-ridin', eh, kid?" John nodded and asked the cook where he was going. "Well, I'll tell yer," he said, stopping to wipe his hands on the flour bag that served for an apron, "I'm goin' straight back East where my folks live; soon's I get back to town I'm goin' to buy a railroad ticket East and go right off." "Good enough," said John confidently, but rather sceptical at heart, for he knew of many men whose good resolutions melted under the direful influence of the first glass of whiskey that went down their throats. "Well, I'm off to bed," he concluded, making for the bed that Frank had vacated but a little while before. He knew he needed all the rest he could get. The following morning, as he came near the collection of tents with the horses, he heard Murphy shouting: "Rustle round now, boys; get the cook outfit loaded, the tents down, and your beds rolled up--quick. We'll be in town by noon." The work was taken up with such a will that John barely got his share of coffee, bacon, beans, and bread before the cook's stores were stowed away ready for travelling. It was a very different crowd that now set out for the town, and yet it was the same lot of men. Nine months' heavy, open-air work had dispelled weakness and brought strength, had replaced bad temper with cheerfulness, and had, moreover, filled pockets with Uncle Sam's good coin. Frank and John, his chum, again sat on the scraper that trailed behind a wagon, not now for fear of contact with ill-tempered, almost desperate men, but for the sake of comparative quiet and to escape the practical jokes that none in the wagon could avoid. "Well," said Frank, "would you rather wrestle dishes in Helena or wrangle horses in the open?" "I'd rather wrangle than wrestle," said John, taking the cue with a laugh, "weather or no; and I'd like to go out again soon." On reaching town the men parted company, each to seek the pleasure that most attracted him. John at once hunted up Tom Malloy, who was still prosperous and evidently glad to see him. "Well, kid, how did you get along?" he said, in his old, familiar, kindly way. The boy first paid him for the saddle he had borrowed, to which he had become accustomed and attached, and then told in detail of his experiences. "Do you want to get back to pot-wrestling?" asked Molloy at length. "No; not on your life!" and John told him of his liking for work in the open and his distaste for town life. "Right you are, kid," said Tom encouragingly, "the town's no place for you, or for me, either," he added rather sadly. "I'll be done up some day"--a prophecy which proved but too true. John and Frank took lodgings together, and for a time did nothing but travel round the town, noting the changes that had been made since they had been away and taking in such cheap amusement as the place offered. It was on one of these jaunts round the streets that John met his friend the cook, blear-eyed, slouchy, and dirty, the bold mustache he was usually so proud of drooping dismally. "Why, cook, I thought you were in the East by this time," said the ex-wrangler, remembering the solemn resolution confided to him a few days before. "No, I just stopped for one drink and that settled it," confessed the other. "Haven't a quarter to buy a dinner with now." John took him to a restaurant and fed him. This was the first of a series of encounters with ex-campmates. The first feeling was one of wonder and disgust that the demon of drink could make such short work of a man; and then came the fear that the constant drafts upon him would use up his small savings. "Frank," he said one day, "I've got to get out of this or I'll be stone broke; do you know of any fellow that will take me on a range?" "Why, what's the matter?" "Oh," said John, "this gang takes me for the treasurer of an inebriates' home, I guess, and will soon scoop every cent I've got." "That's it, eh?" returned Bridges. "Well, I'll go down the Missouri with you. I'm pretty well acquainted a hundred and fifty miles or so below, and I know where I can go range-ridin' for a big cattleman any time." "If you think you can work me in, I'll go," exclaimed the younger. "I'll buy that sorrel cayuse from Murphy. I can get him for fifteen, I guess, and we'll go to-morrow-that is, if you can work me in." This last was spoken rather dubiously, but Frank assured him that he would fix it somehow, and the compact was sealed. The balance of the day was spent in getting their outfit ready. Frank was already provided with horse, saddle, and bridle, and the other appurtenances of the rider: chaps, spurs, oilskin slicker, and blankets. Some of these John possessed also, but he still lacked a horse; a few simple necessaries in the shape of a frying-pan, tin cups, coffee, flour, sugar, and the inevitable beans must be supplied for both. The dicker for John's sorrel was made in short order, and by nightfall all the outfit was complete. At daylight the following morning they were busy making up the packs, and a hard job they found it, for nothing seemed to fit, and apparently there was enough stuff to load a whole train. It was made up at last into two packs and lashed securely behind the saddles; they mounted and rode out of the fast-awakening town. One of the two at least was leaving it for a long time, to return under very different circumstances. Nothing of this sort entered their minds, however, and they went out as unconsciously as if off for a half-day's trip. Frank knew the country pretty thoroughly, having been over it once or twice before, so it was plain sailing most of the time. Day after day they travelled along at a dog trot--a gait that the Western horse can keep up all day and one which a rider brought up to it finds perfectly comfortable, but which would shake the teeth out of an Easterner. The trail was clearly marked, easily followed, and much of the way wide enough to allow the horsemen to ride side by side. Though the two had been partners for several months they had seen but little of each other; during the day at the railroad camp Frank worked while John slept, and during the night the reverse was the case. This was the first chance either had of really knowing the other, and both were well pleased. There was plenty of time and opportunity to talk, and they soon found that they had plenty of acquaintances in common. "Ever been to Miles City?" John said one day as they were trotting steadily along. The leather of the saddles creaked and the cooking utensils made a regular accompaniment to the thudding hoof-beats. [Illustration: EACH MAN TOOK HIS ROPE AND FLUNG IT OVER THE HORSE HE WANTED. (_Page 281._)] "Sure. Two years ago this spring." "That was about the time Dick Bradford and Charley Lang shot each other, wasn't it?" John was referring to a "killing" that was famous the country round. "Yes, and I was right there in Brown's place at the time." "Tell me about it, Frank. Some say Bradford was to blame and some say that Lang deserved it. I knew Charley Lang a little and thought him a nice fellow." "Well," said Frank, "it isn't a long story; it all happened the same day, the quarrel and the killing. For some reason there was bad blood between them; both had been drinking, and a little dispute was enough to make them ready to pull their guns on each other." "Charley was pretty quick with his gun," interpolated John, full of interest. "So was Dick; but their friends took their shootin' irons away from 'em, and finally persuaded them to shake hands, and for a time there was no further trouble, but all the old hands feared that the business would not end there. Both men came to Brown's place before supper. Maybe you know the joint--a good many things have happened there, and Brown himself could tell enough stories to fill a dozen dime novels." John nodded. "It wasn't very pleasant there then; the two were plainly looking for each other's gore, and we all wished we could put a couple of hundred miles between them. Well, anyway, Dick saw Charley and called him an ugly name and then invited him to take a drink. He might have refused; that would have been bad enough, but he did worse, accepted, and took the glass in his left hand--which, as everybody knows, is a deadly insult, to accept a man's hospitality with your left hand, leaving your right free to pull your gun." "But I should think it might just happen so," suggested John. "So it might, but Charley made his meaning clear by the look he gave Dick. Nothing occurred then--neither had a gun--but after supper they managed to get a six-shooter apiece and soon turned up at Brown's again. When I came in Charley was sitting on the end of the bar, talking to the 'barkeep,' his hat on the back of his head, his legs swinging, the spurs on his heels jingling when they touched--the most unconcerned man going. Dick was leaning against the wall the other side of the room. He was mad clean through. A couple of fellers were with him, but they couldn't stop him from jerking out his gun. He fired, but Charley had had his eye on him and reached for his six-shooter. The same instant the ball hit him in the chest. He slid off the bar, but as he fell he fired twice, and both shots went through Dick's heart. Dick died right off and Charley lived only a few minutes--he died in my arms." "What a way to die!" was the only comment John made. "Those were the very last words Charley spoke," said Frank, more to himself than to his listener. "I guess Miles City was the toughest place going then," said the boy. "Why, I was driving through the town with my father one day (that was when we were opening a big coal mine down the Yellowstone) and we went under a half-finished railroad bridge and there, hanging from the ties, were the bodies of three men. Lynched. Ugh!" John shuddered at the remembrance of it. "Was that the case where there was some talk of the men being killed first and hung afterwards?" inquired Frank. "Yes. There had been a row in Brown's place, and these three had been put in jail, but during the night they were taken out and in the morning were found as we saw them. The regular vigilance committee had not done it, and the doctor said death first, hanged afterwards." Both of these characteristic stories were common talk whenever a crowd got together, but neither Frank nor John had heard the facts told by an eye-witness before. It must not be thought all the conversation of these two was of this blood-and-thunder variety. Frank had lived in the East, and marvellous were the tales he told about the buildings, the people, and their doings. The two were so interested in each other, and what each had seen, that the time passed very quickly, and so John was surprised when Frank said late one afternoon: "See that blue range of hills about thirty miles ahead?" John looked and nodded an assent. "Well, Baker's ranch is right at the foot of them, and Sun River runs through it. That's where we're goin'." The following morning they rode towards the ranch house, past the minor buildings, the barns and sheds, past the hay stack, now bulging with its winter store, past the inevitable horse corral, just then containing several horses which were circling round trying to avoid a cow-puncher's "rope." As they reached the ranch house proper--a low, single-storied house built of logs and roofed with split logs covered with turf--a chunky, white-haired man in overalls stepped out of the door. "Hello, Mr. Baker," said Frank. "You see you can't lose me." "Well, Frank, it's you, is it? I'm terrible glad to see you. How are you?" Mr. Baker's greeting was cordial. "Who's your friend? What's his name?" he added, noticing John for the first time. He was introduced, and the warm grasp of the hand that John got from the old ranchman won him at once. "Mrs. Baker will bubble over when she sees you, Frank. Tie your horses and come in." A long hitching rail ran along the front of the shack, and to this Frank and John made their horses fast. Mrs. Baker's greeting was even more cordial than her husband's, and the youngster looked on at the display of affection rather wistfully. Nor was he ignored in the general greetings. "You're just the fellow I want to see, Frank," said the cheerful, kindly, buxom, albeit gray-haired ranchman's wife. "Mr. B.'s getting kinder old to be chasing round the ranch looking after cattle and the range-riders, and I want you to see to all that so I can keep Mr. Baker at home. Will you do it?" She looked from her husband to Frank and back again. "I'm looking for a job, and so's my friend Worth here. If you'll take us both I'll be glad to stay," and Frank began to enlarge on John's virtues, and told how they had shared the same bed. He characterized him as a "plumb good feller." "Of course he can get to work," said the couple together. "Got a saddle?" asked the old man. "Yes, I've got a good outfit," answered the boy. "Well, you can go range-ridin'." The ranchman spoke in a tone that was not to be gainsaid--it amounted to a command. John understood vaguely that range-riding was something like horse-wrangling, only the job he was now about to undertake would last during the day and night too. The following day the boy was sent forth to his new work. It was cold, and the gray November sky had a look of snow in it; the air, too, felt snowy. In the ranch house all was warm and comfortable: a great fire of cottonwood logs was blazing in the open fireplace, a few pictures and examples of needle-work--the evidences of a woman's hand--were interspersed with mannish things: rifles in rough wooden racks, antlers of deer and prong-horns, bridles decorated with silver hung here and there on nails, and a long wooden peg, driven into the whitewashed logs, supported a richly carved saddle, Mr. Baker's own. From this cheer and comfort John went into exile, to last several months--the cold, bitter, winter months of the Northwest. With the instructions of Mr. Baker and the warnings of Frank ringing in his ears, he started off for the shack he was to share with an old, experienced cow-puncher throughout the winter. The eight miles were soon covered, and he drew up before the little log shack which was to be his winter home. A little box of a cabin it was, perhaps twelve by fifteen feet, built solidly of logs and backed up against a low bank for the shelter it afforded. He dismounted and entered; a single small window lightened the gloom somewhat and enabled him to see the familiar rough bunks on either side, one for each occupant; a rough deal table supported on one side by the wall and on the other by two legs; a frying-pan, a coffee pot, and a few tin cups--none over-clean--hung near the fireplace; these completed the decorations and furniture of the range-riders' shack. It was one of several placed at varying distances from the home ranch. After tying his horse and bringing in the few belongings he possessed, he sat down on the empty bunk and waited for Barney Madden, his mate, whom he had never seen. He wondered what kind of a fellow he was. CHAPTER XV. "RANGE-RIDING." "Hello, kid! Who you lookin' for?" The voice was deep and full and had a cheerful, confident ring in it. John looked up quickly and saw standing in the narrow doorway a man whom he rightly guessed to be Barney Madden. He was a man over thirty, of medium height, rather slight, wiry build, showing good, hard condition; his face, decorated with a brown mustache, was a good one--determination, courage, and an abundant sense of humor could be seen there. He had deep-set, blue-gray eyes, which could be both stern and merry. "I'm looking for you, I guess," the youngster answered, after a moment's pause, "if you're Barney Madden. My name's Worth, John Worth, and Mr. Baker sent me out here to help you range-ridin'." "Sure, I'm Barney Madden. I'm plumb glad to see yer; you look like a good, husky kid, and will help me a lot, I hope. Put your horse in the dug-out yonder, then come back and help me get supper," and he pointed to a little, cave-like house built to shelter the horses of the range-riders in winter. Soon the sorrel was contentedly munching hay in the warm stables with three or four other horses. Returning to the shack, John found Barney on his knees blowing the fire vigorously. "Well, kid, you'd better go down to the creek for some water." Barney spoke in a disjointed fashion, between puffs. "Can you cook?" The youngster said he could a little. "Well, suppose you try on this supper. I ain't no cook, never was; don't like it. If you'll take care of the eatin' outfit I'll be satisfied all right." The supper over, Madden expressed his complete satisfaction, and so John was installed chief cook and head (also foot) of the commissary department. The following morning his work as a cow-puncher began. At mining, sheep-ranching, and horse and mule herding he had served a full apprenticeship, and he now became a full-fledged cowboy. Each of his previous occupations had helped to fit him for the present undertaking. Almost from his babyhood he could ride, and about the same time he learned to "throw the rope," as the act of casting the lariat is called, and by constant practice had grown more and more proficient. The duties of the range-rider, as he soon learned, were to cover a certain territory (which in this case was that section which lay between Saffron and Buffalo creeks) to see that the different bunches of cattle did not get into trouble, or, in case they did get into difficulties, to rescue them. Each morning the two rose with the sun, and after a very simple toilet--to put on a hat and a pair of spurs sufficed sometimes--a breakfast of bacon, bread, and coffee was dispatched. Saddling their mounts was the next thing in order, and each day the horse that had been idle the day before was selected. This operation is easier to describe than to accomplish, for, as a rule, the cow pony has a strong dislike for the clinging saddle, and especially for the hind cinch--it interferes with his free breathing and grips him at a tender spot. When the horse has been led out and the fifty-pound (or more) saddle is thrown over his back, the fun begins; he prances around as if on hot iron, and a keen eye and quick foot are needed to keep out of reach of hoofs or teeth; at length, during an unguarded second, the flapping cinch is captured and brought under his belly in the twinkling of an eye; the strap on the other side is rove through the ring, and with a quick pull tightened; but the pony, who has been expecting this, takes a deep breath, and at the same time humps his back. If the rider is inexperienced and secures the strap when the pony is thus puffed up he will come to grief when he tries to mount, the saddle promptly slipping round as soon as he puts his weight on the stirrup, and the knowing horse empties his lungs and straightens his back. John was up to all such tricks, and when "Roany" (the sorrel's companion and the spare horse allotted to the young rider) blew himself up, he simply put his foot up against the pony's side and gave a tremendous and sudden heave. It is a rather inconsiderate and humiliating method--for the horse. Roany grunted protestingly; immediately his girth was reduced several inches and John made the cinch fast. The horses saddled, the two riders went in opposite directions, visiting the well-known haunt of each bunch of cattle in the section of country committed to their care. In pleasant weather, when the feed was good and water plenty, this was by no means an irksome duty. The horse is fresh and full of life; the rider, exhilarated by the bracing air and swift motion, shouts aloud from pure joy at being alive. The day's circuit completed, he comes back to the shack, somewhat tired, but the possessor of an appetite that would make a dyspeptic toiler in a city office still paler with envy. [Illustration: A LITTLE BOX OF A CABIN IT WAS. (_Page 243._)] But John began range-riding during the hardest season of the year, when keen, searching winds had to be faced, blizzards encountered, and work of the hardest, most depressing kind had to be done. "By gum! this beats all," said Barney one morning, some months after John joined him. He got out of his bunk, and, walking over to the single window, looked out. "Snowin' yet. Here this thing's been goin' on fer ten days steady; grass all covered up, cattle near done, and horses worn out--and it's snowin' yet! Seem's if Providence was down on us," and Barney proceeded with his morning toilet, pulling on his boots and grumbling under his breath. John had something of the same idea in his mind; he began to think all this terrible weather was punishment meted out to him for running away from home. For two weeks the two riders had been in the saddle fourteen hours a day, and the strain was beginning to tell on both men and beasts. This was the terrible winter of 1886-87, when many cattlemen were almost ruined. "Come, kid; get a move on," said Barney rather wearily. "It's tough, but it's got to be done." They tramped out into the blinding flurry of flakes and routed out their unwilling horses. There was no frisking, and no tricks to avoid saddling; the poor beasts stood resignedly and allowed their masters to put them into their bonds without a protest. "So long," shouted John. "S'long," returned the other. And so they separated. John followed the frozen Saffron Creek. It was lined with brush which afforded some shelter for the half-starved cattle that were collected in compact bunches at different points for the sake of warmth. Six hundred head of cattle were thus scattered along the two creeks. Each of these John visited, and with shouts and blows urged them from the cover where otherwise they would stay--dazed, stupid, gradually growing weaker till they died in their tracks. Once in the open, they moved more briskly, butting and crowding each other till their blood got circulating again, and they took some interest in searching for the scanty grass revealed by their trampling hoofs. This morning, after riding a half mile or so from the shack, John came upon a bunch of stock. He shouted at them and slapped those nearest with his hat; soon all were moving towards the open. All went well till a big snow bank was encountered; this the shivering cattle, weakened by hunger, refused to tackle, so John drove his horse into the white bank, and by floundering through two or three times a trail was made. Still the stock refused to go through; but at last, with much urging and pushing by Roany, breast to rump, three were forced to the other side and the others reluctantly followed. One old cow still remained, weak, wavering, her last calf sapping her vitality; back went John and Roany; the rope was uncoiled and the noose dropped over her horns. A couple of turns having been taken round the saddle horn, Roany scratched and tugged, the old cow struggled a bit, and in a jiffy the brave little horse "snaked" her through. A little further on the same thing was done with another bunch. From time to time, as he rode along, John saw queer mounds partly or wholly covered with snow: they were the cattle that had succumbed. Many more then living he knew would give up, try as he might and did to protect them. Further on he noted a fresh victim, and as he drew near two gray, slinking forms left it. "Hold on, Roany; we'll have to get a shot at those," and suiting the action to the word he pulled his steed up and drew his six-shooter. The wolves were moving off slowly, licking their bloody chops and snarling at the interruption of their feast, their heads turned back toward the boy, their teeth showing, their yellow eyes gleaming. _Crack_ went John's pistol, and one fell over kicking. The other bolted for cover. _Crack_, _crack_, the shots rang out, and he too dropped. In a minute both wolves were skinned by making a cut along each leg and down the belly, and then with a strong pull yanking the pelt off. The legs were tied together and both skins hung over the branch of a nearby tree, the location being carefully noted. Then the boy rode on his melancholy task. As the daylight began to wane, the effect of the hard day's work was felt by both horse and rider, and John looked forward to the time, but a couple of hours off now, when he would return to the warm shack and satisfy his already ravenous hunger. They were still many miles from shelter, and he knew that travelling must be difficult, if not dangerous. "Come, Roany, old boy, brace up!" he called cheerily to his fagged mount, giving him a friendly pat on the neck at the same time. "We've got to get home." And he touched him lightly with his quirt. The good horse responded bravely and floundered through the deep snow, emerging on a bare, wind-swept spot where he could make much better time. The pace was so good that John could almost feel in imagination the warm glow of the fire and smell the fragrance of frying bacon. As they went on their way they reached a steep little hill, the sides of which were covered deep with snow; down this they plunged with ever-increasing speed. Suddenly Roany stopped, stopped so short, indeed, that John was thrown over his head into a bank of snow. As soon as might be he picked himself up, dug the snow out of his eyes, ears, and mouth, and looked to see what the trouble was. Roany was struggling violently. John soon found that he had stepped into a deep badger hole, the sides and top of which, frozen hard, were unyielding, and held the poor beast's leg like a vise, twisting and breaking the joint badly. The boy saw at once that Roany would have to be killed; that there was no help for him. It would be a mercy to put him out of his misery, for he could feel him quivering, and his eyes bulged out with pain. It was a hazardous position for himself, but for the moment he forgot it in his distress for his horse. "Roany, old boy, I've got to kill you," he said, feeling that he must justify his act--really one of mercy. "You'll freeze to death if I don't." He drew his six-shooter from the holster, put the muzzle against the horse's forehead, then, turning his face away, pulled the trigger. A few convulsive struggles and Roany's sufferings were over. John loosened the cinch, and with considerable difficulty pulled the saddle from under and hung it to a nearby poplar; the bridle was treated likewise; then he stood up and looked around him, wondering what he should do next. It was no time for sentiment, so he gave his whole thought to the best way of reaching the shack. He was already tired and hungry; the wind was blowing the still falling snow so that it was blinding, and there were seven miles of rough country to cover before shelter could be reached. John set his teeth, and, after giving a final glance at his faithful horse, he set out. This time, fortunately, he had but himself to think of and look out for, and if he could cover the distance before freezing all would be well. He struck off to the right, and, after floundering through drifts, sliding down steep places, and fighting the biting blast in the open, he came to the creek that ran past the shack: he had but to follow it. Hour after hour he toiled along, his body bathed with sweat, his hands, feet, and face icy cold. The snow blown in his eyes blinded him, hidden obstructions tripped him, and hunger took away his strength. Late that night he stumbled through the door of the shack into the warmth and light. Barney was wide awake and watching. "By God! I'm glad you're in," he said, grabbing him by the arm and dragging him forward; then, as the lamp-light shone on him clearly, he turned him round and pushed him out again. "Your face is white: it's frozen. Get snow on it, quick." John thought he had had enough snow on him that day--face and all--to last him the rest of his life, but he submitted to the rough rubbing that Barney gave him without a word, and soon the chalky look gave way to the glow of red blood circulating freely. He was thoroughly exhausted, but the food and fire prepared by his partner revived him somewhat, and he turned into his rough, hard bunk and slept like a hibernating bear. When the sun came out bright and warm and the snow began to melt, the havoc wrought by the storm became manifest. Only the strongest cattle remained alive, and of these most were males. The survivors were weak and their bones almost punctured their worn-looking skins. In the more sheltered spots lay many once sturdy cows and heifers that later became a heap of whitened bones. Though the thaw revealed all these horrors, it also uncovered the herbage, and little by little the remaining animals began to gain strength and weight. Now the range-riders were kept busy pulling the foolish ones out of big holes. Each day the various bunches of cattle were visited, and with discouraging frequency some of them would be found mired helplessly, weakened by their long fast and rendered crazy by fright; their struggles to get out of the sticky mud only sunk them more deeply. It now became the cowboy's duty to throw his rope over the mired beast's horns, make the other end fast to the saddle horn, then to urge the sturdy little cow-pony forward with whip and spur. The pony tugs, the cow struggles, and soon she is standing on _terra firma_, exhausted, indeed, but safe. This is hard work for the pony and its rider, to say nothing of the cause of all the trouble--which is looked upon merely as so much beef to be saved. With steady spring weather came the opportunity to visit the home ranch, and John was glad enough to take advantage of it. It was a long time since he had seen Frank, and, of course, there was much to talk of. It was Sunday, in the forenoon, and work, for the time being, was slack. Eight or ten cow-punchers were at the ranch and were amusing themselves with a little buckskin-colored horse. His viciousness had earned him the title of "Outlaw"--that is, he was considered unbreakable. He was in the corral, small of stature, and, to the uninitiated, innocent enough in appearance; but for all that he had just bucked off Greaser Tony, as good a rider as one could find in a long day's journey. The cow-punchers sat on the fence and egged each other on to tackle the unconquerable little beast; such an exhibition was great sport to the looker-on, but of doubtful pleasure to the participant. "Try him, Billy Iron-legs," said one. "You can stick him." "Try him yourself," responded Iron-legs. "You're lookin' for fun, and that breakfast you put away needs a little shakin' up." "How'd the earth look from the bird's-eye view you got of it, Tony?" said Frank to Greaser Tony, who was off in a corner counting his bruises and swearing softly. "Here, Shorty, you ride him; you're always lookin' for somethin' lively." Shorty's inclination to kick about his mount was well known; he had a way of calling whatever horse was set apart for him to ride "old cow" or "kitten." The proposition to put him on the "Outlaw" and tie him there was hailed with delight, but he dropped from his place on the fence and vanished before any one could lay hands on him. At this juncture Frank came to where John sat, and pointing to one of the men said, "That's the horse-range boss. I advise you to ride that little buckskin yourself; 'twon't do you any harm and they'll think a lot of you." Any of these men could ride the horse, but it is never pleasant to ride a bucking broncho, and it is sometimes dangerous. John accepted his friend's advice, and when Frank shouted, "Here's a chap that'll ride the cayuse," he jumped over the fence into the corral and went up to the outlaw. He was already saddled and a hackamore was twisted round his nose. John thought he knew horses pretty well, for his long intimacy with Baldy gave him the inside track of equine character. The little buckskin's unbroken spirit and courage pleased him and he felt friendly. The little fellow had been abused; his sides were cut and barred by quirting, his head and nose were skinned by rough ropes in still rougher hands. All men were his enemies, and at John's approach he struck out with his fore feet, but the boy avoided them and caught the hackamore close up to the head. He put his left foot in the stirrup. The horse's eye was upon him, but though the pony was quick he was quicker, and was in the saddle and had caught the right stirrup before the first jump was finished. Round one in favor of the boy, and the on-lookers said "Good!" Then began some of the "tallest" stiff-legged bucking ever seen in that corral. Head between his legs, back humped, squealing shrilly, the little horse shot up in the air and came down stiff-legged with a jar that made the ground tremble. Every trick known to the cunning breed was tried--jumping sideways, twisting in the air, plunging, rearing front and back--all in vain. John stuck like a leech till the "Outlaw" tired himself out. He lasted for fifteen minutes with scarcely a pause. Then with head drooping, nostrils turned out till the red showed, literally drenched with sweat, he stood quiet, his body exhausted but his spirit unconquered. John dismounted and pulled off the saddle, patted the little horse's neck, and turned him loose. It was a pretty exhibition of horsemanship, and the spectators appreciated it. It was done fairly, there was no "pulling leather" (holding on) or "hobbling stirrups" (tying them underneath the horse--a great assistance). A number of the punchers expressed their approbation. "Good work, kid." "That's all right, pardner," said they. The boss said nothing, but a week or two later John got orders to come down to the ranch and bring his bed. CHAPTER XVI. A BRONCHO BUSTER. The Sun River Ranch was a large one, and many cowboys were employed to look after the stock; practically all the work was done on horseback, the cow-puncher or the ranchman never deigning to go afoot--indeed it would not have been possible to cover the necessary ground by any other means. A great many horses therefore were needed, each cowboy requiring three or four, especially at those times of the year when they are ridden very hard and have to be changed frequently. The care and raising of the horse herd were consequently very important parts of the cattle-ranch business. The cow-ponies were bred on the ranch and allowed to run free (it being a well-known fact that they would not stray very far) until the colts were old enough to break to the saddle, when they were taken in hand by certain of the men who showed particular skill in that direction. John did not appreciate the full significance of the order to return to the home ranch till Frank, who seemed to be a walking information bureau, enlightened him. "If you want to go on the horse range Harris will take you," he was informed. "It's cleaner work than chasing cows, and there's more money in it. Want to go?" "You bet," was John's short and emphatic answer. His encounter with the little buckskin broncho was exciting and he wanted more; then, too, cattle are tame, stupid creatures compared with horses. "Here's your man," said Frank to Harris, the head of the horse outfit, introducing John. "He says he's ready now." "Good! You'll find Matt and Jerry in the corral now. Go over and pitch in. There's twenty-five head that I want ridable by the time round-up begins; that's only a week, and you'll have to work 'em hard." And so John became a broncho buster. He reached the rough circular enclosure made of split rails laid one over the other alternately and strongly braced to stand the strain that would surely be brought to bear. Inside the corral were about twenty-five horses that had not seen a man half a dozen times in their lives; they were now trying to get as far away as possible from the two men, Matt and Jerry, and ran frantically around close to the fence that walled them in. They were as wild as deer and about as swift. _Swish_! hissed the rope. As John climbed the fence it settled over the neck of a big bay. In a second the boy was inside and hanging on with the other two men to the end of the rope. The bay plunged and tugged, almost frantic with fright and rage, but the three kept their grip and gradually pulled him by jerks away from the bunch and towards the centre. Nearer and nearer he is worked towards the "snubbing post," a stout log stuck upright in the ground; a couple of turns round this holds him fast. Jerry takes in the slack as he plunges and jumps until he faces the post only a few yards off; then he stops, plants his feet, and sets back on the rope; the tightening noose shuts off his wind, and he wheezes and struggles for a few moments, totters, and falls breathless. Matt springs to his head and sits down on it, the rope is relaxed, and the poor beast is allowed to breathe again. Matt still holding him down, though he struggles with might and main, John knots the rope loosely round his neck and shoulders, runs it back under the hind fetlock, draws it tight, pulling the leg up close to the body, and makes it fast. At a word from Jerry, Matt jumps to one side and the bay struggles to his feet--helpless, as he has but three legs to stand on. John rubs his neck soothingly, keeping a sharp watch the while for nipping teeth; he believes even a horse has some feelings. Matt then takes the noose from the neck, and, forcing it into his mouth, leads the end back of the ears, makes a half-hitch round the nose, then passes the end through the noose again--lo! a rough sort of bridle or "hackamore." Taking the loose end, Matt begins to pull the animal's head from side to side until he understands that he must follow. The first lesson is, never run against a rope; it prevents comfortable breathing. Saddling comes next. A saddle blanket is thrown over the horse and rubbed gently up and down his back to acquaint him with the feel of it, then comes the saddle; the trappings frighten him and he struggles, trips, and falls. The operation is repeated, until finally the cinches are drawn and buckled securely. The big bay snorts and trembles in every fibre, terrified at his bonds, the first he has encountered in his wild, free life--he cannot understand it. [Illustration: THE SNUBBING POST HOLDS HIM FAST.] [Illustration: JERRY TAKES IN THE SLACK.] [Illustration: JOHN KNOTS THE ROPE LOOSELY ROUND HIS NECK. (_Page 263._)] Matt and Jerry have ridden two wild horses apiece that morning, so John volunteers to tackle the bay. The horse is still thrashing round at a great rate, but his foot is still tied up and he can do little. John reaches up and knots his handkerchief round the poor beast's eyes, then releases the foot, mounts quickly into the saddle, and leaning forward removes the blindfold. The frightened animal stands still, cowering like a whipped cur or a chicken that sees a hawk circling: above her: he seems to be waiting for the strange, dreadful creature on his back to strike him some fearful blow or sink its claws into his flesh--dreading he knows not what. He bounds forward a few steps--still the burden sticks, and he stops and looks round at it. His fear fades and the courage and energy of his race return; he determines to get rid of this thing that clings so tightly. He leaps forward, runs a few yards full tilt, then stops short, fore legs stiff, hind legs crouching; it's a very sudden jerk, but John hangs on with his knees, leaning far back in the saddle. Again the horse tries the manoeuvre; no use; he rears on his hind legs and then on his fore legs; he jumps sideways, bucks, pitches, kicks, without a moment's rest for fifteen minutes. There is no pause, no chance to get a better hold, to take breath; it is a continuous violent paroxysm of motion. At the end of it the bay is well-nigh exhausted and all in a tremble, while John, though pretty well jarred, is calm and master of the situation. The horse at length submits to the superior will, and, magnificent still but now under control, does his best to carry out his master's wishes. By the time the bay was well in hand and John was ready to take the saddle off and let him go free for the rest of the day, Matt and Jerry had roped another horse and the same tactics were pursued with it. So the work was carried through till dark, each man taking his turn riding horses that had never been bestrode by a living creature before. There was a kind of wild, exhilarating excitement about it, but it was terribly wearing, and the jar and strain were enough to use up a dozen men unaccustomed to the work. The following day all the horses were ridden again, with less difficulty this time, though they were lively enough to suit any one. Some took a week's training, some a month's, some were never wholly subdued. To this latter class belonged the little buckskin "Outlaw," with which John had had such a lively time and who made his reputation as a broncho buster. The boy and the horse had much to do with each other for a number of years. Their close acquaintanceship came about thus: The little buckskin was roped regularly every morning, choked down, and after a great deal of struggling, saddled; then some one of the cow-punchers would ride him until he was thoroughly exhausted. This was continued so long that the little horse became but a bag of bones, chafed and bruised, a wreck, but unbroken in spirit. In spite of everything he continued a fighter with each ounce of strength that was in him--a "dead game horse." "He's an outlaw if ever there was one," said Harris one day. "If we can't give him away we'll have to shoot him, for he's making every other horse wild, though he's near ridden to death." "Let me have him," said John, who happened to be standing near and overheard the remark. "He's a dead game little beast and I like him. I think I can work him." "Take him and welcome, kid," said Harris, with an air of relief. "The wilder he is the tougher. Tame him and you'll have a star." And so John came into possession of the little buckskin, whom he named appropriately "Lightning" or "Lite." Jerry said, when the question of giving him a proper name was under consideration, "I've known several horses named Lightning, but I've never seen a hoss as would fit the name like him." The boy's heart had not so gone out to a horse since Baldy's time, and though the two ponies were very different in appearance and disposition, in after years John found it hard to tell which he most cared for. Before beginning the training he let up on the terrible strain, the constant struggle, to which "Lite" had been subjected and allowed him to recuperate; he took care of him himself, and later, when he grew stronger, allowed no one else to ride him. Gradually the horse learned to know his master and understood that that master would not ill-treat him; and so there grew up a sort of sympathy between them. "Pitch" he always did when John first mounted him, but he soon settled down to steady business, and a mighty capable beast he proved to be. Though John found the wages of a broncho buster good, the work was very hard, it being the most violent sort of gymnastics all day long. When night came he was glad enough to sit down and rest; he would, in fact, not have been sorry to turn in right after supper, but the talk and stories the men told were too good to be lost. It was near round-up season and the riders were being gathered, preparatory to starting off on that great yearly summing-up expedition. There were men from all over the United States and Mexico, college-bred men and men of the soil. No man knew the other's history, nor would any one ask questions. There was hardly one but had strange experiences, some of which they told. Then there were songs, many of which were familiar to all and therefore popular. Frank Bridges soon became a favorite with everyone; his good nature and jolly fellowship won him many friends. Moreover, he had a good voice and was constantly called upon to exhibit his ability. It was on a restful evening, after supper was over and the last rays of the sun were sinking; the men were lounging about in the most comfortable positions they could find; the talk had died down to a monosyllable now and then. Matt, the broncho buster, broke the silence: "Frank, give us the 'Grass of Uncle Sam'; you're the only feller that can remember words and tune both." And Frank, obliging as always, without any excuses or palavering, sang the following in a good strong baritone: [Music: Now, peo--ple of the East-ern towns, it's lit--tle that you know A--bout the West--ern prair-ies: Where the beef you eat does grow; Where the hors-es they run wild with the mountain-sheep and ram; And the cow-boy sleeps con-tent-ed on the grass of Un-cle Sam.] THE GRASS OF UNCLE SAM. Now, people of the Eastern towns, It's little that you know About the Western prairies: Where the beef you eat does grow; Where the horses they run wild With the mountain-sheep and ram; And the cow-boy sleeps contented On the grass of Uncle Sam. We go out onto the round-up To brand the sucking calf. The stranger gets the bucking horse (You bet then we all laugh). He flings his arms towards the sky, His legs get in a jam; He turns a flying somersault On the grass of Uncle Sam. The angry bull takes after us With blood in both his eyes; We run, but when his back is turned He gets a big surprise. Our ropes jerk out his legs behind And he goes down _kerslam_! We drag the fighting out of him On the grass of Uncle Sam. The horse-thief comes along at night To steal our ponies true We're always looking out for him, And sometimes get him, too. We ask him if he's ready And when he says "I am," The bottoms of his feet they itch For the grass of Uncle Sam. And when the round-up's over To town we go for fun. The dollars we have hoarded up Are blown in, every one. Then broke, we hit the trail for camp But we don't care a ---- Wages are good when the grass is good, The grass of Uncle Sam. [Illustration: Bunch Grass.] By the time the singer was half-way through most of the impromptu audience were singing the familiar air too. Their voices were none too sweet or soft, for the icy blasts of winter and the dust-laden breezes of summer did not tend to improve them; but it was with a right good will that they applauded Frank when he finished. The song over, the talk began again, quietly, with long pauses, while this man puffed his pipe or that rolled a cigarette. The light had entirely gone out of the sky now, and only the dim glow of the shack lamp through the open door showed one man to the other. "Well, kid, think you can tame the buckskin?" drawled Jerry lazily. "Sure--after a fashion. 'Lite' 'll never be an easy thing; he's got too much life in him, but we have got to know each other pretty well now and we'll get along all right." "You get that little horse so's you can ride him and you'll have the best pony goin'." Matt spoke with conviction. The talk grew more and more disjointed, and finally stopped altogether. Then one by one the men stalked without a word into the cabin, and in a few minutes all hands were drinking in the sleep as only thoroughly tired, healthy men can. CHAPTER XVII. A COW-PUNCHER IN EARNEST. The round-up was now at hand--that great account of "stock taking," literally, the closing of the year's books as it were, on the cattle range. At its conclusion the ranchman would know whether the previous winter's storms and cold had allowed him any increase or not. The cattle roam at will over great tracts of country bounded only by watercourses and the wire fences along the railways; the herds of one ranchman mingle with those of another, and only during the round-up are they separated and the calves marked with their respective owners' brands. The date of the round-up is fixed beforehand and all the details arranged, so that when the day arrives every man is ready to take the field. As several owners have cattle on the range, each sends his quota of cowboys to do the riding, and all work together under a general head or round-up boss. The Sun River Ranch had perhaps the largest number of cattle out, and its outfit consisted of twenty-five men, with two cook wagons and several other vehicles to carry beds and various necessaries. The morning of May 25th, the day set for the rendezvous of the round-up, was as near perfect as one could wish. With the first streak of light in the east all hands were routed out, and after a hasty breakfast, everyone at once set about making the last preparations to take the field. Some helped the cooks load up their wagons and pack the utensils; some were busy piling the beds into their places, and the rest were occupied with their own riding outfits or looking after the large saddle band. It was a gay crowd; you would have thought it was a gang of boys off for a swim instead of a party of men bound on a very serious undertaking, accompanied, as it was sure to be, with a good deal of danger and no end of hard work and privation. John was in the thick of it, looking after the horses he had helped to break. Of these there were a goodly number, for from six to eight were required for each man. He noted with pride that "Lite's" bruises had entirely healed and that his bones were almost wholly hidden by the firm flesh and muscle he had gained under his new master's watchful care. The boy was to be one of the gang that represented the Sun River Ranch, and he looked forward to the round-up as an opportunity to show what was in him. At last the procession was ready to move, and amid a chorus of "so longs" to those left behind, the shouts of men, the whinny of horses, the rattle and bang of wagons and cooking utensils, the snapping of whips, and the beating of hoofs, it started. Little time was wasted in making the journey to the camping place, for all were anxious to get to work. At this time, men gathered together from widely separated points, acquaintanceship was renewed and gossip exchanged. The following morning found them at the appointed camping ground in convenient proximity to a stream, and at about the centre of the territory which it was proposed to sweep clean of cattle. Already the triangle bar ([Symbol: Triangle over bar]) and the M T outfits had arrived; their cook wagons were unpacked and their fires built. It was not long before the Sun River boys, called the Three X outfit, from their brand (XXX), were likewise settled. The settling in order was not a very elaborate proceeding; there were no carpets to be laid--"the grass of Uncle Sam" served that purpose admirably--the bric-à-brac consisting of saddles, bridles, and some harness, which was slung carelessly on the ground; and the furniture, if the rolled-up blanket beds could be called such (and there was no other), were left in the wagons till wanted. A hole a foot or so deep and a few feet in diameter was dug in the ground to hold the fire and at the same time prevent it from spreading to the surrounding prairie--a thing to be dreaded. The tail of the cook's wagon was let down, thus forming a sort of table and disclosing a cupboard arrangement. An awning was spread over the whole and it was ready for business. As soon as these arrangements were completed the men broke up into little groups, renewing old friendships and exchanging the bits of news that one or the other had learned. John hung round the cook's wagon, making friends with that important individual. He was no poor hand with the frying-pan himself, and the appreciation of the cook's efforts soon won over this personage. "Well, Billy," John was saying, "you'll be kept pretty busy this trip, I guess." "Yes, it'll be no easy thing," he answered. "It's a big round-up, and it's so terrible dry for this time of year and so dusty that the boys'll be weary and lookin' for trouble--and it'll all come back on me." "Oh, I guess not," said John consolingly, as he walked about, kicking the tufted buffalo grass and swishing his quirt about aimlessly. "I tell you what, Billy, it wouldn't take much to start a fire in this"--he slapped the grass with his lash. "With a wind like this we'd have a blaze in a minute that would be harder to stop than----Look out!" John rushed over to the shallow firepit, shouting warnings as he ran, and began stamping down the thin edge of fire that was eating its way into the bone-dry grass. While the two were talking, a gust of wind had blown a brand out of the pit and into the tinder-like hay. John kept stamping frantically, and in an instant Billy had joined him and was also vigorously engaged in crushing out the dreaded flames. They both shouted lustily, and soon a number of the punchers, seeing the thin smoke and realizing the danger, came over to help. Fire is perhaps the thing of all others that the plainsman dreads; a prairie blaze once fairly started and sweeping over an expanse of territory is almost impossible to stop, and there is nothing to do but run before it; man and beast, tame and wild, flee from it. Only charred and blackened ashes lie behind the swiftly advancing thin line of flame. All this came into the minds of the men as they tramped out the red tongues of flame that lapped ever further along and around. There was no time to plough round (even if such an aid as a plough could be had) and so check the fire by turning under what it fed upon. Soon it was seen that it would take more than the trampling of men's feet to put it out, and a line was started down the creek with buckets. Then blankets and gunny sacks were wet and beaten against the flames. The smoke choked and blinded, and the heat was almost unbearable, but the men kept the blankets going until the spiteful red tongues drew back defeated, and died. It was a hard fight for a couple of hours, and when it was over those who took part were hardly recognizable--faces blackened and eyes reddened by smoke, hair, beards, and mustaches singed. John, who had drawn his smoke-begrimed fingers over his cheeks and forehead, was a sight; Frank saw him thus and said he looked like a cross between a tiger and an ourang outang. [Illustration: ROPED.] [Illustration: THROWN.] [Illustration: WHOSE IS IT? A QUESTION OF OWNERSHIP.] For a day or two after all the outfits came into camp the time was spent in organizing the round-up and planning the campaign. The ranchmen or foremen, as the case might be, were extremely busy during this time, but for once the punchers were at liberty to do as they pleased. All sorts of cowboy sports were indulged in; horse-racing (where "Lite," like Baldy, generally came out ahead, under John's understanding jockeyship), rope-throwing, and feats of horsemanship. What to an Easterner would appear impossibilities were commonplace acts of good riding for a cow-puncher. Picking up a hat from the ground while riding at full speed was a feat of good but not at all extraordinary riding. The men were full of life and energy--skylarking was going on continually. It was no place for the seeker of peace and quietness; the air was filled with cowboy yells and shouts of laughter. The unwary one, afoot or on horseback, was likely to hear a sudden swish and in a second find himself hugging mother earth and acting as if he was trying to pull a peg with his teeth, the result of some rope throwing in his rear. As evening draws near the word is passed that "real work will begin to-morrow," and all hands quiet down, realizing that they will need all the strength that rest can give them. Soon after supper the men pull out their bed rolls, spread them, and, using their saddles as head rests, turn in. The Sun River round-up is in camp. The moon beams placidly down and shows in high relief the white-topped wagons and tents huddled together. Beds are scattered here and there upon the ground, and from each comes the sound of tired men's breathing. Half a dozen saddled and picketed horses crop the grass near by, and a small bunch of cattle, guarded by a single rider, who lolls sleepily in his saddle, lie a little further off, their heavy bodies appearing strange and shapeless in the half light. A coyote from a little distance barks and howls, but even its voice is drowsy. The only animated sound comes from a bell on a horse tinkling as he feeds. At four o'clock a little red spark appears near the XXX outfit and the cook can be dimly discerned moving round his wagon. Soon the smoke begins to pour from his fire, and then the cooks of other outfits also show signs of life. Tin pans and kettles are heard to rattle, and breakfast is under way. At a quarter to five the cooks begin the _reveille_ of the plains; dishpans in hand they move about among the sleeping men beating an awakening call neither musical nor poetic, but most effective. Between the strokes comes the long-drawn cry, "Grub p-i-l-e! Grub p-i-l-e!" Apparently it is no easier to rouse up from the rough couch, knobbed as it is with the inequalities of the surface of the ground beneath, than it is to rise from "flowery beds of ease." "Cow-punching ain't what it's cracked up to be," said Jerry grumblingly to John as they lay near a XXX wagon. "I'm goin' to quit after this round-up and drive a horsecar." "It is kinder tough," returned the younger. "I haven't got used to 'Lite's' prancin's yet and I'm stiff." It's the privilege of every working man on land and sea to grumble at the early getting-up time, and the cow-puncher takes all possible advantage of this immemorial right. They obeyed the summons, nevertheless, and by the time the night-wrangler came up with the saddle band Jerry and John were on hand with the rest of the punchers, having rolled up and stowed their beds in the wagon. A rope corral was drawn about them which sufficed to keep them together, the cow-pony having learned the lesson thoroughly not to run against a rope, even if it is flimsily supported. Each man took his lariat and flung it over the horse he wanted to ride that day. As the noose tightened round the neck of each horse it stood stock still till its owner came up to it. Led a little apart, the fifty-pound saddle was flung over, and in spite of more or less struggling the cinches were drawn tight and the heavy bridle buckled on. The rush for the mess wagon which followed resembled a run on a bank, and for a few minutes the clatter of tin dishes and steel knives and forks drowned all other sounds. A tin cup of strong, black coffee, a slice or two of bacon, potatoes swimming in gravy, and a generous chunk of bread comprised the bill of fare. With plates and cups filled, John and Jerry go off a little way to a wagon, and sitting cross-legged with backs against the wheels, proceed to put away with all possible dispatch the food allotted to them. In a few minutes breakfast is over, when each man brings his dishes and throws them on the pile which cook is already busily engaged in washing. Similar proceedings have been going on at all the different outfits at the same time, and soon all hands converge towards the round-up boss's camp. John and Jerry joined the gathering crowd near the "captain's" wagon and waited for orders. After a few minutes Kline, captain of the round-up, appeared, a stocky man with a gray beard, slouch hat, and greasy, round-up clothes, chaps, flannel shirt, and big spurs. The crowd quieted down instantly. "Barrett, take six men and go to the head of Bar Creek and rake the brush like a fine-tooth comb," began Kline. Barrett swung into the saddle, and picking out six men rode off with them. "Haggerty, take six men and clean up Crooked Creek; Moore, three men and go up Indian Gulch," and so the orders went. Each group started on the instant, and trotting off, disappeared in a cloud of dust. Soon all the punchers had gone; only the cooks, the horse-wranglers, and a few drivers were left. Jerry and John had been sent up a small creek to drive in all the cattle they found in that section. The head of the creek reached (it was about fifteen miles off), Jerry, who was riding some distance from John, signalled to him to turn back and make a detour so as to get around the animals ahead. At the sight of the riders the wild cattle began to gather into bunches and stare; this tendency to come together made it much easier to drive them. By the time they had driven two miles a considerable number had gathered, which increased as it moved onward as a snowball gathers bulk when it is pushed along. When Jerry and John reached the main valley they were driving perhaps a couple of hundred head before them. Herds were pouring in from every direction, and soon the whole valley was filled with a vast mass of variously tinted animals, their horns tossing like a sea of tall grass. Over all hung a great cloud of dust that obscured the sun and made it impossible to distinguish a rider the other side of the herd. "This is fierce," ejaculated John as he tried to peer through the brown-gray cloud at another rider. "A cow-puncher can't live without dust," returned Jerry, whose face was covered with a gray mask, through which his eyes shone in strong contrast. "My teeth is worn down and my lungs coated with it, but I don't mind it no more. Look out for that cow there!" An old cow, made angry and brave at once by an apparent menace to her calf, was charging down on John full tilt--tail up, head down, eyes rolling--vengeance in every motion; for a minute it looked as if he would be run down: the charging beast was going at such speed that she would be hard to avoid; but when she was within five feet of the boy's horse he gave a quick pull on the rein, a sharp jab with his spurs, and the clever little cow-pony wheeled sharply round and out of range, the old cow lumbering harmlessly by, her own weight and impetus preventing her from turning. "You want to keep your eye out for those old cows with calves," admonished Jerry, "they're looking for trouble." All hands were now busy keeping the great herd together, single animals were constantly breaking out and had to be driven back; sometimes several would start at once, when there would be some pretty sharp riding for a while. It was about midday, the sun was blazing down from above, the dust rose in clouds from below, lining mouths and nostrils of the riders. Since six o'clock they had been in the saddle constantly, and all felt, as Jerry expressed it, "Plumb empty and bone dry." The herd presently quieted down somewhat and allowed the men to eat in relays, some watching while others fed. It was the briefest kind of a meal, but it sufficed, and in a half hour every man was ready, mounted on a fresh horse, for the real work of the day--"cutting out." John and Jerry approached the tumultuous herd, a swirling restless sea of backs and horns. The din was tremendous; every cow lowed to her calf and every calf to its mother; the tread of thousands of hoofs even on the soft earth caused a heavy, rumbling sound that filled the air, and above all was the sharp rattle of one horn against another, of a thousand horns against each other. Into this seething mass of living wild creatures armed with sharp horns, and the tread of whose hoofs was death, must go the cowboy and his intrepid pony. To drive out the cows and their accompanying calves, so that the brand of the mother might be put on the offspring, was the cow-puncher's duty. Jerry and John were as usual near together, and Jerry as usual grumbling. He declared that this cow-punching was a dog's life and that he would surely quit it after this round-up. John, as was his custom of late, was discoursing on the merits of "Lite." "I'll show you what a good cutting-out horse he is to-day," the youngster was saying. "You just watch him." Jerry suddenly rode off to head off a steer that had broken out of the bunch and so stopped the boy's talk. When he came back John was about to dismount to aid a weak calf to rise. "Look out!" was all Jerry had time to shout, as an old cow with horns like spears came charging down on the stooping boy. It was not her calf, but she thought it was. John's horse had become startled and ran back so fast that he could not reach the saddle horn to mount. The infuriated cow was within twenty feet of him, the cattle hedged him in on every side so he could not run, and he reached round for his six-shooter as a last resort. He was about to pull the trigger when Jerry's rope came flying through the air, settled round the animal's hind legs, and down she came in a heap just in time. "You'll take my word next time when I tell you not to dismount in a bunch of cattle." John said nothing, but he realized that it was a pretty close shave. Soon the cutting-out process began, to accomplish which the rider enters the main bunch, selects a cow with a calf bearing the brand of his outfit, and drives them out to a place apart, where other riders keep them separated from the main bunch and from the similar collections of other brands. To select his own brand from dozens of others requires a quick and sure eye on the part of the rider, and to follow that particular cow through all the turnings and twistings she is sure to take, requires great cleverness and perseverance on the part of the horse. It was "Lite's" first experience as a cutting-out horse, but John had full confidence in his ability in this as in every other branch of cow-pony education. "You just watch him"--this to Jerry, who had expressed some doubts. John and Lightning rushed into the sea of cattle. Whether by the gentle pressure of the knees or remarkable knowledge Jerry knew not, but he saw the little horse single out an animal and start it out, following directly at its heels. It turned to the left sharply; Lightning deftly threw his fore legs over its back and stood in its path; it turned to the right--horse and rider were there also. Through the herd they went full speed, twisting, turning, passing through lanes of cattle so narrow that John's legs rubbed their rough bodies on either side; but always they were close at the heels of the XXX cow, and finally they drove her out where Jerry was guarding several others of the same outfit. "How's that?" said John breathlessly. It was hard work for horse and rider, particularly for the former. "That's all right," Jerry answered, more enthusiastically than was his wont. "He's got the making of a good cow-horse in him." CHAPTER XVIII. A MIDNIGHT STAMPEDE. On a wide flat the round-up outfit commenced working the big bunch. As the cutters-out dart here and there, whirling, dodging, and following, the small individual bunches slowly increase in size, while the main bunch correspondingly dwindles. John and his Lightning work away with other riders until only the nucleus of the herd remains, and in five minutes this too has vanished. Each outfit pauses to rest a few minutes before the counting and branding begin; in the meantime Jerry is coaxing the fire in which the branding irons are heating. "What'll you give for the buckskin now?" said John with pardonable pride, as he drove in the last animal bearing the XXX brand. "He'll do; but I want to see you rope with him before I take back all I've said," answered Jerry, "He cuts out pretty well, but you get a calf on your string and the string under his tail and he'll dizzy you," and Jerry began to poke the fire, chuckling the while. "Oh, you're jokin'; I can ride him now without stirrups. I tell you he's a broke horse." "The iron is hot now," broke in Jerry, as he rolled up his sleeves. "Let's see what your horse can do. Bring in your calves." It was John's duty, with two other men, to rope the calves belonging to his ranch by the hind legs and yank them along the smooth grass to the branding fire, where Jerry applied the hot iron. He started Lightning on a run to rope the first calf, eager to prove his horse's ability. One sleek little fellow stood on the edge of the XXX bunch, gazing in wonder at the horse and his rider. Doubtless the calf thought this a strange creature, able to separate into two parts and reunite without the slightest inconvenience. John went straight for it and broke off its cogitations suddenly by whirling his rope and throwing it under the little fellow. The calf started and jumped into the loop, and John quickly drew the rope tight, pulling its hind legs from under it and throwing the little animal heavily. Lightning was checked and the calf rolled over and began to struggle and bleat piteously. A green horse is nearly always frightened the first time he pulls on a rope: he does not understand it, and Lightning was no exception to the rule. The rope touched his shifty hind legs and he kicked out with all his might; it rubbed harder as the calf struggled, and the horse began to whirl and plunge viciously in his efforts to get rid of the line that scraped his sensitive sides. [Illustration: DRAGGED IT UP TO THE FIRE.] [Illustration: ... WHILE THE IRON WAS APPLIED. (_Page 292._)] Fortunately the little creature got loose at this juncture and escaped. True to prediction, the rope got, under "Lite's" tail and now the fun commenced in earnest. He bucked as he had never bucked before, and all but stood on his head. The other outfits stopped work for the moment to see the sport. Lightning fairly foamed in his rage and fear; he bucked continuously, and every time he struck the ground he gave a hoarse squeal--shrill and wicked. John's strength was sorely tried; but after his boasting it would never do to be "piled up," so he set his teeth and vowed he would stick, no matter what happened. The fury of the effort made it a short one, but it seemed to John plenty long enough, for during the five minutes the saddle was like unto a hurricane deck in a raging sea. But through it all John came out triumphant. In the words of a bystander: "The little horse bellered and bucked and the kid never pulled leather" (did not hold on to the horn of his saddle). Which was high praise from a cow-puncher to a cow-puncher. "What'll you take for him?" called Jerry, as John dismounted to untangle the rope from "Lite's" heels. "Money can't buy him," was the reply. John was bruised and stiff, but his pride was not broken and his faith in his horse was undiminished, though it must be confessed it had received a severe shock. "He'll bring that calf in or I'll kill him tryin'," he said sturdily, and he mounted "Lite" again and went back. He found the same calf, roped it, and "Lite," after a few futile plunges, dragged it up to the fire, where he stood with heaving, sweat-covered sides while the iron was applied. The hard lesson had been taught and learned for all time. "He's got the making of a good cow-horse," admitted Jerry. "But, oh Lord! such a making!" The way John worked the little horse that day would have seemed cruel to a novice, but he intended that he should never forget the experience of the morning, and he never did. The last calf was branded at dusk, and by the time this necessary torture was completed poor "Lite" was about done up. The bunch was allowed its freedom for another year and the cattle began at once to wander off, the old cows licking the disfigured sides of their offspring, the calves shaking and writhing with pain, failing utterly to understand why they should be tortured thus. The wound soon heals, however, and though the soreness disappears the scar remains always. The day's work was over; the coolness of evening succeeded the heat of the day; the men stopped work and rode slowly into camp by star-light. John and Jerry unsaddled their tired horses and turned them over to the care of the night herder. "I'm dead tired, stiff, and sore to-night," said John, as he and his companion hustled for cups and plates in the dish box. "It's a dog's life," returned Jerry, taking the cue. "If I'm ever caught on a round-up again I hope they'll tie me on a broncho and turn him loose." He grumbled on as he sipped his steaming coffee. The two ate heartily and then strolled over to the main campfire, where perhaps fifty men lay sprawling upon the ground smoking, talking, and resting. "Hullo, there's the three X kid!" some one shouted. "How's the legs, kid?" "How d'ye like astronomy?" said another. And so the bantering went round, but John took it good-naturedly and even responded in kind. Soon a song was started, but the men were too tired to listen, and the singer stopped for lack of encouragement. About two hours after the day's work had ended all hands were rolled up in their beds and asleep, Jerry ending this first day on the round-up as he began it--grumbling. "Cow-punching is a job for a Chinaman," said he, dropping off to sleep. It was the most scathing condemnation his imagination could frame. This was but the first of a succession of days much alike, some easier, some harder, some full of incident and narrow escapes, others less exciting. The long dry spell had given way to a series of rainy days that were harder to bear than heat and dust. The wind-driven rain had a penetrating quality that nothing could withstand. The rider, after being in the rain all day, came into camp to find his bed saturated. The trying weather affected tempers, not only of the men but of their charges, the cattle, as well; they were nervous and restless, and this was especially true when electricity was in the air. As Jerry had said, it was "regular stampede weather." John had seen small bunches of stock break and run, and had followed them over ticklish country, but a big stampede had not yet been numbered among his experiences. He had often sat listening to some old veteran of the range tell of the horrors of a midnight stampede, when the great herds became an irresistible torrent of animal life driven on by unreasoning terror. He knew that some time he would become an actor in such a scene and dreaded it in anticipation. The sky was threatening when the riders were sent out one day to make the "big circle," as the gathering of cattle was called, a week or so after the organization of the round-up. By the time the bunch was collected it was raining heavily, and at intervals hailstones pelted man and beast viciously. The bunch was large that day, and as the storm continued the ground became too slippery and the cattle too crazy to attempt to work them. Nothing could be done but hold them together until things dried up a bit. The nervousness of the cattle was such that this required the activity of all hands. John and Jerry were out in all this stress of weather, and, strange as it may seem, the older cowboy was almost happy: he had a really new and good chance for grumbling. "Even a coyote can hunt his hole and keep dry, but a cow-puncher has to sit up straight and take his medicine," said Jerry, almost triumphant in his feeling of just resentment. "The worse the weather the more he has to brave it," he continued. "If I'm ever caught on a round-up----" "That's the tenth time you've said that to-day," said John, laughing in spite of his own discomfort. Jerry made a queer picture. His long, yellow oilskin slicker reached to his heels and was just running with water; the felt hat that almost entirely obscured his woebegone features dripped water down his neck. He looked as forlorn as an equestrian statue decorated with cheap bunting and paper flowers and thoroughly water-soaked. Everybody was out of humor and no opportunity was lost to register a "kick." "Say, you three X men," said the foreman, "scatter out there; d'yer take this for a conversation party?" "The horses is stupid and the cattle is worst. If I don't miss my guess there'll be trouble to-night. If ever I get caught in a----" Jerry's voice died away in a mere growl as he rode off to his post. Left alone, John turned his eyes to the sea of backs swirling up and down and around like an eddy in a troubled sea. Even now the half-crazed animals threatened to break through the frail line of men and scatter to the four winds. And still the driving rain continued. A night in the saddle was inevitable--a dreary enough prospect. As evening drew near, flashes of lightning and peals of thunder added to the terror of the almost unmanageable cattle. "Look at 'em steam," said John to himself, as he noted the vapor that rose from the acres of broad backs. "That's bad," said Jerry, as he came within earshot on his beat. "Steam brings down the lightning, men are high on horseback; steel saddles, metal spurs, six-shooters, and buckles make a man liable to catch it," and he disappeared in the mist, droning out as he went a verse of "The Grass of Uncle Sam" to quiet the cattle. It seemed futile to attempt to soothe the creatures by the sound of the human voice--they were in a tumult, and the slightest thing would set them off. For an instant there was a lull, and not only Jerry's but the voices of other riders could be distinctly heard singing and calling quietly to the cattle. Suddenly there came a fearful flash directly overhead and streams of liquid fire seemed to flow in every direction. This was followed immediately by a tremendous clap of thunder. The effect was instantaneous. Each animal seemed to be possessed of a demon and rushed headlong in whichever direction its head happened to be pointed. In an instant the orderly herd was changed to a panic-stricken rout, and the riders were swept irresistibly with it. The lightning flash was blinding, and the darkness which ensued was intense; through this men and beast rushed pell-mell without a pause, recklessly. John, with the other riders, was in the very midst of the mad, surging creatures, their eyes rolling in a perfect frenzy of fear, their very breaths in his face, their horns rattling together close beside and in front of him. It was every man for himself, but even in the midst of this frightful chaos the cow-puncher's sole thought was for his stock. John looked for a bunch to follow--to follow to death if need be, but if possible stop it. That was the plan in John's mind, but it seemed utterly impossible of fulfilment. There was no bunch; each animal for once went off on its own hook and the confusion was fearful. "I'll follow one then," said John to himself. Then to his horse: "Stand up now, old 'Lite.' If you fall you're a goner." One big steer alongside ran strongly, and John let "Lite" know that it in particular was to be followed. He couldn't be seen in the darkness, but "Lite" could smell him and kept at his flank. Away they went through mud and sage brush, over badger holes and boggy places. What lay in their path was a mystery, but "Lite" stuck to his leader like a leech. There was no time to reckon chances, if such a thing were possible. As vapor forms into raindrops, the running cattle began to draw together into groups which enlarged momentarily. John was now following one of these groups, but in the pitchy darkness he could not tell how many it numbered. As pursued and pursuers rushed on, the smooth, rolling prairie was left behind, and rough, broken country was encountered. Up steep-sided gullies they struggled and down slippery hillsides they scrambled after the terror-stricken cattle. "Now's our chance," said John, speaking, as was his wont under strong excitement, to his horse and patting his neck in encouragement for the supreme effort that was to come. He spurred to the front and began to turn the leaders around. He struck them on the nose with his quirt, slapped them with his hat, and yelled at them. Slowly one leader, then another, turned; others immediately behind followed, until the leader caught up with the tail of the bunch and round they went in a circle. "They're milling beautifully now, 'Lite,'" said John to his horse again. "We'll keep 'em at it till they're too tired for funny business." The circle gradually slowed to a trot, then a walk, then stopped altogether. The cattle were utterly exhausted, heads down, sides heaving and steaming. John leaned over in his saddle and patted his little horse affectionately. His feeling was one of fondness mixed with gratitude for the pony whose wiry limbs, sure feet, good bottom and intelligence had carried him safely through a difficult and dangerous duty. He thought of what had passed, and marvelled that he was alive. To make such a journey amid the tossing horns and thundering feet of the cattle, over treacherous ground, in total darkness, seemed an impossible feat, and yet here were horse and rider covered with mud, saturated with water, almost unbearably weary, it is true, but without a scratch. John began to realize the danger, now it had passed, and appreciated the fact that to his game little horse was his safety due. "Lite" received the caressing pat on his nose and the words of praise his master gave him with commendable modesty. The cattle were willing now to stand and rest; they all were trembling with fear and exhaustion and seemed in no condition to continue their flight. "Lite," too, was pretty well done up, so John dismounted and unsaddled him; then, after putting one blanket over him, he wrapped himself in the other and lay down in the mud to sleep. It was cold and sopping wet, but John's inward satisfaction made outward discomfort trivial. The hours were long before daylight--longer, the boy thought, than he ever knew them to be before. He was glad enough when the sun came and he was able to size up his capture. They numbered fifty head, and proud enough he was. "Lite" was feeding near; at John's call he came up and, without his usual capers, allowed himself to be saddled. The two started the bunch toward camp--weary, hungry, sleepy, wet, and cold, but triumphant. "My first stampede and back with fifty head," said John to his horse. "Not bad work, and I couldn't have done it but for you." The storm had spent itself during the night and morning broke gloriously fine. John and Lightning kept the cattle going as fast as their strength would allow, which was all too slow for the boy, who was anxious to show his work to Jerry--his chum, his friend and counsellor, Jerry the grumbler, the good-hearted. He knew that he would appreciate it, though he might joke. As the bunch appeared on a little rise a short distance from camp, a horseman galloped out to meet them and to help drive them into camp. "Hullo, kid!" said the man, when he got within earshot. "You've done pretty well; biggest bunch that's come in yet." "Oh, I've had a great old time," John began jubilantly, feeling as if he had not seen a human being for a month and must talk. "See that big spotted steer there, leadin'? Well, I follered that feller eight miles in the dark last night an' he set me a red-hot pace, you bet--but the buckskin here," patting Lite's mud-spattered shoulder, "followed him close all the way." "Well, you look it; got enough mud on yer to weigh down a team of iron horses." "How many cattle back?" asked John. "Only 'bout half the bunch." "That's too bad," sympathized the boy. "That's not the worst." The man stopped, and John noticed for the first time a peculiar expression on his face. "What's the matter?" said he. "One of your men----" he hesitated. "Well?" "One of your men," he repeated, "went down last night." "It wasn't Jerry?" cried John anxiously, having a premonition suddenly of something dreadful. "Say it wasn't Jerry!" "Yes, it was Jerry." The man spoke the words slowly and solemnly. "Horse's leg went into a badger hole and the cattle trampled him." CHAPTER XIX. AN AWAKENING. It was a terrible shock to the boy, and for a few moments he seemed dazed as if by a physical blow. He had come into camp weary of body but light and gay of heart, full of triumph, sure of a half-chaffing word of commendation from his friend and comrade. But that friend had met a horrible death. John's heart sank like lead, and for the time the light went out of the sky for him. There was no joy, no sunshine, no future--Jerry was dead! "Where is he?" John asked of the man who brought him the sad news. "In camp," was the answer. John was in haste to go to his friend, yet he dreaded it with all his soul. He forgot his triumph, his pride in his horse, his weariness, in the one thought that filled his mind--"Jerry is dead!" "So Jerry, great, strong, experienced Jerry, on his big bay went down, and I, neither strong nor wise, am safe and well," John soliloquized. In a minute or two they entered camp, and John's first question was "Where?" The cook nodded toward a bed outspread in the shade of a wagon. Mr. Baker, the ranchman, was there, and as John reached the place he pulled back the canvas covering. The boy never forgot the sight that met his view. Jerry it was, certainly, but almost unrecognizable. John sat down by him, overcome by his first great grief. Death he had seen many times, horrible deaths some of them, but none had come so close as this. Cook, perceiving his plight, brought him a cup of steaming hot coffee, well knowing that it would put heart into him. "Mr. Baker," said John at length, "he's got to be buried some place where the coyotes can't get at him." "But it's sixty miles to the ranch," objected the ranchman. "That's nothing. Let me have a team and a wagon and I'll get him there." After some demur, which John finally overcame, Mr. Baker allowed him to take a big wagon and a four-horse team. The body was laid in reverently, the horses harnessed and hitched up. Just as John was about to take up the reins Mr. Baker came forward. "I guess I'll go with you, Worth," he said. "Round-up's most finished and I can do more good at home." He climbed into the seat of the big covered wagon as he spoke; and after tying Lightning alongside the wheel horse, John took up the lines. The punchers stood round, hats off, their weather-beaten faces grave and full of concern. All of them realized that this might have been _their_ fate. Their rough hearts, accustomed as they were to all the chances of the dangerous life, were full of grief for the loss of their companion, "who was and is not." "So long!" they said--a farewell to living and dead. The whip cracked, the leaders jumped, and in a few minutes the white top of the wagon sank out of sight behind a rise. The sixty-mile funeral journey had begun. For some time employer and employee sat silent side by side. John's hands were busy with the four fresh horses he was guiding, and his mind with the real sorrow that filled it. He had never known Mr. Baker well; that familiar relation, unknown in the East, between employer and employed was prevented by John's absence on the range, but the boy was grateful for the kindness Mr. Baker had shown him. "How long have you known Jerry, Worth?" the ranchman asked at length, touched by the boy's grief, and his interest aroused. "Since I've worked for you only," was the answer. "Some people you never take to and some you know and like right off; Jerry was that kind. He always stood by me in quarrels, and many's the time he's stood a double watch 'cause he knew I was tired and he didn't want to wake me up. Yes, he stood by me through thick and thin." "He was a good hand, too," interpolated Mr. Baker. "He'd have divided his last dollar with me," continued John, more to himself than to his hearer. "I'd have done the same with him." All this time they were travelling at full speed. The four horses yanked the heavy wagon along steadily over gullies and ridges, through valleys, and over hilltops. A couple of hours passed in this way, during which John slowed the horses down over the rocky places and urged them forward where it was smooth. "What are you going to do with your money, Worth?" said Mr. Baker, hoping to dispel some of the sadness that hung over the boy. "You've not spent much this year, have you?" "'Bout three hundred dollars, I guess. Jerry and I thought of starting in with a little bunch of cows on our own hook, but----" The glance that John gave over his shoulder into the wagon finished the sentence. "Did you ever think of going to school?" asked the ranchman, intent on his effort to divert the boy's thoughts. "No, I saw a dude feller one time that had been to school all his life"--John spoke contemptuously--"and I'd rather punch cows all my days than be like him." "Why? He might have been a poor specimen. My son would have been a lawyer if he had lived, and I would a great deal rather have him one than a cow-puncher." John shook his head, unconvinced. A vision came to him of streets walled in on each side by buildings so that every thoroughfare was a cañon and every room a prison. The joy of wild freedom, fraught though it was with danger and hard work, tingled in his veins. [Illustration: HERDS WERE POURING IN FROM EVERY DIRECTION. (_Page 283._)] "You know if you stay on the range," continued Mr. Baker, "it's only a question of time when you'll be stiffened and broken down, or else, what may be better, you'll be caught as Jerry was. If you keep on punching cows all your life nothing will be left behind showing that you've been in the world but a pine plank set in the ground." For a time John's thoughts were as busy as his hands. A new idea had been presented to him--his future. What would he do with it? He loved the wild, free life he was now leading, and up to this time he had never thought of working for something higher and more lasting. Mr. Baker had stirred a part of him that had long lain dormant--ambition. His plans heretofore had seldom carried him further than a few days or weeks, his sole care was to do his duty and keep his job; but now he had a new care--his future. The horses jogged along steadily over the rough country, their driver getting every bit of speed out of them that would allow them to last the journey through. Most of the time Lightning went alongside the wheel horse contentedly. With particular perversity, however, as the team was passing through a narrow place, where there was barely enough room to pass, Lightning began a spirited altercation with his side partner. He shied off from him, pushed him, and bit at him till he in turn retaliated. For a time John had his hands full, but "Lite," in his efforts to kick holes in the unoffending side of the wheel horse, got tangled in the harness, and so stopped the whole business. His master extricated him with difficulty, and "Lite," instead of getting the punishment he so richly deserved, was petted instead, whereupon he became very good indeed and rubbed his nose affectionately against John's sleeve, as much as to say: "I'm sorry. I'll never do it again." "It seems to me," said Mr. Baker, after they had got started again, "that a fellow that could tame such a wicked brute as that horse was a few months ago could master anything, books or anything else." "Oh, I've read some books," said John eagerly, "and I thought I knew something till that dude feller told all about the things he knew. But that chap couldn't ride a sway-backed cow," and John smiled, sad as he was, at the thought. "You struck a poor sample," the ranchman responded. "He saw you could beat him physically, so he tried to get even with you mentally." For a time they rode along in silence, the boy busy with his own thoughts, which Mr. Baker was wise enough not to interrupt. At length Smith Creek, the half-way mark of their journey, was reached, and they stopped for water, rest, and food. The horses were unharnessed and allowed to feed a while. Thirty miles had been covered in less than five hours--thirty miles of diversified country, hill and plain, rock and mud. The road was not worthy of the name, it was merely a wheel track more or less distinct. John was restless, the short hour of relief allowed the faithful beasts seemed long to him, and he was more at ease when they were spinning along the trail again. He had been living on his nerve all the morning and the strain was beginning to tell. Soon Mr. Baker began to talk again. He was interested in the young companion by his side, this boy so filled with determination, so energetic and forceful and yet so abounding in loyalty and affection, as his grief over Jerry's death and his fondness for his horse testified; this boy who read books and yet had such a whole-souled contempt of affected learning as evidenced by his ill-concealed disdain of the Eastern "dude." "You've never been East," began the ranchman, "or to school?" "No. I was born in Bismarck, North Dakota," was the answer. "It must be queer," he added after a pause, and a smile lit up his tired face. "There's lots of women there, they say, and the men get their hair cut every month; the people have to always dress for dinner, the paper novels say, and everybody goes to school." Mr. Baker smiled at this description of the life and manners of the East, and kept plying the boy with questions, put kindly, until he had learned pretty much all there was to know about him. It was long since John had had so much interest shown him, and it warmed his heart; it was specially grateful at this time, when he felt that he had lost a tried and true friend. The ranchman advised him to work out the year and save his money, and at the end of that time doff his cowboy clothes and manners, array himself in a "boiled shirt," enter some good-sized town, and go to school and church. John was rather dubious about this; "muscle work," as he called it, work requiring a quick eye, a strong will, and the ability to endure, he knew he could do, but about brain work and book learning he was not so confident. The idea of wearing a "boiled shirt" made him smile. "Those stiff-bellied things the dudes wear," said he derisively. "Me wear one of those things!" and he laughed aloud at the thought. Nevertheless the serious idea took deep root, and while he did not make any promises he had a half-formed resolve to follow the old ranchman's advice. All this time the horses jogged along more and more wearily, and requiring more and more urging from the youngster on the driver's seat. The last ten miles seemed endless; it was all John could do to keep the team going, and even tireless Lightning running alongside moved unsteadily with fatigue. They were glad enough when the ranch buildings appeared dimly in the fast-deepening gloom. The sixty-mile drive was ended at last. When the wagon entered the ranch yard John almost fell into the arms of one of the men who had come to find out the cause of this unusually late arrival. It was Mr. Baker who told what the wagon contained and the story of Jerry's death. John dragged himself to a hastily improvised bed, and, dropping down on it, was asleep in a twinkling; the first rest for thirty-six long fatiguing hours. Late the next day he was awakened to attend Jerry's funeral. It was a very simple ceremony, but the evident sincerity of the mourners' grief made it impressive. He was laid away on a grassy knoll where several other good men and true had been buried by their comrades. A rude rail fence enclosed the spot--the long resting place of men who had died in the performance of their duty. For a time things went sadly at the ranch, for John (he did not rejoin the round-up) missed his cow-puncher friend, his good-natured grumbling, his ever-ready helping hand. But gradually the boy's faculty of making firm, loyal friends helped to fill the gap that Jerry's death had made, though no one could ever take his place. Mr. Baker's talk about school and a future took deep root, and as the boy turned the idea over in his mind it developed into a resolve to try it anyway. Life had a new meaning now for John, and he found it absorbingly interesting. The work he had to do was a means to an end, and the commonplace, every-day drudgery became simply a cog in the machinery, and therefore not only bearable but interesting. The boy's success as a breaker of horses kept him much of the time at that work. Since he had broken Lightning all other horses seemed tame to him in comparison. It was part of his work not only to break the horses to the saddle but to care for them generally, brand the colts, and train them for cow-pony work, as well as to guard them by day and night. On these long day rides over the rolling prairie and bleak, fantastically shaped and colored "bad lands" he would take a piece of a book in his pocket, and when an opportunity occurred read it. He read many books this way, tearing out and taking a few pages in his pocket each day. Mr. Baker was fond of reading, and understood the value of education; he had some books, and the less valuable ones he gave to his protégé; these and the few John had been able to pick up from outfits he met and during the infrequent visits to a town formed his text books. As he thought and read and studied he became more and more convinced that cowboy life was not for him: to know more about the things he had read a few scraps about, to gain a place in the world, to learn something and achieve something was now his firm resolve. The summer, fall, and early winter went by quickly for the boy. Each season had its own peculiar duties and dangers--the round-up and branding, the driving of the steers to the railroad for the Eastern market (a serious undertaking, involving as it might the loss of valuable cattle through injury and drowning when fording streams), the cutting of hay for the weaker cattle and horses, and occasional hunting trips for fresh meat. And so the year wore round. On New Year's day John's time was up--the time which he had set to start out to seek his fortune. He had saved more than a year's earnings, so the small capitalist saddled Lightning, bade his friends good-by, and set forth, not without some misgivings, on a new quest: to get knowledge, see the world, and, if it might be, grasp his share of its honors. CHAPTER XX. A TRANSFORMATION. The love of adventure that possesses the soul of most boys was not a characteristic of John Worth. An adventurous life he had always led and thought nothing of it; it was too commonplace to be remarkable to him. This starting forth in search of knowledge, this seeking of the "dude" and his ways in his own haunts, was an entirely different matter; it was almost terrifying, and he was half inclined to turn back. To mix with men who wore white "boiled" shirts habitually, who dressed and went down to dinner, and who did all sorts of things strange to the frontier, seemed to John a trying ordeal, and he dreaded it. He had no definite plan, for he could not quite realize what lay before him. A cowboy merely he would not be; he now felt that there was a larger place that he could fill, and he knew that this could be reached only through education. A sound body and brain, enough money to last till spring, a good horse to carry him, and a strong resolve to get somewhere were his possessions. For ten days he and Lightning wandered around from one settlement to another, from town to town; he was enjoying his freedom to the utmost, so much so in fact that none of the towns he passed through suited him. Finally he woke up to the fact that he was avoiding a decision, and he pulled himself up with a round turn. "Here, John Worth," he said to himself, "you're afraid to begin; any of those towns would have done." He was in the open when he came to himself, riding along on a good horse, dressed in a complete outfit of cowboy finery, fringed chaps, good, broad-brimmed felt hat, heavy, well-fitting riding gloves, and silver spurs, the envy of every man he met. For the second time a storm helped to decide his destiny, for as he rode along the sky became overcast and soon the snow began to fall heavily. "Come, 'Lite,' let's get out of this," he said to his only companion; and heading the pony toward the place where he knew ---- was located, he urged him forward. Just before dark he reached ----, and after finding a stable put up at a neat little hotel near by. Even if he had wished to go on to some other place he could not now, for the storm developed into a regular blizzard, which prevented man or beast from venturing outside the town limits. John soon turned to the hotel keeper, a loquacious individual who believed in his town and could sound its praises as well as any real-estate boomer. "Schools?" in answer to one of John's inquiries. "Schools? Why, we've got one of the best schools in Montana; higher'n a high school! Schools and churches--we're great on schools and churches." He took his cue from John's questions; he could discourse just as eloquently about the shady part of the town, its slums, its dives, and dance halls; there was nothing in that town that should not be there and everything that was desirable--at least that was the impression this worthy strove to convey. "Schools and churches," said John to himself. "That's what Mr. Baker said I must hitch up to." For several days the blizzard continued, so long in fact that John grew restless and longed for something to do. He had about decided that he did not like this town and thought he would move on as soon as the weather permitted. One day the landlord was declaiming earnestly on the merits of the town and its institutions. "Now, there's the academy," said he. "Now that academy is----" "What's an academy?" interrupted John. "Oh, that's a place where they teach you things." "What kind of things?" persisted John. "Reading and arithmetic and geography and--here's Gray, he'll tell you all about it, he goes there. Henry, come here a minute," he shouted. A young man in overalls, well sprinkled with ashes, and carrying a fire shovel appeared. The landlord introduced them and told Gray that John was looking for information about the academy. Then he went off, leaving them together. "Well," said Gray, a slight, dark-haired, bright-eyed, thoughtful fellow, after some preliminary talk, "you begin with arithmetic; then comes algebra, then geometry and trigonometry in mathematics; the languages are Latin, Greek, French, and German." The mere recital of these things was enough to scare John, who had scarcely heard the names before. When Gray went on to enlarge on the fine course of study the academy afforded, as a loyal student should, his hearer was appalled by the amount of learning necessary even to enter a school, and feared the ranch after all was the place for him. [Illustration: THE DRIVE ... FORDING A STREAM. (_Page 315._)] "Some of the fellows are good workers," Gray went on, "but some do nothing but talk to the girls." "Girls!" thought John. "So girls go to school with the boys here." This boy, who had hardly seen a girl, was terrified at the idea of being brought into such close association with them--he was quite sure now the ranch was the place for him. That night he made up his mind to go back to Mr. Baker and ask for his old job, but the next morning was no better than the preceding ones. For lack of something better to do, after much persuasion on Gray's part, he went with him to the academy. The things he saw there were as strange to him as they would be to an Esquimau. An old-fashioned school of one hundred and fifty students seated at rows of desks, the boys on one side of the room, the girls on the other. The principal sat at one end, surrounded by blackboards. Gray found a seat for John at the back of the room, out of the range of curious eyes, and he sat there and watched and listened--wonderingly. The classes went up and recited one by one or demonstrated mathematical problems on the blackboards. John heard with amazement youngsters answer questions which he could not comprehend at all, and yet he noticed that their faces were care-free and happy, as if they had never known what trouble was. The faces he knew, young and old, bore distinctly the traces of care and hardship. He was intensely interested and enjoyed the whole session keenly. When noon came, Gray approached, as he thought, to return to the hotel with, him, but to his surprise he was marched up to the principal's desk and introduced to Professor Marston. John was awe-stricken, but the principal knew boys thoroughly, and soon put him at his ease. "Will you come with us?" asked Mr. Marston after a while. "I wanted to, but I guess not now." Somehow John's resolve seemed rather foolish in the presence of this kindly faced man with the high forehead. "Why? What is the trouble?" "Oh, I changed my mind." "What's your reason?" persisted the professor. "You don't look like a fellow who changes his mind with every wind." His manner was so kindly, his interest so evident, that John let go his reserve and told of his ambitions and hopes and then of the futility, as he thought, of a fellow at his age beginning at the very lowest rung of the ladder when boys much younger than he were so far advanced. This applied not only to actual schooling but to all the little things wherein he saw he was different from these town-dwelling youngsters. Mr. Marston was interested. He invited John to call and see him after school. "I think we shall be able to talk our way out of this difficulty," he said, as the boy bade him good-by. At the appointed hour John appeared, eager to be convinced but altogether dubious. Professor Marston received him cordially, and, taking him into his private office, talked to him "like a Dutch uncle," as John assured Gray afterwards. He spoke to him out of his own wide experience, told him of men who had worked themselves up to a high place from small beginnings by determination and hard work. He showed John that he believed he could do the same, and finally brought back the confidence in himself which for a time had been banished. "How did you come out?" called Gray as John burst into the hotel, his face beaming, his eyes alight--confidence in every gesture. "Bully!" exclaimed he. "I'm going to start right in." "That's the way to talk," said his friend, delighted at his good spirits. "Professor Marston is going to help me, and I'm to get some one to night-herd me; between the two I'm going to round up all those things and put my brand on 'em. I mean," he hastened to explain, as he realized that Gray might not be up on all the cow-punchers' phrases, "I hope to put away in my mind some of the things that go to make up book-learning." Whereupon Gray volunteered to act as his night-herder, as John called his tutor. The offer was gladly accepted, and the two went out to get the school books which Mr. Marston had recommended. John's first day was, as he expected, an ordeal. He was sensitive, and it tried his soul to stand up with the primary class--he almost a full-grown man. He heard the remarks spoken in an undertone that passed from lip to lip when he stepped forward with the youngsters, and he would have been glad to be able to get his hands on the whisperers and bang their heads together; but he only shut his firm jaws together a little tighter, clinched his hands, and drew his breath hard. He did not even know the multiplication table, but under Gray's coaching he picked it up very rapidly. Mr. Marston made everything as easy for him as possible, and under the considerate aid of these two he made great strides in his mental training. His application and capacity for work was tremendous, and the amount he got through quite astonished his teachers. The jeers of his schoolmates, however, not always suppressed, drove him more and more to himself. Gray, Professor Marston, and "Lite" were his only companions. "Lite" was now living in clover; never in his short life had he imagined such ease, so much provender, and so little work; he was therefore fat and exceedingly lively, so that when John was astride of him his master was able to show his schoolmates his absolute superiority in one thing at least. As he advanced in his studies and demonstrated his ability as a horseman and a boxer (he soon had an opportunity to show that he knew how to "put up his hands") the respect of his schoolmates increased--at least that of the boys did--but it was only the kindly glances from one girl's big soft eyes that saved the whole of girl-kind from complete repudiation on his part. John's first visit to a church was an event that he did not soon forget. It was at Professor Marston's invitation. He came early, and as he told Gray afterward: "The millionaire took me clear up front. My clothes were stiff and my shoes squeaked, and I know everyone in the place was looking my way." The music was strange to him; the only thing familiar was "Old Hundred," and even that "had frills on it," he asserted. The form of service was new and the good clothes of both men and women oppressed him. The sermon, however, he could and did appreciate. A sermon was the only part of a religious service he had ever listened to. From time to time hardy missionaries visited the cow-camps and sheep-ranches, and he had often been one of the congregation that, rough though they were, and little as they appreciated what they heard, listened respectfully to the good man's sermon. John had often on such occasions, after the preacher had finished and gone away, mounted on the wagon tongue and repreached the sermon, using his own words but the same ideas. He was therefore able to appreciate and enjoy this sermon preached in what seemed to him a most elaborate house of worship. This was his first attendance at a "fancy church," and it was the last open one for a long time. In the evening he was wont to steal in, in time to hear the sermon, he excusing himself thus: "I can't do it all at once; I'll have to learn their ways first." The dinner at Professor Marston's which followed his first church-going was a red-letter occasion of another kind. John's earnestness and sincerity always made friends for him, and he speedily won the heart of Mrs. Marston. She took great interest in the boy and gave him many hints as to the ways of civilized life, so tactfully that he could feel only gratitude. He left her home full of content; he had discovered a new phase of life--to him a heretofore closed book--the "home beautiful." John Worth was a good student, a hard, conscientious worker, and with the aid of his friend Gray and his instructor he made more and more rapid progress. As spring advanced, he began to hear talk about "vacation"--a word the meaning of which was strange to him. When he found out what it was he wondered what new wrinkle would be "sprung" on him next. But it was a serious thing to him; he could not afford to stay in town and do nothing--he wanted to keep on with his work. Professor Marston called him into his office just before school closed, and after learning of his difficulty suggested that he get a job during the summer and come back to school in the fall, when he would give him work that would pay his necessary expenses while he kept on with studies. John's heart was filled with gratitude, but his benefactor would not listen to his thanks, and bade him good-by and good luck. The boy went away thinking he was indeed in luck. The only trouble was to secure a job for the summer. This problem was speedily solved by Gray, who proposed that they should try to join a party of tourists that were to visit Yellowstone Park, and act as guides and guards. To their great joy they were able to accomplish this, and soon after the commencement festivities they rode out with the tourist outfit. John always had pleasure in remembering one of the number, a fearless, undaunted rider who won his admiration then, and still more later, when he became Colonel Roosevelt of the "Rough Riders." John in his old cowboy dress and mounted on Lightning was happy enough; as for the horse, he fairly bubbled over with joy and gladness. He showed it in his usual unconventional fashion by trying to throw John "into the middle of next week," but his master understood him well and took all his pranks good-naturedly, sitting in the saddle as if it was an every-day occurrence and not worth bothering about. The boy's leech-like riding attracted the attention of his employers at once and especially one--a young Easterner named Sherman, who was a college man. The summer's experience was a very pleasant one; compared to the work and hardship that John had formerly endured this was child's play. On the long summer evenings young Sherman would often join John while he was keeping his vigil over the saddle stock, and they would have long talks, John telling of his experiences with Indians, cattle, and horses, while Sherman in turn told of college life, its advantages and pleasures, and the hard work connected with it. Shortly before the time set for the return of the party, Sherman, who had learned to respect and like John greatly, said: "Suppose you study hard next fall and spring and prepare for college. If you can bone up enough to pass the examinations I think I can get you a scholarship." The proposition took John's breath away, but he was not the kind of a boy to be "stumped," and when they separated he assured Sherman that he'd do "some tall trying." The party of tourists among whom John was soon broke up. Sherman went East after exacting a promise from John to "carry out that deal." John returned to ---- and to the academy, his path now marked out clearly before him and a prize worth striving for at the end. CHAPTER XXI. TWELVE HUNDRED MILES AWHEEL TO COLLEGE. The academy reopened with some new pupils and many old ones. John shook hands with his few friends, glad to get back, and, with firm determination to carry out the purpose that now possessed him, started to work. Professor Marston kept his word about the winter job, and John was duly installed as janitor of the building, with opportunity to make extra pay by sawing wood and doing errands. He was fully occupied, as may well be imagined, and poor Lightning, though sure of good care, missed the companionship that both he and his master delighted in. John foresaw that he would not be able to keep the horse, and he finally decided what to do with him. He would give him his freedom. One day the boy took him out on the prairie some distance from the town. "Lite, old boy," he began, rubbing his nose and patting him, "we've had good and bad times together, and we've been good friends, but we've got to separate now." He took off the saddle and bridle: "Take care of yourself, old boy." The horse looked at him a moment inquiringly; then curvetted around a minute in high glee; but as he saw his much-loved master leaving him he turned and followed, refusing to be cast off. "Go back, Lite," John commanded, waving his hat to scare him. "Go back!" But the little horse refused to leave him, and followed him back to town, where he was taken in and petted again. John was touched to the heart by this loyalty and affection. Next day a stableman took him out among the range horses and dismissed him. This time he stayed, and John never saw or heard of him afterward. That was a wrench. Lightning gone, John allowed himself no pleasures, but instead took every bit of work that came his way, whether it yielded money or knowledge. He joined the Debating Society and made it a duty to do his best when called upon. Toward spring, as wood sawing became scarce, he took to delivering morning papers to the more distant parts of town; and in order to do this more quickly he hired an old bicycle, learned to ride it, and made his rounds just after daybreak on that. So he was able to get back to the school house and study a while before opening up. "I don't see how you do it all, Worth," said Professor Marston. "Well, I couldn't, I guess, if I didn't have a big stake to work for. If I keep my present school work up and study this summer I'll get into college this fall," and John told him of the offer Sherman had made him. "I hope your friend won't forget," the Professor suggested, fearing that his pupil was building high hopes on an insecure foundation. "He won't forget; he's not that kind." "I hope not; but how are you going to get there? It's a long way." John looked up quickly: he had not thought of that before. It was a serious question. "I don't know; but I'll get there somehow." He spoke confidently but he was much perplexed, for he was without money, his clothes were threadbare, and it was a necessity to study all summer, with no chance to earn money. It was certainly a question that could not be answered offhand. He studied over this matter for days and no solution presented itself. Borrow he might, but this he would not do without giving security, and of security he had none. He left it for a while, hoping to be able to think of a way out of the difficulty later. Before he realized it Commencement had arrived, and with it the open meeting of the Debating Society at the Opera House. To his astonishment he found that he was appointed one of the two orators of the occasion. In vain he protested that he was busy, that he was unfitted; he had to accept. "Orator--Opera House--Me!" he fairly gasped with astonishment. He was rather worried about it, but Gray, whom he consulted that night, reassured him. "Don't worry, anyhow," he advised. "Take a subject you're interested in, write out what you think about it, boil it down so you can repeat it in twenty minutes, then memorize it." John also consulted Beeman, the other orator, who said he was going to speak about the Chinese Question. "Against them," he said, in answer to the other's sharply put query. "That's the only way to please a crowd--take the popular side." "Well, I'm going to take the side I want, and I'll tell 'em what I think about it, too," said John vehemently, his spirit thoroughly roused. "Go ahead," said Beeman, visions floating before him of an opportunity to hurl his thunders at a definite champion (and an inexperienced one) of an unpopular cause. [Illustration: THE SUN RIVER RANCH HOUSE. (_Page 241._)] John set to work on his speech with his usual eagerness and energy. His heart was in it, and the prospect of a contest of wit or muscle always stirred him. He wrote, rewrote, cut down, filled in and polished until Gray, his friend and critic, pronounced it "good stuff." In the meantime, he not only kept at work at his studies, his duties as janitor and paper boy, but he was at work at something else that he thought might prove most important. At a half-mile race track, a little distance out, a very early rising citizen, if he happened to be in that vicinity at daybreak, would have wondered greatly to see a half-clad figure on an old bicycle go flying round and round the track. If, overcome by curiosity, he had waited a while, he would have seen the same figure, neatly clothed, appear from under the grand stand carrying a bundle of papers under his arm. Then if he watched he would see him mount an old bicycle and ride off. But this performance took place so very early that no one witnessed it. At last the day of the Debating Society's open meeting came--the day on which John was to make his first public appearance. His speech was complete, memorized, and ready for delivery. He spouted it for the last time to Gray, who put the stamp of his approval on it and advised him to forget it all till the time came to speak. The Opera House was crowded when John and Gray reached it, for the town's people took great interest in its institutions, and of these the academy was one of the most important. John looked out from the wings on the sea of upturned faces, appalled. Beeman came first. He went out before the audience, cool, self-possessed, graceful, and delivered his oration smoothly, forcibly, and well. He chose the popular side, and the audience rewarded him with generous applause. Then John heard the chairman announce, "Oration by John Worth." He walked out from the dimness of the flies into the full glare of the brightly lighted stage, bewildered, and, without any preliminaries, began: "In the history of every country, however just, however good or great, there are certain pages besmirched by the record of black deeds of wrong." So his carefully written, carefully memorized speech began. As he stood before his audience he saw nothing but the pages of his manuscript: he felt that he must keep his mind on them or he would be lost. He followed down the first page, mentally turned it over, and began the second. Beeman had touched a point on the second page, and treated it in a ridiculous way, he thought. His concentration was broken, and he began to fear for the first time that his memory would fail. A dozen lines down the second page he faltered, stopped, and stood riveted, miserable. The few moments' pause seemed endless. He tried to think of the next line, next page, anything; in vain, it was all a blank. The pile of manuscript, a minute ago so clearly before his mind's eye, had vanished, and he stood staring at the crowd before him. Some one behind tried to prompt him; it brought him to life. Beeman's fallacies had incensed him; he'd tell them so, and in no uncertain way. With a whole-arm gesture he mentally cast away his carefully prepared speech. "It's wrong! All wrong!" he said intensely, and with conviction in his tones. His own voice electrified him. His first few sentences were mere bursts of indignation, his tongue went on of its own volition, it could scarcely give utterance to his stirred feelings. As he went on, his emotions grew more quiet but none the less earnest. Constant yodelling to cattle for years had given him a voice which carried to the farthest corner of the building. He had carefully studied his subject, and now that he had regained his nerve he spoke his mind with enthusiasm and vigor. His arguments were well chosen and his language terse and to the point. Stimulated by excitement, new ideas came, and he uttered them with a confidence that afterward amazed even himself. Parts of his own prepared oration came back to him and he spoke it as if it was impromptu, with force and freedom. The time had come to stop, and without a pause he launched out on his original peroration with the ease, confidence, and fire of a veteran orator. The closing sentence rang out clear and strong: "Men and women of America, let us wipe out the blot from this page of our country's history and make her in truth the Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave." His speech over, John stumbled, rather than walked, off the stage to the street. The reaction was great. He did not hear the applause, the cheering; he did not know that he had aroused the enthusiasm of people naturally prejudiced against his side of the question. John went straight to his room and to bed, but not to sleep--his nervous tension would not allow that. The thing uppermost in his mind, the thing that worried him, was that he had forgotten his speech--the speech he had so carefully prepared and learned by heart. The papers had to be delivered in the morning, however, and a certain self-imposed engagement at the racetrack kept, so he was up betimes. After these two duties were finished, he rode down the street to discover if possible the depths of ignominy to which he had been brought by forgetting his speech. The idea that he had disgraced himself still clung to him. Two fellows appeared right away, and before John could voice his greeting they called out: "Say, Worth, you just ate Beeman up last night. Are you sure you wrote it yourself?" "He doesn't know that I forgot it," thought John, who hesitated a minute before he answered aloud: "Of course, it was all my own." "Well, it was a rattling good speech, anyhow." John thanked him, and then the talk drifted to the games to be held next day, and to the bicycle race especially, where the winner would receive a brand new up-to-date bicycle as a prize. "That's going to be a hot old race," said Searles, one of the two students. "Every pedal kicker in town is after that new wheel." "Yes, that's a prize worth riding for," and John had a look in his eyes that Searles did not understand till later. Several times that day persons of various degrees of importance--among them Mr. Haynes, the financial and political corner-stone of the community--stopped John, called him by name, and chatted pleasantly with him. Mr. Haynes said that he was a credit to the school and the town. So John's self-respect began to come back. His good fortune was dawning, now that he was making preparations to leave it all. Field day came clear and beautiful, and the crowd came en masse to see the sports. A series of well-advertised events were to be run, the climax of which was the one-mile bicycle race. The prize wheel had stood labelled in the donor's window for a week, and every wheelman and boy in the neighborhood had gazed at and coveted it. The early events were well contested, and worked the spectators up to a fever heat of interest. By the time the bicycle race was announced the crowd was wildly enthusiastic. Discussions as to the probable winner were rife. "There's none of them that'll beat Tucker," said one. "He'll have a walk-over." "He won't walk over Bolton," declared another. And so it went, till the contestants appeared on the track. Tucker and Bolton were the favorites. As the men lined up at the stake some one remarked: "Why, there's Worth, with the old bike, too. He's the fellow that made the speech. I thought he had more sense than to go out with that old rattle-trap." "They're off!" The shout went up as the starter's pistol cracked. Tucker jumped to the front, and everybody cheered him; but Bolton was near, and as the riders passed the stand for the first time it was seen that he was close behind. Following Bolton's rear wheel closely was a strange rider on an old wheel, whom the crowd did not recognize at first. "By George! It's Worth," said a student, surprised. The men swept by, closely bunched, their wheels rattling, their legs going like pistons, and the bodies of some swaying as they exerted themselves to the utmost to keep up. "Bolton's going past. He's leading!" And the speaker jumped up and down in his excitement. But John clung to the leader's rear wheel and went with him. Faster and faster they raced, past Tucker, opening a big gap between the bunch. Bolton was riding for glory, but John was riding for something besides glory: his success meant position, standing, a great opportunity, a future. A hundred feet from the finishing tape he bent his head and made a tremendous effort. Early morning training stood him in good stead now, for he began to gain on Bolton, and inch by inch to pass him. The old machine groaned alarmingly, but it stood up to its work in spite of its protests. Twenty feet from the finish John seemed to leap forward, and crossed the tape just ahead of the laboring Bolton. The crowd was rather disappointed to see its favorites beaten, but applauded the winner generously as he went up to the judge's stand to receive his shining prize. Gray was the first man to wring his hand; his was an honest, unfeigned, glad congratulation. "Say, Gray," said John, "you ride her home. I want a farewell ride on this old wheel. I pull out to-morrow." "What!" ejaculated Gray in astonishment. "Yes, that's what I wanted that wheel for. I straddle it to-morrow and go East. I haven't said anything about the plan, for I wasn't sure the wheel would be mine." "Did you expect to win?" Gray asked. "I've trained a month. That's what gave me the wind to finish so strong. You see my plans need transportation East. I had to win--I'm going to ride that wheel to college." That evening John bade the Marstons good-by. They tried to dissuade him from going; they pictured the career that was open to him in the town where he had made friends and had gained a reputation, but his mind was made up, and though he was touched by their kindness, go he must. "I don't like to have you leave," said the Professor. "You'll be thrown into circumstances unlike any you have ever met before. But I know that you can adapt yourself to new conditions, and for that reason it may be best for you while your mind is growing. You will never forget the West, but I feel sure you will not leave the East, once you are settled there. Good-by, my boy, and God bless you." John never forgot the kind parting words nor Professor Marston's always considerate treatment. The two friends, Worth and Gray, talked long and earnestly that night and it was late when they retired, but at daybreak they were stirring. John ate a deliberate breakfast, strapped a few necessaries to his wheel, bade his friend a sincere farewell, and rode off. He pedalled on in the crisp morning air till he reached a high point, where he dismounted and took a long look at the town where he had struggled so hard, but which was the scene of his triumph as well as his trials. His satisfaction was mixed with regret, for he left behind good, true friends and a known esteem, for--he knew not what. The town lay in the hazy valley below, morning smoke-wreaths now curling from many chimneys, the gray shingle roofs embedded in dark-green foliage; it was a scene of contentment and rest. He contrasted this with other scenes, active, restless, hazardous ones; the cattle range, the sheep camp, and the mine. The thought of his home was not so clear as the later scenes, though he had visited it during his stay at school. He had found Ben an almost grown-up, vigorous, business-like ranchman, glad to see his brother, but interested in his own affairs; not the same old boyish Ben of old. It was with real regret that he turned and left the town that had in a way been a cradle and a home to him. He mounted his wheel and sped down the slope--Eastward. Day after day the traveller pushed on, following the windings of the roads now where formerly he would have ridden his horse as the crow flies. Seventy miles a day. Eighty miles a day. Population increased; roads were better, ninety miles a day. His training for racing stood him in good stead. One hundred miles a day; his face always turned Eastward. Rains came; the roads became rivers of mud. He was driven to the drier railroad track and jolted along over the ties. Sixty miles a day. The end not yet in sight, money exhausted, prospects not very cheerful; but with resolution undaunted he pushed along. A brickyard afforded temporary work. Five dollars earned, he "hit the trail" again. Midday was fiercely hot; he took advantage of the cool mornings, and by twilight pedalled continuously. Wide swamps intervened. Insects, stingingly vicious, beset him. The sand along the river banks was heart-breaking to a wheelman and the mountains formed almost unsurmountable barriers. People he met misdirected or were ignorant, and he often went far out of his way. But the goal was sighted at last. The day he reached Sherman's town he made one hundred and twenty miles and rode up the main street a sorry specimen--tired, dirty, tanned leather color by sun, wind, and rain. His plans were fully made. The wheel was pawned at once, and two hours later John Worth emerged from a little hotel, bathed, shaved, and neatly clothed. The address of his friend written for him was made nearly illegible by friction, sweat, and dirt. But by the aid of a friendly policeman he was able to find Sherman's house. He rang the bell, was admitted promptly by a neat maid, and ushered into a sumptuously furnished parlor, the like of which he had never seen before. The chair that he at last dared to use was soft and luxurious, and the journey had wearied him so that he was just about dropping off to sleep when Sherman entered. "How do you do, sir?" Sherman's greeting was rather formal. "What can I do for you?" At the sound of his voice John started to his feet with a jump. "Don't you know me, Sherman?" he said. "You--you can't be John Worth? Why, bless my heart, is it really you?" cried Sherman. In an instant the one idea that had sustained him through the trying hours and apparently endless miles of his journey came to John's mind. "Yes," he said, the light of triumph in his eyes. "I'm John Worth. And I've come to college." 
35448	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) Transcriber's Notes: Bold text is set off by =equal signs= and italic text by _underscores_. Subscripted asterisks are shown by an underscore and the asterisk in curly brackets. _{*} HERD RECORD OF THE ASSOCIATION OF BREEDERS OF Thorough-Bred Neat Stock. SHORT HORNS. HARTFORD: PRESS OF WILLIAMS, WILEY & WATERMAN. 1863. NOTICE. OWING to circumstances beyond the control of the Committee of Publication, or of the Committees on the Pedigrees of the various classes of stock, it has been impossible to publish the first volume of the Herd Record of the Association of Breeders of Thorough-bred Neat Stock at an earlier day. The desire to obtain as large a representation of stock as possible, and to extend the advantages of the Association as widely among breeders as they could, has induced the committees on the various classes of stock to hold open their books, and the delays incident upon tracing doubtful pedigrees, through in many instances a long correspondence with owners and breeders, have prevented them from furnishing the copy to the Publication Committee in season to have the work finished sooner. Every care has been taken to have the records perfect, and to admit no pedigrees of doubtful character. It is believed this has been successfully accomplished, and that the animals here recorded may be relied upon as of undoubted purity of blood. H. A. DYER, } _Committee_ S. I. BARTLETT, } _of Publication._ INDEX TO BREEDERS AND OWNERS Allen, J. S., 12, 27, 33, 44, 60, 61, 74, 75, 76 Alexander, R. A., 38, 47, 68, 72 Bartlett, S. W. & Son, 25, 34, 37, 43, 48, 51, 63, 71, 79, 84 Bartlett, D. W., 25, 44, 46, 49, 53, 84 Barber, C. H., 19, 55, 46, 51, 52, 78 Becar, N. J., 49, 21 Beach, A. H., 22 Birnie, Wm., 37, 38, 62, 73 Bissell, J., 29, 74, 78 Bissell, J. H., 73 Bissell, S. T., 39 Boyd, S., 27 Booth, J., 22 Bolden, S. E., 47 Buffum, S. W., 11, 13, 20, 21, 22, 23, 33, 40, 41, 42, 44, 54, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 73, 79 Bragg, N. W., 16 Carter, N., 13, 24, 35, 39, 49, 51, 54, 69, 77, 80, 82, 83 Chapman, J. B., 60 Chapin, H. J., 14, 17, 34 Clement, I. S., 28 Collins, D. C., 23, 63 Cowles, Thomas, 67 Cowles, Solomon, 54 Clark, A. & J. A., 36, 45, 83 Cummins, A. O., 26, 43, 50, 53, 55, 56, 68 Ely, E. C., 12, 19, 50, 52, 66 Fogg, J., 16, 26, 36, 63, 65, 67, 68, 70, 72 Fosgate, James, 79 Goodale, J. H. & Co., 26 Goodwin Morgan & Son, 83 Haight, D. B., 14, 31, 43, 69 Haines, B. & C. S., 40, 70 Holman, E. M., 45, 47, 81 Hubbard, R. B., 41, 65 Hubbard, G. F., 43, 48 Huntington, T. P. & O. H. Smith, 60 Howitt, John, 14, 24 Hurst, Wm., 16, 22, 23, 28, 47, 70, 78, 83 Ives, Wm. J., 82 Lathrop, P., 10, 19, 21, 25, 31, 35, 37, 41, 43, 56, 57, 60, 62, 64, 65, 69, 71, 72, 74, 76, 77, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85 Lathrop, Wells, 18, 84, 85 Loomis, Burdett, 22 Lubbock, Sir John, 35 Lyman, Wm., 13 Mather, Timothy, 15, 18, 27, 36, 37, 49, 50, 51, 70 Moseley, David, 23, 27, 52 North, F. H., 81 Noble, F. A., 10, 12, 45, 53, 60 Phelps, E. A., 35, 36, 37, 51, 77 Porter, Norman, 25, 48, 60, 61, 71, 80 Robbins, S. W., 14, 32, 38, 56, 68, 72, 73, 82 Rockwell, Dr. W. H., 79 Rotch, F., 70 Rotch, F. M., 39 Sessions, Wm. Vine, 39 Sherwood, J. M., 53, 55, 58, 80 Smith, Lawrence, 63 Smith, M. J. & Son, 20, 21, 25, 29, 30, 37, 39, 46, 61, 78 State Lunatic Asylum Worcester, Mass., 27 State Reform School, Conn., 18 Stedman, P., 17, 21, 25, 32, 33, 45, 69, 73, 74 Stedman, B. H., 11, 15, 29, 30, 31, 48, 54, 61, 71 Stebbins, E. W., 15 Stone, F. W., 12, 19, 59, 73 Tanqueray, J. S., 41 Taylor, G. E., 33, 77 Taylor, J. S., 38, 55 Taylor, J. S. & G. E., 16 Taber, S. T., 9, 10, 18, 31, 33, 36, 39, 40, 62, 78, 82 Taintor, D., 12 Thorne, S., 13, 14, 18, 22, 24, 32, 41 Vail, George, 24 Viets, A. P., 9, 10, 36 Wadsworth, J. & E., 63, 79 Walton, J., 10 Webb, Jonas, 59 Wells, H. L., 82 White, H. G., 12, 13, 17, 18, 22, 40, 43, 50, 53, 56, 57, 62, 63, 69, 74, 77, 84 Winslow, A. M., 11, 20, 25, 40, 58, 59, 64, 65, 72, 76, 80, 83 Wilson, Wilbur, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 24, 26, 29, 34, 35, 39, 45, 48, 52, 71 Wood, A. C. & J. G., 14, 18, 19, 23, 26, 31, 45, 48, 59, 60, 67, 70, 72, 78, 81 SHORT HORNS. THE pure, improved Short Horn, having become an established variety of Neat Stock for useful and farm purposes throughout the Northern and Western States, and proved themselves to be all that can reasonably be expected of them when established on soil productive of an abundance of grass, it is desirable to preserve their blood as pure as possible, and the animals herein inserted have had their pedigrees examined and approved by the Committee appointed for that purpose. It must be admitted that the Short Horns present themselves to notice under circumstances of peculiar interest; possessing in themselves a combination of desirable qualities, and rendered attractive to the eye by their splendid frames, and beautiful varied colors, it is not surprising they have become objects of public interest. Great temptation is laid before a class of men to manufacture _pure bloods_ to suit their purposes, being able to afford them at a much less price than a genuine article. Great facilities are within the reach of all at the present day, who desire to become acquainted with their history and their great performance at the shambles, and for the dairy, and general usefulness as farm stock. The beef producers, and beef dealers uniformly acknowledge their great superiority over common stock. In the month of November, 1817, the improved Durham Short Horn Bull, Young Denton, (963) then sixteen months old, arrived in Boston, sent out from England by Samuel Williams, of London, a present to his brother Stephen Williams, of Northboro', Worcester Co., Mass.; he remained there until 1827 or 1828, when he was taken to the State of Maine, where he died, April 16, 1830. His Sire was Denton, (198); his G. Sire Comet, (155); was sold for 1000 guineas in 1810. In 1822, Mr. Williams received the Short Horn Cow, Arabella, from the same source; her Sire was North Star, (460); Dam, Aurora by Comet, (155). Both of these animals were bred by that eminent breeder, John Wetherel, who was one of the four spirited purchasers of Comet (155) in 1810, at the price before mentioned. It has been claimed by those who have gone before us, that Young Denton (963) was the first improved Durham Short Horn Bull, imported into the United States. From these two imported animals sprang a very numerous progeny, and their descendants are scattered through all of the Northern States. In 1823 the Bull Admiral, (1608) and Cow Arabella, were sent out from the same herd as a present from Admiral Sir Isaac Coffin, to the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, who placed them under the charge of E. Hersey Derby, Esq., of Salem, Mass., who bred from them successfully a few years, when the stock on hand was sold and removed to Hartford Co., Conn. Many animals of the present day, trace back to this importation. About the same period, Israel Monson, Esq., of Boston, a large landholder, brought out the Cow, Tube Rose, also from the herd of Mr. Wetherel. She produced but one Heifer in this country, (Rose by Young Denton), which, with her Mother and Daughter, (Nellie by Admiral, (1608)) died about the year 1830. In 1823. Mr. John S. Skinner, then editor of the American Farmer, Baltimore, imported two Heifers, Conquest and Pansey, and a Bull, Washington, (1566) for Gen. Stephen Van Renselaer, of Albany, N. Y., all from the herd of Mr. Champion, Blythe, England. Many of their descendants are recorded in this book, and are scattered through all the Northern States. All of the above mentioned animals possessed a very high order of excellence for milking capacity, both quality and quantity, and their descendants maintain that character in a very high degree at the present day. In 1829, Mr. Benjamin Rodman, of New Bedford, Mass., imported three Heifers, Adaliza, Dulcibella, and Galatea, and a Bull, Devonshire, (966) bred by Mr. Whitaker, of Burley, Yorkshire,--these were selected by Mr. Francis Rotch, then in England. One of them, Dulcibella was in calf when purchased, and produced Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) from which has sprung a numerous family of Cows, celebrated for their superior dairy qualities. In 1830, Mr. Enoch Silsby, of Boston, Mass., sent to England and brought out the Cow, Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) and Bull, Boston, (1735) both bred by Mr. Curry, of Brandon. These animals left a numerous progeny, justly celebrated for strong constitutions as well as rich handling and dairy qualities; many of their descendants are also recorded in this book. It is not claimed the instances of Short Horn excellence herein cited are superior to many others; they are those that have been noted and the facts made public. _Beef Qualities._ In 1843 a thorough bred Heifer, Regina, three years and a half old, having nursed her calf through the summer, was in thin flesh in the fall. Her bag having been deformed by accident, and she not being in calf, was put into a distillery stall in November, fed on slops and straw, and slaughtered in April following, and her dressed weight, beef, hide and tallow, 1005 pounds; beef of the finest quality. In 1857, Lucy, a thorough bred Heifer, was turned to pasture with reference to making beef of her, she having proved barren, being then nearly four years old. She was put into the stable in November, fed on good hay and a very small quantity of meal, it being the design to feed her a long time. On the fourth day of January following she was sold to a butcher for ten dollars per cwt., estimated at 1,000 pounds. She was slaughtered at Hartford, Conn., being four years and five months old, having eaten less than _two bushels_ of meal in her life. Her beef was sold, all the prime pieces at twenty-five cents per pound; was a very beautiful animal, with handling properties of the very highest order of excellence. In the month of January, 1862, Pocahontas, a thorough bred Heifer, was sold and slaughtered, then five years and one month old. Her dressed weight was as follows: hide, ninety pounds; tallow, one hundred and twenty-seven pounds; quarters, eleven hundred and eighteen pounds; total dressed weight, thirteen hundred and thirty-five pounds; was sold for eight cents per pound, making $106.80. Her feed, other than hay and grass, being twenty and one-half bushels of meal in all. _Dairy Qualities._ Lucilla, a thorough bred Heifer, at four years old, gave in June fifty-five pounds of milk on an average for one month; her greatest yield in one day was fifty-nine pounds and eight ounces, and during this month yielded fourteen pounds and eight ounces of butter in one week; her feed, grass, with three quarts of meal daily. At five years old the first week in June, her milk yielded fifteen pounds three ounces of butter, on grass only. Dorothy, a thorough bred Cow, gave thirty-nine pounds eight ounces of milk per day, three months after calving, on grass only; and in seven days made fifteen pounds one ounce of butter, in October. Nymph 5th, in the month of June, 1860, gave twenty-four quarts of milk daily for two weeks in succession, and made butter at the rate of two pounds four ounces per day, or fifteen pounds three ounces per week, on grass only. Rose 2d, a thorough bred Cow, produced seventeen pounds four ounces of butter from one week's milk in June, on grass only. _Longevity._ Princess, a thorough bred Cow, bred regularly up to eighteen years old; was then dried off and turned to grass for beef, and slaughtered in the fall without stall-feeding, and made merchantable beef. Arabella, a thorough-bred Cow, bred regularly up to seventeen years old, and died in 1861, at eighteen years old. Lilac 4th, a thorough-bred Cow, bred regularly up to nineteen years old, and died in 1861. _Scale of Points for Short Horn Bulls._ Points. ART. 1.--Purity of breed on male and female side; sire and dam reputed for docility of disposition, early maturity, and aptitude to fatten. Sire a good stock getter. Dam a good breeder, and giving a large quantity of milk, or such as is superior for making butter or cheese. 4 ART. 2.--Head muscular and fine. The horns fine and gradually diminishing to a point; of a flat, rather than of a round shape at the base; short and inclined to turn up; those of a clear, waxy color to be preferred, but such as are of a transparent white, slightly tinged with yellow, admissible. Ears small, thin, and covered with soft hair; playing quick and moving freely. Forehead short and broad, especially between the eyes, and slightly dished. Eyes bright, placid, and rather prominent than otherwise, with a yellow rim round them. Lower part of the face clean, dished, and well developing the course of the veins. Muzzle small. Nose of a clear orange or light chocolate color. Nostrils wide and open. Lower jaw thin. Teeth clean and sound. 5 ART. 3.--Neck fine, and slightly arched; strongly and well set on to the head and shoulders; harmoniously widening, deepening, and rounding as it approaches the latter point. No dewlap. 2 ART. 4.--Chest broad, deep and projecting--the brisket on a lower line than the belly. 5 ART. 5.--Shoulders broad, strong, fine, and well placed. Fore legs short, straight, and standing rather wide apart than narrow. Fore arm muscular, broad, and powerful; slightly swelling and full above the knee; the bone fine and flat. Knees well knit and strong. Foot flat and in shape of an oblong semi-circle; horn of the hoof sound, and of a clear, waxy color. 2 ART. 6.--Barrel round and deep, and well ribbed up the hips. 4 ART. 7.--Back short, strong, straight and broad from the withers to the setting of the tail. Crops round and full. Loins broad. Huckle bones on a level with the back. Tail well set, on a level with the back, or very slightly below it; fine and gradually diminishing to a point, and hanging without the brush an inch or so below the hock, at right angles with the back. 4 ART. 8.--Hind quarters from the huckle to the point of the rump, long and well filled up. Twist well let down and full. Hind legs short, straight, and well spread apart; gradually swelling and rounding above the hock; the bone fine and flat below. Foot flat, and in shape making an oblong semi-circle. Horn of the hoof sound, and of a clear, waxy color. Legs not to cross each other in walking, nor to straddle behind. 3 ART. 9.--Skin of a medium thickness; movable and mellow; a white color is admissible, but a rich cream or orange much preferable. Hair well covering the hide; soft and fine, and if undercoated with soft, thick fur in the winter, so much the better. Color, pure white, red roan, bright red, or reddish yellow and white. (A black or dark brown nose or rim round the eye; black or dark spots on the skin and hair decidedly objectional, and indicative of coarse meat and bad blood.) 3 ART. 10.--Good handling. 4 ART. 11.--Sure stock-getter. 4 ART. 12.--Stock, when made steers, certain to feed kindly for beeves at any age, and make prime beef. 5 ART. 13.--General appearance. 2 -- Perfection. 50 _Scale of Points for Short Horn Cows._ Points. ART. 1.--Purity of breed on male and female side; sire and dam reputed for docility of disposition, early maturity and aptitude to fatten. Sire a good stock getter. Dam a good breeder; giving a large quantity of milk, or such as is superior for making butter or cheese. 7 ART. 2.--Head small and tapering; longer and narrower in proportion than that of the bull. Horns fine and gradually diminishing to a point; of a flat rather than of a round shape at the base; short, and inclined to turn up; those of a clear waxy color to be preferred, but such as are of a transparent white slightly tinged with yellow, admissible. Ears small, thin, and well covered with soft hair; playing quick and moving freely. Forehead of good breadth between the eyes, and slightly dished. Eyes bright, placid, and rather prominent than otherwise, with a yellow rim round them. The lower part of the face clean, dished, and well developing the course of the veins. Muzzle small. Nose of a clear orange, or light chocolate color--the former much preferred. Nostrils wide and well opened. Lower jaw thin. Teeth clear and sound. 5 ART. 3.--Neck fine and thin, straight, and well set on to the head and shoulders, harmoniously widening, deepening, and slightly rounding in a delicate feminine manner as it approaches the latter point. No dewlap. 2 ART. 4.--Shoulders fine and well placed. Fore legs short, straight, and well spread apart. Fore arm wide, muscular, slightly swelling, and full above the knee; the bone fine and flat below. Knees well knit and strong. Foot flat and in shape of an oblong semi-circle. Horn of the hoof sound, and of a clear waxy color. 2 ART. 5.--Chest broad, deep and projecting--the brisket on a lower line than the belly. 5 ART. 6.--Barrel round, deep, and well ribbed up to the hips. 4 ART. 7.--Back short, strong and straight, from the withers to the setting of the tail. Crop round and full. Loin broad. Huckle bones on a level with the back. Tail well set, on a level with the back or very slightly below it; fine and gradually diminishing to a point; and hanging without the brush, an inch or so below the hock, at right angles with the back. 4 ART. 8.--Hind quarters from the huckles to the point of the rump long and well filled up. Twist well let down and full. Hind legs short, straight, and well spread apart; gradually swelling and rounding above the hock; the bone fine and flat below. Foot flat and in shape of an oblong semi-circle. Horn of the hoof sound and of a clear waxy color. Legs not to cross each other in walking, nor to straddle behind. 3 ART. 9.--Udder broad, full, extending well forward along the belly, and well up behind. Teats of a good size for the hand; squarely placed with a slight oblique pointing out; wide apart; when pressed by the hand the milk flowing from them freely. Extra teats, indicative of good milking qualities, but should never be milked, as they draw the bag out of shape. Milk veins large and swelling. Milk excelling either in quantity or quality for making butter or cheese. 5 ART. 10.--Skin of a medium thickness; movable and mellow; a white color is admissible, but a rich cream or orange much preferable. Hair well covering the hide; soft and fine, and if undercoated with soft, thick fur in the winter, so much the better. Color pure white; red roan; bright red; red and white; spotted roan, or reddish yellow and white. (A black or dark brown nose, or rim round the eye; black or dark brown spots on the skin and hair decidedly objectionable, and indicative of coarse meat and bad blood.) 3 ART. 11.--Good handler. 4 ART. 12.--Sure and good breeder. 4 ART. 13.--General appearance. 2 -- Perfection. 50 HERD RECORD OF ASSOCIATION OF BREEDERS OF THOROUGH-BRED NEAT STOCK. SHORT HORNS. The figures in parenthesis, thus, (00) refer to the numbers in the English Herd Books; the open figures thus, 00 refer to the American Herd Books; the figures at the right of the asterisk, thus, _{*}00 refer to the numbers adopted by this Association in its volumes. BULLS. =_{*}1 Arch Duke, 3649.= Light roan, bred by S. T. TABER, Chestnut Ridge, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of A. P. VIETS, Hancock, Berkshire Co., Mass.: calved April 1st, 1859; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Calla, by Lamartine, (11662),-- 2d dam Jane, by Young Magog, (2247) 3d--Laura, by Budget, (1759) 4th--Strawberry, by Sandoe, (2598) 5th--Old Red Rose, by Copeland, (1871) 6th--Grey Hook, by Marquis, (407). =_{*}2 Berkshire Duke, 3675.= Red and white, bred and owned by A. P. VIETS, Hancock, Berkshire Co., Mass.: calved March 6th, 1860; got by Chaos, 1347, Dam Cassiopeia, by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578,-- 2d dam Jeanett, by Backwoodsman, 226, 3d--Jane, by Young Magog, (2247) 4th--Laura, by Budget, (1759) 5th--Strawberry, by Sandoe, (2598) 6th--Old Red Rose, by Copeland, (1871) 7th--Grey Hook, by Marquis, (407). =_{*}3 Berkshire Boy,= Red and white, bred and owned by A. P. VIETS, Hancock, Berkshire Co., Mass.: calved April 2d, 1861; got by Arch Duke, _{*}1, 3649, Dam Cassiopeia, by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578,-- 2d dam Jeanett, by Backwoodsman, _{*}6, 226, 3d--Jane, by Young Magog, (2247) 4th--Laura, by Budget, (1759) 5th--Strawberry, by Sandoe, (2598) 6th--Old Red Rose, by Copeland, (1871) 7th--Grey Hook, by Marquis, (407). =_{*}4 Buncomb=, 1302. Roan, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of F. A. NOBLE, East Windsor, Conn.: calved December 11th, 1855; got by Prince of Orange, 872, Dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109,-- 2d dam Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 3d--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}5 Bonaparte,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved August 22d, 1861; got by Hamilcar, _{*}33, Dam Rose, 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407,-- 2d dam Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th------ by Patriot, (486). =_{*}6 Backwoodsman=, 226. Roan, bred by JOHN WALTON, C. W., late the property of S. T. TABER, Duchess Co., N. Y.: calved April 20th, 1847; got by Brilliant, 30, Dam Young Favorite, by Comet, 1385,-- 2d dam Favorite, by Hewood, (2114) 3d--Sweet Apple, by Frederic, (1060) 4th--Ribstone Pippin, by Cleaveland, (146) 5th--Golden Pippin, by North Star, (459) 6th--Beauty, by Favorite, (252) 7th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 8th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 9th-- ---- by Favorite, (252). =_{*}7 Capt. Wilkes,= Red and white, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved December 21st, 1861; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}10, 3850, Dam Alida, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Autumn, by North American, 116, 3d--Adaliza, by Agate 2, 4th--Adaline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Annabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}8 Cæsar,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved August 23d, 1861; got by Rob Roy, 4320, Dam Yarico 17th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Yarico 6th, by Prince Leopold, 869, 3d--Yarico 2d, by East Windsor, 56, 4th--Yarico, by North American, 116, 5th--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}9 Chicopee,= Red and white, bred and owned by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved October 3d, 1861; got by Hampden, _{*}31, 2949, Dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) by 7th-- ---- Marske, (418). =_{*}10 Comet, 3772.= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved August 23d, 1859; got by 2d Prince of Orange, _{*}59, 2183, Dam Pocahontas 4th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Pocahontas 2d, by Tam O'Shanter, 168, 3d--Pocahontas, by North American, 116, 4th--Princess by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ----by Prince, (521) 9th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =_{*}11 Cow Boy,= Red and white, bred by J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.; property of E. C. ELY, Longmeadow, Mass.: calved May 24th, 1860; got by 2d Hiawatha, _{*}34, 1667, Dam Eva 2d, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Eva, by Logan, 95, 3d--Agatha, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Dorcas by Boston, (1735) 6th--imported Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 7th--Duchess, by Wellington (683) 8th--by Admiral, (4) 9th--by Sir Harry, (1444) 10th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 13th--by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 12th--by Son of Hubback, (319). =_{*}12 Commodore,= 3777. Roan, bred by F. W. STONE, Moreton Lodge, Guelph, C. W.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved May 26th, 1857; got by imported John O'Gaunt 2d, (13089) Dam Duchess, 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Duchess, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 5th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}13 Duke of Worcester,= 3896. Light roan, bred by DANIEL TAINTOR, Worcester, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved May 4th, 1859; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Cara, by Young Meteor, 1147,-- 2d dam Double Rose, by Prince Hal, 137, 3d--Rosilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Elvira by Young Comet, (3437) 5th--Emma by Rockingham, (560) 6th--imported Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}14 Dupont,= Red and white, bred by F. A. NOBLE, East Windsor, Conn.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved January 17th, 1861; got by 2d Hiawatha, _{*}34, 1667, Dam Kathleen, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½, 3d--Alice by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Danae, by Carlos, (1787) 5th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 6th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 7th--Delicia, by Major, (2252), &c. =_{*}15 Duke of Argyle,= Roan, bred and owned by NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved February 6th, 1862; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Tube Rose 4th, by imported Wolviston, 1109,-- 2d dam Tube Rose 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941) 3d--Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174) 4th--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281), &c., as in Tube Rose, 4th. =_{*}16 Duke of Windsor,= Red star in the face, bred and owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved February 11th, 1862; got by Red Duke, _{*}60, 4295, Dam Windsor Belle, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Red Romp, by Agate 2, 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansey, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th------ by Patriot, (486.) =_{*}17 Duke of Carlisle=, 3850. Red, bred by SAMUEL THORNE, Thornedale, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved April 22d, 1859; got by 2d Grand Duke, (12961) Dam Clover, by Grand Duke, (10284),-- 2d dam Countess, by 3d Duke of Oxford, (9047) 3d--Careless, by Short Tail, (2621) 4th--by son of Second Hubback, (2683). NOTE.--Clover was the winner of the first prize and Silver Medal to the _breeder_ at the New York State Show, at Syracuse, in 1858. =_{*}18 Duke of Wilbraham,= Red and white, bred by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.; owned by WILLIAM LYMAN, Wilbraham, Mass.: calved July 29th, 1860; got by 2d Hiawatha, _{*}34, 1667, Dam Fancy, by Berlin Hero, 257,-- 2d dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 478, 3d--Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 4th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Young Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}19 Derby,= Bred and owned by JOHN HOWITT, Guelph, C. W.: calved in 1848; got by Prince Albert, _{*}56, Dam Moss Rose, by imported Reformer, 898,-- 2d dam Ruby, by Agricola, (1614) 3d--imported Beauty, by Snowball, (2647) 4th--by Lawnsleeves, (365) 5th-- ---- by Mr. Mason's Charles, (127). =_{*}20 Duc D'Argentine,= Red, bred by SAMUEL THORNE, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved April 11th, 1859; got by 2d Grand Duke, (12961) Dam Darlington, 6th by 4th Duke of Oxford, (11387),-- 2d dam Darlington, 1st by Thomas, (5471) 3d--Pretty Maid, by Eryholme, (3736) 4th--by Reformer, (4914) 5th--by Young Favorite, (3770) 6th--by Wellington, (2825). =_{*}21 Duke of Springfield,= Roan, bred by H. J. CHAPIN, Springfield, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved August, 1861; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580,-- 2d dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 478, 3d--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Arabella, by Agate 2, 5th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 6th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 7th--Delicia, by Major, (2252). =_{*}22 2d Duke of Kent,= Red roan, bred by D. B. HAIGHT, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved April, 1861; got by Duke of Kent, 2768; Dam Red Rose 3d, by imported Duke of Athol, 445,-- 2d dam Red Rose, by Plow Boy, 824, 3d--Lucilla, 2d, by Guarionez, 68, 4th--Lucilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 6th--Agatha, by Sir Charles, (1440) 7th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 8th--by Admiral, (4) 9th--by Sir Harry, (1444). =_{*}23 Dacotah=, 3800. Red and white, bred and owned by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved May 8th, 1858; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Virgillia, by Prince Royal, 880,-- 2d dam Stella 2d, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Stella, by North American, 116, 4th--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 6th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 7th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}24 Double Marmion,= Red and white, bred and owned by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved June 29th, 1861; got by Young Marmion, _{*}37, 3602, Dam Nymph 5th, by imported Lord Vane Tempest, 669½,-- 2d dam Nymph, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpareil, by young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}24½ Fourth of July,= Red and white, bred and owned by E. W. STEBBINS, Deerfield, Mass.: calved July 4th, 1859; got by Hiawatha, 1666, Dam Regetta, by Prince Albert 3d, 858,-- 2d dam Lydia, by Walter, 1072, 3d--Arabella, by Victory, (5565) 4th--Sally, by Major (441) 5th--Old Sally, by grand son of Favorite, (252) 6th--by Punch, (531) 7th--by Hubback, (319.) =_{*}25 Fabius 3d,= Red roan, bred and owned by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved April 3d, 1859; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60. 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ------ by Comus, 161, 7th-- ------ by Marske. =_{*}26 Franklin,= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved December 1st, 1861; got by Prince of Wales, 4276, Dam Molly, by Hiawatha, 1666,-- 2d dam Cassy, by Young Meteor, 1147, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =_{*}27 Finellas Neptune,= Dark roan, bred and owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved January 20th, 1860; got by imported Neptune, _{*}50, 3192, Dam imported Finella, by Grand Duke, (10284),-- 2d dam Fay, by Foig-a-Ballagh, (8082) 3d--Fame, by Raspberry, (4875) 4th--Farewell, by Young Matchem, (4422) 5th--Flora, by Isaac, (1129) 6th------ by Young Pilot, (497) 7th-- ---- by Pilot, (496) 8th-- ---- by Julius Cæsar, (1143). =_{*}28 General Sale,= Red, bred by J. S. & G. E. TAYLOR, Shelburne Falls, Mass.: calved July 29th, 1859; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Lady Sale 6th, by Red Knight, 890,-- 2d dam Lady Sale 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034, 3d--Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 4th--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 5th--Clara, by Napier, (6238) 6th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258). =_{*}29 Granite State,= Red, bred by JAMES FOSGATE, Winchester, N. H.; property of NATHANIEL W. BRAGG, Royalston, Mass.: calved June 3d, 1862; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Victoria, by Ashuelot, 1213,-- 2d dam Victoria, by imported Cerdic, (5843) 3d--Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Dorcas, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Agatha by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ----- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 11--by Hubback, (319). =_{*}30 Gov. Hancock= Red and white, bred and owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved April 8th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Lucy, by Osceola, 789,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Logan, 95, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252)7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th by Marske, (418). =_{*}31 Hampden=, 2949. Roan, bred by P. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved June 30th, 1857; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Young Dorothy, by Windsor Comet, 1105,-- 2d dam Dorothy, by East Windsor, 56, 3d--Red Romp, by Agate 2, 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 9th--by Prince, (521) 10th--by Patriot, (486). =_{*}32 Hannibal,= Red and white, bred by H.J. CHAPIN, Springfield, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved March 8th, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, _{*}34, 1667, Dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580,-- 2d dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487, 3d--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Arabella, by Agate 2, &c., as in Hamilcar. =_{*}33 Hamilcar,= Red and white, bred by H.J. CHAPIN, Springfield, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON; Agawam, Mass.: calved November, 1857; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580,-- 2d dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487, 3d--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Arabella, by Agate 2, 5th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 6th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 7th--Delicia by Major, (2252), &c. =_{*}34 2d Hiawatha, 1667= Light roan, bred by WELLS LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved September 29th, 1856; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Yarico, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 3d--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th------ by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =_{*}35 Humboldt,= Red, bred by S. T. TABER, Dover Plains, Duchess County, N. Y.; property of STATE REFORM SCHOOL, Meriden, Conn.: calved May, 1859; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Laura 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Laura, by North American, 116, 3d--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th------ by Admiral, (4) &c., &c. =_{*}36 6th Hiawatha, 2971.= Red and white, bred by WELLS LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved September 17th, 1857; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Yarico 3d, by East Windsor, 56,-- 2d dam Yarico, by North American, 116, 3d--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, 155, &c. =_{*}37 Highflyer, 578.= Red, bred by SAMUEL THORNE; property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved December 14th, 1854; got by Duke of Gloster, (11382) Dam imported Diana Gwynne, by Duke of Lancaster, (10929),-- 2d dam Dolly Varden, by Ribblesdale, (7422) 3d--Dorothy Gwynne, by Conservative, (3472) 4th--Cripple, by Marmion, (406) 5th--Daphne, by Merlin, (430) 6th--Nelle Gwynne, by Layton, (366) 7th--Nelle Gwynne, by Phenomenon, (491) 8th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 9th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 10th------ by Hubback, (319) 11th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 12th--by Weistel's Bull, (669) 13th-- ---- by Masterman's Bull, (422) 14th-- ---- by the Studley Bull, (626.) =_{*}38 Honest Abe, 4026.= Red and white, bred by E. C. ELY, Longmeadow, Mass.; property of CHARLES H. BARBER, East Windsor, Conn.: calved May 12th, 1860; got by Brother Jonathan, 2570, Dam Ruth, by Uncle Tom, 1056,-- 2d dam Stella 2d, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Stella, by North American, 116, 4th--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Princess, by Splendid, (5292) 6th--Flora by Patriot, (2412) 7th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}39 John Bell, 4068.= Red roan, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.; calved January 12th, 1861; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Lady Chesterford 2d, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam imported Lady Chesterford, by Earl Ducie, (12799) 3d--Lady Jane, by Red Roan Kirtling, (10691) 4th--Lady Ann, by Pam, (6272) 5th--Countess, by Vanguard, (5545) 6th--Dodona, by Alabaster, (1616) 7th--No. 6, by Dr. Syntax (220) 8th-- ---- by Charles, (127) 9th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 10th--Lydia, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Nell, by the White Bull, (421) 12th--Fortune, by Bolinbroke, (86) 13th-- ---- by Foljambe, (263) 14th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =_{*}40 John Bull, 3025.= Red and white, bred by FREDERIC W. STONE, Guelph, C. W.; property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved July 6th, 1857; got by John O'Gaunt, (13089) Dam imported Bianca, by Minstrel, (11818)-- 2d dam Banksie, by Shepherds Purse, (10804) 3d--Raspberry, by Mozart (11830) 4th--Cherry, by Sterling, (5330) 5th--Wide 2d, by Frederic, (3836) 6th--Old Wide, by Favorite, (3768) 7th-- ---- by Fathwell Studley, (5401) 8th-- ----by Son of Waddingworth, (668). =_{*}41 John P. Hale,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved April 28th, 1862; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Dawn, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Luna, by Nebraska, 738, 3d--Aurora 2d, by East Windsor, 56, 4th--Aurora, by North American, 116, 5th--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 6th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3437) 7th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 8th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 9th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 10th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 11th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 12th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =_{*}42 Leonidas, 4094.= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved August 17th, 1860; got by 2d Prince of Orange, _{*}59, 2183, Dam Pocahontas 4th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Pocahontas 2d, by Tam O'Shanter, 168, 3d--Pocahontas, by North American, 119, 4th--Princess, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ----by Prince, (521) 9th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =_{*}43 Lucifer,= Red, bred and owned by MILO J. SMITH & Son, Northampton, Mass.: calved September 9th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Colona, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Atalanta 3d, by Logan 2d, 652, 3d--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}44 Marmion, 1843.= Roan, bred by N. J. BECAR, property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, and MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved October 2d, 1855; got by Duke of Gloster, (11382) Dam Zoe, by 5th Duke of York, (10168),-- 2d dam Janetta, by Lycurgus, (7180) 3d--Jacosta, by Friar Tuck, (3848) 4th---L. Junta, by Warden, (5595) 5th--Joyance, by Javelin, (4093) 6th--Joy, by Blythe, (797) 7th--Jeanette, by Wellington, (684) 8th-- ---- by Phenomenon, (491) 9th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 10th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 11th-- ----by Hubback, (319) 12th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 13th-- ---- by Weistel's Bull, (669) 14th-- ---- by Masterman's Bull, (422) 15th-- ---- by the Studley Bull, (626). =_{*}45 Marmion,= Roan, bred and owned by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved August 1st, 1862; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam White Rose, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407, 3d--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127). =_{*}46 Marmion 2d,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved February 21st, 1862; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Dianna Gwynne, by Duke of Lancaster, (10929),-- 2d dam Dolly Varden, by Ribblesdale, (7422) 3d--Dorothy Gwynne, by Conservative, (3472) 4th--Cripple, by Marmion, (406) 5th--Daphne, by Merlin, (430) 6th--Nell Gwynne, by Layton, (366) 7th--Nell Gwynne, by Phenomenon, (491) 8th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 9th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319) 11th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 12th--by Weistel's Bull, (669) 13th-- ---- by Masterman's Bull, (422) 14th-- ---- by the Studley Bull, (626). =_{*}47 Major Anderson,= Red roan, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved February 4th, 1861; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Dianna Gwynne, by Duke of Lancaster, (10929),-- 2d dam Dolly Varden, by Ribblesdale, (7422) 3d--Dorothy Gwynne, by Conservative, (3472) 4th--Cripple, by Marmion, (406) 5th--Daphne, by Merlin, (430) 6th--Nell Gwynne, by Layton, (366) 7th--Nell Gwynne, by Phenomenon, (491) 8th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 9th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319) 11th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 12th-- ----by Weistel's Bull, (669) 13th-- ---- by Masterman's Bull, (422) 14th-- ----by the Studley Bull, (626). =_{*}48 Monarch,= Red and white, bred by A. H. BEACH, Merwinsville, Conn.; property of BURDETT LOOMIS, Suffield, Conn.: calved June 23d, 1860; got by Duke of Ash Grove, 2745, Dam Belle 3d, by the Count, 1028,-- 2d dam imported Belle, by Monarch, (7249) 3d--Barmaid, by Hurricane, (4061) 4th--Spotted Boughton, by Crusader, (7939) 5th--Bombazine, by Regent, (544). =_{*}49 Middlesex,= Red and white, bred and owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved June 30th, 1862; got by Thorndyke, _{*}68, 4422, Dam Laurestina 2d, by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025,-- 2d dam Laurestina, by Earl of Warwick, 465, 3d--Laura 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869, 4th--Laura, by North American, 116, 5th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 6th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 7th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 8th-- ----by Admiral, (4) 9th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 10th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 11th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, 319, 12th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =_{*}50 Neptune,= Light roan, bred by JOHN BOOTH, Killerby, England; imported by SAMUEL THORNE, owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.; got by Water King, (11024) Dam Bloom, by Buckingham, (3239),-- 2d dam Hawthorn Blossom, by Leonard, (4210) 3d--Blossom 3d, by Young Red Rover, (4905) 4th--Blossom, by Isaac, (1129) 5th--Blossom, by Pilot, (496) 6th--Twin Cow, by Albion, (14). =_{*}51 Napier,= Dark roan, bred and owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved March 10th, 1861; got by imported Neptune, _{*}50, 3192, Dam imported Finella, by Grand Duke, (10284),-- 2d dam Fay, by Foig-a-Ballagh, (8082) 3d--Fame, by Raspberry, (4875) 4th--Farewell, by Young Matchem, (4422) 5th--Flora, by Isaac, 1129, 6th-- ---- by Young Pilot, (497) 7th-- ---- by Pilot, (496) 8th-- ---- by Julius Cæsar, (1143.) =_{*}52 Nonesuch, 1935½.= Red and white, bred by D. C. COLLINS, Hartford, Conn.; property of DAVID MOSELY, Westfield, Mass.: calved April 2d, 1853; got by Monarch, 718, Dam Novice, by Coxcomb, 382,-- 2d dam Nina, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155.) =_{*}53 Osceola,= Red and white, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved May 24th, 1861; got by Duke of Winchester, 2792½, Dam Lucky, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Aurelia, by Osceola, 789, 3d--Adeliza, by Agate 2, 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 9th--by Henry, (301) 10th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =_{*}54 Prince of Wales, 4275.= Red roan, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Millbury, Mass.: calved October 11th, 1860; got by Highflyer, _{*}34, 587, Dam Lady Chesterford, by Earl Ducie, (12799,)-- 2d dam Lady Jane, by Red Roan Kirtling, (10691) 3d--Lady Anna, by Pam, (6272) 4th--Countess, by Vanguard, (5545) 5th--Dodona, by Alabaster, (1616) 6th--No. 6, by Dr. Syntax, (220) 7th-- ---- by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th--Lydia, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Nell, by the White Bull, (421) 11th--Fortune, by Bolingbroke, (86) 12th-- ---- by Foljambe, (263) 13th-- ----by Hubback, (319.) =_{*}55 Pluto,= Red and white, bred by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved June 4th, 1860; got by Frank Forrester, 2868, Dam Eva 3d, by Duke of Windsor, 451,-- 2d dam Eva, by Logan, 95, 3d--Agatha, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Young Agatha, by imported Boston, (1735) 5th--Dorcas, by imported Boston, (1735) 6th--imported cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 7th--Duchess, by Wellington, (1683), &c. =_{*}56 Prince Albert,= White, bred by GEORGE VAIL, Troy, N. Y.; property of JOHN HOWITT, Guelph, C. W.: calved June 19th, 1846; got by Meteor, 104, Dam Splendor, by Symmetry, (2723),-- 2d dam Pomona, by Bedford, Jr., (1701) 3d-- ---- by Isaac, 1129, 4th-- ----by Whitworth, (1584) 5th-- ---- by White Comet, (1582) 6th-- ---- by Son of Kitt, (2179.) =_{*}57 Prince of Oxford, 3308.= Red roan, bred by SAMUEL THORNE, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved July 3d, 1857; got by Duke of Gloster, (11382) Dam Maid of Oxford, by Lord of Eryholme, (12205),-- 2d dam Oxford 13th, by 3d Duke of York, (10166) 3d--Oxford 5th, by Duke of Northumberland, (1940) 4th--Oxford 2d, by Short Tail, (2621) 5th--Matchem Cow, by Matchem, (2281) 6th-- ---- by Young Wynyard, (2859.) =_{*}58 Planet,= Red and white, bred by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.; property of CHARLES H. BARBER, East Windsor, Conn.: calved August 15th, 1861; got by Hamilcar, _{*}33, Dam Fancy, by Berlin Hero, (257,)-- 2d dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 478, 3d--Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 4th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155.) [Illustration: PRINCE OF OXFORD, 2 Years Old, 3308. Vol. 4, A. H. B. THE PROPERTY OF NEWTON CARTER, HARTFORD, CONN.] =_{*}59 2d Prince of Orange, 2183.= Light roan, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved May 24th, 1856; got by Prince of Orange, 872, Dam Novice, by Coxcomb, 382,-- 2d dam Nina, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}60 Red Duke, 4295.= Red, bred by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; property of SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved June 2d, 1859; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Young Dorothy, by Windsor Comet, 1105,-- 2d dam Dorothy, by East Windsor, 56, 3d--Red Romp, by Agate 2, 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--imported Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 9th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 10th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =_{*}61 Red Blaize, 3325.= Red, bred by D. W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.; property of NORMAN PORTER, Berlin, Conn.: calved May, 1857; got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592),-- 2d dam Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 3d--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}62 Rising Star,= Red roan, bred and owned by MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved August 21st, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Starlight, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Aurora 2d, by East Windsor, 56, 3d--Aurora, by North American, 116, 4th--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 6th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 7th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 8th--Ada, by Denton, 198, 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 10th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 11th-- ----by Danby, (190). =_{*}63 Roan Duke,= Red roan, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.; got by Highflyer, _{*}34, 578, Dam imported Lady Chesterford, by Earl Ducie, (12799), 2d dam Lady Jane, by Red Roan Kirtling, (10691) 3d--Lady Ann, by Pam (6272) 4th--Countess, by Vanguard, (5545) 5th--Dodona, by Alabaster, (1616) 6th--No. 6, by Dr. Syntax, (220) 7th-- ---- by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th--Lydia, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Nell, by the White Bull, (421) 11th--Fortune, by Bolingbroke, (86) 12th-- ---- by Foljambe, (263) 13th-- ----by Hubback, (319) 14th-- ---- bred by Mr. Maynard. =_{*}64 Rebel, 3023.= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved March 2d, 1862; got by John Bright, 3023, Dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109,-- 2d dam Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 3d--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}65 Star,= Red, star in the face, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved April 9th, 1862; got by Buncomb, _{*}4, 1302, Dam Rose, by Young America, 2404,-- 2d dam Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407, 3d--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 8th--by Blythe Comet, (85) 9th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 10th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =_{*}66 Son of Highflyer,= Red, bred by A. O. CUMMINS, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.; property of J. H. GOODELL & CO., Millbury, Mass.: calved February 2d, 1862; got by Highflyer, _{*}34, 578, Dam Jessie, by Double Duke, 1451½,-- 2d dam Regetta, by Prince Albert 3d, 858, 3d--Lydia, by Walter, 1072, 4th--Arabella, by Victory, (5565) 5th--Sally, by Major, (401) 6th--Old Sally, by grandson of Favorite, (252) 7th-- ---- by Punch, (530) 8th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =_{*}67 Stephenson,= Red and white, bred by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.; property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved June 7th, 1859; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Nymph 5th, by imported Lord Vane Tempest, 669½,-- 2d dam Nymph, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th-- ---- by Danby, (190). NOTE.--This is a three-fourth Stephenson and one-fourth Bates blood Bull. J. S. A. =_{*}68 Thorndyke, 4422.= Light roan, bred at the STATE LUNATIC ASYLUM, Worcester, Mass.; property of SAMUEL BOYD, Marlboro', Mass.: calved January 15th, 1861; got by Young Monarch, 3605, Dam Yarico 2d, by East Windsor, 56,-- 2d dam Yarico, by North American, 116, 3d--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th-- ----by Danby, (190). =_{*}69 Woronoco,= Red and white, bred and owned by DAVID MOSELY, Westfield, Mass.: calved April 16th, 1858; got by Nonesuch, _{*}52, 1935½, Dam Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189,-- 2d dam Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}70 Young Marmion, 3602.= Light roan, bred and owned by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved July 6th, 1858; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Nymph 5th, by imported Lord Vane Tempest, 669½,-- 2d dam Nymph, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}71 Young Humboldt,= Red and white, bred by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.; property of ISAAC S. CLEMENT, Saratoga Co., N. Y.: calved April 19th, 1859; got by Humboldt, 1678, Dam Minnie, by Lord Eryholme 2d, (11715),-- 2d dam Agnes, by Lamartine, (11662) 3d-- ---- by Plowboy, 824, 4th--Pocahontas, by Harlem Comet, 71, 5th--Fose, by Greenbush, 2940, 6th--Young Lily, by imported Albion, 2483, 7th--imported Flora, by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Ossian, (476) COWS. =Arabella,= Red and white, bred by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; the property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved July 8th, 1858; got by Connecticut, 369, out of Arabella, by Agate 2,-- 2d dam Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 3d--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 4th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 5th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 6th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 2d,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved October 6th, 1861; got by Fabius 3d, _{*}25, 3920, Dam Arabella, by Connecticut, 369,-- 2d dam Arabella by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 2d,= Red and white, bred by JOHN BISSELL, East Windsor, Conn.; the property of B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass: calved April, 1846; got by Fabius, 60, Dam Arabella, by Agate 2,-- 2d dam Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 3d--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 4th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 5th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 6th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 3d,= Red, bred by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; the property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved December 8th, 1856; got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60. 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 4th,= Red, bred by and property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved October 14th, 1859; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Arabella 3d, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 5th,= Red roan, bred by and property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved December 18th, 1860; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Arabella 3d, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 6th,= Roan, bred and owned by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved June 5th, 1859; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Arabella, by Agate 2,-- 2d dam Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 3d--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 4th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 5th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 6th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 6th,= Red, bred by and property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass: calved December 15th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Arabella 3d, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 7th,= Red and white, bred by and property of B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved September 13th, 1860; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Arabella 4th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 8th,= Red and white, bred by and property of B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved October 2d, 1860; got by Dacotah, 3800, Dam Arabella, by Connecticut, 369,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 4th,= Roan, bred and owned by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved January 28th, 1858, got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arazonia,= Roan, bred by SAMUEL T. TABER, owned by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; calved June 23d, 1857; got by Earl of Warwick, 465, Dam Atalanta 3d, by Logan 2d, 652,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 4th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 5th--Arabella, by Major, 398, 6th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Ann Gwynne,= Red and white, bred by D. B. HAIGHT, Dover Plains, Duchess Co., N. Y.; the property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved 1851; got by Prince Albert, 853, Dam Daisy 2d, by Danby, 50,-- 2d dam Daisy, by King Charles 2d, 84, 3d--imported Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 4th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900) 5th-- ---- by Mr. Wilkinson's Bull, (2838) 6th-- ---- by Mr. Greathead's Grey Bull, (3936) 7th-- ---- by Mr. Ellerton's Roan Bull, (3708). =Atalanta 3d,= Roan, bred and owned by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved September 20th, 1857; got by Duke of Windsor, 451, Dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½,-- 2d dam Alice, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Danae, by Carlos, 1787, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, _by_ Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252). =Atalanta 4th,= Red and white; bred and owned by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; calved September 11th, 1859; got by Hampden, 2949, Dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½,-- 2d dam Alice, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Danae, by Carlos, (1787) 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252). =Ariadne,= Red, bred by SAMUEL THORNE, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved April 10th, 1859; got by Neptune, _{*}50, (11847) Dam Alma, by Young Balco, (12426),-- 2d dam Aurora, by 3d Duke of York, (10166) 3d--Allspice, by 2d Duke of Northumberland, (3646) 4th--Young Amazon, by Crusader, (934) 5th--Amazon, by Sultan, (1485) 6th--Bellona, by Mars, (411) 7th--Rolla, by North Star, (485). =Ariadne 2d,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved December 7th, 1861; got by Duc de Argentine, _{*}20, Dam Ariadne, by Neptune, (11847),-- 2d dam Alma, by Young Balco, (12426) 3d--Aurora, by 3d Duke of York, (10166) 4th--Allspice, by 2d Duke of Northumberland, (3646) 5th--Young Amazon, by Crusader, (934) 6th--Amazon, by Sultan, (1485) 7th--Bellona, by Mars, (411) 8th--Rolla, by North Star, (485). =Adda,= Red and white, bred and owned by G. E. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved September 6th, 1861; got by 4th Hiawatha, 2970, Dam Cherry 2d, by Napoleon, 734,-- 2d dam Cherry, by King Philip, 85, 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac 3d, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, 2038, 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Aurora,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved February 14th, 1861; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Dawn, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Luna, by Nebraska, 738, 3d--Aurora 2d, by East Windsor, 56, 4th--Aurora, by North American, 116, 5th--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 6th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3437) 7th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 8th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 9th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 10th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 11th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 12th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Alida,= Light roan, bred by S. T. TABER, Hempstead Branch, Queens County, N. Y.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved August 8th, 1855; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Autumn, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Adeliza, by Agate 2, 3d--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 4th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 5th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 6th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th-- ----by Danby, (190). =Atalanta 2d,= Red and white, bred by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; the property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved November 3d, 1856; got by Red Jacket, 891, Dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½,-- 2d dam Alice, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Danae, by Carlos, (1787) 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- Marske, (418). =Autumn Rose,= Red, bred by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved September 7th, 1861, got by Red Duke, _{*}60, 4295, Dam Fair Star, by King Philip, 1740,-- 2d dam Phoebe, by Berlin Hero, 257, 3d--Lily, by Logan, 95, 4th--Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 5th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 6th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 7th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 8th--Lilac, by imported Young Denton, (963) 9th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 10th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 11th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 12th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Belladonna,= Red and white, bred by H. J. CHAPIN, Springfield, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved October 22d, 1856; got by Duke of Windsor, 451, Dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580,-- 2d dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487, 3d--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Arabella, by Agate 2, 5th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 6th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 7th--Delicia, by Major, (2252), &c. =Belladonna 2d,= Red and white, bred by H. J. CHAPIN, Springfield, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved March 28th, 1860; got by Hampden, 3949, Dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580,-- 2d dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487, 3d--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, &c., as in Belladonna above. =Belladonna 3d,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved February 18th, 1861, got by Hamilcar, _{*}33, Dam Belladonna, by Duke of Windsor, 451,-- 2d dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580, 3d--Stella, by Fabius 2d, 478, 4th--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 5th--Arabella, by Agate 2, 6th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 7th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 8th--Delicia, by Major, (2252.) =Belladonna 4th,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved March 10th, 1862; got by Buncomb, 1302, Dam Belladonna, by Duke of Windsor, 451,-- 2d dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580, 3d--Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487, 4th--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 5th--Arabella, by Agate 2, 6th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878), &c., as in Belladonna. =Bellflower 3d,= Red and white, bred by E. A. PHELPS, Avon, Hartford County, Conn.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved April 11th, 1859; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Bellflower, by Harvester, 1641,-- 2d dam Mayflower, by North American, 116, 3d--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 9th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 10th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Bianca,= Red and white, bred by Sir JOHN LUBBOCK, Kent, Eng.; property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved January 25th, 1854; got by Minstrel, (11818) Dam Banksia, by Shepherds Purse, (10804),-- 2d dam Raspberry, by Mozart, (11830) 3d--Cherry, by Sterling, (5330) 4th--Wide 2d, by Frederic, (3836) 5th--Old Wide, by Favorite, (3768) 6th-- ---- by Tathwell Studley, (5401) 7th-- ---- by Son of Waddingworth, (668). =Bianca 2d,= Red, bred by and property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved August 4th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam imported Bianca, by Minstrel, (11818),-- 2d dam Banksia, by Shepherds Purse, (10804) 3d--Raspberry, by Mozart, (11830) 4th--Cherry, by Sterling, (5330) 5th--Wide 2d, by Frederic, (3836) 6th--Old Wide, by Favorite, (3768) 7th-- ---- by Tathwell Studley, (5401) 8th-- ---- by Son of Waddingworth, (668). =Cassy,= Light roan, bred by A. & J. A. CLARK, Granby, Mass.; property of JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved October 10th, 1854; got by Young Meteor, 1147, Dam Arabella, by Agate 2,-- 2d dam Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 3d--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 4th--Delicia, by Major, (2242) 5th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 6th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Casseopia,= Red and white, bred by S. T. TABER, Chestnut Ridge, Duchess County, N. Y.; property of Rev. A. P. VIETS, Hancock, Mass.: calved April 9th, 1857; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Jeannette, by Backwoodsman, 226,-- 2d dam Jane, by Young Magog, (2247) 3d--Laura, by Budget, (1759) 4th--Strawberry, by Sandoe, (2598) 5th--Old Red Rose, by Copeland, (1871) 6th--Grey Hook, by Marquis, (407). =Cheapside,= Light roan, bred by and property of JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved February 28th, 1861; got by Hiawatha, 1666, Dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109,-- 2d dam Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189, 3d--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Nonpareil, by imported Young Denton, (963) 5th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th--by Danby, (190). =Coriander,= Red, bred by E. A. PHELPS, Avon; property of TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved September 11th, 1856; got by Monarch, 718, Dam Carnation, by Coxcomb, 382,-- 2d dam Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 4th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Coriander 2d,= Red and white, bred by and property of TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved December 7th, 1860; got by Young Marmion, _{*}70, 3602, Dam Coriander, by Monarch, 718,-- 2d dam Carnation, by Coxcomb, 382, 3d--Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, 85, 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th-- ----by Patriot, (486). =Cinderella 2d,= Red, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved July 13th, 1858; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Cinderella, by Harvester, 1641,-- 2d dam Carnation, by Coxcomb, 382, 3d--Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85), &c., as above. =Cora,= Red and white, bred by E. A. PHELPS, Avon, Conn.; property of WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: calved May 20th, 1853; got by Harvester, 1641, Dam Carnation, by Coxcomb, 382,-- 2d dam Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 4th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Cora 3d,= Roan, bred by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.; property of SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved November 4th, 1861; got by Hampden, 2949, Dam Cora 2d, by Double Duke, 1451½,-- 2d dam Cora, by Harvester, 1641, 3d--Carnation, by Coxcomb, 382, 4th--Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21, 5th--Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 9th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 10th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Cora 4th,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: calved June 12th, 1862; got by Brigham Young, 3702, Dam Cora, by Harvester, 1641,-- 2d dam Carnation, by Coxcomb, 381, 3d--Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th-- ----by Patriot, (486). =Chance 5th,= Roan, bred by R. A. ALEXANDER, Woodford County, Ky.; property of S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved December 23d, 1857; got by Duke of Airdrie, (12730) Dam Chance 2d, by full brother to Mercer, (11807),-- 2d dam Chance, by Renick, 903, 3d--Bantam, by Cossack, (3503) 4th--Claudine, by Prince Charles, (2461) 5th--Orbit by Oliver, (2387) 6th-- ---- by Contention, (3479) 7th-- ---- by San Martin, (2599) 8th-- ---- by Paul Jones, (4661). =Cherry 5th,= Roan, bred and owned by J. S. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved November 1st, 1860; got by 4th Hiawatha, 2979, Dam Cherry 4th, by Champion, 328,-- 2d dam Cherry 2d, by Napoleon, 734, 3d--Cherry, by King Philip, 85, 4th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Lilac 3d, by Whisker, (5639), &c. =Cherry 6th,= Red, bred and owned by J. S. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved October 24th, 1861; got by General Sale, _{*}28, Dam Cherry 4th, by Champion, 328,-- 2d dam Cherry 2d, by Napoleon, 734, 3d--Cherry, by King Philip, 85, 4th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Lilac 3d, by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963). =Carnation,= Red and white, bred by F. M. ROTCH, Otsego Co., N. Y.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved April 19th, 1850; got by Coxcomb, 382, Dam Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21-- 2d dam Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 3d--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 4th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 5th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 6th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 7th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Colona,= Red, bred by S. T. TABER, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved May 14th, 1858, got by Earl of Warwick, 465, Dam Atalanta 3d, by Logan 2d, 652,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 4th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 5th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 6th--Ada, by Denton (198) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Dew Drop,= Red and white, bred by S. T. BISSELL, East Windsor, Conn.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved May 2d, 1854; got by Holyoke, 580, Dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½,-- 2d dam Alice, by Splendid (5297) 3d--Danae, by Carlos, (1787) 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (5252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske (418). =Dew Drop,= Red, bred by WILLIAM VINE SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass.; property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved August 12th, 1858; got by Buncomb, 1302, Dam Atalanta 2d, by Logan 2d, 652,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 4th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 5th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 6th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155.) =Dora Haines,= Roan, bred by B. & C. S. HAINES, Elizabeth, N. J.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved February 4th, 1860; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Anna, by imported Duke of Exeter, 449,-- 2d dam Gertrude, by Paular, 807, 3d--Snowstorm, by imported Duke of Wellington, (3654) 4th--Old Snowstorm by Alexander, 4, 5th--Fashion, by Otto, (9463) 6th--Kicker, by Moscow, (9413) 7th--Princess, by Wellington, (684) 8th--Old Princess, by Wynyard, (703). =Dora Haines 2d,= Red roan, bred and owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved June 26th, 1862; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Dora Haines, by Marmion, 1843,-- 2d dam Anna, by imported Duke of Exeter, 449, 3d--Gertrude, by Paular, 807, 4th--Snowstorm, by Duke of Wellington, (3654) 5th--Snowstorm, by Alexander, 4, 6th--Fashion, by Otto, (9463) 7th--Kicker, by Moscow, (9413) 8th--Princess, by Wellington, (684) 9th--Old Princess, by Wynyard, (703). =Dawn,= Red, bred by S. T. TABER, Chestnut Ridge, N. Y.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.; calved July 12th, 1857; got by Earl of Warwick, 465, Dam Luna, by Nebraska, 738,-- 2d dam Aurora 2d, by East Windsor, 56, 3d--Aurora, by North American, 116, 4th--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3437) 6th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 7th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 8th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 10th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 11th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Dairy Maid,= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved June 9th, 1862; got by Comet, 3772, Dam Topsy, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Victoria, by North American, 116, 3d--Lady Holyoke, by Hero, (4020) 4th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Diana Gwynne,= Roan, bred by J. S. TANQUERAY, Hendon, England; imported by SAMUEL THORNE; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved January 28th, 1852; got by Duke of Lancaster, (10929) Dam Dolly Varden, by Ribblesdale, (7422),-- 2d dam Dorothy Gwynne, by Conservative, (3472) 3d--Cripple, by Marmion, (406) 4th--Daphne, by Merlin, (430) 5th--Nell Gwynne, by Layton, (366) 6th--Nell Gwynne, by Phenomenon, (491) 7th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 8th-- ----by Favorite, (252) 9th-- ---- by Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 11th-- ---- by Weistel's Bull, (669) 12-- ---- by Masterman's Bull, (422) 13th-- ---- by the Studley Bull, (626). NOTE.--Diana Gwynne sold to George Bachelder, Stanstead, Canada East. =Duchess 4th,= Red, bred by P. LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved September 15th, 1855; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592),-- 2d dam Duchess, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Duchess 6th,= Roan, bred by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.; property of R. B. HUBBARD, Amherst, Mass: calved March 5th, 1860; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Duchess 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Duchess, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 5th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Duchess 7th,= (twin with Duchess 6th), White, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved March 5th, 1860; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Duchess 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Duchess, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 5th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Duchess 8th,= Red and white, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved February 17th, 1861; got by Duke of Winchester, 2792½, Dam Duchess 4th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592), &c., as in Duchess 7th. =Duchess 9th,= Roan, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved April 12th, 1861; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Duchess 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592), &c., as in Duchess 7th and 8th. =Duchess 10th,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved April 28th, 1862; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Duchess 4th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592), &c., as in Duchess 7th. =Duchess 11th,= Red and white, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved September 15th, 1862, got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Duchess 7th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Duchess 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869, &c., as in Duchess 7th. =Dimity,= White, bred by and property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved July 15th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Yarico 7th, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Yarico, by North America, 116, 3d--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th-- ----by Danby, (190). =Duchess of Naubuc,= Red, bred by GEORGE F. HUBBARD, Glastenbury, Conn.; property of SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved June 15th, 1859; got by King Philip, 1740, Dam Dew Drop, by Holyoke, 580,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½, 3d--Alice, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Danæ, by Carlos, (1787) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Drusilla,= Red and white, bred and owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved June 1st, 1862; got by Duke of Worcester, _{*}13, 3896, Dam Virgilia, by Prince Royal, 880,-- 2d dam Stella 2d, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Stella, by North American, 116, 4th--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 6th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 7th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Eva,= Light roan, bred by D. B. HAIGHT, Dover Plains, Duchess County, N. Y.; property of A. O. CUMMINS, Millbury, Mass.: calved March 15th, 1855; got by Backwoodsman, _{*}6, 226, Dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853,-- 2d dam Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50, 3d--Daisy, by imported King Charles 2d, 84, 4th--imported Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 5th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900). =Emma,= Red and white, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved September 4th, 1860; got by Duke of Winchester, 292½, Dam Alida, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Autumn, by North American, 116, 3d--Adeliza, by Agate 2, 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Eva,= Roan, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved June 15th, 1861; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Lily of the Valley, by Comet, 358,-- 2d dam Lucy, by Rough and Ready, 930, 3d--Miss Lathrop, by North American, 116, 4th--Lily, by Grafton, 1623, 5th--Young Lilac, by Sampson, (5074) 6th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Eva 2d,= Red, bred by D. W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.; property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved August 3d, 1856; got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Eva, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Agatha, by Fabius 60, 3d--Young Agatha, by imported Boston, (1735) 4th--Dorcas, by imported Boston, (1735) 5th--imported Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Son of Hubback, (319) 11th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Eva 3d,= Red, bred by and property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved June 17th, 1861; got by Red Duke, 4295, Dam Eva 2d, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Eva, by Logan, 95, 3d--Agatha, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735,) 5th--Dorcas, by Boston, (1735) 6th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 7th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683), &c., as in Eva 2d. =Eva 3d,= Roan, bred by P. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved December 7th, 1857; got by Duke of Windsor, 451, Dam Eva, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Agatha, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Dorcas, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Agatha, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152). =Eulalie,= Red and white, bred by and property of E. M. HOLMAN, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved February 1st, 1860; got by Cayuga Prince, 2609, Dam Eva, by Backwoodsman, 226,-- 2d dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853, 3d--Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50, 3d--Daisy 2d, by Danby, 50, 4th--Daisy, by imported King Charles 2d, 84, 5th--Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 6th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900). =Emma,= Red and white, bred by and property of F. A. NOBLE, East Windsor, Conn.: calved October 6th, 1861; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 487,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Evelina,= Roan, bred by A. & J. A. CLARK, Granby, Mass.; property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved January 20th, 1857; got by Granby, 544, Dam Cara by Young Meteor, 1147,-- 2d dam Double Rose, by Prince Hal, 137, 3d--Rosilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Elvira, by Young Comet, (3437) 5th--Emma, by Rockingham, (569) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Esmerelda,= Red and white, bred by and property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved December 14th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Dew Drop, by Buncomb, 1302,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Logan 2d, 652, 3d--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3437) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--imported Anabella, by Major, (389) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Ethelind,= Red, bred by and property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved January 1st, 1862; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, dam Rena, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Aurora, by North American, 116, 3d--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Ella,= Light roan, bred and owned by CHARLES H. BARBER, East Windsor, Conn.: calved July 19th, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Elaine,= Roan, bred and owned by DANIEL W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.: calved April, 1862; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Windsor Lass, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Red Romp, by Agate 2, 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th-- ----by Patriot, (486). =Fairy Belle,= Red and white, bred and owned by E. M. HOLMAN, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved April 11th, 1862; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Tube Rose 7th, by Tornado, 1040,-- 2d dam Tube Rose 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941) &c., as in Tube Rose 6th. =Finella,= Red, bred by S. E. BOLDEN, Lancaster, England, imported by R. A. ALEXANDER, Ky.; property of WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved June 30th, 1852; got by Grand Duke, (10284) Dam Fay, by Foig-a-Ballagh, (8082),-- 2d dam Fame, by Raspberry, (4875) 3d--Farewell, by Young Matchem, (4422) 4th--Flora, by Isaac, (1129) 5th-- ---- by Young Pilot, (497) 6th-- ---- by Pilot, (496) 7th-- ---- by Julius Cæsar, (1143). =Fairy,= Roan, bred and owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved January 24th, 1862; got by imported Neptune, _{*}50, 3192, Dam Florence, by imported Sirius, (13737)-- 2d dam imported Finella, by Grand Duke, (10284) 3d--Fay, by Foig-a-Ballagh, (8082) 4th--Fame, by Raspberry, (4875) 5th--Farewell, by Young Matchem, (4422) 6th--Flora, by Isaac, (1129) 7th-- ---- by Young Pilot, (497) 8th-- ----by Pilot, (496) 9th-- ---- by Julius Cæsar, (1143). Florence, Red and white, bred and owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved December 16th, 1858; got by imported Sirius, (13737) Dam imported Finella, by Grand Duke, (10284),-- 2d dam Fay, by Foig-a-Ballagh, (8082) 3d--Fame, by Raspberry, (4875) 4th--Farewell, by Young Matchem, (4422) 5th--Flora, by Isaac, (1129) 6th-- ---- by Young Pilot, (497) 7th-- ---- by Pilot, (496) 8th-- ---- by Julius Cæsar, (1143). =Fair Star,= Red, bred by GEORGE F. HUBBARD, Glastenbury, Conn.; property of SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved January 17th, 1858; got by King Philip, 1740, Dam Phoebe, (bred by S. W. BARTLETT), by Berlin Hero, 257,-- 2d dam Lily, (bred by Norman Porter, Berlin), by Logan, 95, 3d--Lilac 8th, (bred by J. B. Chapman, East Windsor, Conn.,) by Superior, (5360), 4th--Lilac 4th (bred by J. Pasco, East Windsor), by North Star, (4592) 5th--Lilac, (bred by Stephen Williams, Northboro' Mass.,) by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Lilac, (bred by Mr. Williams), by Frederick, (2038) 7th--Lilac, (bred by Mr. Williams), by Young Denton, (963) 8th--imported Arabella, (bred by Mr. Wetherel), by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, (bred by Mr. Wetherel), by Comet, (155). =Fancy,= Red and white, bred by NORMAN PORTER, Berlin, Conn.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved March 15th, 1855; got by Berlin Hero, 257, Dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 478,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 9th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 10th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Flora,= Red and white, bred by and property of B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved April, 1860; got by Hampden, 2949, Dam Virgilia, by Prince Royal, 880,-- 2d dam Stella 2d, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Stella, by North American, 116, 4th--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 6th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 7th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Florence,= Red and white, bred by and property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved June 19th, 1860; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853,-- 2d dam Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50, 3d--Daisy, by King Charles 2d, 84, 4th--Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 5th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900), &c. [Illustration: GRACE, 4 Years Old, Vol. 4, A. H. B. THE PROPERTY OF NEWTON CARTER, HARTFORD, CONN.] =Guenever,= Red, bred and owned by DANIEL W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.: calved March 12th, 1861; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Windsor Lass, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Red Romp, by Agate 2, 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--imported Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Grace,= Red, bred by N. J. BECAR, Smithtown, L. I.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn: calved November 24th, 1854; got by Marquis of Carrabas, 3122, Dam Garland 2d, by Pestalozzi, (10603),-- 2d dam Garland, by Hector, (4000) 3d--Moss Rose, by Emperor, (1974) 4th--Rose Bud, by Margrave, (2243) 5th-- ---- by Leopold, (2199) 6th-- ---- by Hector, (2103) 7th-- ---- by Traveller, (655) 8th-- ---- by Surly, (2715) 9th-- ----by Colonel, (152). =Hartford Lady,= Red and white, bred and owned by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved June 21st, 1859; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Holiday, by Valiant, 2332,-- 2d dam Helen, by Prince of Orange, 872, 3d--Moss Rose, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 4th--Marigold, by Major, 678, 5th--Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189, 6th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 7th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Hartford Lady 2d,= Roan, bred and owned by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved May 13th, 1861; got by Young Marmion, _{*}70, 3602, Dam Hartford Lady, by Red Rover, 2109,-- 2d dam Holiday, by Valiant, 2332, 3d--Helen, by Prince of Orange, 827, 4th--Moss Rose, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 5th--Marigold, by Major, 678, 6th--Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 7th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 8th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 9th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 10th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Hartford Belle,= Roan, bred and owned by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved June 22d, 1860; got by Young Marmion, _{*}70, 3602, Dam Holiday, by Valiant, 2332,-- 2d dam Helen, by Prince of Orange, 878, 3d--Moss Rose, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 4th--Marigold, by Major, 678, 5th--Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189, 6th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 7th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Highland Maid 2d,= Red, bred by A. O. CUMMINS, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved March 5th, 1861; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Lady Sale 5th, by Red Jacket, 890,-- 2d dam Lady Sale 3d, by imported 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941) 3d--imported Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 4th--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 5th--Clara, by Napier, (6238) 6th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258) 7th--Helena, by Waterloo, (2816) 8th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 9th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 10th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 12th--Bright Eyes, by Favorite, (252) 13th-- ----by Hubback, (319) 14th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 15th--Beauty, by Masterman's Bull, (422) 16th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292) 17th--Tripes, by the Studley Bull, (626) 18th-- ---- (bred by Mr. Stephenson, of Ketton, in 1739). =Harvest Rose,= Red and white, bred and owned by E. C. ELY, Longmeadow, Mass.: calved October 26th, 1861; got by Frank Forrester, 2868, Dam Rose 5th, by Duke of Windsor, 451,-- 2d dam Rose 3d, by Tecumseh, 1025, 3d--Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407, 4th--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 5th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 6th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 7th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 8th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 9th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 10th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 11th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Holiday,= Roan, bred by E. A. PHELPS, Avon, Conn.; property of TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved December 25th, 1856; got by Valiant, 2332, Dam Helen, by Prince of Orange, 872,-- 2d dam Moss Rose, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 3d--Marigold, by Major, 678, 4th--Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189, 5th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 6th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Holiday 2d,= Roan, bred and owned by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved June 1st, 1861; got by Young Marmion, _{*}70, 3602, Dam Holiday, by Valiant, 2332,-- 2d dam Helen, by Prince of Orange, 872, 3d--Moss Rose, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 4th--Marigold, by Major, 678, 5th--Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189, 6th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 7th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Hyacinth,= Red and white, bred by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.; property of CHARLES H. BARBER, East Windsor, Conn.: calved July 9th, 1858; got by Connecticut, 369, Dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 478,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Isabel,= Red and white, bred and owned by NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved April 21st, 1860; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Miranda, by Backwoodsman, 226,-- 2d dam Lucilla 2d, by Guarionez, 68, 3d--Lucilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Agatha, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir _Harry_, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Son of Hubback, (319). =Ida,= Red and white, bred by and property of DAVID MOSELEY, Westfield, Mass.: calved August 21st, 1859; got by Nonesuch, 1935½, Dam Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189,-- 2d dam Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Ilda,= Red and white, bred and owned by CHARLES H. BARBER, East Windsor, Conn.: calved September 6th, 1860; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Juda,= Red and white, bred and owned by DAVID MOSELEY, Westfield, Mass.: calved September 3d, 1860; got by Nonesuch, 1935½, Dam Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189,-- 2d dam Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th-- ----by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). JUNE ROSE, Red and white, bred by E. C. ELY, Longmeadow, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved June 10th, 1860; got by Frank Forrester, 2868, Dam Rose 5th, by Duke of Windsor, 451,--- 2d dam Rose 3d, by Tecumseh, 1025, 3d--Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407, 4th--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 5th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 6th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 7th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 8th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 9th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 10th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 11th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Jessie,= Roan, bred by J. M. SHERWOOD, Auburn, N. Y.; property of A. O. CUMMINS, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved July 24th, 1857; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Regetta, by Prince Albert 3d, 858,-- 2d dam Lydia, by Walter, 1072, 3d--Arabella, by Victory, (5565) 4th--Sally, by Major, (401) 5th--Old Sally, by Grandson of Favorite, (252) 6th-- ---- by Punch, (531) 7th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). JENNIE, Red and white, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved November 15th, 1861; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Katrina, by Murat, 729,-- 2d dam Cherry 2d, by Napoleon, 734, 3d--Red Lily, by King Philip, 85, 4th--Rosabella, by Dictator, (3591) 5th--White Tulip, by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Tulip, by Patriot, (2412) 7th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, (2038) 8th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 9th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 10th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Juliette,= Dark roan, bred and owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved October 1st, 1861; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Eva, by Backwoodsman, 226,-- 2d dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853, 3d--Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50, 4th--Daisy, by imported King Charles 2d, 84, 5th--imported Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 6th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900), &c. =Kathleen,= Red and white, bred by D. W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.; property of F. A. NOBLE, East Windsor, Conn.: calved May, 1855; got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½,-- 2d dam Alice, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Danae, by Carlos, (1787) 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252). =Kitty,= Red and white, bred and owned by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved June 27th, 1859; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Kathleen, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½, 3d--Alice, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Danae, by Carlos, (1787) 5th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 6th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 7th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 8th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 9th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Katrina,= Red, bred by SOLOMON COWLES, Farmington, Conn.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved September 15th, 1852; got by Murat, 729, Dam Cherry 2d, by Napoleon, 734,-- 2d dam Red Lily, by King Philip, 85, 3d--Rosabella, by Dictator, (3591) 4th--White Tulip, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Tulip, by Patriot, (2412) 6th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Kate Louisa,= Red, bred and owned by NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved April 20th, 1859; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Miranda, by Backwoodsman, 226,-- 2d dam Lucilla 2d, by Guarionez, 68, 3d--Lucilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Agatha, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Son of Hubback, (319). =Kate Louisa 2d,= Red, bred and owned by NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved February 6th, 1862, got by Duc D'Argentine, _{*}20, Dam Kate Louisa, &c., as above. =Lady 3d,= Roan, bred and owned by J. S. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved June 14th, 1861; got by 4th Hiawatha, 2970, Dam Stella, by Tecumseh, 1025,-- 2d dam Luna, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Young Lilac, by Sampson, (5074) 4th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, (2038) 5th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, 460, 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Lady 4th,= Red roan, bred and owned by J. S. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved June 25th, 1861; got by General Sale, _{*}28, Dam Lady 2d, by 4th Hiawatha, 2970,-- 2d dam Luna, by Rollo, 152, &c., as in Lady 3d. =Lady 5th,= Red, bred and owned by J. S. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved May 26th, 1862; got by General Sale, _{*}28, Dam Stella, by Tecumseh, 1025,--- 2d dam Luna, by Rollo, 151, &c., as in Lady 3d. =Lady Sale 5th,= Red, bred by J. M. SHERWOOD, Auburn, N. Y.; property of A. O. CUMMINS, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved June 20th, 1855; got by Red Jacket, 890, Dam Lady Sale 3d, by imported 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941),-- 2d dam Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 3d--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 4th--Clara, by Napier, (6238) 5th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258) 6th--Helena, by Waterloo, (2816) 7th--Moss Rose, by Baron, 58, 8th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 9th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Bright Eyes, by Favorite, (252) 12th-- ----by Hubback, (319) 13th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 14th--Beauty, by Masterman's Bull, (422) 15th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292) 16th--Tripes, by the Studley Bull, (626). =Lady Finley,= Red roan, bred and owned by S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved September 24th, 1861; got by Duc D'Argentine, _{*}20, Dam Maid Marion, by 5th Albion, 2482,-- 2d dam Maid Marion 2d, by Lord John, (11728) 3d--Maid Marion, by Robin Hood, (9555) 4th--Lily, by Young Zealot, (8797) 5th--Lily, by Young Van Dyke, (8733) 6th--Duchess, by Young Spectator, (8619) 7th-- ---- by Phantassie, (8389) 8th-- ---- by Young Rockingham, (8498). =Lady Lathrop,= Red, bred by A. O. CUMMINS, Millbury, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved November 10th, 1859; got by Young Monarch, 3605, Dam Lady Sale 5th, by Red Jacket, 890.-- 2d dam Lady Sale 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941) 3d--imported Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 4th--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 5th--Clara, by Napier, (6238) 6th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258) 7th--Helena, by Waterloo, (2816) 8th--Moss Rose, by Baron, 58, 9th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 10th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 12th--Bright Eyes, by Favorite, (252) 13th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 14th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 15th--Beauty, by Masterman's Bull, (422) 16th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292) 17th--Tripes, by the Studley Bull, (626). =Laura 3d,= Red and white, bred and owned by P. LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved August 29th, 1851; got by Prince Leopold, 869, Dam Laura, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 3d--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 4th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 5th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 6th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 7th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 8th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 9th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Laura 5th,= Red and white, bred and owned by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved May 1st, 1860; got by Brother Jonathan, 2570, Dam Laura 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Laura, by North American, 116, 3d--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th-- ----by Admiral, (4) 7th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 9th-- ----by a Grandson of Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Laura 6th,= Nearly red, bred by and property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved August 6th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Laura 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Laura, by North American, 116, 3d--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th-- ----by Admiral, (4) 7th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 9th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Laurestina 2d,= Roan, bred by P. LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved June 10th, 1860; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Laurestina, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Laura 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869, 3d--Laura, by North American, 116, 4th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 11th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Lady Sale 6th,= Red, bred by J. M. SHERWOOD, Auburn, N. Y.; property of AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved November 29th, 1856; got by Red Knight, 890, Dam Lady Sale 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034,-- 2d dam imported Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 3d--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 4th--Clara, by Napier, (6238) 5th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258) 6th--Helena, by Waterloo, (2816) 7th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 8th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 9th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Bright Eyes, by Favorite, (252) 12th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 13th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 14th--Beauty, (bred by Thomas Hall,) by Masterman's Bull, (422) 15th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292) 16th--Tripes, (bred by C. Pickering,) by the Studley Bull, (626) 17th-- ----(bred by Mr. Stephenson, of Ketton, in 1739.) =Lady Sale 7th,= Red, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved June 19th, 1860; got by 4th Hiawatha, 2970, Dam Lady Sale 6th, by Red Knight, 890-- 2d dam Lady Sale 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034, 3d--imported Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 4th--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099), &c., as in Lady Sale 6th. =Lady Sale 8th,= Red, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved June 15th, 1861; got by 2d Prince of Orange, 2183, Dam Lady Sale 6th, by Red Knight, 890,-- 2d dam Lady Sale 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034, 3d--imported Lady Sale, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 4th--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 5th--Clara, by Napier, (6238) 6th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258) 7th--Helena, by Waterloo, (2816) 8th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 9th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 10th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 12th--Bright Eyes, by Favorite, (252) 13th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 14th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 15th--Beauty, (bred by Thomas Hall,) by Masterman's Bull, (422) 16th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292) 17th--Tripes, (bred by C. Pickering,) by the Studley Bull, (626). =Lady Sale 9th,= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved May 5th, 1862; got by Comet, 3772, Dam Lady Sale 6th, by Red Jacket, 890,-- 2d dam Lady Sale 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034, 3d--imported Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 4th--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 5th--Clara, by Napier, (1238) 6th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258) 7th--Helena, by Waterloo, (2816) 8th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 9th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 10th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 12th--Bright Eyes, by Favorite, (252) 13th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 14th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 15th--Beauty, by Masterman's Bull, (273) 16th--Tripes, by the Studley Bull, (621). =Lady Chesterford,= Roan, bred by JONAS WEBB, of Babraham, Cambridgeshire, England, imported by F. W. STONE, Guelph, C. W.; property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved April 19th, 1854; got by Earl Ducie, (12799) Dam Lady Jane, by Red Roan Kirtling, (10691),-- 2d dam Lady Ann, by Pam, (6272) 3d--Countess, by Vanguard, (5545) 4th--Dodona, by Alabaster, (1616) 5th--No. 6, by Dr. Syntax, (220) 6th-- ---- by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th--Lydia, by Favorite, (252) 9th--Nell, by the White Bull, (421) 10th--Fortune, by Bolingbroke, (86) 11th-- ----by Foljambe, (263) 12th-- ---- by Hubback, (319) 13th-- ---- bred by Mr. Maynard. =Lady Chesterford 2d,= White, bred and owned by A. C. &. J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved July 19th, 1858; got by Kirkleavington, 611, Dam Lady Chesterford, by Earl Ducie, (12799), &c., as in Lady Chesterford. =Lady Gwynne,= Red, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853,-- 2d dam Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50. 3d--Daisy, by King Charles 2d, 4th--imported Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 5th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900) 6th-- ----by Mr. Wilkinson's Bull, (2838), &c. =Lena,= Red roan, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved January 2d, 1860; got by Cayuga Prince, 2609, Dam Evelina, by Granby, 544,-- 2d dam Cara, by Young Meteor, 1147, 3d--Double Rose, by Prince Hal, 137, 4th--Rosilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Elvira, by Young Comet, (3437) 6th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 7th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 8th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Letty,= Red and white, bred by NORMAN PORTER, Berlin, Conn.; property of F. A. NOBLE, East Windsor, Conn.: calved April 17th, 1852; got by Fabius 2d, 487, Dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360),-- 2d dam Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 4th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 5th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Lelia Ada,= Red and white, bred by T. P. HUNTINGTON & C. H. SMITH, Hadley, Mass.; property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved November 29th, 1860; got by Holyoke, 2979, Dam Ada, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Atalanta 3d, by Logan 2d, 652, 3d--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Lilac 5th,= Red, bred by J. B. CHAPMAN, East Windsor, Conn.; property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved February, 1849; got by Windsor Comet, 1105, Dam Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592),-- 2d dam Lilac 3d, by Whisker, (5639) 3d--Young Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Lilac 6th,= Red and white, bred by and property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved September 20th, 1860; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Lilac 5th, by Windsor Comet, 1105,-- 2d dam Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Lilac 3d, by Whisker, (5639), _&c._, as in Lilac 5th. =Lilac 7th,= Roan, bred by and property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved October 13th, 1861; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Lilac 5th, by Windsor Comet, 1105, &c., as in Lilac 6th above. =Lilac 7th,= Red, bred by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved December 1st, 1856; got by Red Jacket, 891, Dam Lilac 6th, by Windsor Comet 2d, 1106,-- 2d dam Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 4th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 5th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Lilac 8th,= Red roan, bred by and property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved May 25th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Lilac 7th, by Red Jacket, 891,-- 2d dam Lilac 6th, by Windsor Comet 2d, 1106, 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592), &c., as in Lilac 5th. =Lilac 9th,= Red and white, bred and owned by NORMAN PORTER, Berlin, Conn.: calved June, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360),-- 2d dam Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 4th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 5th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Lily,= Light Roan, bred by and property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved April 7th, 1861; got by Fabius 3d, _{*}25, 3920, Dam Virgilia, by Prince Royal, 880,-- 2d dam Stella 2d, by Rolla, 152, 3d -- Stella, by North American, 116, 4th --Stately, by North Star, (4592) 5th -- Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 6th -- Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 7th -- Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 8th -- imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th -- Aurora, by Comet, (155) 10th -- ---- by Henry, (301) 11th -- ---- by Danby, (190). =Louisa,= Roan, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: calved August 19th, 1855; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Victoria, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Lady Holyoke, by Hero, (4020) 3d -- Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th --Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th -- Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th ------ by Admiral, (4) 7th -- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 8th -- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Louisa 2d,= White, bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: calved May 15th, 1859; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Louisa by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Victoria, by North American, 116, &c., as in Louisa. =Lucky,= Red and white, bred by S. T. TABER, Hempstead Branch, Queens Co., N. Y.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved July 19th, 1855; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Aurelia, by Osceola, 780,-- 2d dam Adaliza, by Agate 2, 3d -- Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 4th --Emma, by Wellington, (683) 5th -- Anabella, by Major, (398) 6th -- Ada, by Denton, (198) 7th -- Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th -- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th ------ by Danby, (190). =Lily of the Valley,= Roan, bred by J. & E. WADSWORTH, Livermore Falls, Me.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved July 1st, 1852; got by Comet, 358, Dam Lucy by Rough and Ready, 930,-- 2d dam Miss Lathrop, by North American, 116, 3d--Lily, by Grafton, 2623, 4th--Young Lilac, by Sampson, (5074) 5th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 9th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 10th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Lucy,= Roan, bred by LAWRENCE SMITH, Middlefield, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved April 22d, 1857; got by Osceola, 789, Dam Arabella 2d, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =May Queen,= Roan, bred by and property of SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved May 29th, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 478,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Madonna,= Red and white, bred by D. C. COLLINS, Hartford, Conn.; property of JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved September 18th, 1852; got by imported Wolviston, 1109, Dam Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189,-- 2d dam Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th------ by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Madonna,= Red, bred by and property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved November 1st, 1859; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Madonna 3d, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 3d--Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 4th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 5th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet (155). =Madonna 3d,= Light roan, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved March 15th, 1857; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109,-- 2d dam Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189, 3d--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Madonna 4th,= Light roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved September 6th, 1860; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Madonna 3d, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 3d--Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 4th---Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 5th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Madonna 5th,= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved July 20th, 1861; got by 2d Prince of Orange, 2183, Dam Madonna 3d, by Kirkleavington,--- 2d dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, (1109) 3d--Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 4th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 5th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Madonna 6th,= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved May 25th, 1862; got by Comet, 3772, Dam Madonna 3d, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 3d--Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 4th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 5th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Maud,= Roan, bred by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.; property of R. B. HUBBARD, Amherst, Mass.: calved December 1st, 1860, got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Peach Bud, by Lauderdale, 1759,-- 2d dam White Rose, by Derby, 19, 3d--Favorite, by Prince Albert, 56, 4th--Cowslip, by imported Reformer, 898, 5th--Pedigree, by Mynheer, (2345) 6th--Vanda, by Marske, (419) 7th--Trinket, by Meteor, (432) 8th--Princess, by Western Comet, (689) 9th--Selina, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Countess, by Cupid, (177) 11th--Lady, by Grandson of Bolingbroke, (280) 12th--Phoenix, by Foljambe, (263) 13th--Favorite, by R. Alcock's Bull, (19) 14th-- ---- by Smith's Bull, (608) 15th--Strawberry, by Jolly's Bull, (337). =Magnolia,= Red and white, bred and owned by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved February 10th, 1857; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Agatha, by Fabius, 60,-- 2d dam Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735) 3d--Dorcas, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th-- ----by Admiral, (4) 7th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 9th-- ---- by a Grandson of Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Mag,= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.; calved April 14th, 1861; got by Fourth of July, _{*}24½, Dam Cassy, by Young Meteor, 1147,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =May Flower,= Red and white, bred and owned by E. C. ELY, Longmeadow, Mass.: calved May 24th, 1861; got by Frank Forrester, 2868, Dam Ruth, by Uncle Tom, 1056,-- 2d dam Stella 2d, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Stella, by North American, 116, 4th--Stately, by North Star (4592) 5th--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 6th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 7th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 10th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 11th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Miss Oxford,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved February 28th, 1862; got by Marmion, _(*)44, 1843, Dam Sally, by Comet, 358,-- 2d dam Stella, by Logan, 95, 3d--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 5th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 6th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 9th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 10th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Miss Oxford 2d,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved April 29th, 1862; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Peach Bud, by Lauderdale, 1759,-- 2d dam White Rose, by Derby, 19, 3d--Favorite, by Prince Albert, 56, 4th--Favorite, by imported Reformer, 898, 5th--imported Pedigree, by Mynheer, (2345) 6th--Vanda, by Marske, (419) 7th--Twinkle, by Meteor, (432) 8th--Princess, by Western Comet, (689) 9th--Selina, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Countess, by Cupid, (177) 11th--Lady, by Grandson of Bolingbroke, (280) 12th--Phoenix, by Foljambe, (263) 13th--Favorite, by R. Alcock's Bull, (19) 14th-- ---- by Smith's Bull, (608) 15th--Strawberry, by Jolly's Bull, (337). =Miss Fannie,= Light roan, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved November 13th, 1860; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Sally, by Comet, 358,-- 2d dam Stella, by Logan, 95, 3d--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 5th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 6th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 9th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 10th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Mountain Queen,= Roan, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved May 15th, 1859; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Lily of the Valley, by Comet, 358,-- 2d dam Lucy, by Rough and Ready, 930, 3d--Miss Lathrop, by North American, 116, 4th--Lily, by Grafton, 1623, 5th--Young Lilac, by Sampson, (5074) 6th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 10th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 11th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Morning Glory,= Red, bred by THOMAS COWLES, Farmington, Conn.; property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved March 31st, 1855; got by Prince of Orange, 872, Dam Novice, by Coxcomb, 382,-- 2d dam Nina, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Molly,= Light roan, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved May 30th, 1859; got by Hiawatha, 1666, Dam Cassy, by Young Meteor, 1147,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Milly,= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved June 25th, 1860; got by Hampden, 2949, Dam Arabella, by Agate 2,-- 2 dam Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 3d--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 4th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 5th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 6th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Maid Marion 5th,= Roan, bred by R. A. ALEXANDER, Woodford County, Ky.; property of S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved October 26th, 1858; got by Albion, 2482, Dam Maid Marion 2d, by Lord John, (11728),-- 2d dam Maid Marion, by Robin Hood, (9555) 3d--Lily, by Young Zealot, (8797) 4th--Lily, by Young Vandyke, (8733) 5th--Duchess, by Young Spectator, (8619) 6th-- ---- by Phantasie, (8389) 7th-- ---- by Young Rockingham, (8498). =Mille Maud,= Roan, bred and owned by A. O. CUMMINS, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved January 1st, 1860; got by Cayuga Prince, 2609, Dam Jessie, by Double Duke, 1451½,-- 2d dam Regetta, by Prince Albert 3d, 853, 3d--Lydia, by Walter, 1072, 4th--Arabella, by Victory, (5565) 5th--Sally, by Major, (401) 6th--Old Sally, by Grandson of Favorite, (252) 7th-- ---- by Punch, (531) 8th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Minnie Moore,= Red, bred and owned by A. O. CUMMINS, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved December 22d, 1860; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Jessie, by Double Duke, 1451½,-- 2d dam Regetta, by Prince Albert 3d, 858, 3d--Lydia, by Walter, 1072, 4th--Arabella, by Victory, (5565), &c., as in Mille Maud above. =Minnehaha,= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved May 2d, 1858; got by Hiawatha, 1666, Dam Cassy, by Meteor, 1147,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th--by Marske, (418). =Mary,= Red, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved January 1st, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Magnolia, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Agatha, by Fabius, 60, 2d--Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735) 3d--Dorcas, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 7th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 9th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). MEADOW MAID, Roan, bred and owned by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved May 23d, 1861; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Young Dorothy, by Windsor Comet, 1105,-- 2d dam Dorothy, by East Windsor, 56, 3d--Red Romp, by Agate 2, 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127). =Miranda,= Red roan, bred by D. B. HAIGHT, Washington, Duchess County, N. Y.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved March 9th, 1855; got by Backwoodsman, _{*}6, 226, Dam Lucilla 2d, by Guarionez, 68,-- 2d dam Lucilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Agatha, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 7th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 9th-- ----by Son of Hubback, (319). MARY ANN, Red, bred and owned by NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved May 3d, 1862; got by Duc D'Argentine, _{*}20, Dam Miranda, by Backwoodsman, 226, &c., as in Miranda. =Nymph,= Red and white, bred by FRANCIS ROTCH, Otsego Co., N. Y.; property of WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved in 1844; got by Bertram 2d, 21,-- 2d dam Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 3d--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th-- ----by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). NYMPH 5TH, Red and white, bred by B. & C. S. HAINES, Elizabeth, N. J.; property of TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved January 15th, 1854; got by imported Lord Vane Tempest, 669½, Dam Nymph, by Bertram 2d, 21,-- 2d dam Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 3d--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Nelle,= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.; calved April 7th, 1862; got by Prince of Wales, 4276, Dam Milly, by Hampden, 2949,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Onesima,= Red and white, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved March 6th, 1861; got by Cayuga, Prince, 2609, Dam Princeton Belle, by Highflyer, 578,-- 2d dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853, 3d--Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50, 4th--Daisy, by King Charles 2d, 84, 5th--Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 6th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900). =Phoebe,= Red and white, bred by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.; property of B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved July 20th, 1855; got by Berlin Hero, 257, Dam Lily, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Phoebe 2d,= Red and white, bred by and property of B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved April 11th, 1861; got by Fabius 3d, _{*}25, 3920, Dam Phoebe, by Berlin Hero, 257,-- 2d dam Lily, by Logan, 95, 3d--Lilac 8th by Superior, (5360) 4th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Pink,= Red and white, bred by and property of NORMAN PORTER, Berlin, Conn.: calved May 1860; got by Red Blaize, 3325, Dam Lucy, by Berlin Hero, 257,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Pocahontas 2d,= Red and white, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.; calved June, 1848; got by Tam O'Shanter, 168, Dam Pocahontas, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Princess, by Washington, (1566) 3d--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 4th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 5th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 6th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 7th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Pocahontas 4th,= Red, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: property of AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved December 31st, 1855; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Pocahontas 2d, by Tam O'Shanter, 168,-- 2d dam Pocahontas, by North American, 116, 3d--Princess, by Washington, (1566) 4th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ----by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Pocumtuck,= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved October 1st, 1860; got by Sultan, 2270½, Dam Minnehaha, by Hiawatha, 1666,-- 2d dam Cassy, by Young Meteor, 1147, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418.) =Princeton Belle,= Red and white, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved July 18th, 1859; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853,-- 2d dam Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50, 3d--Daisy, by King Charles 2d, 84, 4th--Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 5th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900). =Pearlette 3d,= Roan, bred by R. A. ALEXANDER, Woodford County, Ky.; property of S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved September 24th, 1858; got by Albion 2842, Dam Pearlette, by Benedict, (7828),-- 2d dam Pearl 2d, by Senator, (8551) 3d--Pearl, by Homer, (2134) 4th--Windemere, by Emperor, (1974). =Pride,= Dark roan, bred and owned by S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved September 27th, 1861; got by Duc D'Argentine, _{*}20, Dam Pearlette 3d, by Albion, 2482,-- 2d dam Pearlette, by Benedict, (7828) 3d--Pearl 2d, by Senator, (8551) 4th--Pearl, by Homer, (2134) 5th--Windemere, by Emperor, (1914). =Peach Bud,= Red roan, bred by F. W. STONE, Guelph, C. W.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved August 5th, 1858; got by Lauderdale, 1759, Dam White Rose, by Derby, _{*}19,-- 2d dam Favorite, by Prince Albert, 56, 3d--Cowslip, by Reformer, 898, 4th--Pedigree, by Mynheer, 2345, 5th--Vanda, by Young Marske, (419) 6th--Trinket, by Meteor, (432) 7th--Princess, by Western Comet, (689) 8th--Selina, by Favorite, (252) 9th--Countess, by Cupid, (177) 10th--Lady, by Grandson of Bolingbroke, (280) 11th--Phoenix, by Foljambe, (263). =Rosa,= Roan, bred by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.; property of JOHN H. BISSELL, East Windsor, Conn.: calved February 1st, 1862,; got by Commodore, _{*}12, 3777, Dam Louisa, by Kirkleavington, 610,--- 2d dam Victoria, by North American, 116, 3d--Lady Holyoke, by Hero, (4020) 4th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 9th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319.) =Rose 8th,= White, bred and owned by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved September 17th, 1861; got by Hampden, 2949, Dam Rose 3d, by Tecumseh, 1025,-- 2d dam Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407, 3d--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127). =Rose,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved December 25th, 1859; got by Young America, 2404, Dam Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, (407),-- 2d dam Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet. (85). =Rose 2d,= Roan, bred by P. LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved June 1856; got by Dan O'Connell, 407, Dam Rose, by Splendid (5297),-- 2d dam Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 4th--imported Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ----by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Rose 7th,= Light roan, bred by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved June 3d, 1860; got by Hampden, 2949, Dam Rose 3d, by Tecumseh, 1025,-- 2d dam Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407, 3d--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566), 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76), &c., as in Rose 2d. =Ruby,= Red, bred by JOHN BISSELL, East Windsor, Conn.; property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved June, 1851; got by Logan, 95, Dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Ruby 2d,= Red, bred by JOHN BISSELL, East Windsor, Conn.; property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved September 1st, 1855; got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Ruby, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Ruby 3d,= Red, bred by and property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved February, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Ruby, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Ruby 4th,= Roan, bred and owned by J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved June 20th, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Ruby 2d, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Ruby, by Logan, 95, 3d--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Arabella, by Agate 2, 5th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 6th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 7th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 8th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 9th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Ruby 5th,= Red, bred and owned by J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved May 10th, 1860; got by Prince Arthur, 3296, Dam Ruby, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Ruby 6th,= Red, bred and owned by J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved May 1st, 1861, got by Red Duke, _{*}60, 4295, Dam Ruby, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252). =Red Rose,= Red, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved July 25th, 1861; got by Comet, 3772, Dam Topsy, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Victoria, by North American, 116, 3d--Lady Holyoke, by Hero, (9020) 4th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319.) =Red Rose 8th,= Red, bred and owned by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved August 4th, 1860; got by Charles 2d, 3745, Dam Red Rose 6th, by Earl of Seaham, 1499,-- 2d dam Red Rose 4th, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 3d--Red Rose 2d, by Napier, (6238) 4th--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281) 5th--Rose Ann, by Bellerophon, (3119) 6th--Rosette, by Belvidere, (1706) 7th--Red Rose, by Waterloo, (2816) 8th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 9th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (419) 10th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 12th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 13th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 14th--Beauty, by Masterman's Bull, (422) 15th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292) 16th--Tripes, by the Studley Bull, (626) 17th------ (bred by Mr. Stephenson of Ketton, in 1739). =Rosabel,= Red and white, bred by E. A. PHELPS, Avon, Conn.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved June 10th, 1858; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Tube Rose 4th, by imported Wolviston, 1109,-- 2d dam Tube Rose 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941) 3d--Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174) 4th--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281) 5th--Rose Ann, by Bellerophon, (3112) 6th--Rosette, by Belvidere, (1706) 7th--Red Rose, by Waterloo, (2816) 8th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 9th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 10th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 12th-- ---- (owned by Robert Colling, sister to his white bull,) by Favorite, (252) 13th-- ---- by Hubback, (319) 14th-- ---- by Masterman's Bull, (422) 15th-- ---- by Harrison's Bull, (292) 16th--Tripes, by the Studley Bull, (626) 17th-- ---- (bred by Mr. Stephenson of Ketton, in 1739). =Red Rose 9th,= Mostly red, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved August 9th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Red Rose 6th, by Earl of Seaham, 1499,-- 2d dam Red Rose 4th, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 3d--Red Rose 2d, by Napier, (6238), &c., as in Red Rose 8th. =Rose,= Red and white, bred and owned by G. E. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved December 20th, 1861; got by 4th Hiawatha, 2970, Dam Marilla, by Champion, 328,-- 2d dam Luna, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Young Lilac, by Sampson, (5704) 4th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 5th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Rose 2d,= Red and white, bred and owned by G. E. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved January 22d, 1862; got by General Sale, _{*}28, Dam Statira, by Champion, 328,-- 2d dam Stella, by Tecumseh, 1025, 3d--Luna, by Rollo, 152, 4th--Young Lilac, by Sampson, (5704) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Stella,= Roan, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved February 4th, 1861; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Evelina, by Granby, 544,-- 2d dam Cara, by Young Meteor, 1147, 3d--Double Rose, by Prince Hal, 137, 4th--Rosilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Elvira, by Young Comet, (3437) 6th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 7th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 8th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Stella,= Red and white, bred by JOHN BISSELL, East Windsor, Conn.; property of CHARLES H. BARBER, East Windsor, Conn.: calved May, 1850; got by Fabius 2d, 487, Dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Starlight,= Red, bred by S. T. TABER, Dover Plains, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved August 13th, 1857; got by Earl of Warwick, 465, Dam Aurora 2d, by East Windsor, 56,-- 2d dam Aurora, by North American, 116, 3d--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Sea Nymph,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.; got by imported Neptune, _{*}50, 3192, Dam Nymph, by Bertram 2d, 21,-- 2d dam Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 3d--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th-- ----by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Spot,= Red and white, bred and owned by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved April 24th, 1862; got by Red Duke, _{*}60, 4295, Dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 487,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Sally,= Red and white, bred by J. & E. WADSWORTH, Livermore Falls, Me.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved May 6th, 1852; got by Comet, 358, Dam Stella, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Stately, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 5th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Senorita,= Red, bred by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.; property of Dr. W. H. ROCKWELL, Vermont State Lunatic Asylum, Brattleboro: calved September 16th, 1861; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Gem, by Backwoodsman, 226,-- 2d dam Frolic, by King Charles 2d, 84, 3d--Gaily, by Sir Thomas Fairfax, (5196) 4th--Granville, by Hubback, (2142) 5th--Germanville, by Son of Young Warlaby, (2812) 6th-- ---- by Imperial, (2151) 7th-- ---- by Young Comet (905). =Topsy,= Red and white, bred and owned by JAMES FOSGATE, Winchester, N. H.: calved June 1st, 1862; got by Scipio, 4354, Dam Victoria, by Ashuelot, 1213,-- 2d dam Victoria, by Cerdic, (5843) 3d--Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Dorcas, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 11th-- ---- by Son of Hubback, (319). =Topsy,= Light roan, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved October 10th, 1856; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Victoria, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Lady Holyoke, by Hero, (9020) 3d--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th------ by Admiral, (4) 7th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152), &c. =Tulip,= Red, bred and owned by NORMAN PORTER, Berlin, Conn.: calved May, 1860, got by Red Blaize, 3325, Dam Young Lily, by Fabius 2d, 487,-- 2d dam Lily, by Logan, 95, 3d--Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 4th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Tube Rose 3d,= Roan, the property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved January, 1852; got by imported 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034, Dam Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174)-- 2d dam Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281) 3d--Rose Ann, by Bellerophon, (3119) 4th--Rosette, by Belvidere, (1706) 5th--Red Rose, by Waterloo, (2816) 6th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 7th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 8th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 9th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 11th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 12th--Beauty, by J. Masterman's Bull, (422) 13th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292). =Tube Rose 4th,= Roan, bred by J. M. SHERWOOD, Auburn, N. Y.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved December 29th, 1854; got by imported Wolviston, 1109, Dam Tube Rose 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941),-- 2d dam Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174) 3d--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281), &c., as in Tube Rose 3d. =Tube Rose 6th,= Red and white, bred by F. H. NORTH, New Britain, Conn.; property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved May 5th, 1857; got by Tornado, 1040, Dam Tube Rose 3d, by imported 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034,-- 2d dam Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174) 3d--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281) 4th--Rose Ann, by Bellerophon, (3119) 5th--Rosette, by Belvidere, (1706) 6th--Red Rose, by Waterloo, (2816) 7th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 8th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491), &c., as in Tube Rose 3d. =Tube Rose 7th,= Red and white, bred by F. H. NORTH, New Britain, Conn.; property of E. M. HOLMAN, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved August 8th, 1859; got by Tornado, 1040, Dam Tube Rose 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034,-- 2d dam Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174) 3d--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281) 4th--Rose Ann, by Bellerophon, (3119) 5th--Rosette, by Belvidere, (1706) 6th--Red Rose, by Waterloo, (2816) 7th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 8th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 9th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 11th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 12th--Beauty, by Masterman's Bull, (422) 13th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292). =Tube Rose 7th,= Roan, bred and owned by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved November 24th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Tube Rose 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941),-- 2d dam Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174) 3d--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281) 4th--Rose Ann, by Bellerophon, (3119) 5th--Rosette, by Belvidere, (1706) 6th--Red Rose, by Waterloo, (2816) 7th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 8th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (419), &.c, as in Tube Rose 7th above. =Twinkle,= Red, bred by S. T. TABER, Chestnut Ridge, Duchess County, N. Y.; property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved July 13th, 1858; got by Earl of Warwick, 465, Dam Aurora 2d, by East Windsor, 56,-- 2d dam Aurora, by North American, 116, 3d--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Venus,= Red, bred by P. LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of WILLIAM J. IVES, Meriden, Conn.: calved June 26th, 1851; got by King Philip, 85, Dam Victoria, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Lady Holyoke, by Hero, (4020) 3d--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Agatha, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683). =Victoria,= Red and white, bred by NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.; property of H. L. WELLS, East Windsor, Conn.: calved January 20th, 1862; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Wall Flower, by Monarch, 71,-- 2d dam May Flower, by North American, 116, 3d--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85). =Valley Maid,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved October 14th, 1861; got by Duc D'Argentine, _{*}20, Dam Chance 5th, by Duke of Airdrie, (12730),-- 2d dam Chance 2d, by full brother to Mercer, (11807) 3d--Chance, by Renick, 903, 4th--Bantam, by Cossack, (3503) 5th--Claudine, by Prince Charles, (2461) 6th--Orbit, by Oliver, (2387) 7th-- ---- by Contention, (3479) 8th-- ---- by San Martin, (2599) 9th-- ---- by Paul Jones, (4661). =Victoria,= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved July 11th, 1862; got by Marmion, 1843, Dam Pocahontas 2d, by Tam O'Shanter, 168,-- 2d dam Pocahontas, by North American, 116, 3d--Princess, by Washington, (1566) 4th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ----by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (621) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Virgilia,= Red and white, bred by A. & J. A. CLARK, Granby, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved September 20th, 1855; got by Prince Royal, 880, Dam Stella 2d, by Rollo, 152,-- 2d dam Stella, by North American, 116, 3d--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 4th-- ----Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 5th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 6th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155), &c. =Wall Flower,= Red and white, bred by MORGAN GOODWIN & SON, West Hartford, Conn.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved May 23d, 1856; got by Monarch, 718, Dam May Flower, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th-- ----by Patriot, (486). =Wood Nymph,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved February 27th, 1862; got by imported Neptune, 3192, Dam Sea Nymph, by imported Neptune, 3192,-- 2d dam Nymph, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th---Aurora, by Comet, (155) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Windsor Belle,= Red and white, bred by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved February 29th, 1856, (leap year); got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Red Romp, by Agate 2,-- 2d dam Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 4th--imported Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Windsor Lass,= Red and white, bred by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.; property of DANIEL W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.: calved April 4th, 1857; got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Red Romp, by Agate 2,-- 2d dam Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 4th--imported Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ----by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Windsor Lady,= Light roan, bred and owned by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved March 2d, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Windsor Belle, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Red Romp, by Agate 2, 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (121) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th-- ----by Patriot, (486). =Yarico 7th,= Roan, bred by WELLS LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved October 21st, 1853; got by Prince Leopold, 869, Dam Yarico, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 3d--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Yarico 17th,= Roan, bred by WELLS LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved November 6th, 1858; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Yarico 6th, by Prince Leopold, 869.-- 2d dam Yarico 2d, by East Windsor, 56, 3d--Yarico, by North American, 116, 4th--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 5th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Yarico 22d,= Red and white, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved September 2d, 1859; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Yarico 7th, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Yarico, by North American, 116, 3d--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Yarico 23d,= Red, bred and owned by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved August 5th, 1860; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Yarico 7th, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Yarico, by North American, 116, 3d--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Yarico,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved January 18th, 1862; got by Hamilcar, _{*}33, Dam Yarico, 22d, by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025,-- 2d dam Yarico 7th, by Prince Leopold, 869, 3d--Yarico, by North American, 116, 4th--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038), &c., as in Yarico 22d above. =Young Pocahontas,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved July 4th, 1861; got by Plato, 2032, Dam Pocahontas 2d, by Tam O'Shanter, 168,-- 2d dam Pocahontas, by North American, 116, 3d--Princess, by Washington, (1566) 4th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127,) 6th-- ----by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). NOTE.--On page 27, the note at bottom of _{*}27, Stephenson, should read, this is a three-fourth Stephenson blood Bull. HERD RECORD OF THE ASSOCIATION OF BREEDERS OF Thorough-Bred Neat Stock. AYRSHIRES. HARTFORD: PRESS OF WILLIAMS, WILEY & WATERMAN. 1863. NOTICE. OWING to circumstances beyond the control of the Committee of Publication, or of the Committees on the Pedigrees of the various classes of stock, it has been impossible to publish the first volume of the Herd Record of the Association of Breeders of Thorough-bred Neat Stock at an earlier day. The desire to obtain as large a representation of stock as possible, and to extend the advantages of the Association as widely among breeders as they could, has induced the committees on the various classes of stock to hold open their books and the delays incident upon tracing doubtful pedigrees, through in many instances a long correspondence with owners and breeders, have prevented them from furnishing the copy to the Publication Committee, in season to have the work finished sooner. Every care has been taken to have the records perfect, and to admit no pedigrees of doubtful character. It is believed this has been successfully accomplished, and that the animals here recorded may be relied upon as of undoubted purity of blood. H. A. DYER, } _Committee_ S. I. BARTLETT,} _of Publication._ INDEX. Adams, Charles Francis, 24 Agricultural Society for the District of Montreal, 19, 24, 55 Aiton, Andrew, 18 Aiton, Hugh, 42 Ames, Frederic L., 18, 30, 48, 54 Anderson, James, 26 Archibald, Hugh, 55, 57 Ball, William, 14, 21, 45, 50, 53, 59 Barrett, George M., 50, 60 Baron de Longuiell, 19 Birnie, William, 13, 17, 23, 24, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35, 41, 45, 46 Bill, John, 58 Borrie, Mr. 11 Bradley, C. S., 19 Brodie, Hugh, 28 Brooks, John, 14 Brodie, James, 47, 63 Bruce, Alexander, 52 Cameron, David, 32 Campbell, Ivie, 21, 32, 36, 52, 55, 57, 59 Camp, B. F., 29 Cabot, J. S., 11, 49, 60 Carter, Rufus, 17 Chapin, H. O., 15, 27 Collins, H. S., 20, 24, 36, 54, 55 Collins, A. L., 22 Crookshank, Y. Otty, 28 Craig, James, 40, 50, 51, 52, 61 Cushing, J. P., 20 Dane, Nathan Jr., 12, 20, 28, 33, 39, 41, 43, 45, 49, 54, 59 Day, Horatio E., 17, 21, 37, 38, 39, 46, 47 Daws, Thomas & Son, 24, 26, 36, 40, 47, 50, 53, 55 Davidson, Thomas, 28 Denison, Richard L., 18, 19, 31 Dods, John, 18 Dods, Thomas, 23, 26, 46, 50 Drennan, James, 18 Drew, L., 30, 33, 48, 50, 51, 53, 63 Dunlop, John, 49 Forristall, Geo. D., 12 Fields, Thomas J., 12 Gilbert, H. G., 22 Girvan, Mr., 26 Glasgow, Lord, 36, 55, 57 Gordon, Geo., 19 Gray, John, 58 Gray, Robert, 15, 16, 28, 33, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 49, 59 Griswold, R. S., 43 Hatch, Thomas E., 18, 24, 37, 50 Harris, C. & S., 14, 18, 19, 31, 36, 43, 53, 58, 60, 62, 63 Hayes, T. M., 59 Hendrie, James, 11 Hoffman, Mr., 37 Hubbard, H. & R., 25 Hungerford & Brodie, 12, 17, 22, 38, 39, 47, 63 Hungerford, S. D., 13 Hurst, William, 22 Jardine, R., 28, 33 Kellogg, M. S., 20, 32, 42, 47, 62 Kilgour, John, 49, 50, 51, 52, 59 Kirkwood, Mr., 24 Lambie, John, 58 Lambie, Hugh, 58 Lawson, Peter, 42, 49, 50 Lincoln, W. S., 42, 49, 60 Logan, James, 23, 36, 40, 43, 47, 58, 60, 63 Logan, Robert, 22 Loomis, Byron, 39, 53, 58 Loring, Geo. B. 11, 16, 17, 18, 21, 23, 32, 39, 44, 50, 51, 54, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61 Lyman, Geo. W., 19, 25, 54, 56 Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 11, 16, 18, 19, 20, 24, 25, 31, 32, 39, 42, 47, 48, 49, 52, 54, 56, 58, 59, 60 Martin, Capt. 50, 51 McNaughton, James, 48 McHenry, R., 37, 42 McGregor, Andrew, 28, 33 Meikle, John, 14, 21, 27, 44, 58 Meikle, James, 59 Morton, James, 35, 52 Murray, James, 44 Murdock, Mr., 17 Nye, E., 12, 21, 28, 37, 43, 45, 48, 55, 58 Oswald, Alexander, 20, 55 Oswald, Richard, 33 Otis, Ephraim, 16, 40 Parker, John 15, 16, 24, 32, 48, 54, 55 Parker, Mr., 36, 49, 61 Peabody, Geo., 31 Peters, H. H. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 62, 63 Penner, John, 19 Pearce, E. D., 19, 32 Peate, James, 48, 51 Pierce, T. W., 11, 48 Pond, C. M., 21, 22, 26, 28, 31, 32, 33, 39, 42, 44, 48, 53, 54, 56, 58, 61, 62 Portland, Duke of, 37, 55 Prentice, E. P., 14, 29, 30, 33, 34, 37, 41, 45, 46, 47 Randall, Capt., 15, 17, 19, 25, 33, 34, 41, 60 Reid, James, 39 Richmond, A., 23, 26, 28, 40, 46, 47, 50, 63 Richmond, George, 38, 60 Robbins, S. W., 26 Roger, Hugh, 41 Ross, R. L. 31 Rogers, John, 14, 16, 42, 43 Shepherd, R. D., 42 Smith, John C. 42 Smith, George G. 49, 52 Speares, Mr. 35 Stewart, Henry L., 13, 14, 21, 37, 38, 39, 42, 45, 47, 51, 53 Stetson, C. A., 15, 60, 61 Stone, Bela J., 17 Starr, John 17, 46 Struthers, Alexander, 30, 53 Sweetser, Luke, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 27, 28, 29, 32, 58, 62 Thurber, H. N., 27, 54, 56 Todd, James, 37, 38 Todd, Thomas, 39, 46 Tredwell, A. M., 17, 20, 22, 29, 36, 38, 43, 45, 46, 47, 63 Trustees of State Reform School, Mass., 11 Wheeler, William F., 24 Walker, J. D., 16 Warren, N. H., 20, 42, 47 Ward, Samuel, 14, 20, 29 Ward, Mr., 41 Watson, William, 17, 20, 29, 35, 38, 46 Wilson, Hugh, 15 Wilson, David, 32 Wilson, Alex, 52, 60, 63 Young, James, 23, 60, 63 Young, Mr., 36, 52, 60, 61 PREFACE. THE Committee appointed to examine and prepare for publication pedigrees of Ayrshire Stock, having completed their labors, offer the following as their Report. In arranging the pedigrees, we have endeavored to render them simple and exact, and to trace each animal to a direct importation. In a few instances this latter has been impossible, and we have been obliged to be content with tracing the pedigrees to the herds of well known breeders, having their assurances that the animals in question were thorough-bred Ayrshire. Many breeders, who have taken the utmost pains, and have been at great expense to keep their herds pure, have not been careful to keep accurate records of the pedigrees of their stock, feeling that as long as they themselves were satisfied, their assurances would be sufficient to convince purchasers. This course answered when there were but few cattle of this breed in the country, and the necessity of an organized effort to preserve the purity of the blood had not been recognized; but hereafter it is hoped that every one liberal enough to breed thorough-bred stock, will see the advantages and the necessity of a record of pedigrees, and assist in swelling the next edition of the work, to a size more nearly commensurate with the importance of the subject. The Committee thought best to have a short history of the Ayrshires, together with the points given by the Ayrshire Agricultural Association, printed as an introduction to the work, and applied to Sanford Howard, Esq., of Boston, who kindly consented to write such an article. Mr. Howard's opportunities of studying this breed, both in Scotland and in this country have been such, that he is eminently fitted to write with authority on the subject. The Committee did not follow his suggestion and give in the Herd Book the lists of premiums taken by the animals at the various Agricultural Fairs, knowing that many of the premiums in this country have been awarded for want of competition, and by judges not acquainted with the excellencies or the peculiarities of the breed. Should this Society ever hold exhibitions, a record of the premiums taken at them would be of great value to breeders in selecting animals for stock purposes. HENRY H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass., } THOS. E. HATCH, Keene, N. H., }_Committee._ WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass., } INTRODUCTION. THE breed of cattle now know as the Ayrshire, undoubtedly originated in the county of that name, in Scotland; but by what special means it was formed cannot be particularly told. Youatt (1835) says, "A century ago there was no such breed in Ayrshire or in Scotland;" and he asks, "Did the [present] Ayrshire cattle arise entirely from a careful selection of the native breed?" adding, "If they did it is a circumstance unparalleled in the history of agriculture. The native breed may be ameliorated by careful selection; its value may be incalculably increased; some good qualities may for the first time be developed; but yet there will be some resemblance to the original stock." A comparison of the modern breed with the description given by Aiton of the cattle which he says occupied Ayrshire fifty years before the time when he wrote (1806), will show that the difference is great. He says, "The cows kept in the districts of Kyle and Cunningham [districts of Ayrshire], were of a diminutive size, ill-fed, ill-shaped, and they yielded but a scanty return in milk; they were mostly of a black color, with stripes of white along the chine or ridge of their backs, about their flanks and on their faces. Their horns were high and crooked, * * * their pile [hair] was coarse and open; and few of them yielded more than three or four Scotch pints [six to eight wine quarts] of milk a day." Those who are acquainted with the Ayrshire cattle of to-day, will readily admit that they present a wide contrast with the old stock, according to the above description of the latter; and the suggestion of Youatt, that the present breed could not have arisen entirely by selection from the old, seems reasonable. It follows, then, that the Ayrshire, like the modern or "improved" Short Horn breed, originated in crossing. The question as to the breeds from which it was derived, will be briefly considered, although the attempt will not be made to give precise details on this point. Various accounts represent that the Earl of Marchmont, some time between 1724 and 1740, introduced to his estates, in Berwickshire, some cattle, conjectured (their history was not positively known) to be of the Holderness or Teeswater breed, and that, not long afterwards, some of the stock was carried to estates belonging to the same nobleman, in that part of Ayrshire called Kyle. But, perhaps, the main nucleus of the improved breed was the "Dunlop stock," so called, which appears to have been possessed by a distinguished family by the name of Dunlop, in the Cunningham District of Ayrshire, as early as 1780. This stock, it is said, was derived, at least in part, from animals imported from Holland. The Dunlop cows soon became noted. Rawlin (as quoted by Youatt), who wrote in 1794, speaking of the cattle of Ayrshire, says, "They have another breed, called the Dunlop, which are allowed to be the best race for yielding milk in Great Britain, or Ireland, not only for large quantities, but also for richness and quality." This, though extravagant praise, perhaps, shows that the stock possessed remarkable qualities at that early day. It was, indeed, held in great esteem still earlier. In Youatt's Treatise, it is mentioned, when speaking of the cattle of Dumfrieshire, that the poet Burns, when he occupied a farm near the city of Dumfries, "not content with the Galloway breed, introduced some of the West-Country cows, which he thought would produce more milk." In the poet's published correspondence, allusion is made, in a letter dated November 13th, 1788, to a heifer which had been presented to him by the proprietor of Dunlop House, as "the finest quey in Ayrshire." Mrs. Dunlop, it will be remembered, was a special friend and correspondent of the poet.[A] Col. Le Couteur, in a paper on the Jersey or Alderney cow, published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, refers to a statement by Quayle, that the Ayrshire was a cross of the Short Horn and Alderney; and adds himself that "there is a considerable affinity between the two breeds." Rawlin also says, in reference to the Ayrshire breed, "It is said to be a mixture by bulls brought from the island of Alderney, with their own or the old race of cows." Martin says, "At some period or other there has evidently been a cross with the Durham or Holderness, and, perhaps, also with the Alderney." Professor Low, in his "Illustrations of British Quadrupeds," says, "From all the evidence which, in the absence of authentic documents, the case admits of, the dairy breed of Ayrshire cows, owes the characters which distinguish it from the older race, to a mixture of the blood of the races of the continent and of the dairy breed of Alderney." So far, the authorities quoted have, doubtless, given the main facts in regard to the originals of the present Ayrshire cattle. But there is evidence that the present leading type of the breed was formed, in part, by an infusion of the blood of the Kyloe, or West-Highland breed. This appeared in the first instance, probably, in what has been called the Swinley variety. The facts, which the writer has obtained in Scotland in regard to it, are substantially as follows: Theophilus Parton, of Swinley Farm, near Dairy, Ayrshire, about forty to forty-five years ago, took great pains to establish a herd of what were deemed the _best_ Ayrshire cattle, into which he infused a strain of the West-Highland blood, the particular degree of which is not publicly or generally known. The Swinley stock differs from the older Ayrshire in having a shorter head, with more breadth across the eyes, more upright and spreading horns, more hair, and generally better constitutions. They are also somewhat smaller boned than the old stock, though from their superior symmetry, and greater tendency to fatten, they are fully equal to the former in weight of carcass when slaughtered. The following points given by the Ayrshire Agricultural Association, 1853, "as indicating superior quality," will give an idea of the standard for Ayrshire cattle, as recognized by the leading breeders: Head short, forehead wide, nose fine between the muzzle and the eyes; muzzle moderately large, eyes full and lively, horns widely set on, inclining upwards and curving slightly inwards. Neck long and straight from the head to the top of the shoulders, free from loose skin on the underside, fine at its junction with the head, and the muscles symmetrically enlarging towards the shoulders. Shoulders thin at the top, brisket light, the whole fore-quarter thin in front and gradually increasing in depth and width backwards. Back short and straight, spine well defined, especially at the shoulders, short ribs arched, the body deep at the flanks, and the milk-veins well developed. Pelvis long, broad and straight, hook [or hip] bones wide apart, and not much overlaid with fat, thighs deep and broad, tail long and slender, and set on a level with the back. Milk-vessel [udder] capacious and extending well forward, hinder-part broad and firmly attached to the body, the sole or under surface nearly level. The teats from two to two and a half inches in length, equal in thickness, and hanging perpendicularly; their distance apart at the sides should be equal to about one-third the length of the vessel, and across to about one-half the breadth. Legs short, the bones fine and the joints firm. Skin soft and elastic, and covered with soft, close and woolly hair. The colors preferred are brown, or brown and white, the colors being distinctly defined. Weight of the animal, when fattened, about forty imperial stones, sinking the offal [that is 560 pounds], the quarters or meat only. From what has already been said, it will be understood, that the dairy is the leading object with the breeders of Ayrshires. At the same time the fact has not been overlooked, that to breed and perpetuate a profitable dairy stock, regard must be had to hardiness and strength of constitution, and also to such fattening tendencies as will insure a profitable return from calves fattened for veal, from steers reared for beef, and for cows, which having served their turn in the dairy, are at last dried of their milk and prepared for the shambles. The importance of these properties is not sufficiently regarded by keepers of dairy stock in this country. The remark has not unfrequently been heard that the "_looks_ of a cow are nothing." People who hold this absurd notion will never be distinguished for breeding profitable dairy stock. Even if milk were the sole object, it would be impossible to preserve a breed possessing superior qualities, in this respect, without giving attention to those points of form which denote strength of constitution. It has been well observed by Magne, that in the breeding of dairy stock, we should "make choice only of animals possessing the _two-fold character of general vigor, and activity of the mammary system_." The leading breeders of Ayrshire, in Scotland, have followed these principles to some extent, if not to the full degree to which they should be observed. Hence, they claim a high rank for the breed in reference to general usefulness. Aiton, speaking of what the Ayrshire cow would do, says, "She yields much milk, and that of an oily or butyraceous, or caseous nature, and after she has yielded very large quantities of milk for several years, she shall be as valuable for beef as any other breed of cows known; her fat shall be much more mixed through the whole flesh, and she shall fatten faster than any other." Whatever may be said in regard to the extent of these claims, it will be admitted that they indicate the confidence which was long ago placed in the breed in regard to the properties mentioned. Youatt, who wrote twenty-five years after Aiton, says, "The breed has been much improved since Mr. Aiton described it." It is thirty years since Mr. Youatt made this remark, and in this time the breed has been still further improved in reference to general usefulness. I have been assured by some of the most experienced breeders in Scotland, that while nothing has been lost on the score of dairy properties, considerable has been gained in hardiness and thrift, and in the faculty of giving a greater return, both in milk and flesh, for the food consumed. Of course it is the return obtained in proportion to the food eaten, that constitutes the true criterion of value in all animals. In Scotland, the calves of the Ayrshire breed, that are not wanted for keeping up the breeding or dairy stock, are either fattened for veal, or turned for beef at an early age. The larger portion, perhaps, of the males are killed for veal. In fact, in some districts, veal is an article of considerable importance, and the ability of Ayrshire cows to make fat calves is considered one of the excellencies of the breed. Thus Haxton observes, "For all medium soils and climates throughout the United Kingdom, there is no breed equal to the Ayrshire, for profit, whether the produce is converted into cheese, butter, or _veal_." A portion of the males are castrated and fattened when about three to three and half years old. Scotch farmers, who are in the practice of fattening stock of various breeds, assured me that Ayrshire steers of this age fattened to as much profit as any, reaching the weight of 700 to 800 pounds the four quarters, and afforded beef excelled in quality only by the Galloways and the West-Highlanders. At present the Ayrshire cattle have not been tried in America to a great extent. There have been various importations, mostly made within the last twenty years, and so far as there have been such trials as would justify a conclusion in regard to their merits, they have answered all reasonable expectations. The leading object in keeping them here is the same as it is in Scotland--the dairy--but their ability to fatten readily and make beef of good quality, should be taken into consideration in estimating their value. In regard to the latter property, but few trials have as yet been made here. Most of the males have been kept for bulls, and the females have seldom been fattened till too far advanced in years to breed. It may be worthy of consideration, whether it would not be an object to give some good steers of the breed a fair chance to show what they could make in beef at three to four years old. It is also desirable to ascertain what are the capabilities of the breed in regard to the performance of labor. On this point we are without any evidence from abroad, as oxen are not worked in Scotland. The results of the few trials that have been made with full-bloods, have been highly favorable in reference to the qualities of the breed for this purpose. Judging by their points, there is no reason why Ayrshire oxen should not be equal to any others, of their size, for any kind of labor. They have clean, firm legs, well-placed muscles, and are remarkably quick walkers. The advantages of a Registry, or Herd Book, for this breed of cattle, are too obvious to require argument. For the Short Horns, Herefords, and Devons, registers have been prepared, and the benefits which have been derived therefrom are such as will insure their continuance. An accurate record of the pedigrees of animals, together with a record of such premiums as they may have taken, cannot fail to afford a guide, to some extent, in breeding with reference to special objects--the principle, that "Like begets Like," being admitted as a general law. The subject of publishing a Herd Book for Ayrshires, in Scotland, has been agitated on several occasions, but, down to the present time, no direct action has been taken on it. The enterprise of the American breeders of this variety of cattle, in taking the lead in this matter, is highly creditable, and, if properly followed up, will be sure to bring a just recompense of reward. S. H. BOSTON, January 1st, 1863. FOOTNOTE: [A] As a further explanation of the preference given by Burns for the "West-Country cows," the writer would mention, that in 1858, he had several interviews with the poet's sister, the late Mrs. Begg, of Ayr, in one of which, she stated that her brother, during his occupancy of the farm of Ellisland, near Dumfries, kept a dairy, and made considerable quantities of cheese. Thus his efforts to procure the Ayrshire cow, shows that they had, even at that time, a high reputation for this object. HERD RECORD ASSOCIATION OF BREEDERS OF THOROUGH-BRED NEAT STOCK. AYRSHIRES. BULLS. =1 Albert,= Brownish red and white; calved Autumn of 1856; bred by JAMES HENDRIE, Drummock, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1859; owned at the STATE REFORM SCHOOL, Westboro', Mass.: Sire, Jock, bred by Mr. Borrie, of Riccarton, 2d Sire, Geordie, bred by Mr. Hendrie, Dam, Kirstie, by Geordie, 2d Dam, Nancy, by Kilburnie. =2 Alfred,= Brownish red; calved November 18th, 1859; bred by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; owned by T. W. PIERCE, Boston: Sire, Troon, 75, Dam, Lily, 129. =3 Allard,= Brown, with a little white; calved November 16th, 1859; bred by J. S. CABOT, Salem, Mass.; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Margery, 135. =4 Archie,= Red and white; calved May 9th, 1862; bred and owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Geordie, 23, Dam, Kate, 114. =5 Argyle,= White, with yellow and brindle about the head; calved March 18th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Brenda, 28. =6 Argyle,= Light red and white; calved April 21st, 1859; bred by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.; owned by THOMAS J. FIELDS and others, Northfield, Mass.: Sire, Scotland, imported from the Duke of Portland's estate, Ayrshire, by E. Nye, Dam, Jenny Lind, 101. =7 Ayrshire Lad,= Dark brown, flecked with white; calved September 20th, 1856; bred by HUNGERFORD & BRODIE, Adams, N. Y.; owned by HENRY H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass., in 1857, 1858 and 1859: Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Dam, Ayrshire Lass, imported by Hungerford & Brodie. =8 Ayrshire Lad 2d,= Red, flecked with white; calved March 9th, 1862; bred and owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Ayrshire Lad, 7, Dam, Daisy, 43. =9 Bertram,= Light red and white; calved March 11th, 1861; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; owned by GEORGE D. FORRISTALL, Holliston, Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Queen 2d, 181. =10 Blossom,= Red and white; calved October 10th, 1856; bred by S. D. HUNGERFORD, Adams, N. Y.; owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, 1852, Dam, Cherry Blossom, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, 1854. =11 Blossom 2d,= Red and white; calved March 24th, 1859; bred and owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Kitty 5th, 118. =12 Blossom 3d,= Red and white; calved June 29th, 1860; bred and owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Kitty 4th, 117. =13 Bruce,= Red and white; calved January 14th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Cowslip, 36. =14 Count,= Red and white; calved February 10th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Mary 4th, 137. =15 Dick,= Red, with small white spots; calved May 18th, 1862; bred and owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Jenny, 99. =16 Dr. Hornbook,= Light red, with white spots; calved March, 1857; bred by JOHN MEIKLE, of Brownhill, Tarbolton, Ayrshire; imported in 1858, and owned by JOHN BROOKS, Princeton, Mass.: Sire and Dam both bred by John Meikle. =17 Donald,= White and red; calved March 12th, 1862; bred by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.; owned by WM. BALL, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Sir Colin, Jr., 68, Dam, Mountain Maid, 158. =18 Don Juan,= Red; calved May 17th, 1860; bred and owned by JOHN ROGERS, Kittery, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird 2d, 32, Dam, Jenny Willet, 102. =19 Douglas,= White and red; calved June 19th, 1860; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Alice, 1. =20 Dundee 8th,= Dark red and white, with a little brindle about the head; calved October 18th, 1856; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Dundee 3d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Sire, Dundee 2d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 3d Sire, Dandy, imported by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Jennie Deans, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Dam, Jennie, bred by E. P. Prentice, 3d Dam, Mida 1st, bred by E. P. Prentice, 4th Dam, Ayr 1st, imported by Samuel Ward, Lenox, Mass. =21 Eglinton,= Dark brown and white; calved in 1859; bred by JOHN PARKER, Irvine, Scotland; imported and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, The Carrick Bull, bred by Mr. Parker, Dam, Goldie, of Mr. Parker's Goldie family. =22 Essex,= Brown and white; calved 1854; bred by C. A. STETSON, Swampscot, Mass.; owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, a Bull imported by Capt. Randall, of New Bedford, Mass., Dam, Strawberry, imported by C. A. Stetson. =23 Geordie,= Light red, with little white; calved 1858; bred by HUGH WILSON, Oatmains, Tarbolton, Ayrshire; imported in 1859, and owned by ROBERT GRAY, Fredericton, N. B.: Sire, Sandy, Dam, Sall. =24 Glengarry,= Red, with white spots; calved June 3d, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Corslet, 37. =25 Hampden,= Red and white; calved December 25th, 1861; bred by L. SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.; owned by H. O. CHAPIN, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Beauty 2d, 10. =26 Hampshire,= Red and white; calved May 1st, 1862; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Beauty, 8. =27 Highlander,= Dark red and white; calved February 16th, 1861; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; owned by J. D. WALKER, Northboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Young Merryton, 2d, 217. =28 Holyoke,= Red and white; calved May 31st, 1862; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Tulip, 209. =29 Irvine,= Red; calved May, 1858; bred by JOHN PARKER, of Nether Broomlands, Scotland; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858. =30 Jock,= Red and white; calved April 10th, 1860; bred by EPHRAIM OTIS, Kittery, Me.; owned by JOHN ROGERS, Kittery, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird 2d, 32, Dam, Jane, 90. =31 Jock 2d,= Red and white; calved April 10th, 1861; bred by EPHRAIM OTIS, Kittery, Me.; owned by JOHN ROGERS, Kittery, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird 2d, 32, Dam, Jane, 90. =32 Jock the Laird 2d,= Red; calved April, 1858; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Fredericton, N. B.; owned by JOHN ROGERS, Kittery, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird, imported by Robert Gray, Dam, Flora, bred by Robert Gray, from stock imported by himself. =33 John Anderson,= Brindle and white; calved June 16th, 1860; bred by BELA J. STONE, Southbridge, Mass.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Zachary Taylor, 78, 2d Sire, Prince Albert, imported by Capt. Randall, of New Bedford, Dam, Effie, bred by Mr. Murdock, of Milton, Parish Cadder, Ayrshire, imported by Rufus Carter, of Worcester, Mass., 1858. =34 Johnnie,= Brown and white; calved December 17th, 1860; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Star, 199. =35 John,= Red; calved August 14th, 1861; bred and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Lady Prentice, 124. =36 Killicrankie,= Dark red and white; calved December 4th, 1859; bred by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.; owned by JOHN STARR, Woodbury, N. J.: Sire, Young Kelburn, out of Frolic, 82, 2d Sire, Kelburn 2d, out of Mary Gray, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Adams, N. Y., 3d Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Dam, Flora, by Oswald, imported by William Watson, Westchester, N. Y., 2d Dam, Julia, imported by William Watson. =37 Kilmarnock,= White, with a little red; calved June 16th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Mary 3d, 136. =38 Kilmarnock,= Dark brown, spotted with white; calved March 8th, 1859; bred by ANDREW AITON, Craigend, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; owned by FREDERIC L. AMES, North Easton, Mass.: Sire, Troon, 75, Dam, Mavis, 138. =39 Kilmaurs,= Red; calved January 2d, 1862; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.; Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Star, 199. =40 King Coil,= Light red and white; calved in 1857; bred by JOHN GRAY, Tarbolton, Scotland; imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Cardigan, Dam, a cow owned by Mr. Gray. =41 King Philip,= Red and white; calved April 3d, 1862; bred by THOS. E. HATCH, Keene, N. H.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Argyle, 6, Dam, Fanny, 70. =42 Laddie,= Yellow and white; calved December 17th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Empress, 65. =43 Lippincott,= Light brindle and white; calved May, 1858; bred by JOHN DODS, Montreal, C. E.; owned by RICHARD L. DENISON, Dover Court, Toronto, C. W.: Sire, an Ayrshire Bull imported by John Dods, Dam, an Ayrshire Cow imported by John Dods. =44 Logan,= White with red spots, red line on back; calved May 16th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Queen 3d, 182. =45 Logan,= Red and white; calved February 14th, 1862; bred and owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Douglas, 19, Dam, Heather Bell, 86. =46 McIvor,= Brown and white; calved April 5th, 1860; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; owned by E. D. PEARCE, and C. S. BRADLEY, Providence, R. I.: Sire, Ayrshire Lad, 7, Dam, Miss Morton, 153. =47 Marquis,= Brown and white; calved June 1st, 1851; bred by BARON DE LONGUIELL, Wolf Island, near Montreal, C. E.; owned by RICHARD L. DENISON, Dover Court, Toronto, C. W.: Sire, a thorough-bred Ayrshire Bull, bred by John Penner, Lachine, C. E., Dam Marchioness, bred by John Penner, from a cow imported by Geo. Gordon, by a bull imported by the Agricultural Society, for the District of Montreal, C. E. =48 Middlesex,= Brown and white; calved March 26th, 1860; bred by GEORGE W. LYMAN, Waltham, Mass.; owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Zachary, out of Swinley, imported by Capt. Randall, of New Bedford, 2d Sire, Prince Albert, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Young Swinley, 2d Dam, Swinley, imported by Capt. Randall. =49 Montgomery,= Yellow, with white spot in forehead; calved May 20th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Jean Armour, 91. =50 Norribo,= Red and white; calved November, 1858; bred by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, N. J.; owned by H. S. COLLINS, Collinsville, Conn.: Sire, Malcolm, out of Beith, imported by William Watson, Westchester, N. Y., 2d Sire, Oswald, imported by William Watson, Dam, Rosa Lee, 2d Dam, Jenny Lind, 101. =51 Oswald,= Red and white; calved July, 1854; bred by WILLIAM WATSON, Westchester, N. Y.; owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Oswald, imported by William Watson, Dam, Beith, imported by William Watson. =52 Oswald,= Brownish red, with white spots; calved April 18th, 1860; bred by ALEXANDER OSWALD, near Ayr, Scotland; imported by H. H. Peters, Southboro', Mass., 1859; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Jock Parker, Dam, Pink, 173. =53 Prince Albert,= Bright red and white; calved November 1st, 1857; bred by N. H. WARREN, Concord, Mass.; owned by M. S. KELLOGG, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Major, out of Susy, imported by J. P. Cushing, Watertown, Mass., 2d Sire, Old Ayrshire, bred by Samuel Ward, of Lenox, Mass., from a pair imported by himself, Dam, Young Jennie Deans, by Prince Albert, 2d Dam, Jennie Deans. Both Prince Albert and Jennie Deans were imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844. =54 Prince,= Dark red, with a few small white spots, brown about the head; calved May 4th, 1861; bred and owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Fanny, 71. =55 Robert,= Red and white; calved August 15th, 1861; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Strawberry, 201. =56 Robert,= White and red; calved December 17th, 1861; bred and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Lady Ellen, 123. =57 Robert Burns,= Red and white; calved April, 1857; bred by JOHN MEIKLE, of Brown Hill Farm, Tarbolton, Ayrshire; imported in 1858 and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Wallace, 2d Sire, a Bull bred by Ivie Campbell, of Dalgig, Scotland, Dam, Beauty, 6. =58 Rob Roy,= Red and white; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Oswald, 51, Dam, Beauty, 8. =59 Rob Roy,= Dark red and white, brown about the head; calved April 11th, 1860; bred by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.; owned by WM. BALL, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Firefly, out of Jenny Lind, 101, 2d Sire, Scotland, imported by E. Nye, Dam, Fanny, 70. =60 Rob Roy,= Red and white; calved December 23, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Miss Drew 2d, 150. =61 Roderick,= Red, with some white spots; calved May 26th, 1859; bred and owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.: Sire, Young Kelburn, out of Frolic, 82, 2d Sire, Kelburn 2d, out of Mary Gray, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Adams, N. Y., 3d Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Dam, Jessica, by Oswald, 51, 2d Dam, Jessie 1st, 105. =62 Roderick,= Red and white; calved January 5th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Pink, 173. =63 Samson,= Red and white; calved 1861; bred by CHARLES M. POND, Hartford, Conn.; owned by A. L. COLLINS, West Meriden, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Bella, 13. =64 Scotia,= Red and white; calved January 11th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Ruth 2d, 194. =65 Schodack,= Red and white; calved June 22d, 1858; bred by H. G. GILBERT, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Adams, N. Y., 2d Sire, Geordie, bred by Robert Logan, Kilbournie Mains, Scotland, Dam, Red Rose 2d, by Kelburn, 2d Dam, Red Rose, imported by Hungerford & Brodie. =66 Sir Colin,= Red, with little white; calved November 30th, 1861; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Gentle, 83. =67 Sir Colin,= Dark red and white; calved April 26th, 1857; bred by JAMES YOUNG, Kilbride, Stewarton, Ayrshire; imported and owned by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.: Sire, Charlie, Dam, Stately, 200. =68 Sir Colin, Jr.,= White and red; calved April 8th, 1860; bred by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Sir Colin, 67, Dam, Heather Bell, 86. =69 Sir Walter,= Brownish red, with little white; calved December 25th, 1861; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Daisy, 40. =70 Sir Walter,= Red and white; calved April 3d, 1861; bred by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Bonnie Scot, imported by Thomas Dods, Montreal, C. E., Dam, White Cherry, 214. =71 Souter Johnnie,= Brown and white; calved March 10th, 1861; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom 2d, 11, Dam, Kitty 4th, 117. =72 Tam,= Red and white; calved April 20th, 1860; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by H. S. COLLINS, Collinsville, Conn.: Sire, an Ayrshire Bull, imported by the Montreal Agricultural Society, Dam, Queen of Scots, imported by the Montreal Agricultural Society. =73 Tam O'Shanter,= Dark red and white; calved May 11th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Rosa, 184. =74 Tam O'Shanter,= Brown and white; calved April 4th, 1862; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom 3d, 12, Dam, Kitty 4th, 117. =75 Troon,= Brownish red, with a few small white spots; calved 1856; bred by Mr. KIRKWOOD, of Highland Muir, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; owned by CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, Quincy, Mass.: Sire, bred by John Parker, Nether Broomlands, near Irvine, Scotland, Dam, bred by Mr. Kirkwood. =76 Walter Scott,= Dark brindle, with some white; calved January 14th, 1861; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; owned by WILLIAM F. WHEELER, Grafton, Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Flora, 74. =77 Willie Winkie,= Light red, with a few white spots; calved December 15th, 1861; bred and owned by THOMAS E. HATCH, Keene, N. H.: Sire, Argyle, 6, Dam, Rose, 192. =78 Zachary Taylor,= Brown and white; bred and owned by G. W. LYMAN, Waltham, Mass.: Sire, Prince Albert, imported by Capt. RANDALL, New Bedford, Mass., Dam, Gowan, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =79 Zachary Swinley,= Dark brown, with whitish brown spots; calved 1857; bred by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; owned by H. & R. HUBBARD, Charlestown, N. H.: Sire, Zachary Taylor, 78, Dam, Young Swinley, 2d Dam, Swinley, imported by Capt. Randall, New Bedford, Mass. COWS =1 Alice,= Dark red and white; calved in 1857; bred by Mr. GIRVAN, Mackailston, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. =2 Amy,= Dark red and white; calved January 11th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Merryton 2d, 217. =3 Annie Laurie,= White and red, spotted; calved April 2d, 1861; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Bonnie Scot, imported by Thomas Dods, Montreal, C. E., Dam, Lady Wallace, 125. =4 Ayrshire Lassie,= Red and white; calved spring of 1857; bred by JAMES ANDERSON, of Kirkhill, St. Quivox, Ayrshire; imported in 1859, and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn. =5 Ayrshire Lassie 2d,= Red and white; calved June 29th, 1861; bred by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.; owned by S. W. ROBBINS, Waterford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Ayrshire Lassie, 4. =6 Beauty,= Red and white, mixed; calved in 1853; bred by JOHN MEIKLE, Brownhill, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, a Bull of Mr. Meikle's, Dam, bred from the stock of James Meikle, Cloxton. =7 Beauty 2d,= Red and white speckled; calved August 15th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Beauty, 6. =8 Beauty,= Dark red and white; calved 1854; bred in Scotland; imported in 1855 and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass. =9 Beauty 4th,= Dark red and white; calved May 30th, 1861; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Beauty, 8. =10 Beauty 2d,= Light red and white; calved August 26th, 1858; bred by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.; owned by H. O. CHAPIN, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Rob Roy, 58, Dam, Beauty, 8. =11 Beauty,= Red and white; calved March 20th, 1862; bred by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: owned by H. N. THURBER, Pomfret, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Jessie, 111. =12 Beauty,= Red and white; calved May, 1853; bred by Y. OTTY CROOKSHANK, St. John, New Brunswick; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Jock, bred by R. Jardine, St. John, N. B., out of an imported Ayrshire cow, 2d Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, imported by R. Gray, Fredericton, N. B., 1849, 3d Sire, Jock the Laird 2d, bred by Andrew McGregor, Damhead, Kilmarnock, Scotland, Dam, Ceres, imported by Thomas Davidson, St. John, N. B., 1848. =13 Bella,= Red and white; calved spring of 1855; imported in 1859, and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn. =14 Belle,= Red and white; calved April 8th, 1857; bred and owned by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.: Sire, Scotland, imported by E. Nye, (out of Beauty, by Ajax,) Dam, Jenny Lind, 101. =15 Belle of Scotland,= White and red, spotted; calved April 11th, 1854; bred in Ayrshire; imported by Hugh Brodie, Montreal, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn. =16 Bessie,= Red, with large patches of white; calved 1854; bred in Scotland; imported in 1855, and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass. =17 Bessie 2d,= Dark red and white; calved June 20th, 1858; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Rob Roy, 58, Dam, Bessie, 16. =18 Bessie 3d,= Red and white; calved May 12th, 1862; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Bessie, 16. =19 Bessie,= Red and white; calved December, 1858; bred by B. F. CAMP, Westchester County, N. Y.; owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.: Sire, Bruce, bred by William Watson, New York, 2d Sire, Wellington, bred by William Watson, 3d Sire, Oswald, imported by William Watson, Dam, Eliza, imported by William Watson. =20 Bessy 5th,= Red and white; calved November 8th, 1856; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 3d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Sire, Dundee 2d, bred by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Betty 2d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Dam, Betty 1st, bred by E. P. Prentice. =21 Bessy 6th,= Red and white; calved April 10th, 1859; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Bessy 5th, 20. =22 Betty 2d,= Dark red and white; calved August 27th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Miss Betty, 152. =23 Betty 4th,= Red and white; calved December 23d, 1855; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 4th, bred by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Betty 2d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Dam, Betty 1st, bred by E. P. Prentice, 3d Dam, Ayr, imported by Mr. Ward, Lenox, Mass. =24 Betty 5th,= Red and white; calved June 28th, 1858; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Betty 4th, 23. =25 Betty 6th,= Red and white; calved July 3d, 1860; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Betty 4th, 23. =26 Blanche,= Red, with a few white spots; calved May 14th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Mary 3d, 136. =27 Blanche,= Red and white; calved March 3d, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Miss Miller, 151. =28 Brenda,= Dark brindle and white; calved in 1857; bred by ALEXANDER STRUTHERS, near Hamilton, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Mr. L. Drew's Sandy 2d, Dam, descended from Lawrence Drew's stock. =29 Brenda 2d,= Black with white spots; calved April 5th, 1860; bred by LAWRENCE DREW, Merryton, Lanarkshire, Scotland; imported by H. H. Peters, Southboro', Mass.; owned by FREDERIC L. AMES, North Easton, Mass.: Sire, Bull, owned by Lawrence Drew, Dam, Brenda, 28. =30 Butter Cup,= Light yellow with little white; calved May 27th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro,' Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Jane, 88. =31 Butter Cup,= Red and white; calved 1850; bred by R. L. ROSS, near Montreal, C. E.; owned by R. L. DENISON, Dover Court, Toronto, C. W.: Sire, an imported Ayrshire Bull, Dam, an imported Ayrshire Cow. =32 Butter Cup,= Brownish red and white; calved December 12th, 1859; bred by Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; owned by GEORGE PEABODY, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Tam Sampson, imported by Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Pansy, 167. =33 Cherry,= Red and white; calved May 31st, 1862; bred and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Ayrshire Lassie, 4. =34 Cora,= Red and white; calved May 17th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Duchess 2d, 57. =35 Cornelia,= Red and white; calved April 8th, 1862; bred and owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, Rhode Island: Sire, Douglas, 19, Dam Heather Bell, 86. =36 Cowslip,= Red and white mixed; calved April 9th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Ayrshire Lad, 7, Dam, Miss Miller, 151. =37 Corslet,= Dark red and white; calved 1857; bred by DAVID CAMERON, Mearns, Scotland, imported by H. H. Peters, Southboro', Mass.: owned by EDWARD D. PEARCE, Providence, R. I.: Sire a Son of Cardigan, Dam, a Cow bred by Ivie Campbell, Dalgig, Scotland. =38 Dainty,= Red and white; calved May 18th, 1860; bred and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Ayrshire Lassie, 4. =39 Daisy,= Red and white; calved January 9th, 1862; bred by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.; owned by M. S. KELLOGG, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Tulip 2d, 210. =40 Daisy,= Brown and white; calved 1857; bred by DAVID WILSON, Irvine, Scotland, imported by Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by GEO. B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, bred by John Parker, Nether Broomlands, Scotland, Dam bred by David Wilson. =41 Daisy,= White and light red; calved December 29th, 1861; bred and owned by GEO. B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Albert, 1, Dam, Daisy, 40. =42 Daisy,= Red and white; calved July 18th, 1861; bred and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Jenny, 98. =43 Daisy,= Light red and white; calved April, 1853; bred by R. JARDINE, St. John, N. B., owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Maine: Sire, Jock the Laird 5th, bred by Robert Gray, Fredericton, N. B., 2d Sire, Jock the Laird 3d imported by Robert Gray, 3d Sire Jock the Laird 2d, bred by Andrew McGregor, Damhead, Kilmarnock, Scotland, Dam, Gowan, bred by Richard Oswald, Auchencraive, Ayrshire, and imported by R. Jardine, 1848. =44 Daisy,= Red and white; calved January 11th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam Miss Betty, 152. =45 Daisie 2d,= Red and white; calved December 12th, 1847; bred by LAWRENCE DREW, of Merryton, Scotland; imported by Capt. RANDALL, of New Bedford, Mass.; owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass. =46 Daisie 4th,= Red and white; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 4th, bred by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Daisy 2d, 45. =47 Daisie 5th,= Red and white; calved March 26th, 1858; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.; Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Daisie 2d, 45. =48 Daisie 6th,= Red and white; calved September 11th, 1858; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Daisy 3d, by Jock the Laird, bred by Capt. Randall, New Bedford, Mass., 2d Dam, Daisie 2d, 45. =49 Daisie 7th,= Red and white; calved September 15th, 1860; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Daisie 4th, 46. =50 Daisie 8th,= Red and white; calved December 2d, 1860; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Daisie 5th, 47. =51 Daisie 9th,= Red and white; calved October 15th, 1861; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom 2d, 11, Dam, Daisie 6th, 48. =52 Daisie 10th,= Red and white; calved October 7th, 1861; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom 2d, 11, Dam, Daisie 5th, 47. =53 Dolly,= Red and white; calved December 6th, 1855; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dandy 5th, out of Daisie 2d, 45, 2d Sire, Dundee 4th, bred by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Maggie, by Dundee 2d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Dam, Jennie Deans 3d, 95. =54 Dolly 2d,= Red and white; calved April 29th, 1859; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Dolly, 53. =55 Dolly 3d,= Red and white; calved April 8th, 1860; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Rob Roy, 58, Dam, Dolly 2d, 54. =56 Dolly 4th,= Red and white; calved October 11th, 1861; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom 2d, 11, Dam, Dolly, 53. =57 Duchess 2d,= White, with dark red spots; calved in 1857; bred by JAMES MORTON, Drumley, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, bred by Mr. Speares, farmer, Bogend, Dam, Duchess. =58 Duchess 3d,= Red and white spotted; calved July 19th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Duchess 2d, 57. =59 Duchess 4th,= Deep red and white; calved February 15th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Duchess 3d, 58. =60 Effie,= White, with red spots; calved July 23d, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Beauty, 6. =61 Effie,= White and red; calved February 27th, 1855; bred by WILLIAM WATSON, New York; owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.: Sire, Malcolm, (out of Beith, imported by William Watson, New York,) 2d Sire, Oswald, imported by William Watson, Dam, Flora, by Oswald, imported by Wm. Watson, 2d Dam, Julia, imported by William Watson. =62 Effie,= Red and white; calved 1858; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by H. S. COLLINS, Collinsville, Conn.: Sire, Baldie, imported by James Logan, Montreal, C. E., Dam, an Ayrshire Cow, imported by Thomas Daws & Son, Lachine, C. E. =63 Effie,= White, with red spots; calved July 23d, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Beauty, 6. =64 Eppie,= Dark brown and white; calved September 10th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Nannie, 156. =65 Empress,= Light yellow and white; calved April 5th, 1860; bred by IVIE CAMPBELL, Dalgig, Scotland; owned and imported by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Clarendon, 2d Sire, Major, 3d Sire, a Bull Mr. Parker purchased from Mr. Young, Kilmaurs Mains, Dam, Queen 2d, 181, 2d Dam, Old Queen, 3d Dam, Blackie, 4th Dam, a Cow purchased of Lord Glasgow, in 1837. =66 Eva,= Red and white; calved June 3d, 1861; bred and owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.; Sire, Bonny Scot, 2d Sire, Sir Colin, 67, Dam, Snow Flake, 197. =67 Fairy, (twin with Fancy.)= White and red, red stripe on back; calved March 28th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Miss Miller, 151. =68 Fancy, (twin with Fairy.)= Principally white mixed with red; calved March 28th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Miss Miller, 151. =69 Fanny,= Red and white mixed; calved May 19th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro' Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Miss Drew, 149. =70 Fanny,= Red with a few white spots; calved April 8th, 1848; bred by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.; owned by THOS. E. HATCH, Keene, N. H.: Sire, The Duke, imported by E. NYE, from Duke of Portland's estate, Ayrshire, 1845, Dam, Marion, imported by E. Nye from Duke of Portland's estate, Ayrshire. =71 Fanny,= Light red with a few small white spots; calved August 6th, 1855; bred by RAMSAY MCHENRY, Maryland; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire Dandy, imported by E. P. Prentice, Albany, N. Y., Dam, Maid of Ayr, bred by R. McHenry, from Ayrshire Stock, imported by Mr. Hoffman, Baltimore, Md. =72 Fanny Ellsler,= Red and white; calved 1857; bred by JAMES TODD, Dunure Mains, Scotland, imported in 1859, and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn. =73 Fanny Ellsler 2d,= Red and white; calved September 1st, 1861; bred and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Fanny Ellsler, 72. =74 Flora,= Dark red and white; calved 1857; bred by GEORGE RICHMOND, Scotland, imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. =75 Flora 2d,= Red with little white; calved December 22d, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Flora, 74. =76 Flora,= Dark red and white, spotted with brown about the head; calved March 15th, 1853; bred by WILLIAM WATSON, New York; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Oswald imported by William Watson, New York, Dam, Julia, imported by William Watson, New York. =77 Flora Gray,= White, with red spots; calved April 14th, 1854; bred by HUNGERFORD & BRODIE, Adams, N. Y.; owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.: Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Dam, Mary Gray, imported. =78 Florence,= Red and white; calved 1857; bred by JAMES TODD, of Dunure Mains, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn. =79 Florence 2d,= Red and white; calved April 20th, 1860; bred by THOMAS TODD, Dunure Mains, Scotland; imported and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Jock the Laird, Dam, Florence, 78. =80 Florence 3d,= Red and white; calved November 28th, 1861; bred and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Florence, 78. =81 Folly,= Red and white; calved September 4th, 1862; bred by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.; owned by BYRON LOOMIS, Suffield, Conn.: Sire, Samson, 63, Dam, Rosemount, 189. =82 Frolic,= Pale red, with a few small white spots; calved October 25th, 1855; bred by HUNGERFORD & BRODIE, Adams, N. Y.; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Adams, N. Y., 1852, Dam, Cherry Blossom, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, 1854. =83 Gentle,= Light red; calved 1856; bred by JAMES REID, Torcross, near Tarbolton, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass. =84 Gowan,= Spotted red and white; calved April 4th, 1859; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Fredericton, N. B.; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Duncan, out of an Ayrshire cow, imported by Robert Gray, 2d Sire, Jock the Laird 4th, out of Helen, imported by Robert Gray, 3d Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, bred and imported by Robert Gray, 1849, Dam, Peerless, bred and imported by Robert Gray, 1849. =85 Gypsie,= Red and white; calved April 17th, 1859; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Baldie, imported by James Logan, Montreal, C. E., Dam, an Ayrshire Cow, imported by Thomas Daws & Son, Lachine, C. E. =86 Heather Bell,= Red and white; calved 1853; bred by ANDREW MCFARLANE, Scotland; imported 1858, by James Logan, Montreal, C. E.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Heather Jack. =87 Helen Mar,= White and red spotted; calved April 5th, 1859; bred by THOMAS DAWS & Son, Lachine, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Baldie, imported by James Logan, Montreal, C. E., Dam, an Ayrshire Cow, imported by Thomas Daws & Son. =88 Jane,= Light red with little white; calved 1856; bred by JAMES CRAIG, of Polquheys, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. =89 Jane 2d,= Light red and white; calved January 16th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Jane 88. =90 Jane,= White with red spots; calved April, 1858; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Oak Park, New Brunswick; owned by EPHRAIM OTIS, Kittery, Maine: Sire, Jock the Laird, imported by Robert Gray, Dam, Jane, bred by Robert Gray, from his own importation, 1849. =91 Jean Armour,= Light red with little white; calved May 1st, 1856; bred in Scotland, by HUGH ROGER, Attiquin Maybole; imported in 1858, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Wellington, Dam, Mary. =92 Jean Armour 2d,= Red, with but little white; calved May 23d, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Jean Armour, 91. =93 Jeanie,= Red and white; calved June 18th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Ruth, 193. =94 Jean,= Dark red, with little white; calved April 24th, 1854; bred by Robert Gray, Fredericton, N. B.; owned by NATHAN DANE, Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird 4th, out of Helen, imported by R. Gray, 2d Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, imported by R. Gray, 1849, Dam, Jenny Willet, imported by Robert Gray, 1849. =95 Jennie Deans 3d,= Red and white; calved June 8th, 1850; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Jock the Laird, bred by Capt. Randall, New Bedford, Mass., 2d Sire, imported by Capt. Randall, Dam, Jennie Deans 1st, by Highlander, 2d Dam, Mida, by Wallace, 3d Dam, Ayr 2d, sired in Scotland, 4th Dam, Ayr, imported in 1842, by Mr. Ward, Lenox, Mass. =96 Jenny,= Dark red and white; calved October 25th, 1860; bred by N. H. WARREN, Concord, Mass.; owned by M. S. KELLOGG, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Ayrshire Bull, bred by William S. Lincoln, Worcester, Mass., 2d Sire, McGregor, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Young Jenny Deans, by Prince Albert, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 2d Dam, Jenny Deans, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1844. =97 Jenny,= Red; calved July 27th, 1861; bred and owned by JOHN ROGERS, Kittery, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird 2d, 32, Dam, Jenny Willet, 102. =98 Jenny,= Red and white; calved spring of 1856; bred by HUGH AITON, Cumnock, Ayrshire; imported in 1858 and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn. =99 Jenny,= Dark red, with a few small white spots, brown about the head; calved July 13th, 1859; bred by JOHN C. SMITH, Baltimore County, Md.; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Brutus, out of Jenny Deans, imported by R. McHenry, Md., 2d Sire, Brutus, imported by R. D. Shepherd, Va., Dam, Fanny, 71. =100 Jenny Lind,= Red and white; calved December 21st, 1861; bred by N. H. WARREN, Concord, Mass.; owned by M. S. KELLOGG, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Ayrshire Bull, bred by William S. Lincoln, Worcester, Mass., 2d Sire, McGregor, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Jennie Deans 4th, by Major, 2d Dam, Jenny Deans 2d, by McDuff, imported by Peter Lawson, Dracut, Mass., 3d Dam, Jenny Deans, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1844. =101 Jenny Lind,= Red and white; calved June 13th, 1849; bred and owned by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.: Sire, The Duke, imported by E. Nye, from Duke of Portland's estate, Ayrshire, 1845, Dam, Nan, imported from the same herd, 1840. =102 Jenny Willet,= Red and white; calved April, 1858; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Oak Park, N. B.; owned by JOHN ROGERS, Kittery, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird, imported by Robert Gray, Dam, Jenny Willet, bred by Robert Gray, from stock of his own importation, 1849. =103 Jenny Willet,= Very dark red with white spots; calved March 12th, 1853; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Fredericton, N. B.; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, bred by Robert Gray, in Ayrshire, and imported by him in 1849, Dam, Jenny Willet, imported by Robert Gray, 1849. =104 Jessie,= Light red and white; calved April 7th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Miss Miller, 151. =105 Jessie 1st,= Calved March 14th, 1849; bred and owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.: Sire, Juba, imported by R. S. Griswold, Dam, Whitey, imported by R. S. Griswold. =106 Jessie,= Red and white; calved spring of 1859; bred by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.; Sire, Sir Colin, 67, Dam, White Cherry, imported by James Logan, Montreal, C. E. =107 Jessie,= Brownish red and white; calved June, 1855; bred by JOHN MEIKLE, Brown Hill, Tarbolton, Ayrshire; imported July, 1858, and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Sam, bred by John Meikle, 2d Sire, Dody, bred by Mr. Meikle, Closton, 3d Sire, Screw, bred by Mr. Meikle, Closton, Dam, Jenny, bred by John Meikle, Tarbolton, 2d Dam, Bella, bred by Mr. Meikle, Closton. =108 Jessie 2d,= Brownish red and white; calved January 23d, 1860; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Jessie, 107. =109 Jessie 3d,= Brownish red; calved December 29th, 1860; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Jessie, 107. =110 Jessie 4th,= Brownish red and white; calved January 10th, 1862; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Jessie, 107. =111 Jessie,= Red and white; calved June, 1856; bred by JAMES MURRAY, Cumnock, Ayrshire; imported in 1858, and owned by C. M. POND, of Hartford, Conn. =112 Juno,= Light red and white; calved January 13th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Queen 2d, 181. =113 Kate,= Red and white; calved April 7th, 1858; bred and owned by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.: Sire, Scotland, imported by E. Nye, Dam, Fanny, 70. =114 Kate,= Light red, with white spots; calved May 12th, 1857; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Fredericton, N. B.; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Duncan, out of an Ayrshire Cow imported by Robert Gray, 2d Sire, Jock the Laird 4th, out of Helen, imported by Robert Gray, 1849, 3d Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, bred and imported by Robert Gray, 1849, Dam, Peerless, bred and imported by Robert Gray, 1849. =115 Katy,= Pale red, with a few small white spots; calved April 12th, 1861; bred by A. M. TREDWELL, of Madison, N. J.; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Roderic, 61, Dam, Frolic, 82. =116 Kitty,= Red, with a few small white spots; calved March 18th, 1862; bred by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.; owned by WILLIAM BALL, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Fanny, 71. =117 Kitty 4th,= Red and white; calved June 13th, 1855; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 5th, bred by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Tibby 2d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Dam, Tibby 1st, bred by E. P. Prentice. =118 Kitty 5th,= Red and white; calved May 12th, 1857; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Duke, out of Tibby 3d, 2d Sire, Dundee 4th, bred by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Kitty 4th, 117. =119 Kitty 6th,= Red and white; calved July 29th, 1860; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Kitty 5th, 118. =120 Lassie,= White and red mixed; calved June 7th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Ruth, 193. =121 Lady Burns,= Red and white; calved April 21st, 1861; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E., owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Bonnie Scot, imported by Thomas Dods, Montreal, C. E., Dam, Gypsie, 85. =122 Lady Clare,= Roan and white; calved June 4th, 1859; bred by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.; owned by JOHN STARR, Woodbury, N. J.: Sire, Malcolm, out of Beith, imported by William Watson, New York, 2d Sire, Oswald, imported by William Watson, New York, Dam, Frolic, 82. =123 Lady Ellen,= Red and white; calved 1857; bred by JAMES TODD, Dunure Mains, Scotland; imported 1859, and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn. =124 Lady Prentice,= Red; calved 1854; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn. =125 Lady Wallace,= White and red spotted; calved May 3d, 1856; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Baldie, imported by James Logan, Montreal, C. E., Dam, an Ayrshire cow, owned by Thomas Daws & Son, Lachine, C. E. =126 Leila,= Red and white; calved May 12th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Miss Drew, 149. =127 Lily,= Red and white; calved January 11th, 1862; bred by N. H. WARREN, Concord, Mass.; owned by M. S. KELLOGG, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Ayrshire Bull, bred by WILLIAM S. LINCOLN, Worcester, Mass., 2d Sire, McGregor, imported by Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Jenny Deans 2d, by McDuff, imported by Peter Lawson, Dracut, Mass., 2d Dam Jenny Deans, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1844. =128 Lily,= Dark red and white spotted; calved May 4th, 1861; bred by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, N. J.; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, White Lily's Kelburn, out of White Lily, imported by James Brodie, 2d Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, 1852, Dam, Flora, 76. =129 Lily,= Brownish red and white; calved 1857; bred by JOHN PARKER, Nether Broomlands, Scotland, imported by Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by T. W. PIERCE, Boston, Mass.: Sire, bred by JOHN PARKER, Dam, bred by John Parker, of the Cardigan stock. =130 Lily of Smithfield,= Red and white; bred by JAMES MCNAUGHTON, Smithfield, Ayrshire, imported in 1859 and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn. =131 Little Dorrit,= Red and white; calved April 18th, 1857; bred and owned by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.; Sire, Scotland, imported by E. NYE from Duke of Portland's estate, Ayrshire, Dam, Fanny, 70. =132 Maggie,= Red; calved in 1857; bred by JAMES PEATE, Browcastle, Scotland, imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Mr. Drew's Sandy, Dam, a cow bred by Mr. Peate. =133 Maggie 2d,= Red and white spotted; calved August 5th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Maggie, 132. =134 Mailie,= Red with white spots; calved March 15th, 1861; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: owned by FREDERIC L. AMES, North Easton, Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Brenda, 28. =135 Margery,= Dark brown with white spots; calved April 6th, 1854; bred by JOHN KILGOUR, Noltmire, Scotland, imported September, 1858, and owned by JOSEPH S. CABOT, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Jamie, Dam, Lillias. =136 Mary 3d,= Light red and white; calved 1857; bred in Scotland by JOHN PARKER, Irvine, imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Clarendon, Dam, Mary 2d, 2d Dam, Mary, Dam of Cardigan, all bred by Mr. Parker. =137 Mary 4th,= Yellow and white; calved August 9th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Mary 3d, 136. =138 Mavis,= Brownish red and white spotted; calved 1856; bred by JOHN DUNLOP, near Stewarton, Ayrshire; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by GEORGE G. SMITH, Marblehead, Mass. =139 May,= Dark red, with white spots; calved June 12th, 1857; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Fredericton, N. B.; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Duncan, out of an Ayrshire Cow, imported by Robert Gray, 2d Sire, Jock the Laird 4th, out of Helen, imported by Robert Gray, 3d Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, imported by Robert Gray, 1849, Dam, Mary, imported by Robert Gray, 1849. =140 May Flower,= Light red and white; calved May 1st, 1861; bred by THOMAS E. HATCH, Keene, N. H.; owned by WILLIAM BALL, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Argyle, 6, Dam, Fanny, 70. =141 May Flower,= White and brown; calved 1854; bred by GEORGE M. BARRETT, Concord, Mass.; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, a Bull, imported by Peter Lawson, Dracut, Mass., Dam, bred by G. M. Barrett, from stock imported by Mr. Lawson. =142 May Queen,= Spotted light red and white; calved April 9th, 1861; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Bonnie Scot, imported by Thomas Dods, Montreal, C. E., Dam, Bell of Scotland, 15. =143 Merryton 3d,= Dark red and white; calved January 30th, 1860; bred by LAWRENCE DREW, Merryton, Scotland; owned and imported by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Cardigan, Dam, Young Merryton 2d, 217. =144 Merryton 4th,= Dark red, white spot on hip; calved May 20th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Oswald, 51, Dam, Merryton 3d, 143. =145 Miller 2d,= Red and white; calved April 2d, 1859; bred by JOHN KILGOUR, near Ayr, Scotland; owned and imported by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Sir Colin, 2d Sire, Jock, bred by James Craig, Polquheys, Dam, Miss Miller, 151, 2d Dam, Martha, bred by Mr. Kilgour, 3d Dam, Bella, bred by Mr. Kilgour, 4th Dam, Captain, bred by Capt. Martin. =146 Milly,= White, with red neck and head; calved April 7th, 1862; bred and owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Flora, 76. =147 Minna,= Red and white; calved in 1857; bred by JAMES PEATE, Lanarkshire, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire and Dam bred by James Peate. =148 Minna 2d,= Dark red and white; calved August 20th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Minna, 147. =149 Miss Drew,= Red and white spotted; calved in 1857; bred by LAWRENCE DREW, of Merryton, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Sandy, bred by Lawrence Drew, Dam, a Cow bred by Lawrence Drew. =150 Miss Drew 2d,= Red and white spotted; calved July 5th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; Sire, Ayrshire Lad, 7, Dam, Miss Drew, 149. =151 Miss Miller,= White, with dark red spots; calved March 18th, 1856; bred by JOHN KILGOUR, Noltmire, Scotland; imported in 1858, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Jock, bred by James Craig, Dam, Martha, bred by James Craig, 2d Dam, Bella, bred by James Craig, 3d Dam, Captain, bred by Capt. Martin. =152 Miss Betty,= Dark red and white, dark about the face; calved April 20th, 1856; bred by JOHN KILGOUR, Noltmire, Scotland; imported in 1858, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Jock, bred by James Craig, Dam, Cherry, bred by Mr. Kilgour, 2d Dam, Martha, bred by Mr. Kilgour, 3d Dam, Bella, bred by Mr. Kilgour. =153 Miss Morton,= Red and white, dark about the face; calved in 1855; bred by JAMES MORTON, Tarbolton, Scotland; imported in 1858, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Young Geordie, Dam, Brawney. =154 Miss Morton 2d,= Red and white in bands; calved May 7th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, 2d Sire, Cardigan, Dam, Miss Morton, 153, 2d Dam, Brawney. =155 Miss Anderson,= White and brownish red; calved 1856; bred by ALEXANDER BRUCE, Shawe, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858, owned by GEORGE G. SMITH, Marblehead, Mass. =156 Mistress 2d,= Brown and white; calved in 1858; bred by IVIE CAMPBELL, Dalgig, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Clarendon, 2d Sire, Major, 3d Sire, a Bull, purchased of Mr. Young, Kilmaurs Mains, Dam, Mistress, 2d Dam, Madam, 3d Dam, a Cow bought of Mr. Wilson, Bargower. =157 Mistress 3d,= Dark about the head, brown with much white about the body; calved March 27th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Mistress 2d, 156. =158 Mountain Maid,= Red and white; calved 1857; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, an Ayrshire Bull, imported by Thomas Daws & Son, 1855, Dam, a thorough-bred Ayrshire Cow, owned by Thomas Daws & Son. =159 Mysie,= Red, with a few small white spots; calved April 19th, 1862; bred by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.; owned by WILLIAM BALL, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Frolic, 82. =160 Myrtle,= Red and white; calved April 9th, 1861; owned by BYRON LOOMIS, Suffield, Conn.; bred by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Jessie, 111. =161 Nannie,= Light red and white; calved 1857; bred by ALEX. STRUTHERS, near Hamilton, Scotland; imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Mr. L. Drew's Sandy 2d, Dam, descended in part from L. Drew's stock. =162 Nannie Nye,= Red and white; calved July 20th, 1856; bred and owned by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.: Sire, Jersey Blue out of Marion, imported by E. Nye, 2d Sire, Juniper, imported by E. Nye, Dam, Jenny Lind, 101. =163 Nannie,= Red and white; calved December 12th, 1861; bred and owned by H. S. COLLINS, Collinsville, Conn: Sire, Norribo, 50, Dam, Effie, 62. =164 Nannie 2d,= Yellow with a few white spots; calved July 25th, 1860; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; owned by FREDERIC L. AMES, North Easton, Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Nannie, 161. =165 Nellie,= Dark red and white; calved March 15th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Miss Morton, 153. =166 Nelly,= Dark red with white spots; calved April 16th, 1862; bred and owned by N. DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Maine: Sire, Geordie, 23, Dam, May, 139. =167 Panzy,= Brownish red with a little white; calved 1857; bred by JOHN PARKER, Nether Broomlands, Scotland, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by T. W. PIERCE, Boston, Mass.: Sire, bred by John Parker, also, Sire of Cardigan, Dam, bred by John Parker. =168 Peerless,= White with red spots; calved November, 1858; bred and owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris Co., N. J.: Sire, Malcolm out of Beith, imported by William Watson, N. Y., 2d Sire, Oswald imported by William Watson, Dam, Jessie 1st, 105. =169 Peggy,= Dark red and white; calved July 7th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Maggie, 132. =170 Pet,= Red and white; calved April 30th, 1860; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by H. S. COLLINS, Collinsville, Conn.: Sire, an Ayrshire Bull, imported by the Montreal Agricultural Society, Dam, Effie, 62. =171 Phoebe,= Red and white, mixed; calved February 11th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Mistress 2d, 156. =172 Phillis,= White, with red spots; calved April 20th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Rosa, 184. =173 Pink,= Dark red, with little white; calved in 1857; bred by ALEXANDER OSWALD, near Ayr, from stock in possession of the Oswald family for many years, derived from the Duke of Portland, crossed on the side of the sire of this heifer with the stock of John Parker, Nether Broomlands, Irvine; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. =174 Pink 2d,= Dark red and white; calved December 22d, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Pink, 173. =175 Pink,= Brownish red; calved April 10th, 1858; bred and owned by GEO. B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, a Bull, bred by G. W. Lyman, Waltham, Mass., 2d Sire, Zach. Taylor, bred by Mr. Lyman, 3d Sire, Prince Albert, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Lady Newell, bred from stock imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1846. =176 Pink,= Red and white; calved March 21st, 1862; bred by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.; owned by H. N. THURBER, Pomfret, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Rose of Brownhill, 190. =178 Polly,= White and red; calved October 5th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Nannie, 161. =179 Posy,= Brownish red and white; calved April 10th, 1858; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, a Bull, bred by G. W. Lyman, Waltham, Mass., 2d Sire, Zach. Taylor, bred by Mr. Lyman, 3d Sire, Prince Albert, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Lady Newell, bred from stock imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =180 Posy 2d,= Brownish red; calved August 10th, 1861; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Posy, 179. =181 Queen 2d,= Red and white; calved 1855; bred by IVIE CAMPBELL, Dalgig, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Jock of Hazeldean, 2d Sire, Geordie 3d, 3d Sire, Geordie 2d, 4th Sire, Old Geordie, Dam, Old Queen, 2d Dam, Blackie, 3d Dam, a Cow purchased by Lord Glasgow in 1837. =182 Queen 3d,= Dark red and white; calved 1858; bred by IVIE CAMPBELL, Dalgig, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Clarendon, 2d Sire, Major, 3d Sire, a Bull, purchased of Mr. Young, Kilmaurs Mains, Scotland, Dam, Queen 2d, 181. =183 Queen 4th,= Dark brown, with little white; calved March 26th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Queen 3d, 182. =184 Rosa,= Light red and white; calved in 1856; bred by HUGH ARCHIBALD, near Dalry, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. =185 Rosa 2d,= Red and white, white face; calved July 4th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Ayrshire Lad, 7, Dam, Rosa, 184. =186 Rosa,= Red and white; calved spring of 1858; bred by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Baldie, imported by James Logan, Dam, a thorough-bred Ayrshire Cow, owned by James Logan. =187 Rosa,= Light red and white; calved 1856; bred by JOHN LAMBIE, near Tarbolton, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Alexander, bred by Hugh Lambie, Dam, Jean, bred by Hugh Lambie. =188 Rosa 2d,= Light red, with a little white; calved November 30th, 1861; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Rosa, 187. =189 Rosemount,= Red and white; calved February 28th, 1860; bred by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.; owned by BYRON LOOMIS, Suffield, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Jessie, 111. =190 Rose of Brown Hill,= Red and white; calved May, 1856; bred by JOHN MEIKLE, Brown Hill Farm, Tarbolton, Ayrshire; imported in 1858, and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire bred by John Bill, Enterkine, Ayrshire, Dam, bred by James Drennan, Annebank House, Ayrshire. =191 Rose,= Light red and white; calved April 4th, 1860; bred by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.; owned by H. O. CHAPIN, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Rob Roy, 58, Dam, Beauty, 8. =192 Rose,= Red, with large patches of white; calved March 3d, 1859; bred by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.; owned by WM. BALL, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Scotland, imported by E. Nye, from Duke of Portland's estate, Ayrshire, Dam, Little Dorrit, 131. =193 Ruth,= Light red and white; calved in 1858; bred by JOHN KILGOUR, near Ayr; imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, a bull bred by James Craig, Polquheys, Dam, Cherry, 2d Dam, Martha, 3d Dam, Bella, bred by Mr. Kilgour. =194 Ruth 2d,= White, with red spots; calved August 10th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Ruth, 193. =195 Ruth,= Light brown, with a little white; calved 1857; bred by JAMES MEIKLE, Cloxton, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Cardigan, Dam, bred by Mr. Campbell, Dalgig, Scotland. =196 Sonsie,= Dark red, with little white; calved June 15th, 1861; bred by T. M. HAYES, Saco, Me.; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, an Ayrshire Bull, bred by Robert Gray, Fredericton, N. B., 2d Sire, Duncan, out of an Ayrshire Cow, imported by Robert Gray, 3d Sire, Jock the Laird 4th, out of Helen, imported by Robert Gray, 4th Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, bred and imported by Robert Gray, Dam, Bessie, by Duncan, 2d Dam, Jean, 94. =197 Snow Flake,= Red and white; calved spring of 1859; bred by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Sir Colin, 61, Dam, imported by James Logan, 1857. =198 Spot,= White, with numerous brown spots; calved April 17th, 1858; bred and owned by JOSEPH S. CABOT, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Bull, bred by W. S. Lincoln, from stock imported by Capt. Randall, New Bedford, Dam, an Ayrshire Cow, owned by G. M. Barrett, Concord, Mass. =199 Star,= Brownish red and white; calved 1856; bred by GEORGE RICHMOND, near Dalrymple, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Geordie, 2d Sire, Kilmaurs, Dam, Sister to Young Crummey. =200 Stately,= White and dark red; calved April 20th, 1854; bred by JAMES YOUNG, Kilbride, Stewarton, Ayrshire; imported and owned by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.: Sire, Geordie, bred by Alexander Wilson, Forehouse, Kilbrachan, Scotland, Dam, Old Stately, bred by James Young, Kilbride, Stewarton, Ayrshire. =201 Strawberry,= Brown and white; calved 1856; bred by C. A. STETSON, Swampscot, Mass.; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Strawberry, imported by C. A. Stetson. =202 Strawberry 2d,= Brown and white; calved June 16th, 1860; bred by C. A. STETSON, Swampscot, Mass.; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, a Bull, out of Strawberry, (imported by C. A. Stetson,) by Essex, 22, Dam, Strawberry, 201. =203 Strawberry,= Red and white; calved May 14th, 1862; bred and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Bella, 13. =204 Susan,= Light yellow and white; calved 1856; bred by JAMES CRAIG, Polquhey's, Scotland; imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. =205 Susan 2d,= White and red; calved April 2d, 1860; bred by JAMES CRAIG, Polquheys, Scotland; owned and imported by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Clarendon, 2d Sire, Major, 3d Sire, a bull Mr. Parker purchased from Mr. Young, Kilmaurs Mains, Dam, Susan, 204. =206 Susan 3d,= Dark red and white; calved January 21st, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Susan 2d, 205. =207 Sylvia,= Red and white; calved September 18th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Susan, 204. =208 Topsy,= Red and white; calved June 1st, 1861; bred and owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Bonny Scot, 2d Sire, Sir Colin, 67, Dam, Jessie, 106. =209 Tulip,= Bright red and white; calved July 3d, 1857; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Oswald. 51, Dam, Tulip, imported by Luke Sweetser, 1855. =210 Tulip 2d,= Red and white; calved September 1st, 1859; bred by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.; owned by M. S. KELLOGG, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Rob Roy, 58, Dam, Tulip 1st, 2d Dam, Tulip, 209. =211 Tulip 3d,= Dun and white; calved September 18th, 1860; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire Rob Roy, 58, Dam, Tulip, 209. =212 Violet,= Red and white; calved May 20th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Duchess 2d, 57. =213 Violet,= Red and white; calved May 28th, 1862; bred and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Lily of Smithfield, 130. =214 White Cherry,= Light red and white; calved May 8th, 1855; bred by JAMES YOUNG, Kilbride, Stewarton, Ayrshire, imported by James Logan, Montreal, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Geordie bred by Alex. Wilson, Forehouse, Kilbracham, Scotland. =215 Winnie,= Red and white; calved February 27th, 1862; bred and owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Douglass, 19, Dam, Rosa, 186. =216 Young Bessie,= Red and white; calved November 22d, 1861; bred and owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris Co., N. J.: Sire, White Lily's Kelburn out of White Lily, imported by James Brodie, 2d Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Dam, Bessie, 19. =217 Young Merryton 2d,= Dark red with little white; calved 1856; bred by LAWRENCE DREW, Merryton, Scotland; imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. AMERICAN DEVON HERD BOOK, PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE ASSOCIATION OF BREEDERS OF Thorough-Bred Neat Stock. ARRANGED BY HORACE MILLS SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Hampden Co., Mass. VOLUME I. HARTFORD: PRESS OF WILLIAMS, WILEY & WATERMAN. 1863. NOTICE. OWING to circumstances beyond the control of the Committee of Publication, or of the Committees on the Pedigrees of the various classes of stock, it has been impossible to publish the first volume of the Herd Record of the Association of Breeders of Thorough-bred Neat Stock at an earlier day. The desire to obtain as large a representation of stock as possible, and to extend the advantages of the Association as widely among breeders as they could, has induced the committees on the various classes of stock to hold open their books and the delays incident upon tracing doubtful pedigrees, through in many instances a long correspondence with owners and breeders, have prevented them from furnishing the copy to the Publication Committee, in season to have the work finished sooner. Every care has been taken to have the records perfect, and to admit no pedigrees of doubtful character. It is believed this has been successfully accomplished, and that the animals here recorded may be relied upon as of undoubted purity of blood. H. A. DYER, } _Committee_ S. I. BARTLETT, } _of Publication._ INDEX. ALLEN, JOHN, Coldwater, Mich., 14 Pedigrees. BULLS--Shakspeare 110. COWS--Beauty 16, Cleopatra 64, Dairymaid 71, Duchess 83, Fancy 106, Flora 119, Jenny Lind 167, Julia 175, Lily 2d 208, Lucy 218, Mayflower 230, Sophia 323, Young Fairy 349. ANDREWS, B. H., Waterbury, Conn., 13 Pedigrees. BULLS--Barton 8, Brandywine 17, George Turner 44, Reuben 106, Tiger 122. COWS--Beauty 2d 20, Capitola 55, Chloe 62, Gipsy 3d 138, Lady 188, Lady 2d 189, Rosa 307, Topsy 332. AUGUR, P. M., Middletown, Conn., 8 Pedigrees. BULLS--Prince Albert 88. COWS--Beauty 18, Beauty 2d 10, Fanny 109, Flora 117, Jessie Davy 2d 173, Mary Hurlbut 235 (1394), Mary Hurlbut 2d 236. BAKER, TRUMAN, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. 13 Pedigrees. BULLS--Bishop 11. COWS--Blossom 46, Cherry 59, Curly 68, Daisy 72, Edith 84, Extra 93, Fairy 94, Flora 118, Nancy Dawson 257, Rosa 308, Rosa Belle 311, Tiptoe 331. BALLARD, M. M. & O. W., Niles, Mich., 10 Pedigrees. BULLS--Oneida 82, Oxford 85, Sultan 116, Victor 138, Wolverine 143, Wyoming 144. COWS--Fancy 102, Jessie 169, Red Lady 2d 303, Red Lady 3d 304. BASSENGER, J. B., Denville, N. J., 2 Pedigrees. BULLS--Bangor 7. COWS--Dolly Dutton 78. BENT, C. D., Iowa City, Iowa, 6 Pedigrees. BULLS--Monitor 69. COWS--Flora 2d 120, Flora 3d 121, Flora 4th 122, Flora 5th 123, Iowa Belle 160. BIDERMAN, ANTHONY, Wilmington, Del., 5 Pedigrees. BULLS--Carroll Eclipse 18, Hector 46. COWS--Cowslip 67, Hyacinth 152, Lilac 202. BIDWELL, THOMAS, Wentworth, Lake County, Ills., 3 Pedigrees. BULLS--Prince of Wales 92. COWS--Grace 139, May Queen 3d 232. BILL, JAMES A., Lyme, Conn., 12 Pedigrees. BULLS--Bobolink 12, Nero 78. COWS--Beauty 17, Bessy 41, Hetty 149, Ida May 158, Jennie 163, Kate 180, Lily 203, Nina 269, Phebe 287, Rose 312. BLAKESLEE, J. N., Watertown, Conn., 1 Pedigree. COWS--Victoria 342. BLISS, ELAM C., Westfield, Chautauqua County, N. Y., 13 Pedigrees. BULLS--Bonaparte 13, Boney Pate 14, Boxer 16, Curly 29. COWS--Beauty A 21, Beauty B 22, Beauty C 23, Beauty 5th 24, Betsy 43, Clio 65, Imogene 159, Pauline 279, Pauline 2d 280. BUCKINGHAM, JAMES, Duncans Falls, Ohio, 11 Pedigrees. BULLS--Cute 30, General 40, Muskingum 73, Rebellion 97. COWS--Emily Sibley 88, Julia 176, Lady Day 193, Lizzie B 211, Meme 239, Pearlette 282, Twinkle 338. CAPRON, HORACE, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills., 21 Pedigrees. BULLS--Glaucus 45, Sumter 119, Yorktown 145. COWS--Adeline 2, Blanche 44, Bloom 45, Brenda 50, Corinne 66, Florence 127, Gem 133, Grace 140, Heroine 151, Jessica 168, Josephine 2d 174, Norma 273, Octavia 275, Pauline 281, Princess 296, Queen of Oaks 298, Robin 306, Stella 326. CATLIN, ABIJAH, Harwinton, Conn., 6 Pedigrees. BULLS--Sam 108. COWS--Jessie 170, Julia 177, Lola 213, Mary 2d 234, Pedley 283. COLLINS, LEWIS G., Linden, Montgomery County, Ind., 30 Pedigrees. BULLS--Bounty 15, Crusader 28, Frank Quartly 39, New Year's Day 80, Priam 87, Printer 95, Red Jacket 98, Triumph 129. COWS--Active 1, Alice 5, Antic 7, Blossom 47, Buttercup 54, Daisy 73, Daisy 2d 74, Daisy 3d 75, Fancy 103, Helen 145, Hollyhock 154, Kitty 186, Laura 199, Lily 204, Peony 284, Pink 289, Primrose 295, Rose 313, Snowdrop 321, Sprightly 325, Sukey 328, Venus 339. CORNELL, EZRA, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y., 5 Pedigrees. COWS--Baltimore 8th 13, Baltimore 9th 14, Beaver 37, Helena 16th 148, Yuba 3d 350. CORP, JOHN, Freetown, Cortland County, N. Y., 6 Pedigrees. BULLS--Fancy's Valiant 35, Montezuma 71, Veruna 136. COWS--Nineveh 270, Nonsense 271, Norah Vane 272. CUSHING, CHARLES W., South Hingham, Mass., 6 Pedigrees. BULLS--Independence 48, Mayboy 62. COWS--Annie 6, Florence 128, Minnie 250, Sontag 322. DYER, HENRY A., Brooklyn, Conn., 1 Pedigree. BULLS--Lavega 56. FLAGG, W. C., Moro, Madison County, Ills., 4 Pedigrees. BULLS--Red Jacket 99, Red Path 101. COWS--Breda 49, Norna 274. GARDNER, J. H., Centerville, St. Joseph County, Mich., 11 Pedigrees. BULLS--Baltimore 4, Beck 9, St. Jo 107. COWS--Bessy 42, Cherry 2d 61, Ellen 2d 87, Fanny 110, Flora 124, Lady 190, Lily 205, Nelly 261. GLEASON, ROLLIN, Benson, Vt., 4 Pedigrees. BULLS--Duke 33, Meriden 67, Victor 137. COWS--Cherry 60. GOLD, T. S., West Cornwall, Conn., 3 Pedigrees. BULLS--General Scott 42. COWS--Fairy 6th 96, Nelly Bly 266. GORTON, WILLIAM, JR., Waterford, Conn., 4 Pedigrees. COWS--La Belle 187, Lily 206, Silver Medal 320, Waterbury Beauty 347. GRIFFIN, M. H., Middletown, Conn., 7 Pedigrees. BULLS--General Mansfield 41, Matchless 61. COWS--Bridget 51, Long Horn Fancy 214, Minerva 2d 241, Rosa 309, Venus 340. GRISWOLD, STANLEY, Torringford, Conn., 20 Pedigrees. BULLS--Monitor 70, Watch 2d 140, Weehawken 141. COWS--Agnes 4, Belle 38, Blossom 48, Dot 79, Dot 2d 80, Fancy 104, Hetty 2d 150, Ida 155, Jenny 165, Jessie 171, May 1st 227, May 2d 228, Nellie 259, Pink 290, Rose 316, Topsy 333, Victoria 2d 343. HEALY, WALDO M., Dudley, Mass., 4 Pedigrees. BULLS--Turk 133. COWS--Fie 115, Julia 178, Juliet 179. HENDERSON, W. W., Bridgeton, St. Louis County, Mo., 1 Pedigree. COWS--Lily 207. HOLCOMB, B. L., Devon Dale, near Newcastle, Del., 1 Pedigree. BULLS--General Taylor 43. HOTCHKISS, HENRY, Smithville, Chenango County, N. Y., 1 Pedigree. BULLS--Baltimore 3. HURLBUT, S. & L., Winchester, Conn., 44 Pedigrees. BULLS--John 50, McClellan 64, Ned 74, Nelson 75, Sam 2d 109, Young Exeter 148, Young Tecumseh 151. COWS--Beck 2d 15, Bessie 40, Daisy 76, Darling 77, Ella 86, Fancy 2d 107, Fancy 5th 108, Flora 2d 126, Fruitful 130, Gipsy 137, Gipsy 2d 136, Grace 141, Hattie 143, Hattie 2d 144, Jane 162, Kate 183, Lib 200, Lizzie 210, Lophorn 215, Lottie 216, Lovely 217, Lulu 221, Maud 238, May 226, May Queen 2d 231, Minnie 252, Nannie 258, Nettie 268, Pansy 276, Pink 291, Rose 315, Spot 324, Strawberry 327, Susan 329, Tilly 330, Topsy 1st 335, Topsy 2d 336. HURST, WILLIAM, Albany, N. Y., 1 Pedigree. BULLS--Empire 2d 34. HYDE, E. H., Stafford, Conn., 52 Pedigrees. BULLS--Abe Lincoln 2, Ben Butler 10, Connewango 25, Kossuth 53, Kossuth 2d 54, Kossuth 3d 55, Megunticook 65, Nero 79, Owasco 84, Prince John 3d 91, Roscius 104, Stafford 114, Stafford 2d 115, Young Comet 141, Ypsilanti 152. COWS--Beauty 25, Beauty 2d 26, Beauty 3d 27, Beauty 4th 28, Beauty 6th 29, Belle 39, Chance 57, Chance 2d 58, Eva 90, Fairy 4th 99, Fairy 5th 100, Fairy 9th 101, Fancy 105, Gem 134, Gem 2d 135, Jane 161, Kate 181, Lady Dodge 192, Lady Jane 195, Lizzie 212, Lulu 222, Majestic 224, Majestic 2d 225, Minnehaha 3d 242, Minnie 251, Moss Rose 255, Myrtle 256, Nellie 260, Nelly Bly 264, Nelly Bly 265, Nelly Bly 4th 267, Pansy 277, Princess Royal 2d 297, Red Lady 302, Red Rose 305, Venus 341, Young Fancy 349. JOHNSON, JOHN J, North Pitcher, Chenango County, N. Y., 4 Pedigrees. BULLS--Frank Baker 38. COWS--Jenny 166, Lida 201, Lily 3d 209. KNOWLTON, H. W., Freeport, Ills., 3 Pedigrees. BULLS--Baltimore 2d 5, Baltimore 3d 6. COWS--Polly 293. LAMBARD, ALLEN, Augusta, Maine, 17 Pedigrees. BULLS--Franklin 37, Kennebec 51, Kentucky 52, Penobscot 86, Rob Roy 102, Roderick Dhu 103, Somerset 113, Waldo 139. COWS--Baltimore 3d 11, Baltimore 4th 12, Helena 3d 146, Helena 4th 147, Jessie 172, Nelly 162, Nelly 2d 163, Rebe 300, Rebe 2d 301. LINSLEY, R., West Meriden, Conn., 5 Pedigrees. BULLS--Comet 22, Hiawatha 47, Prince John 90. COWS--Fairy 97, Minnehaha 243. LOCKWOOD, GEORGE B., Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y., 18 Pedigrees. BULLS--Czar 31, Dan 32, Logan 58, Mars 60, Mayboy 63, Neptune 77, Uncas 135. COWS--Aunt Chloe 9, Cassy 56, Clara 63, Effie 85, Emma 89, Maud 237, Mina 240, Patsy 278, Pocahontas 2d 292, Ruby 318, Topsy 334. LOGAN, S. S., Washington, Conn., 14 Pedigrees. BULLS--Charter Oak 19, Clement 21, Crittenden 27, Nelson 76, Young Albert 146, Young Herod 149, Young Roscius 150. COWS--Beauty 30, Beauty 2d 31, Hattie 142, Kate 184, Kate 2d 185, Victoria 3d 345, Victoria 4th 346. MERRICK, A. N., Brimfield, Mass., 2 Pedigrees. BULLS--Sigel 111. COWS--Fairy 3d 98. MERRICK, D. B., Wilbraham, Mass., 5 Pedigrees. BULLS--Red Jacket 100. COWS--Beauty 32, Beauty 1st 33, Beauty 2d 34, Beauty 3d 35. MUNSON, JOSEPH M., Watertown, Conn., 6 Pedigrees. BULLS--Jerry 49, Orphan Boy 83. COWS--Adelaide 3, Curl 3d 70, Kate 182, Rose 314. NORTH, A. W., East Maine, Broome County, N. Y., 1 Pedigree. BULLS--Messenger 68. ROOT, SILAS, Westfield, Mass., 2 Pedigrees. COWS--Pet 4th 285, Pet 5th 286. SESSIONS, HORACE MILLS, South Wilbraham, Mass., 12 Pedigrees. BULLS--Abe 1, Commodore 24, Major 59, Meriden 66, Reubens 2d 105. COWS--May Beauty 229, Minneola 244, Minnie 1st 245, Minnie 2d 246, Minnie 3d 247, Minnie 4th 248, Wynona 348. STEINMETZ, DANIEL, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa., 13 Pedigrees. BULLS--Lion 57, Musician 72, Norfolk 81, Prince of Wales 93, William Tell 142. COWS--Curly 69, Fairy 95, Flora 125, Flotilla 129, Phlox 288, Pretty 294, Queen Victoria 299, Tracy 337. TILLOTSON, HEZEKIAH, Farmington, Conn., 6 Pedigrees. BULLS--Comet 23. COWS--Arabella 8, Aurora 10, Beauty 8th 36, Rosette 317, Ruby 319. TOMS, SAMUEL, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio, 7 Pedigrees. BULLS--Chipaway 20, Prince of Wales 94, Prince Albert 89. COWS--Ida 2d 156, Ida 4th 157, Lady Gapper 2d 194, Victoria 3d 344. VAN RENSSELAER, R. H., Morris, Otsego County, N. Y., 21 Pedigrees. BULLS--Taurus 120, Thunderer 121, Tiger 123, Tinsel 124, Tippo 125, Tom Thumb 126, Tornado 127, Trinket 128, Trump 130, Turk 131, Tuscarora 134. COWS--Fanny 112, Fanny 2d 113, Flame 116, Funny 131, Ladybird 2d 191, Lady Slipper 196, Lalla Rookh 197, Lantern 198, Lucy 219, Lucy 2d 220. WENTWORTH, JOHN, Chicago, Ills., 13 Pedigrees. BULLS--Putnam 96, Sir Charles 112, Summit Prince 117, Sumter 118, Turk 132. COWS--Fantine 114, Gazelle 132, Jennie 164, Minnie 249, Miss Gay 253, Model 254, Rosa 310. WILLIAMS, LEVI, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y., 7 Pedigrees. BULLS--Forest City 36. COWS--Broad Horned Beauty 2d 52, Broad Horned Beauty 3d 53, Dover 81, Dover 2d 82, Excelsior 2d 91, Excelsior 3d 92. WILSON, R. H., Cambridge, Ohio, 2 Pedigrees. BULLS--Consul 26. COWS--Maggie 223. HISTORY OF THE DEVONS. _Ancient Races._ IN preparing the following article, we have consulted the principal Agricultural Reports and Journals of this country, and Youatt, and Martin, and Low's histories of British Cattle; we are also indebted to many of our importers and breeders, who have furnished statements in regard to their respective herds. That the Devons are an ancient race of cattle, there can be no doubt. There is no race in England that can claim such undisputed antiquity. They bear all the characteristic marks of resemblance of the ancient races of the south of England and Wales; even the color, red, is traced in the Devon, Sussex and Hereford. The distinction between a "breed" and "race," Goodale defines as follows: "By breeds are understood such varieties as were originally produced by a cross or mixture, and subsequently established by selecting for breeding purposes only the best specimens, and rejecting all others. In process of time deviations become less frequent, and greater uniformity is secured, and this is in proportion to the time which elapses and the skill employed in selecting. Races are varieties moulded to their peculiar type by _natural_ causes, with no interference of man, and no intermixture of other varieties; that have continued substantially the same, for a period beyond which the memory and knowledge of man does not reach. Such are the North Devon Cattle." There seems to have been three distinct races of these ancient cattle: the Long Horns, the Middle Horns, and Hornless, or Polled Cattle. The Middle Horns represented the cattle of the region of Devonshire. These races of cattle were bred by the Ancient Celtic inhabitants, and constituted their chief subsistence. Youatt says: "the native inhabitants were proud of their country, and prouder of their cattle, their choicest possession." When their country was invaded by their enemies, they fled to the mountains for safety and protection, and took with them their cattle upon which to subsist, and thus were preserved both themselves and their cattle, so that the races of cattle in these districts have been the same from time immemorial. In a few instances the wild forest cattle have been kept distinct, in a wild state, to this day; as in the parks of Chillingham and Chartley; and are said to be similar to those that existed in the tenth century; and also bear a strong resemblance to the present domestic breeds of that region. The cattle in these parks are white, with red ears. _Color._ Black or white were the principal colors, though where these were found the memory of the red prevails. "It seems the people had a superstitious reverence attached to it, (in Scotland and Wales), in the tradition of the country; the milk of the red cow was considered a remedy for every disease, and a preservative from every evil." The breeders of the improved Devons adhere scrupulously to the deep red color of the hair, and reject individuals that have a tendency to produce white. And it seems that in this way, if no other, the color of the Devons has been established and perpetuated. The deep red color of the pure bred Devon is implanted so strongly, that there is no race in which an admixture of foreign blood is so easily traced; nor is there a race that has remained so free from foreign intermixture. Their color is generally stamped on the progeny, in a cross with any other breed. _English Improved Devons._ The improvement of these ancient races of cattle, which has resulted in the present perfected breed, was commenced about one hundred and fifty years ago. John Tanner Davy, of Rose Ash, England, the Editor of the English Devon Herd Book, inherited the herd of his father, who had carefully bred the Devons for fifty years. Mr. Francis Quartly, whose engraving adorns the first volume of Davy's Devon Herd Book, endeavored by a long course of selection, and by an intimate knowledge of the principles of breeding, to combine the various elements in the different herds, so as to attain the great object of the Devon breeder, the lessening of the parts of the animal frame least useful to man, as the bone and offal, and at the same time the increase of such other parts, as fat and flesh, that furnish food, and to do this at the earliest possible age, and with the least consumption of food. That Mr. Quartly succeeded in fully establishing these characteristics of the breed, we need no better evidence than that nine-tenths of the pedigrees of the present herds in Davy's Herd Book, go directly back to the old Quartly stock; twenty-seven out of twenty-nine of the prize bulls mentioned in that work are descendants from the bull Forester, (46): and twenty-nine out of thirty-four prize cows mentioned there, descended from the cow Curly, (92). Hundred Guinea (56), another noted ancestor of the Quartly tribe, stands in the pedigrees of this breed, as Hubback among the short horns. Among others who have done much to improve their herds, and bring the breed to its present state of perfection, may be mentioned, the Earl of Leicester, James Davy, Mr. Richard Merson, James and John Quartly who also inherited the herds of their fathers, and continued their well begun improvement. Mr. George Turner, of Barton, whose herd was made up from the other breeders, Mr. Samuel Farthing, of Somerset, Mr. John Halse, of Moland, Mr. Wm. Hole, of Somerset, Mr. T. B. Morle, of Cummington, Mr. George Shapland, of Oakford, and Mr. John Ayre Thomas, of Rose Ash, Devon, with many others have caught the spirit of improvement, and continued to progress towards perfection. _Qualities._ Mr. Bloomfield, the manager of the late Earl of Leicester's estate, at Holkam Hall, Norfolk, England, has, by careful attention, greatly improved the size and quality of the Devons, and increased their milking properties, so that he obtained a prize for having produced an average annual yield of 200 pounds of butter per cow, in a dairy of twenty cows, or equal to four pounds per week the year round; and he offered to milk forty pure Devons from his own herd against an equal number of cows in any one herd of any breed found in England, without finding a competitor. At the Smithfield show of fat cattle, held at the London market place, in 1858, the gold medal for the best ox or steer of any breed in the show yard was awarded to a Devon, bred and owned by the Earl of Leicester. They are highly esteemed in the Smithfield market, not only for the excellence of the meat, but because its size is more agreeable on most tables than the huge joints of some other breeds. In weight they are much excelled, but the opinion of the Devon breeder is, that more meat can be made from them, with a given amount of food, than from any other breed. The quality of the Devon beef is unsurpassed, even rivalling the little black West Highland ox, in the estimation of the London west-end butcher, whose fastidious customers oblige him to kill none but beef of the finest quality and flavor. In the New York market the "red oxen of Connecticut" most generally bring the highest price, they being Devon Grades. The Devons have the preference of all other breeds for the yoke, being strong, active, and of great endurance; and are remarkable for docility and good temper. The cattle in many sections of New England resemble the Devons in many respects, and the fact that most of the early settlers were from the south of England, renders it quite probable that they selected their cattle from that region. The first account that we have of the importation of cattle into New England was in the ship Charity, in the spring of 1623, in the care of Mr Winslow, then agent of the colony of Plymouth. Their descendants show by their color that they were Devons, or Devon grades. _American Improved Devons._ The first importation of improved North Devons into this country was in 1817. Mr. Coke, then Earl of Leicester, presented to Mr. Robert Patterson, of Baltimore, Md., six heifers and one bull, Taurus (320). Taurus was bred by Mr. Denny, a tenant of Mr. Coke, then Earl of Leicester, who paid fifty guineas for him. His dam, in 1820, made thirteen pounds of butter per week. Three of these heifers Mr. Patterson gave to his father-in-law, Mr. Richard Caton, the other three he gave to his father, Mr. William Patterson; they were all bred to Taurus. In 1835, Mr. George Patterson came in possession of the herd of his father, Mr. William Patterson, and, in 1836, imported the bull Anchises (140), for a cross, from one of the best dairies in Devonshire; he afterward imported Eclipse (191); in 1846, Herod (214), and in 1852, Norfolk (266). By comparing the records the fact is apparent, that the pedigree of animals dates further back in this country than in England. Thus the bull Taurus (320), was calved in 1816, and imported in 1817, when a yearling, by Mr. Robert Patterson, of Md.; Holkham (215), calved 1819; the cow Fancy (709), calved 1818, and Strawberry 1st (1062), calved 1819. While the oldest record of English pedigrees is the bull Forester (46), calved in 1827, and Hundred Guineas (56), calved in 1837; the cows Flower (187), calved in 1820, Countess (77), in 1828, Curly (92), and Pretty Maid (364), were calved in 1830. Messrs. S. & L. Hurlbut, of Winchester, Conn., commenced their herd in 1819, from a pair procured of Mr. Patterson, Holkham (115), and Fancy (709), with additions from the same source every few years. In 1850 they imported Albert (2), whose progeny has stood high in the country, and received more premiums than the progeny of any other bull lately imported. Beauty (523), bred by Mr. Hurlbut, in 1836, from Fancy (709), and Exchange (197), produced sixteen pounds of butter per week, in June, 1850. Mr. Coleman, says, in his European Agriculture, "the most productive cow in butter, which I have found, was a North Devon, which, for several weeks in succession, without extra feed, produced twenty-one pounds of butter per week. The character of the owner places the fact beyond a doubt." Mr. L. F. Allen, of Black Rock, N. Y., commenced breeding in 1835, from stock obtained from the Hon. James L. King, of New York, whose father imported them about the year 1819, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester; in 1842 he added to his herd from Mr. Patterson's stock. In 1844 the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture imported four cows and one bull, Bloomfield (372), from the Earl of Leicester. They were boarded and bred for the Society on the farm of Elias Phiney, of Lexington, till his death, the object being to present a pair to each of the County Societies in the State. In 1848, Mr. C. S. Wainwright, of Rhinebeck, N. Y., commenced importing and breeding his herd; his first importation was the bull Megunticook (251), and the cows Nonpareil (924), and Helena (774); Helena gave as high as twenty-two quarts of milk per day, and made fifteen pounds of butter per week. In 1851 he imported May Boy (71), whose granddam, Old May Flower, made over seventeen pounds of butter per week. In 1853, Mr. George Vail, of Troy, N. Y., imported one bull and two heifers from the herds of Mr. Davy and the Earl of Leicester. In 1850 and '52, Col. L. G. Morris, of New York, imported animals from the herds of the Earl of Leicester, the Messrs. Quartly and John Ayer Thomas. Abijah Catlin, of Conn., imported in 1851, Rubens (116), and two heifers. Many others have imported animals equally meritorious, among whom may be mentioned, Ambrose Stevens, of Batavia, N. Y., E. G. Faile, West Farms, N. Y., R. Linsley, West Meriden, Conn., R. W. Sanford, Orwell, Vt., E. P. Beck, Sheldon, N. Y., and R. H. Van Rensselaer, of Morris, N. Y. Importations have occurred almost annually up to the present year. These importations, with many others not mentioned, are sufficient to form the basis of a superior race of Devons in America, not excelled by those in any other country. _Devon Herd Book._ The _First Herd Book_ of the Devons was published in 1851, by John Tanner Davy, of Rose Ash, near Southmolton, Devon, England. The pedigrees of 132 bulls and 483 cows, in all 615 animals, were recorded; all bred in England, and contributed by thirty-seven different breeders. The _second volume_, published in 1854, contained the pedigrees of 221 bulls and 657 cows, 837 animals in all; and was edited by Mr. Davy, in England, and Sanford Howard, in America, comprising animals bred and owned in both countries, sixty breeders contributing in England, and eighteen in America. The _third volume_ was published in 1859, on both sides of the Atlantic, by Messrs. Davy and Howard, independent of each other, Mr. Davy's third volume recorded 204 bulls and 609 cows, in all 810 pedigrees, from forty-one different herds in England, and eight in America. Mr. Howard's recorded 258 bulls and 399 cows, in all 657 pedigrees, from eighty-four different herds, and all from America. The whole number recorded to the end of Howard's third volume is 2150 animals, comprising 611 bulls, and 1539 cows. _American Devon Herd Book._ The present work, the first volume of the American Devon Herd Book, published in March, 1863, under the direction of the Association of Breeders of Thorough-Bred Neat Stock, was commenced about two years since. It has progressed amid many discouraging circumstances, to say nothing of the jealousy occasioned by the locality of its origin; and has gradually won upon public confidence till the present time. It has been the design of the Committee on Devon pedigrees to perfect a Devon Herd Book that would meet the wants of all American Breeders of Devon cattle. To accomplish this they have been untiring in their labors, sparing no pains to thoroughly investigate each pedigree; and have decided upon each, according to the facts received from the testimony given. While some have been rejected, others have been deferred till more light can be given to prove their purity of blood, which may be done in season for the second volume. How far the Committee have accomplished their designs the present volume will show for itself. It is a relief, however, to the Committee to know, that the errors which may occur, can be corrected in future volumes, or the present volume can be perfected and republished. It was also designed to make _this_ the first of a series of volumes, to be published once in four years, or as often as the wants of the Devon breeders demand; and that would be worthy of the title of the American Devon Herd Book, and receive the universal patronage of all the Breeders of Devon Stock in America. Considering the state of the country, and that the attention and time of the great mass of the people are engaged in the all-absorbing and dreadful reality, civil war, and that many of our breeders and importers of Devon stock are personally engaged in their country's service, and that all the Southern States of our Union have withdrawn themselves from all connection with the Northern; considering all this, the breeders of Thorough-Bred Devon Stock have contributed for the work far beyond our most sanguine hopes. _Fifteen states_ are represented in this work by _fifty-three_ different breeders, with the pedigrees of 151 bulls and 350 cows, making in all 501 animals which are recorded in this volume, and all owned in America. POINTS OF EXCELLENCE IN A =NORTH DEVON BULL.= Purity of blood indispensable; and traced back satisfactorily to importations of both sire and dam from known English breeders, or as found in the lately established Herd Book for North Devons. Points. ART. 1.--_Head_, should be rather elevated above the line of the back, short, broad and dishing between the eyes, with full, firm frontal bone over them; muzzle fine with nostrils full and open. 4 ART. 2.--_Nose_, of a light delicate orange color. 5 ART. 3.--_Eye_, should be bright, prominent and clear; but gentle in expression, as indicative of that spirited docility so necessary to cattle that must bear the yoke; a beautiful orange colored ring should invariably surround the eye. 4 ART. 4.--_Ear_, thin, rather below medium size; of a rich orange color within, with a quick ready movement expressive of attention. 2 ART. 5.--_Horns_, light, tapering and round; gaily as well as symmetrically placed on the head, with an upward form. 2 ART. 6.--_Neck_, set on fine at the head, gently rising from the shoulder; full and muscular, an indication of strength and constitution; the gullet clean and free from dewlap, full at its junction with the shoulder. 5 ART. 7.--_Chest_, deep and round, carrying its fullness well back of the elbows, thus affording abundant room for the full and free action of the heart and lungs, without extreme width forward, or protuberance of the shoulder points. 12 ART. 8.--_Brisket_, full and oval, setting the arms wide apart at their junction with the body, indicative of a good feeding quality. 4 ART. 9.--_Shoulder_, should take a somewhat sloping position, with its points less projecting, the blade blending with and forming a fine wither rising to a line with the back. 4 ART. 10.--_Crops_, full and even, forming a true line with the shoulder and level back. 3 ART. 11.--_Back_, loin, hips; broad, level and wide, the hip bones prominent but not pointed. 6 ART. 12.--_Rumps_, lying broad apart without slope or drop, full and well covered. 5 ART. 13.--_Twist_, full and broad in its seam, well down between the thighs. 3 ART. 14.--_Quarters_, long, and well filled between the hip bones and the rumps, showing a well turned finish; with a good muscular development extending to the hocks. 6 ART. 15.--_Flanks_, moderately deep, full and mellow according to condition. 3 ART. 16.--_Legs_, of moderate length standing square under the body, with sufficient angle at the gambrel joint to secure strength and activity, the toes pointing straight to the forward feet; the bone fine and flat below the hock, sinews large and clear; the forearm well developed; the bone below the knee quite small, coming nearer together as they approach the ground; hoofs, black and broad. 5 ART. 17.--_Tail_, set on round and full, on a level with the back, without loose, flabby skin underneath; tapering gradually to the end, which is invariably furnished with a tassel of white hair. 2 ART. 18.--_Carcass_ or _Barrel_, round, straight on the back and belly, its posterior ribs extending well back, and springing nearly horizontal with the back bone. Medium size being preferable for stock breeding in the Devon. 3 ART. 19.--_Color_, always red, but admits of different shades, the medium red are considered as combining the largest amount of valuable qualities. The very dark red being less thrifty, and generally hard handlers; while the very light red, with a thin papery skin are less hardy in a cold climate. 1 ART. 20.--_Hair_, should be soft, thick and fine, and not much curly. 2 ART. 21.--_Carriage_, this is an important quality in the Devon, as he is destined for the yoke, as well as for the butcher. He should shew by his sprightly active movements, and graceful gait, that he is fitted for his proper place. 4 ART. 22.--_Quality_, on the thriftiness, the feeding properties, the value of the animal depends: and upon the _touch_ or handling qualities, rests in a great measure the graziers and butchers' judgment. If the handling be good, some deficiency in minor qualities may be excused; but if it be hard and stiff, nothing can compensate for so unpromising a feature. In raising the skin from the body between the thumb and finger, it should present a soft, flexible and substantial feel, and pressed by the out spread hand it should move easily with and under it, as if resting on a soft, elastic, cellular substance, which becomes firmer as the animal ripens. 15 --- Perfection. 100 POINTS OF EXCELLENCE IN A DEVON COW. Purity of blood indispensable. Points. ART. 1.--_Head_, should be lean and bony; forehead wide and somewhat dishing between the eyes; face straight but not long. 2 ART. 2.--_Nose_, of a light orange color; a black or mottled nose should be rejected. 3 ART. 3.--_Eye_, should be bright, prominent and clear, surrounded by a bright orange colored ring. 3 ART. 4.--_Ear_, thin, rather below medium size, orange color within, with a quick movement, expressive of attention. 2 ART. 5.--_Horns_, light, tapering, of a waxy color, somewhat long and spreading gaily towards the tips. 2 ART. 6.--_Neck_, clean in the throat, fine at the junction with the head, and full at the shoulder. 2 ART. 7.--_Chest_, deep and round, carrying its fulness well back of the elbows, thus affording abundant internal room for the action of the heart and lungs. 6 ART. 8.--_Brisket_, full and round, spreading the fore legs well at the junction with the body; not projecting, but forming a regular slant, without dewlap, to the throat. 4 ART. 9.--_Shoulder_, in this breed is a beautiful and important point, and should in a degree approximate to that of the horse; with points less prominent and in a more sloping position than in most other breeds, indicative of activity and good traveling quality. 5 ART. 10.--_Crops_, full and even, forming a line with the shoulder and back, extending well down the shoulder blade so as to prevent a cavity between the shoulder and the barrel. 5 ART. 11.--_Back_, full, loin broad, with the short bones extending full to the hoop ribs; hip bones wide and on a level with the sacrum, and setting on of the tail. 8 ART. 12.--_Rumps_, broad, full, and well covered. 3 ART. 13.--_Escutcheon_, this should be broad, maintaining an even breadth from the udder to the sacrum. 8 ART. 14.--_Quarters_, long, and well filled between the hip bones and the rumps, with a good muscular development at a regular slant to the hocks. 6 A pork ham objectionable. ART. 15.--_Flanks_, moderately deep, full and mellow in proportion to condition. 4 ART. 16.--_Legs_, fore legs of medium length, spread wide at the brisket, straight, with well developed, round, muscular arm, firmly knit at the knee, fine shank bone with large sinews, drawing nearer together as they approach the feet; hind legs with a gradual taper from the patella to the gambrel joint, which should be wide, leg below, fine and flat, with large sinews, forming an angle of thirty-three degrees, and moving in a straight line with the fore legs. 5 Crooked knees or gambrels, causing an outward projection of the feet, deduct 3. ART. 17.--_Tail_, set on full and round, at a level with the back, small in the cord, and finishing with a tassel of white hair. 2 ART. 18.--_Carcass_ or _Barrel_, round and straight, its posterior ribs springing nearly horizontal from the vertebra, with less curve as they approach the posterior plates, with full and well developed anterior plates covering deep the springing rib. 4 ART. 19.--_Color_, always red, but of different shades. A medium red should be preferred; the very dark red coming slower to maturity, their beef of poorer quality, of less weight, and inferior milking qualities; the light red less hardy, but claim earlier maturity and superior beef qualities. Some white about the udder is common to all the various shades, but confined to that part alone. In all cases the color grows lighter about the muzzle, while a color, verging almost to a black and growing yet darker about the head, always was a very objectionable color for the true North Devon, and when accompanied with a dark nose should be rejected. 2 ART. 20.--_--Hair_, should be short, thick, and fine; even throughout the body, and short about the head; a long, coarse foretop, accompanied by harsh, wiry hair elsewhere, objectionable. 2 ART. 21.--_Udder_, should be wide and well spread, projecting well forward and back, wide between the teats but not hanging; with milk veins large and extending well forward. 9 ART. 22.--_Carriage_, the Devons having, from their excellence in the yoke, another destiny besides that of the butcher's block, it is important that the animal's carriage should indicate as much; to obtain this, something of the heavy, inert, squarely moulded frame of the merely beefing animal must be relinquished for a lighter and more active frame. 3 ART. 23.--_Quality_, to combine this with the other highly important and characteristic properties of the Devon, requires no small skill, observation, and care in the breeder. For without this, in the eye of the experienced grazier and butcher, the animal is considered nearly worthless. No beauty of form can compensate for a hard, stiff feature, unyielding to the touch. The skin should have, when pressed between the thumb and finger, a mellow, yet substantial feel, and when beneath the outspread hand it should move easily with it, back and forth, as though resting on a soft, elastic, cellular substance, which becomes firmer as the animal ripens, forming a beautiful marbled beef, which is highly esteemed in the London market. 10 A thin papery skin is objectionable in a cold climate. --- Perfection. 100 The foregoing Scale of Points of Devon Cattle which the Association has adopted, is mainly that published by the New York State Agricultural Society, with such alterations and additions as the Committee deemed proper. The numbers affixed to the points described form the _maximum_ that is allowed for each; and in proportion as the animal under examination is deficient in any point, so must the number be decreased, even should nothing be allowed for that point. Points which are characteristic, and therefore _common to the breed_, though very valuable in themselves, are marked comparatively low, because they are easily obtained, and demand but little attention on the part of the breeder; nevertheless an animal _not_ possessing the characteristics of _the breed_, must of necessity be almost worthless. On the other hand, points of less value, which are characteristic _deficiencies_ in the breed, or at any rate difficult to sustain at their maximum excellence, are marked numerically high, as they go _far_ to complete the natural excellence of the animal. H. M. SESSIONS, SO. WILBRAHAM, Ms., } _Committee_ B. H. ANDREWS, WATERBURY, Conn., } _on Devon_ EPHRAIM H. HYDE, STAFFORD, Conn., } _Pedigrees._ The following _Blank Table_ is for the use of _Judges_ in their examination of _Devon Cattle_, according to the _Scale of Points_ adopted by the _Cattle Breeders' Association_. _No premium_ should be awarded to an animal having less than seventy-five Numbers or approved Points. --------+----------------------------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | Name or Number of Animal. |Comet, 00 | 00 | | | | +----------------------------+ | | | | | | | Maximum | | | | | | | | Number. |Pedigrees.| --> | | | | | +------+------+ | | | | | Article.| Points. |Bulls.| Cows.| | | | | | --------+--------------+------+------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ 1 | Head, | 4 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 2 | Nose, | 5 | 3 | 0 | | | | | 3 | Eye, | 4 | 3 | 0 | | | | | 4 | Ear, | 2 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 5 | Horns, | 2 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 6 | Neck, | 5 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 7 | Chest, | 12 | 6 | 0 | | | | | 8 | Brisket, | 4 | 4 | 0 | | | | | 9 | Shoulder, | 4 | 5 | 0 | | | | | 10 | Crops, | 3 | 5 | 0 | | | | | 11 | Back, Loins, | | | | | | | | | Hips, | 6 | 8 | 0 | | | | | 12 | Rumps, | 5 | 3 | 0 | | | | | 13 | Twist, | 3 | -- | 0 | | | | | 14 | Escutcheon, | -- | 8 | 0 | | | | | 15 | Quarters, | 6 | 6 | 0 | | | | | 16 | Flanks, | 3 | 4 | 0 | | | | | 17 | Legs, | 5 | 5 | 0 | | | | | 18 | Tail, | 2 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 19 | Carcass, or | | | | | | | | | Barrel, | 3 | 4 | 0 | | | | | 20 | Color, | 1 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 21 | Hair, | 2 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 22 | Udder, | -- | 9 | 0 | | | | | 23 | Carriage, | 4 | 3 | 0 | | | | | 24 | Quality, | 15 | 10 | 0 | | | | | | PERFECTION, | 100 | 100 | 00 | | | | | --------+--------------+------+------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ HERD RECORD OF ASSOCIATION OF BREEDERS OF THOROUGH-BRED NEAT STOCK. =DEVONS.= EXPLANATION.--The figures in parenthesis with the letter E, thus, (00E) refer to Davy's third volume of English Devon Herd Book. The figures in parenthesis, thus, (00) refer to Davy's first and second volumes, and Howard's third volume. The figures, thus 00, refer to numbers adopted by the Association for this volume. =BULLS.= =1 Abe,= Calved September 2d, 1861; bred by H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire MERIDEN 66; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet (162). Dam WYNONA 348 (1524) by Reubens 2d 105 (552); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 3d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 6th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Robert Patterson, of Maryland, in 1817. =2 Abe Lincoln,= Calved July 9th, 1861; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. the property of A. L. BENTON, Tolland, Conn. Sire STAFFORD 2D 115; 2d sire Stafford 114; 3d sire Kossuth 53. Dam BEAUTY 2D 26 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Beauty 25 by Albert (2); 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 4th dam imported from the Earl of Leicester by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =3 Baltimore,= Calved 1861; bred by JAMES R. BLACKMAN, Butternuts, Otsego County, N. Y.; the property of HENRY HOTCHKISS, Smithville, Chenango County, N. Y. Sire PONTIAC (527); 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam bred from stock imported by George Patterson, Maryland. =4 Baltimore,= Calved May 30th, 1859; bred by JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, St. Joseph County, Mich. Sire YOUNG ZACH. TAYLOR, bred by W. H. Miller, Moscow, Mich., out of Young Fairy 349; 2d sire Zack. Taylor, bred by E. P. Beck, Sheldon, N. Y.; 3d sire Dibble (176) imported. Dam YOUNG FAIRY 349 by Baltimore, (364); 2d dam Fairy, bred by J. W. Collins, Sodus, N. Y., by Eclipse (191); 3d dam Caroline (1200) by a bull bred by the Messrs. Hurlbut; 4th dam Victoria (1512) by Exchange (197). =5 Baltimore 2d,= Calved April 24th, 1857; bred by E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y.; the property of H. W. KNOWLTON, Freeport, Ill. Sire BALTIMORE (364); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam VICTORIA (1512) by Exchange (197); 2d dam Fancy 2d by Holkham (217); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 7th dam Fancy old (709) by Taurus (302); 5th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Patterson, of Maryland, in 1817. =6 Baltimore 3d,= Calved September 16th, 1861; bred by and the property of H. W. KNOWLTON, Freeport, Ill. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364); 3d sire imported Eclipse (191). Dam POLLY 293 by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Rose by Rover (353); 3d dam from the Beck & Garbut stock. =7 Bangor,= Calved July 21st, 1860; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of J. B. BASSENGER, Denville, N. J. Sire ILLINOIS (456); 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam FANNY (715) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Sukey (1066) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 5th dam one of the heifers the Earl of Leicester presented to Mr. Patterson in 1817. =8 Barton,= Calved March 12th, 1859; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. WASHINGTON, Goldsborough, N. C. Sire WATERBURY (586); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam GIPSY MAID (1303); 2d dam Pretty Maid (971) bred by George Turner, England. =9 Beck,= Calved April 13th, 1861; bred by and the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, St. Joseph County, Mich. Sire COKE 2D (386); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam ELLEN 2D 87 by Coke (160); 2d dam Ellen (682) by Santa Anna (306); 3d dam Crescent (601) by Holkham (217). =10 Ben Butler,= Calved July, 1861; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of HUBBARD TUCKER, Vernon, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY DODGE 192; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =11 Bishop,= Calved April 6th, 1846; bred by H. W. WASHBON, Butternuts, Otsego County, N. Y.; and owned by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER. Sire BALTIMORE 143; 2d sire imported by Mr. Geo. Patterson. Dam FROZENFOOT, a cow imported by Mr. John Cowlin, Truxton, Courtland County, N. Y. Bishop drew the first prize at the New York State Fair at Syracuse, in 1849. =12 Bobolink, (368)= Calved June 9th, 1857; bred by Dr. DANIEL F. GULLIVER, Norwich, Conn.; sold to STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn.; now the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire WATCH (585). Dam BESS (1181); 2d dam Emma by Young Eclipse, bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 3d dam Rose by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (710). =13 Bonaparte,= Calved June 29th, 1859; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BLOOMING DALE, bred by B. H. Andrews, Waterbury, Conn.; 2d sire Duke of York. Dam CLIO (1206) by Baltimore, (364); 2d dam Victoria (1512) by Exchange (197). =14 Boney Pate,= Calved May 1st, 1862; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam BLOOMING BEAUTY (1190) by Champion (385). Blooming Beauty received the first premium at the New York State Fair in 1855, in the class of Devon Cattle from the other States and Canada. =15 Bounty,= Calved December 20th, 1860; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122); 3d sire Northampton (86). Dam ADALINE by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam a Coke Devon. =16 Boxer,= Calved May 24th, 1860; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam BLOOMING BEAUTY (1190) by Champion (385); 2d dam Beauty by Young Exchange, he by Exchange (197) and out of a cow of the Patterson stock; 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =17 Brandywine,= Calved September 26th, 1860; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire HANNIBAL (441); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam LONG HORN FANCY 214 by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). He was awarded the first prize at the Connecticut State Fair in 1862, as a two year old. =18 Carroll Eclipse,= Calved 18--; bred by GEORGE PATTERSON, Md.; the property of S. T. C. BROWN, Carroll County, Md. Sire imported NORFOLK (266); 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam by Eclipse (191); 2d dam by Anchises (140); 3d dam a Coke Devon. =19 Charter Oak,= Calved March 25th, 1862; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire JOHN 50; 2d sire Young Exeter 148; 3d sire Exeter (198). Dam MAY QUEEN (882) by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =20 Chipaway,= Calved May, 1857; bred by J. W. HAMLIN, Erie Co., N. Y.; the property of SAMUEL TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire CHINGAGOOK from imported Helena (774); 2d sire Uncas (324); 3d sire Megunticook (251). Dam LADY GAPPER bred by J. W. Hamlin, Willink, N. Y., from the Gapper Stock, C. W.; 2d dam Fairy, bred by R. C. Gapper, Toronto, C. W., by Duke of Devon (405) imported by Mr. Gapper and received the first premium of the United States Agricultural Society, in 1857; 3d dam Rose, bred by Mr. Gapper, by Billy, imported; 4th dam Beauty, imported by Mr. Gapper. =21 Clement,= Calved May 11th, 1862; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire JOHN 50; 2d sire Young Exeter 148. Dam MAUD 238 by Herod 2d, bred by Mr. Patterson, Md.; 2d dam Darling 77 by Roscius (267); 3d dam Beauty 7th (528) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 5th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =22 Comet,= Calved January, 1851; imported in the cow; the property of R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2) imported in 1850, by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam CURLY (610) by Tremayne (321); 2d dam Young Curly (99) by Young Sillifant (121); 3d dam Curly (95) by a son of Forester (46); 4th dam Tulip bred by Mr. Merson, Brinsworthy, Devonshire. =23 Comet,= Calved April 9th, 1860; bred by and the property of HEZEKIAH TILLOTSON, Farmington, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198); 3d sire General (50). Dam BOBTAIL BEAUTY by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =24 Commodore,= Calved August 30th, 1862; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire REUBENS 2D 105 (552); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam WYNONA 348 (1524); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 3d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =25 Connewango,= Calved May 5th, 1862; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK 65; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam LULU 222 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Dodge 192; 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372) imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture in 1844, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester; 4th dam imported by the same Society. =26 Consul,= Calved April 10th, 1861; bred by J. E. SISSON, Va.; the property of R. H. WILSON, Cambridge, Ohio. Sire STEPHEN (564); 2d sire Marion (485). Dam VIRGINIA BELLE (1518) by Marion (485); 2d dam by Herod (214); 3d dam by Eclipse (191); 4th dam, bred by George Patterson, by Anchises (140). =27 Crittenden,= Calved April 1st, 1862; bred by and property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire JOHN 50; 2d sire Young Exeter 148. Dam DARLING 77 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Beauty 7th (528) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =28 Crusader,= Calved February 21st, 1861; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire FRANK QUARTLY 39; 2d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam DAISY 73 by Anchises (140); 2d dam Duchess, imported by the late Hon. Rufus King, Long Island, in 1819, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =29 Curly,= Calved June 15th, 1860; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam PAULINA (1436) by Bonaparte (369); 2d dam Rosa by Rover (353); 3d dam a Devon cow of Mr. Garbut, Wheatland, N. Y. =30 Cute,= Calved February, 1860; bred by J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio; the property of T. G. Cox, Hopewell, Muskingan County, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUTY (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam LADY DAY 193 by Beauty (565); 2d dam Flora (285) by Rollo (546); 3d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =31 Czar,= Calved April 23d, 1862; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =32 Dan,= Calved April 27th, 1854; bred by DAVID C. HOWE, of Brutus, Cayuga County, N. Y.; the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire YOUNG CRITERION, bred by Messrs. Mason & Brown, Ellridge, Onondaga County, N.Y., who purchased her dam of Messrs. Beck & Garbut; 2d sire Criterion, bred by Beck & Garbut; 3d sire Dibble (176). Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Devon (658). =33 Duke,= Calved June 30th, 1862; bred by R. GLEASON, Benson, Vt. Sire MERIDEN 67; 2d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam CHERRY 60 by York Boy (596); 2d dam Alma (1144) by Blucher (149); 3d dam imported Lily (263) by Baronet (6). =34 Empire 2d,= (425) Calved November 30th, 1857; bred by JOSEPH HILTON, New Scotland, Albany County, N. Y.; the property of WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y. He was awarded the second prize at the New York State Fair, at Syracuse, in 1858, as a calf; and the second prize at the State Show in Albany, 1859, as a yearling. Sire EMPIRE (424); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6); 4th sire Quartly's Prince of Wales (105). Dam imported EDITH (155) bred by Earl of Leicester and imported by L. G. Morris; she was awarded the first prize at the New York State Fair, at Buffalo, in 1857, as the best imported cow; 2d dam Emily (158) by Spenser; 3d dam Ellen (157) by Quartly; 4th dam Evergreen (159) bred by Earl of Leicester. =35 Fancy's Valiant,= Calved January 7th, 1860; bred by and the property of JOHN CORP, Freetown, Cortland County, N. Y. Sire VALIANT (578); 2d sire Albert (2) imported. Dam FANCY (1268) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) (1614E) by Eclipse (191). =36 Forest City,= Calved March, 1860; bred by and the property of LEVI WILLIAM, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire FOREST CITY (429); 2d sire Norfolk (266). Dam EXCELSIOR (1257) by Norfolk (266); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam bred by Mr. Patterson, Md. =37 Franklin,= Calved May 5th, 1861; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horican (452) (439E); 3d sire Mayboy (71). Dam BALTIMORE 3D 71 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =38 Frank Baker,= Calved March, 1860; bred by and the property of JOHN J. JOHNSON, North Pitcher, Chenango County, N. Y. Sire FRANK MORRIS (433) winner of the 1st prize at the New York State Fair, in 1858; 2d sire Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205) imported. Dam LIDA 201 by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Lily, bred by R. H. Van Rensselaer, Morris, N. Y., by Bright Eyes, bred by Samuel C. Gilbert, Butternuts, N. Y., whose sire was Baltimore, bred by Mr. Patterson, Md., and owned H. N. Washbon, Morris, N.Y., and whose dam was bred by Mr. Titus, Truxton, direct from a cow and bull imported by the late John Caulin, Truxton, Courtland County, N. Y.; 3d dam Leonora (1371) by Sweepstakes, imported in the cow by Francis Rotch, Morris, N. Y. =39 Frank Quartly,= Calved May 19th, 1855; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire HEROD (214) imported in 1846, from the herd of Mr. Bloomfield, Norfolk, England, by Mr. George Patterson, Md. Dam, bred by George Patterson, Md., by Eclipse (191); 2d dam by Anchises (140) imported in 1836, from the Earl of Leicester, by Mr. G. Patterson, Springfield, Carroll County, Md.; 3d dam, bred by Mr. Patterson; 4th dam a Coke Devon, presented to Mr. Patterson by the Earl of Leicester, in 1817. =40 General,= Calved May 15th, 1861; bred by and the property of J. Buckingham, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUFORT (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam FLORA (1285) by Rollo (546); 2d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =41 General Mansfield,= Calved March 23d, 1862; bred by and the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut, in 1850. Dam LONG HORN FANCY 214 by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 4th dam, presented, with Taurus, by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Robert Patterson, Md., in 1817. =42 General Scott,= Calved December 9th, 1861; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of T. S. GOLD, West Cornwall, Conn. Sire STAFFORD 2D 114; 2d sire Stafford 115; 3d sire Kossuth 53; 4th sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 25 by Albert (2); 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372) imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; 3d dam, imported by the same Society from the herd of Mr. Bloomfield, England. =43 General Taylor,= Calved April 16th, 1861; bred by ANTHONY BIDERMANN & WILLIAM WILLMOT, Wilmington, Del.; the property of F. P. HOLCOMB & BRYAN JACKSON, now the property of B. L. HOLCOMB, New Castle, Del. Sire WILLIAM TELL (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam LUCERNE (1388) by Godwin (207); 2d dam Edith (679). =44 George Turner,= Calved June 21st, 1862; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (689); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Mr. Hurlbut. Dam GIPSY MAID 2D (1302) by Hannibal (441); 2d dam Gipsy Maid (1303); 3d dam Pretty Maid by Baron, both imported by John Allen, Saybrook, Conn., from the herd of George Turner, England. =45 Glausus,= Calved ---- 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam LAVINIA (1370) by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191) and bred by Mr. Patterson, Md., from stock imported from the Earl of Leicester, England. =46 Hector,= Calved January 8th, 1859; bred by S. Y. C. BROWN, Carroll County, Md., brother-in-law to Mr. George Patterson; the property of ANTHONY BIDERMANN, Wilmington, Del. Sire CARROLL ECLIPSE 18; 2d sire imported Norfolk (266). Dam DEAR by imported Herod (214); 2d dam by imported Anchises (140); 3d dam imported by Mr. Patterson from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =47 Hiawatha,= Calved February 1st, 1856; bred by and the property of R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut; 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam NELLY BLY (1423) by Megunticook (251) imported by C. S. Wainright, Reinbeck, N. Y.; 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty, (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 5th dam, one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester, in 1817, with the bull Taurus (320) to Mr. Patterson, Md. =48 Independence,= Calved July 16th, 1860; bred by and the property of C. W. CUSHING. Sire MAYBOY 62 (489); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam SONTAG 322 (1498) by Paul Dombey (523); 2d dam Blanche (1188) by Bloomfield (148). =49 Jerry,= Calved March 29th, 1859; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn.; the property of JOSEPH M. MUNSON, Watertown, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK (368); 2d sire Watch (585). Dam BESSY (1182) by Robin (542); 2d dam Rose (1468) by Remus, bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 3d dam Emma by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Rosa by Exchange (197); 5th dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197). =50 John,= Calved 1859; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam JANE 162 (788) by Albert (2); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =51 Kennebeck,= Calved June 5th, 1862; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horican (452) (439E). Dam HELENA 4TH 147 by Omar Pasha (513) (473E) imported; 2d dam Helena 3d 143 (776) by Mayboy (71) imported; 3d dam Brenda (547) by Megunticook (251) imported; 4th dam Helena (774) imported. =52 Kentucky,= Calved May 11th, 1859; bred by C. S. WAINWRIGHT, Rhinebeck, N. Y.; the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire HORICAN (452) (439E); 2d sire Mayboy (71). Dam KATE KEARNEY (811) imported by Mr. Wainwright, by Earl of Exeter (38); 2d dam Round Head by Prince Albert (102); 3d dam Beauty by Nelson (81). =53 Kossuth,= Calved April 25th, 1853; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of D. B. MERRICK & CO., Wilbraham, Mass. Sire ALBERT (2); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam FANCY 105 (1271) bred by Bela Tiffany, Southbridge, Mass., from a pair purchased of S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =54 Kossuth 2d,= Calved April 17th, 1862; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE & Rev. J. W. EATON, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam JANE 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 2d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =55 Kossuth,= Calved April 28th, 1862; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of R. O. STONE, Esq., Webster, Mass. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2) imported. Dam LADY DODGE 192 by Earl of Leicester; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372) imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844; 3d dam imported by the same Society. =56 Lavega,= Calved July 12th, 1862; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of HENRY A. DYER, Brooklyn, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK 65 from Minnehaha 243 (1409); 2d sire Hiawatha 47 from Nelly Bly 265 (1423); 3d sire Comet 22 (162) from Curl (610) imported by A. Stevens. Dam VENUS 341 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Dodge 192 by Earl of Leicester, bred by Harvey Dodge, Sutton, Mass., from stock imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England; 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372). =57 Lion,= Calved June 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205); 3d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam PHLOX 288 by Springfield, bred by George Patterson, Md.; 2d dam Edith, bred by G. Patterson; 3d dam was presented, when in calf, to Mr. Edward Kimley, by George Patterson, Md. =58 Logan,= Calved May 23d, 1861; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (502). Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176); 3d dam (658). =59 Major,= Calved October 25th, 1860; bred by H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass.; the property of ALBERT K. HOMER, Monson, Mass. Sire MERIDEN 66; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet (162). Dam WYNONA 348 (1524) by Reubens 2d 105 (552); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =60 Mars,= Calved April 23d, 1862; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam TOPSY 334 by Comet, bred by Daniel C. Howe, Brutus, N. Y., from the Beck & Garbut stock; 2d dam Flora, bred by Mason & Brown, Ellridge, N.Y., from stock purchased of Beck & Garbut; 3d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176); 4th dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217). =61 Matchless,= Calved November 28th, 1860; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire BARTON 8; 2d sire Waterbury (586); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam SMITH 3D (1048) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Smith 1st (1046) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320.) =62 Mayboy,= (489) Calved May 10th, 1855; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; and purchased, when a calf, by B. V. FRENCH, Braintree, Mass.; now the property of CHARLES W. CUSHING, South Hingham, Mass. Sire REUBENS (116); 2d sire Duke of Cornwall (33). Dam BEAUTY 8TH 36 by Albert (2) imported by the Messrs. Hurlbut, in 1850; 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320) imported in 1817, by Robert Patterson, Md. =63 Mayboy,= Calved May 22d, 1862; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam POCAHONTAS 2D 292 by Somerville (563); 2d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 3d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =64 McClellan,= Calved May, 1860; bred by and the property of S. &. L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam JANE 162 (788) by Albert (2); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =65 Megunticook,= Calved June, 1860; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam MINNEHAHA 243 (1409) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy 97 (696) by Baron (4); 3d dam Forester Cow (735) by a bull bred by Mr. Merson; 4th dam bred by Mr. Dee by Forester (46). =66 Meriden,= Calved April 16th, 1859; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire HIAWATHA 47, bred by R. Linsley, from Nelly Bly 265 (1423); 2d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam FAIRY 2D (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam imported Fairy (696) by Baron (4); 3d dam Forester Cow (735) by a bull bred by Mr. Merson; 4th dam bred by Mr. Dee by Forester (46). He gained the first prize at the Hampden County Fair, in 1861. =67 Meriden,= Calved March, 1859; bred by LINSLEY BROTHERS, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of ROLLIN GLEASON and W. R. SANFORD, Vermont. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FAIRY 97 (696) by Baron (4); 2d dam Forester Cow (735) by a bull bred by Richard Merson, Eng. =68 Messenger,= Calved August 16th, 1857; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, of Morris, Otsego County, N. Y.; the property of A. W. NORTH, East Maine, Broome County, N. Y. Sire PONTIAC (527) (483E); 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam LADY BIRD (820) by Venture; 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). Messenger gained the first prize at the Cortland County Fair, in 1860. =69 Monitor,= Calved March 14th, 1862; bred by and the property of C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa. Sire MAYBOY (71) imported; 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam BELLE OF WINCHESTER (1180) by Albert (2) imported; 2d dam Lora by Albert (2); 3d dam Strawberry (1061) by Bloomfield (148). =70 Monitor,= Calved April 18th, 1861; bred by and the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam BELLE 38 by Champion (385). =71 Montezuma,= Calved March 10th, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN CORP, Freetown, Cortland County, N. Y. Sire JUPITER (463); 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam MAYFLOWER (1399) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Leonora (1371) by Sweepstakes whose sire and dam were imported; 3d dam imported by Francis Rotch, N. Y. =72 Musician,= Calved December 19th, 1862; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205); 3d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam TRACY 337 by imported Herod (214); 2d dam bred by Mr. Patterson, by Eclipse (191); 3d dam a Coke Devon, imported. =73 Muskingam,= Calved February 22d, 1858; bred by J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio; the property of E. & A. B. BATTELLE, of Newport, Ohio. Sire KIRK AYRS, full brother to the bull Beauty (365); 2d sire Rollo (546). Dam RENA (1461) by Rollo (546); 2d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =74 Ned,= Calved 1859; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam FANCY 5TH 108 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Fancy 4th (713) by Albert(2); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =75 Nelson,= Calved April, 1857; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam STRAWBERRY (1061) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Strawberry by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 4th dam Strawberry (1062) by Taurus (320). Nelson received the first premium as a two year old at the Connecticut State Fair; also, the first premium at the Connecticut State Fair, in 1862. =76 Nelson,= Calved June 24th, 1862; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire JOHN 50; 2d sire Young Exeter 148. Dam STRAWBERRY 327 (1061) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 3d dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =77 Neptune,= Calved April 10th, 1860; bred by GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y.; the property of W. F. PECK, Kingston, Pa. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Devon (658). =78 Nero,= Calved April, 1855; bred by R. B. CHAMBERLAIN, Coventry, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam MARY bred by John Boyd, of Winchester, Conn., by Henry, a bull bred by the Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Clara by George, both bred by J. P. E. Stanley, of Baltimore, Md.; 3d dam Finella, bred by Mr. Stanley. =79 Nero,= Calved July, 1862; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK 65, from Minnehaha (1409); 2d sire Hiawatha 47, from Nelly Bly (1423). Dam NELLIE 260 by Stafford 2d 115; 2d dam Lady Dodge 192 by Earl of Leicester; 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372). =80 New Year's Day,= Calved January 1st, 1860; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire FRANK QUARTLY 39; 2d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam DAISY 73 by Anchises (140); 2d dam Duchess, imported by the late Rufus King, of Long Island, in 1819. =81 Norfolk,= Calved July 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205); 3d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam FLORA 125 by imported Norfolk (266); 2d dam by imported Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam a Coke Devon, imported. =82 Oneida,= Calved December 19th, 1862; bred by and the property of M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich. Sire OXFORD 85; 2d sire Jack Downing (459); 3d sire Dibble (176). Dam RED LADY (1460) by Coke (160); 2d dam Julia (1346) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Ticket (1079) by Red Jacket (289); 4th dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217). =83 Orphan Boy,= Calved April 2d, 1854; bred by WILLIAM SCOVILLE, Watertown, Conn.; the property of JOSEPH M. MUNSON, Watertown, Conn. Sire REUBENS (116) imported in 1852 for Abijah Catlin and C. N. Case, Harwinton, Conn.; 2d sire Duke of Cornwall (33). Dam FANCY by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Sukey (1066) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =84 Owasco,= Calved November 25th, 1860; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of HUBBARD TUCKER, Vernon, Conn. Sire STAFFORD 2D 115; 2d sire Stafford 114; 3d sire Kossuth 53; 4th sire Albert(2). Dam MYRTLE 256 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Dodge 192; 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 4th dam imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from the Earl of Leicester. =85 Oxford,= Calved June 25th, 1859; bred by and the property of M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich. Sire JACK DOWNING (452); 2d sire Dibble (176). Dam MAYFLOWER (1400) by Coke (160); 2d dam Rosa (1466) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Beauty (1172). =86 Penobscot,= Calved May 8th, 1861; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horican (452) (439E); 3d sire Mayboy (71) imported by C. S. Wainwright, Rhinebeck, N. Y. Dam HELENA 3D 146 (767), by Mayboy (71); 2d dam Brenda (547) by Megunticook (251) imported by C. S. Wainwright; 3d dam Helena (774) imported by Mr. Wainwright from the herd of George Turner, England. =87 Priam,= Calved in 1853; sired in England and calved in America; the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire SULTAN (122); 2d sire Northampton (86); 3d sire Prince Albert (102); 4th sire Hundred Guinea (56); 5th sire Sillifant (120); 6th sire bred by Mr. Quartly. Dam bred by Mr. Bloomfield, of Norfolk, England, and imported in 1852 by Mr. George Patterson, of Springfield, Carroll County, Md. Priam drew the first premium at the first United States Cattle Fair, at Springfield, Ohio, in 1854, of $50; also, the second premium of $25, at the fifth United States Exhibition, at Louisville, Ky.; and the first premium at the Missouri and Indiana Fairs, in 1857, of $25 and $30. =88 Prince Albert,= Calved April 21st, 1862; bred by and the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam MARY HURLBUT 235 (1394) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Beauty 6th (527) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =89 Prince Albert,= Calved April 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of SAMUEL, TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire GOVERNOR, bred by C. M. Crippen, Coldwater, Mich., from stock bred by E. P. Beck, Sheldon, N. Y.; 2d sire Duke of Devon (405) imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West. Dam IDA 1ST (1325) by Red Rover (352); 2d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176) imported; 3d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176). =90 Prince John,= Bred by and the property of R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert(2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam MAJESTIC 224 (1471E) by a full brother of Abd-el-Kader (134); Majestic was imported by Mr. Linsley, and bred by George Turner, of Barton, England; 2d dam Wallflower (472) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Mayflower (290) by a son of Hundred Guinea (56). =91 Prince John 3d,= Calved September 5th, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire PRINCE JOHN 90; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam FAIRY 3D 98 (1266) by Hiawatha 47; 2d dam Fairy 2d (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 3d dam Fairy (696) imported, by Baron (4). =92 Prince of Wales,= Calved September 29th, 1860; bred by JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ill.; the property of THOMAS BIDWELL, of Wentworth, Lake County, Ill. Sire CHIBIABUS (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71); 3d sire Duke of York (37). Dam PRINCESS 2D (986) by Earl of Exeter (38); 2d dam Princess (380) by Duke (30); 3d dam Princess (379) by Hundred Guinea (56). =93 Prince of Wales,= Calved April 15th, 1861; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205); 3d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam QUEEN VICTORIA 299 by imported Norfolk (266); 2d dam by imported Eclipse (191); 3d dam bred by G. Patterson, Maryland. =94 Prince of Wales,= Calved April 1st, 1862; bred by and the property of SAMUEL TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire GOVERNOR bred by C. M. Crippen, Coldwater, Mich., from stock bred by E. P. Beck, Sheldon, N. Y.; 2d sire Duke of Devon (405) imported by P. C. Gapper, Toronto, C. W. Dam VICTORIA 3D 344 by Duke of Devon (405); 2d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176) imported; 3d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176). =95 Printer,= Calved April 25th, 1860; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam SPRIGHTLY 325 by Herod (214) imported by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland; 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported from the Earl of Leicester, England, by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. =96 Putnam,= Calved April 12th, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert(2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam NELLY BLY 265 (1423) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 5th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Patterson, of Maryland, in 1817. =97 Rebellion,= Calved June, 1861; bred by and the property of J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire BEAUTY (365); 2d sire Rollo (546). Dam YOUNG DEVON by Dibble (176); 2d dam Devon (658) by Holkham (450) imported by the late Rufus King, of Long Island, in 1819. =98 Red Jacket,= Calved April 28th, 1858; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122); 3d sire Northampton (86). Dam bred by George Patterson, of Maryland, by Eclipse (191); 2d dam by Anchises (140); 3d dam imported by Mr. Patterson from the Earl of Leicester, England. =99 Red Jacket,= Calved September 1st, 1861; bred by W. W. HENDERSON, Bridgeton, St. Louis County, Mo.; the property of W. C. FLAGG, Moro, Madison County, Ills. Sire RED PATH 101; 2d sire Megunticook (251) imported. Dam VICTORIA (1514) by Candy (153); 2d dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217); 3d dam Devon (658). =100 Red Jacket,= Calved February 20th, 1862; bred by and the property of D. B. MERRICK, Wilbraham, Mass. Sire REUBENS 2D 105 (552); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported; 3d sire Duke of Cornwall (33); 4th sire Portman bred by Mr. Quartly. Dam BEAUTY 32 (1167) by Earl of Leicester bred by Harvey Dodge, of Sutton, Mass., from stock imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from Mr. Bloomfield, England. =101 Red Path,= Calved January 22d, 1860; bred by C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa; the property of W. C. FLAGG, Moro, Madison County, Ills. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251) imported; 2d sire Prince Albert (102). Dam VICTORIA (1514) by Candy (153); 2d dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217); 3d dam Devon (658). =102 Rob Roy,= Calved December 3d, 1855; bred by JOSEPH BURNETT, Esq., Southboro', Mass.; the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire PAUL DOMBEY (523); 2d sire Bloomfield (148); 3d sire Eclipse (191). Dam BALTIMORE 3D 11 bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Rob Roy took the first premium at Framingham, Mass., in September, 1858, as the best Devon bull. =103 Roderick Dhu,= Calved March 6th, 1860; bred by ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine; the property of A. P. DILLINGHAM, Esq., Sidney, Maine. Sire ROB ROY 102; 2d sire Paul Dombey (523); 3d sire Bloomfield, (148). Dam JESSIE 172 by Alexander, owned by Samuel Chandler, Lexington, Mass.; 2d dam Baltimore 3d 11 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =104 Roscius,= Calved September 20th, 1858; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 2D 26 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Beauty 25 by Albert (2); 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 4th dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from the Earl of Leicester. =105 Reubens 2d,= (552) Calved May 1st, 1854; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire REUBENS (116) imported for C. N. Case and Abijah Catlin, of Harwinton, Conn.; 2d sire Duke of Cornwall (33). Dam BEAUTY 8TH 36 by Albert (2) imported; 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320) imported; 5th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Robert Patterson, of Maryland, in 1817. He gained the first prize in his class, in 1855 and 1857, at the Hampden County Fair; also, the first prize at the Massachusetts State Fair, at Boston, in 1857. =106 Reuben,= Calved March, 1857; bred by ABIJAH CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn.; the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam PEDLEY 283 (334) bred by George Turner, England, and imported by Mr. Catlin. =107 St. Jo,= Calved April 13th, 1861; bred by and the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, St. Joseph County, Mich. Sire COKE 2D (386); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam CHERRY 2D 61 by Coke (160); 2d dam Cherry (578) by Dibble (176) imported; 3d dam Victoria (1107) by Dibble (176); 4th dam Devon (658). =108 Sam,= Calved March, 1855; bred by and the property of ABIJAH CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn. Sire REUBENS (116) imported in 1851 by D. W. Catlin, New York City; 2d sire Duke of Cornwall (33). Dam PEDLEY 283 (334) by Baronet (6); Pedley was imported from the herd of George Turner, Barton, England; 2d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6); 3d dam by Hundred Guinea (56). =109 Sam 2d,= Calved June, 1859; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam HATTIE 143 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Jane 162 (788) by Albert (2); 3d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =110 Shakspeare,= Calved March, 1860; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire SHAKSPEARE from Victoria 342; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland: 3d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam LILY (1373) by Prince Albert (278); 2d dam Beauty (504). =111 Sigel,= Calved October 1st, 1862; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of AMBROSE N. MERRICK, Springfield, Mass. Sire MEGUNTICOOK 65 from Minnehaha 243 (1409); 2d sire Hiawatha 47 from Nelly Bly 265 (1423). Dam BEAUTY 2D 26 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Beauty 25 by Albert (2); 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372) imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844. =112 Sir Charles,= Calved September 19th, ----; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, of Chicago, Ills. Sire SUMTER 118; 2d sire Chibiabus (387) (384E); 3d sire Mayboy (71) imported by C. S. Wainwright, Rhinebeck, N. Y. Dam LADY GAY (1357) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Lady Lightfoot (824) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Ladybird (820E) by Venture; 4th dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =113 Somerset,= Calved August 21st, 1862; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horican (452) (439E). Dam HELENA 3D 146 (776E) by Mayboy (71) imported; 2d dam Brenda (547) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Helena (774) imported by C. S. Wainwright from the herd of George Turner, England. =114 Stafford,= Calved June 14th, 1855; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of E. S. PENNIMAN, North Woodstock, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam LADY DODGE 192; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844. =115 Stafford 2d,= Calved September, 1857; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of F. W. COWLES, Manchester, Conn. Sire STAFFORD 114; 2d sire Kossuth 53; 3d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY DODGE 192; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844. =116 Sultan,= Calved May 6th, 1860; bred by M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich.; the property of O. T. NILES, Mishawaka, Ind. Sire SULTAN (565); 2d sire Major (476). Dam MAYFLOWER (1400) by Coke (160); 2d dam Rosa (1466) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Beauty (1172). =117 Summit Prince,= Calved July 26th, 1862; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire CHIBIABUS (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71); 3d sire Duke of York (37); 4th sire Quartly's Prince of Wales (105); 5th sire Prince Albert (102); 6th sire Hundred Guinea (56); 7th sire Sillifant (120). Dam PRINCESS 2D (986) by Earl of Exeter (38); 2d dam Princess (380) by Duke (30); 3d dam Princess (379) by Hundred Guinea (56); 4th dam Princess by Forester (46); 5th dam Dairymaid bred by Mr. Quartly. =118 Sumter,= Calved July 2d, 1859; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire CHIBIABUS (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71) imported. Dam PRINCESS 2D (986) by Earl of Exeter (38); 2d dam Princess (380) imported, by Duke (30); 3d dam Princess (379) by Hundred Guinea (56); 4th dam Princess by Forester (46); 5th dam Dairymaid bred by Mr. Quartly. =119 Sumter,= Calved October 27th, 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam OCTAVIA 275 by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Josephine (1345) by Anchises (140); 3d dam bred by George Patterson, of Maryland, from stock imported from the Earl of Leicester, Norfolk, England. =120 Taurus,= Calved September 14th, 1862; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N.Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam LADY OF THE LAKE (1362) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Lady Lightfoot (824) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Ladybird (820E); 4th dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =121 Thunderer,= Calved October 3d, 1862; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TURK 131; 2d sire Tuscarora 134; 3d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 4th sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam LALLA ROOKH 197 by Pontiac (527) (483E); 2d dam Ladybird (820E); 3d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =122 Tiger,= Calved June 10th, 1862; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589). Dam CHLOE 62 by Young Exeter 146; 2d dam Smith 3d (1048) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Smith 1st (1046) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =123 Tiger,= Calved August 30th, 1861; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y.; the property of Mr. MARK GILL, Pittsfield, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire imported Frank Quartly (205). Dam FANNY (1274) by imported Mayboy (71); 2d dam Fancy (1268) by imported Megunticook (251); 3d dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) by Eclipse (191). =124 Tinsel,= Calved April 28th, 1860; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam LUCY 219 by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Ladybird (820b). =125 Tippo,= Calved September 4th, 1861; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567)(535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam LADY OF THE LAKE (1362) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Ladybird (820b) imported. =126 Tom Thumb,= Calved 1860; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567)(535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam imported LADYBIRD (820b); 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =127 Tornado,= Calved April 28th, 1861; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam LALLA ROOKH 197 by Pontiac (527); 2d dam Ladybird (820b) imported. =128 Trinket,= Calved May 30th, 1861; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam imported LADYBIRD (820b); 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =129 Triumph,= Calved March 12th, 1862; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122); 3d sire Northampton (86). Dam PINK 289 by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported by Mr. George Patterson, of Springfield, Carroll County, Md., from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, in 1817. =130 Trump,= Calved May 31st, 1859; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y.; the property of G. J. HATHAWAY, Maine, Broome County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire imported Frank Quartly (205). Dam imported LADYBIRD (820b) by Venture by Sillifant (120); 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =131 Turk,= Calved April 24th, 1860; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567)(535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam FANNY 112 (1274) by Mayboy (71); 2d dam Fancy (1268) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) by Eclipse (191). =132 Turk,= Calved December 24th, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire CHIBIABUS (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71) imported. Dam CAMILLA (562) by Herod (214) imported by Mr. Patterson; 2d dam bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. Camilla is now the property of Mr. Wentworth. =133 Turk,= Calved June 29th, 1853; bred by WILLIAM BUCKMINSTER, Framingham, Mass.; the property of WALDO M. HEALY, Dudley, Mass. Sire PAUL DOMBEY (523); 2d sire Bloomfield (148); 3d sire Eclipse (191). Dam JESSICA, bred by George Patterson, of Maryland, sold to William Stickney, of Vermont, and bought at the Stickney auction, Westminster, Vt., by William Buckminster, of Framingham, Mass. =134 Tuscarora,= Calved April 1st, 1857; bred by and the property of EDWARD G. FAILE, West Farms, Westchester County, N. Y. Sire TECUMSEH (567) (535E); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam imported BOWLEY (42) by Duke of Cornwall (33); 2d dam Cadbury (56) by Quartly's Prince of Wales (105). =135 Uncas,= Calved June 5th, 1861; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam AUNT CHLOE 9 by Dan 32; 2d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 3d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =136 Veruna,= Calved March 21st, 1862; bred by and the property of JOHN CORP, Freetown, Cortland County, N. Y. Sire FANCY'S VALIANT 35; 2d sire Valiant (578); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam MAYFLOWER (1399) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Leonora (1371) by Sweepstakes imported from the herd of the Duke of Norfolk, England. =137 Victor,= Calved July 22d, 1861; bred by R. GLEASON, Benson, Vt.; the property of N. A. SAXTON, Waltham, Vt. Sire MERIDEN 67; 2d sire Comet (162); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam CHERRY 60 by York Boy (596); 2d dam Alma (1144) by Blucher (149); 3d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6). Lily was imported by W. R. Sanford, of Orwell, Vt., from the herd of G. Turner, England. =138 Victor,= Calved May 24th, 1862; bred by M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich.; the property of DAVID O. WOODRUFF, Niles, Mich. Sire MAJOR (476); 2d sire Coke (160); 3d sire Major (237). Dam DAIRY MAID (1226) by Splendid (314); 2d dam Crescent (1212) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Betty (1183) by Dibble (176). =139 Waldo,= Calved April 4th, 1861; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horican (452) (439E). Dam REBE 300 by Comet owned by H. G. White, South Framingham, Mass.; 2d dam Jessie 172 by Alexander owned by Samuel Chandler, Lexington, Mass.; 3d dam Baltimore 3d 11 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =140 Watch 2d,= Calved April 6th, 1859; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire WATCH (585). Dam FANCY owned by John Tuttle, of Torringford, Conn., bred by William L. Cowles, of Farmington, Conn., by Young Holkham, bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, from Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Nellie by Young Eclipse, bred by George Patterson, Maryland, from Eclipse (191); 3d dam Nell by Red Rover (352); 4th dam Ellen, R. L. Colt's prize Devon cow; 5th dam Miss Brooks, George Law's full-blood Devon cow, of Baltimore, Md. =141 Weehawken,= Calved April 5th, 1862; bred by and the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK 12 (368); 2d sire Watch (585). Dam VICTORIA 1ST by Young Eclipse bred by George Patterson, of Maryland, and owned by William L. Cowles, Farmington, Conn.; 2d dam Victoria bred by Mr. Patterson, by Eclipse (191); 3d dam imported by Mr. Patterson from Mr. Bloomfield's herd, Norfolk, England. =142 William Tell,= (588) Calved October 18th, 1854; bred by L. G. MORRIS, New York; the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire FRANK QUARTLY (205); 2d sire Earl of Exeter (38); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam VIRTUE (469) imported; 2d dam Venus (459) by Derby (23). =143 Wolverine,= Calved December 27th, 1861; bred by M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich.; the property of L. W. ARCHER, Roylton, Berrien County, Mich. Sire SULTAN (565); 2d sire Major (476); 3d sire Coke (160). Dam ROSE (1473) by Jack Downing (459); 2d dam Rosewood (1482) by Dibble (176). =144 Wyoming,= Calved February 26th, 1862; bred by M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich.; the property of SAMUEL WITTER, South Bend, Ind. Sire MAJOR (476); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam MAYFLOWER (1400) by Coke (160); 2d dam Rosa (1466) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Beauty (1172). =145 Yorktown,= Calved February 20th, 1861; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam GRACE 140 by Eclipse 2d, he by Bloomfield (373) and out of Josephine (1345); 2d dam Adeline 2 by Eclipse (191); 3d dam Ella (1246) by Herod (214). =146 Young Albert,= Calved March 1st, 1861; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire TOM bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d sire Young Tecumseh 151. Dam KATE 184 by John 50 bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Strawberry 6th by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 4th dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =147 Young Comet,= Calved March 17th, 1863; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam NELLY BLY 265 (1423) by Megunticook (251) imported; 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =148 Young Exeter,= Calved 1857; bred by E. G. FAILE, West Farms, N. Y.; the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire EXETER (198); 2d sire General (50). Dam PATTERSON COW bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland, and owned by E. G. Faile, of West Farms, N. Y. =149 Young Herod,= Calved June 1st, 1861; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire TOM bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Young Tecumseh 151. Dam BEAUTY 30 by Herod 2d bred by George Patterson, Maryland; 2d dam Kate 184 by John 50 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 3d dam Strawberry 6th by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 5th dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =150 Young Roscius,= Calved 1861; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire TOM bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d sire Young Tecumseh 151. Dam HATTY 142 by Nelson 75; 2d dam Kate 184 by John 50; 3d dam Strawberry 6th by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 5th dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =151 Young Tecumseh,= Calved 1858; bred by E. G. FAILE, West Farms, N. Y.; the property of S. &. L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire TECUMSEH (567); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam CLEOPATRA (582) imported by Mr. Faile, by Louis Napoleon (231); 2d dam Hawthorn (218) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Mayflower (290) by a son of Hundred Guinea (56); 4th dam old Mayflower who won three prizes. =152 Ypsilanti,= Calved February 18th, 1863; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK 65; 2d sire Hiawatha 47. Dam BEAUTY 25 by Albert (2); 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the Earl of Leicester, England. COWS. =1 Active,= Calved March 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire RED JACKET 98; 2d sire Priam 87; 3d sire Sultan (122). Dam SPRIGHTLY 311 by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported by George Patterson, of Springfield, Carroll County, Md., from the herd of Mr. Coke, England, then the Earl of Leicester. =2 Adeline,= Calved April 1st, 1852; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire imported ECLIPSE (191). Dam ELLA (1246) by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam bred by Mr. Patterson from stock of the Earl of Leicester, England. =3 Adelaide,= Calved March 28th, 1858; bred by and the property of JOSEPH M. MUNSON, Watertown, Conn. Sire ORPHAN BOY 83; 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam ROSE 314 by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Fancy bred by Mr. Washbon, of Otsego, N. Y., from imported stock. Adelaide gained the first prize at the Connecticut State Fair, in 1862. =4 Agnes,= Calved March 2d, 1861; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire WATCH 2D 140; 2d sire Watch (585). Dam VICTORIA 2D 343 by Albert 2d bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 2d dam Victoria bred by George Patterson, of Maryland, by Eclipse (191); 3d dam a cow imported by Mr. Patterson from the herd of Mr. Bloomfield, Norfolk, England. =5 Alice,= Calved April 15th, 1860; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam DAISY 2D 74 by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Daisy 73 by Anchises (140); 3d dam Duchess imported in 1819 by the late Rufus King, of Long Island, N. Y., from the herd of Mr. Coke, then the Earl of Leicester. =6 Annie,= Calved March 31st, 1862; bred by and the property of C. W. CUSHING, South Hingham, Mass. Sire INDEPENDENCE 48; 2d sire Mayboy 62 (489); 3d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam MINNIE 250 by Mayboy 62 (489); 2d dam Sontag 322 (1498) by Paul Dombey (523); 3d dam Blanche (1188) by Bloomfield (148). =7 Antic,= Calved April 20th, 1859; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam SPRIGHTLY 325 by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. =8 Arabella,= Calved March 25th, 1859; bred by and the property of HEZEKIAH TILLOTSON, Farmington, Conn. Sire NELSON 75; 2d sire Roscius (267); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam BOBTAIL BEAUTY by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =9 Aunt Chloe,= Calved June 5th, 1858; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire DAN 32. Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Devon (658). =10 Aurora,= Calved March 22d, 1860; bred by and the property of HEZEKIAH TILLOTSON, Farmington, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198); 3d sire General (50). Dam BEAUTY 8TH 36 by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =11 Baltimore 3d,= Calved May, 1848; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn., who sold her when a heifer to G. G. Hubbard, West Needham, Mass.; she was afterwards sold to James Brown, Watertown, Mass., and again to Dr. Joseph Burnett, Southboro', Mass., who sold her to her present owner, ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. She took the first prize as the best Devon cow at the Middlesex County Fair, held at Framingham, Mass., in 1855. =12 Baltimore 4th,= Calved April 14th, 1860; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire ROB ROY 102; 2d sire Paul Dombey (523); 3d sire Bloomfield (148). Dam BALTIMORE 3D 11 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =13 Baltimore 8th,= Calved March 5th, 1861; bred by and the property of EZRA CORNELL, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y. Sire FORDHAM (432); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam BALTIMORE 6TH (1063) by Valiant (578); 2d dam Baltimore (1160) by Eclipse (191); 3d dam one of Mr. Patterson's imported cows. =14 Baltimore 9th,= Calved December 3d, 1861; bred by and the property of EZRA CORNELL, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y. Sire FORDHAM (432); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam BALTIMORE 5TH (1162) by Valiant (578); 2d dam Baltimore (1160) by Eclipse (191); 3d dam one of Mr. Patterson's imported cows. =15 Beck 2d,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BECK by Roscius (267); 2d dam Pink 291 (957) by Albert (2); 3d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =16 Beauty,= Calved April, 1855; bred by JOHN ALLEN; the property of A. B. ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire DUKE OF DEVON (405) imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West, and received the first premium of the United States Agricultural Society in 1857. Dam SOPHIA 323 by Red Rover (352); 2d dam Camilla Scott by Dibble (176); 3d dam Victoria (1513). =17 Beauty,= Calved March, 1861; bred by and the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire NERO 78; 2d sire Kossuth 53; 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam KATE 180; 2d dam Rowena bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., from the Stanley stock of Baltimore, by Henry, a thorough-bred bull bred by Messrs. Hurlbut. =18 Beauty,= Calved September, 1857; bred by WILLIAM L. COWLES, Farmington, Conn.; the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire GLADIATOR (438); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205) imported. Dam CHERRY by Remus, a bull bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Janet by Waverly, bred by Mr. Patterson of Maryland, he by Anchises (140); 3d dam Effie imported by George Patterson, of Maryland. =19 Beauty 2d,= Calved February 28th, 1863; bred by and the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162). Dam BEAUTY 18 by Gladiator (438). =20 Beauty 2nd,= Calved May 19th, 1862; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Albert(2) imported by Mr. Hurlbut; 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam BEAUTY (1171) by Hannibal (441); 2d dam Fanny (715) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Sukey (1066) by Baltimore (143). =21 Beauty A,= Calved September 28th, 1858; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE (364); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam BLOOMING BEAUTY (1190) by Champion (385); 2d dam Beauty by Young Exchange, he by Exchange (197) and out of a cow of Mr. Patterson's stock; 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =22 Beauty B,= Calved June 20th, 1859; bred by and the property of ELAM C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE (364); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam BLOOMING BEAUTY (1190) by Champion (385). =23 Beauty C,= Calved May 25th, 1860; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Her pedigree the same as Beauty A 21. =24 Beauty 5th,= Calved June 10th, 1861; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam BEAUTY A 21 by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Blooming Beauty (1190) by Champion (385). =25 Beauty,= Calved March 2d, 1853; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam LADY JANE 195 by Bloomfield (372); 2d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the Earl of Leicester, England. =26 Beauty 2d,= Calved April, 1856; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 25 by Albert (2); 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =27 Beauty 3d,= Calved May, 1860; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire REUBENS 2D 105 (552); 2d sire Reubens (116); 3d sire Duke of Cornwall (33). Dam BEAUTY 25 by Albert (2); 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =28 Beauty 4th,= Calved April 20th, 1861; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; sold to E. H. Hyde, Stafford, Conn.; now the property of AMASA MORSE, Union, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam BEAUTY 6TH (527) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =29 Beauty 6th,= Calved July, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire PRINCE JOHN 90; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam BEAUTY 3D by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Beauty 6th (527) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =30 Beauty,= Calved 1858; bred by L. A. THRALL, Torrington, Conn.; the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire HEROD 2D bred by George Patterson, Maryland; 2d sire Herod (214). Dam KATE 184 by John bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Strawberry 6th by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 4th dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =31 Beauty 2d,= Calved May 5th, 1862; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire NERO from Belle 38; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. Dam BEAUTY 30 by Herod 2d, bred by George Patterson, of Maryland; 2d dam Kate 184 by John 50. (See Beauty 30.) =32 Beauty,= (1167) Calved May 27th, 1853; bred by MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.; the property of D. B. MERRICK, Wilbraham, Mass. Sire EARL OF LEICESTER bred by Harvey Dodge, of Sutton, Mass., from stock imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from Mr. Bloomfield, England; 2d sire Bloomfield (372). Dam BEAUTY bred by Mr. Dodge from stock imported as above. =33 Beauty 1st,= Calved September 21st, 1858; bred by and the property of D. B. MERRICK, Wilbraham, Mass. Sire DON MIGUEL (396); 2d sire Otsego _alias_ Major bred by H. N. Washbon, Otsego County, N. Y. Dam BEAUTY 32 (1167) by Earl of Leicester bred by Harvey Dodge, of Sutton, Mass., from stock imported by the Massachusetts Society, in 1844, from Mr. Bloomfield, England. =34 Beauty 2d,= Calved May, 1856; bred by J. N. BLAKESLEE, Watertown, Conn.; the property of D. B. MERRICK, Wilbraham, Mass. Sire HEROD 2D bred by George Patterson, of Maryland, and sold to Mr. Blakeslee; 2d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam NANCY DAWSON (1419) bred by D. H. Curtis, Woodbury, Conn., by Otsego _alias_ Major bred by H. N. Washbon, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y.; Major by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Beauty bred by E. M. White from stock bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =35 Beauty 3d,= Calved February, 1862; bred by and the property of D. B. MERRICK, Wilbraham, Mass. Sire REUBENS 2D 105 (552); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam BEAUTY 1ST 33 by Don Miguel (396); 2d dam Beauty 32 (1167) by Earl of Leicester bred by Harvey Dodge, of Sutton, Mass., from stock imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the herd of Mr. Bloomfield, England. =36 Beauty 8th,= Calved 1852; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut in 1850; 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam BEAUTY 4TH (525) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320) imported by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland, in 1817. =37 Beaver,= Calved 1861; bred by and the property of EZRA CORNELL, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y. Sire FORDHAM (432); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam BEAUTY (1174) by Somerville (563); 2d dam Beauty by Valiant (578); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =38 Belle,= Calved September 4th, 1853; bred by C. B. SMITH, Wolcottville, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire CHAMPION (385); 2d sire Bloomfield (148). Dam BELINDA bred by Gad Lewis, Bristol, Conn., from Hurlbut's stock, sold to William Scoville, Watertown, sold by Scoville to C. B. Smith; Belinda by Remus bred by Messrs. Hurlbut. =39 Belle,= Calved July 15th, 1858; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 25 by Albert (2); 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844. =40 Bessie,= Calved 1859; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam PINK 291 (957) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy 2d 107 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =41 Bessy,= (1182) Calved April 11th, 1856; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire ROBIN (542); 2d sire Albert (2) imported. Dam ROSE 302 (1468) by Remus bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Emma, bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Rosa by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (710). =42 Bessy,= Calved April 22d, 1861; bred by and the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, Mich. Sire DICK bred by William Garbut, Wheatland, N. Y.; 2d sire Coke (160). Dam CRESCENT (1237E) by Major (240); 2d dam Young Crescent (603) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Crescent (602) by Sir Walter (311). =43 Betsy,= Calved June 20th, 1861; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam PAULINE (1436) by Bonaparte (369); 2d dam Rosa by Rover (353); 3d dam from the Garbut stock. =44 Blanch,= Calved February 26th, 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam GEM 133 by Eclipse 2d, he by Bloomfield (373), and out of Josephine (1345); 2d dam Margaret by Bloomfield (373); 3d dam Lavinia (1370) by Herod (214). =45 Bloom,= Calved April 16th, 1859; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam JANE (1330) by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191) and bred by George Patterson, of Maryland. =46 Blossom,= Calved November 14th, 1859; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam JENNY LIND (1338) by Major (237); 2d dam Beauty (1169) by Bloomfield (148). Jenny Lind received the second premium at the New York State Fair, in 1859. =47 Blossom,= Calved May 1st, 1858; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam DAISY 3D 75 by Herod (214); 2d dam Daisy 73 by Anchises (140); 3d dam Duchess imported by the late Rufus King of Long Island, N.Y., from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, then a Mr. Coke. =48 Blossom,= Calved April 16th, 1860; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire NERO out of Belle 38; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. Dam HETTY 2D 139; 2d dam Hetty (1321) by Albert 2d bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 3d dam Rose 316 (1468) by Remus bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 4th dam Emma by Bloomfield (148); 5th dam Rose by Exchange (197); 6th dam Fancy (710). =49 Breda,= Calved September 16th, 1861; bred by W. W. HENDERSON, Bridgeton, St. Louis County, Mo.; the property of W. C. FLAGG, Moro, Madison County, Ills. Sire RED PATH 101; 2d sire Megunticook (251) imported. Dam LILY 207 by Herod (214); 2d dam Duchess by Anchises (140); 3d dam bred by George Patterson, of Maryland. =50 Brenda,= Calved April 5th, 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam CORINNE 66 by Eclipse 2d, he by Bloomfield (373) and out of Josephine (1345); 2d dam Lavinia (1370) by Herod (214). =51 Bridget,= Calved May 22d, 1859; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire CHARTER OAK (384); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam GIPSY (1301) by Hannibal (441); 2d dam Gipsy Maid (1303) by Baron, imported by Mr. Allen, of Saybrook, Conn.; 3d dam Pretty Maid (971) imported by Mr. Allen, by Earl of Exeter (38). =52 Broad Horned Beauty 2d,= Calved April, 1861; bred by and the property of LEVI WILLIAMS, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire FOREST CITY (429); 2d sire Norfolk (266). Dam (1193) by Albert (2); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =53 Broad Horned Beauty 3d,= Calved April, 1862; bred by and the property of LEVI WILLIAMS, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire FOREST CITY 36; 2d sire Forest City (429); 3d sire Norfolk (266). Dam BROAD HORNED BEAUTY (1193) by Albert (2); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =54 Buttercup,= Calved May 5th, 1861; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam SPRIGHTLY 325 by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported by George Patterson, of Springfield, Carroll County, Md., from the herd of Mr. Coke, England, then Earl of Leicester. =55 Capitola,= Calved June 21st, 1859; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire HANNIBAL (441); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BLOSSOM (1191) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =56 Cassy,= Calved June 13th, 1858; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire DAN 32. Dam PATSY 278; 2d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 3d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176); 4th dam Devon (658). =57 Chance,= Calved in 1856; bred by R. LINSLEY; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam FAIRY 2D (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy 97 (696) by Baron (4). =58 Chance 2d,= Calved June, 1861; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam CHANCE 57 by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy 2d (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 3d dam Fairy 97 (696) by Baron (4). =59 Cherry,= Calved June 10th, 1858; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam EXTRA 93 by Bishop 11; 2d dam Long Horned Baltimore bred by George Patterson, Maryland. =60 Cherry,= Calved May, 1859; bred by ROLLIN GLEASON, Benson, Vt. Sire YORK BOY (596); 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam ALMA (1144) by Blucher (149); 2d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6). Lily (263) was imported by W. R. Sanford, Orwell, Vt., from the herd of George Turner, England. =61 Cherry 2d,= Calved May, 1855; bred by E. P. BECK, Sheldon, N. Y.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, St. Joseph County, Mich. Sire COKE (160); 2d sire Major (237). Dam CHERRY (578) by Dibble (176); 2d dam Victoria Young (1107) by Dibble (176) imported. =62 Chloe,= Calved March 22d, 1859; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198); 3d sire General (50). Dam SMITH 3D (1048) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Smith 1st (1046) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =63 Clara,= Calved June 23d, 1862; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam RUBY 318 by Somerville (563); 2d dam Patsy 278; 3d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 4th dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =64 Cleopatra,= Calved April, 1862; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire MAJOR from Duchess 83; 2d sire Young Duke from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 3d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam BEAUTY 16 by Duke of Devon (405); 2d dam Sophia 323 by Red Rover (352). =65 Clio,= Calved May 4th, 1861; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam CLIO (1206) by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Victoria (1512) by Exchange (197). =66 Corinne,= Calved May 14th, 1857; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire ECLIPSE 2D from Josephine (1345); 2d sire Bloomfield (373); 3d sire Eclipse (191). Dam LAVINIA (1370) by Herod (214) imported in 1846 by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. =67 Cowslip,= Calved April 10th, 1862; bred by and the property of ANTHONY BIDERMAN and WILLIAM WILLMOT, near Wilmington, Del. Sire HECTOR 46; 2d sire Carroll Eclipse 18. Dam MEADOW SWEET (1402) by William Tell (587); 2d dam Kalmia (808). =68 Curly,= Calved April 15th, 1859; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire FRANK MORRIS (433); 2d sire Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam EDITH 84 by Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 2d dam Premium, bred by Messrs. Bakers, by Baltimore (364); 3d dam Extra 92 by Bishop 11. =69 Curly,= Calved June 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam TRACY 337 by Herod (214) imported; 2d dam by imported Eclipse (191); 3d dam imported from the Earl of Leicester, England. =70 Curl 3d,= Calved September 5th, 1853; bred by DAYTON MATTOON, Watertown, Conn.; the property of JOSEPH M. MUNSON, Watertown, Conn. Sire CHAMPION (385); 2d sire Bloomfield (148). Dam CURL 2D, bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Curl 1st bred by the Hurlbuts. =71 Dairy Maid,= Calved April, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire YOUNG DUKE from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 2d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam DUCHESS 83 by Young Duke as above; 2d dam Sophia 323 by Red Rover (352). =72 Daisy,= Calved September 14th, 1859; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam BEAUTY (1169) by Bloomfield (148); Beauty received the first premium at the New York State Fair in 1848; 2d dam Massachusetts bred by Messrs. Hurlbuts, Winchester, Conn. =73 Daisy,= Calved April 15th, 1844; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire ANCHISES (140) imported by Mr. Patterson in 1836. Dam DUCHESS imported by the late Rufus King, of Long Island, N. Y., from the Earl of Leicester, England. =74 Daisy 2d,= Calved May 13th, 1854; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251); 2d sire Prince Albert (102); 3d sire Hundred Guinea (56). Dam DAISY 73 by Anchises (140); 2d dam Duchess imported by the late Rufus King, of Long Island, N. Y., from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =75 Daisy 3d,= Calved April 28th, 1855; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire HEROD (214) imported. Dam DAISY 73 by Anchises (140); 2d dam Duchess imported by the late Rufus King, of Long Island, N. Y., from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =76 Daisy,= Calved 1856; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire Roscius (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam SPOT 324 by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =77 Darling,= Calved 1855; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire Roscius (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 7TH (528) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =78 Dolly Dutton,= Calved September 6th, 1860; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of J. B. BASSENGER, Denville, N.J. Sire HANNIBAL (441); 2d sire Albert (2) imported in 1850 by S. & L. Hurlbut, of Winchester, Conn. Dam MINERVA 2D (1408) by Champion (385); 2d dam Minerva (1407) by Albert (2); 3d dam Fancy 2d 105 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 5th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Patterson, of Maryland, in 1817. =79 Dot,= Calved March 27th, 1859; bred by C. B. SMITH, Wolcottville, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire WATCH (585). Dam BELLE 38 by Champion (385). =80 Dot 2d,= Calved June 17th, 1860; bred by C. B. SMITH, Wolcottville, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam BELLE 38 by Champion (385). =81 Dover,= Calved March, 1855; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of LEVI WILLIAMS, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire WINCHESTER (590); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Mr. Hurlbut. Dam LONG HORNS by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =82 Dover 2d,= Calved April, 1862; bred by and the property of LEVI WILLIAMS, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire FOREST CITY 2D 36; 2d sire Forest City (429). Dam DOVER 81 by Winchester (590); 2d dam Long Horns by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =83 Duchess,= Calved March 15th, 1854; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire YOUNG DUKE, bred by F. V. Smith, owned by E. M. Crippen, Coldwater, Mich., from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 2d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam SOPHIA 323 by Red Rover (352); 2d dam Camilla Scott by Dibble (166); 3d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176). =84 Edith,= Calved 1856; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam PREMIUM, bred by Messrs. Baker, by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Extra 93 by Bishop 11; 3d dam Long Horned Baltimore bred by George Patterson, of Maryland. =85 Effie,= Calved February 14th, 1862; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam CASSY 56 by Dan 32; 2d dam Patsy 278; 3d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 4th dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =86 Ella,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam FANCY 4TH (713) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =87 Ellen 2d,= Calved April 1856; bred by E. P. BECK, Sheldon, N. Y.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, Mich. Sire COKE (160); 2d sire Major (237). Dam ELLEN (682) by Santa Anna (306); 2d dam Crescent (601) by Holkham (217). =88 Emily Sibley,= Calved December 25th, 1858; bred by and the property of J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUFORT (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam LADY DAY 193 by Beauty (365); 2d dam Flora (1285) by Rollo (516); 3d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =89 Emma,= Calved April 16th, 1862; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam PATSY 278; 2d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 3d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =90 Eva,= Calved May, 1861; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire MERIDEN 66; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam NELLIE 260 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Beauty 25 by Albert (2); 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 4th dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =91 Excelsior 2d,= Calved April, 1861; bred by and the property of LEVI WILLIAMS, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire FOREST CITY (429); 2d sire Norfolk (266). Dam EXCELSIOR (1257) by Norfolk (266); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. =92 Excelsior 3d,= Calved May, 1862; bred by and the property of LEVI WILLIAMS, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire FOREST CITY (429); 2d sire Norfolk (266). Dam EXCELSIOR (1257) by Norfolk (266); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. =93 Extra,= Calved September 10th, 1848; bred by LEWIS FRANCHOT, Otsego, N. Y.; the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire BISHOP 11 bred by H. N. Washbon, Butternuts, N. Y.; 2d sire Baltimore (143). Dam LONG HORNED BALTIMORE, bred by Mr. Patterson, and purchased by H. N. Washbon, of Butternuts, Otsego County, N. Y. =94 Fairy,= Calved April 15th, 1859; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam FANCY (1272) by Baltimore (363); 2d dam Red Lady bred by H. N. Washbon, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y., from the stock of Mr. Patterson. =95 Fairy,= Calved September 28th, 1860; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire imported Frank Quartly (205). Dam FLORA 125 by Norfolk (266); 2d dam bred by Mr. Patterson by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140). =96 Fairy 6th,= Calved June 3d, 1861; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; sold to E. H. Hyde, Stafford, Conn.; now the property of T. S. GOLD, West Cornwall, Conn. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam FAIRY 3D 98 (1266) by Hiawatha 47; 2d dam Fairy 2d (1263) by Comet 22 (162). =97 Fairy,= (696) Calved 1851; bred by G. SHAPLAND, Oakford, England; the property of R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn. Sire BARON (4); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam FORESTER COW (735) by a bull bred by R. Merson; 2d dam bred by Mr. Dee, by Forester (46). =98 Fairy 3d,= (1266) Calved 1858; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; sold to E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; now the property of AMBROSE N. MERRICK, Brimfield, Mass. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam FAIRY 2D (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy (696) imported by Ambrose Stevens, Batavia, N. Y.,--the property of R. Linsley, West Meriden, Conn.,--by Baron (4). =99 Fairy 4th,= Calved 1860; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FAIRY 97 (696) imported, by Baron (4); 2d dam Forester Cow (735) by a bull bred by Mr. Merson. =100 Fairy 5th,= Calved May 8th, 1860; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam FAIRY 2D (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy 97 (696) imported, by Baron (4). =101 Fairy 9th,= Calved July 16th, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FAIRY 4TH 99; 2d dam Fairy 97 (696) imported, by Baron (4). =102 Fancy,= Calved May 28th, 1860; bred by and the property of M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich. Sire WYOMING (595); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam CURLY (1220) by Coke (160); 2d dam Beauty (1173) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Silvy (1041) by Sir Walter Raleigh (311); 4th dam Slickey (1044) by Holkham (217); 5th dam Devon (658). =103 Fancy,= Calved April 12th, 1843; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire ANCHISES (140) imported in 1836 by G. Patterson. Dam a cow imported by Francis Rotch, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y., from the herd of the Duke of Norfolk, England. Fancy was bred in Otsego County, N. Y., where Mr. Collins lived at that time, and Anchises (140) was then owned by H. N. Washbon. =104 Fancy,= Calved May, 1852; bred by WILLIAM L. COWLES, Farmington, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire ARCHER bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam BEAUTY by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 4th dam one of the heifers presented to Mr. Patterson, of Maryland, by the Earl of Leicester, in 1817. =105 Fancy,= (1271) Calved 1843; bred by BELA TIFFANY, Southbridge, Mass.; the property of H. M. Sessions, South Wilbraham, Mass.; now the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire and dam bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn., and sold by them to Mr. Tiffany. =106 Fancy,= Calved May, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire MAJOR from Duchess 83; 2d sire Young Duke from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 3d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam JENNY (1332) by Blucher (149); 2d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6). =107 Fancy 2d,= (711) Calved 1847; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire BLOOMFIELD (148); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam FANCY (710) by Exchange (197); 2d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 3d dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Patterson, in 1817. =108 Fancy 5th,= Calved 1856; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FANCY 4TH (713a) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =109 Fanny,= Calved June 13th, 1862; bred by and the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire PRINCE JOHN 90; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam MARY HURLBUT 2D 236 by Hiawatha 47; 2d dam Mary Hurlbut 235 by Comet 22 (162); 3d dam Beauty 6th (527) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =110 Fanny,= Calved July 20th, 1860; bred by WILLIAM GARBUT, Wheatland, N. Y.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, Mich. Sire COKE (386); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam MAY (875) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Young Lady (1127) by Honest Tom (218); 3d dam Lady (818) by Holkham (217); 4th dam Devon (658). =112 Fanny,= (1274 corrected) Calved July 22d, 1855; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (371). Dam FANCY (1268) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) (1614E) by Eclipse (191). =113 Fanny 2d,= Calved July 26th, 1862; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TINSEL 124; 2d sire Tuscarora 134; 3d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam FANNY 112 (1274 corrected) by Mayboy (71); 2d dam Fancy (1268) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) (1614E) by Eclipse (191). =114 Fantine,= Calved June 17th, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam FAIRY 2D (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy 97 (696) by Baron (4); 3d dam Forester Cow (735); 4th dam by Forester (46). =115 Fie,= Calved April 1st, 1859; bred by and the property of WALDO M. HEALY, Dudley, Mass. Sire TURK 133; 2d sire Paul Dombey (523); 3d sire Bloomfield (148); 4th sire Eclipse (191) imported by Mr. Patterson from the herd of Mr. Bloomfield, Norfolk, England. Dam JULIA 178 by Paul Dombey (523); 2d dam Juliet (1347) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam bred by Messrs. Hurlbut from stock obtained of George Patterson, Maryland, =116 Flame,= Calved June 16th, 1859; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam FANNY 112 (1274 corrected) by Mayboy (71); 2d dam Fancy (1268) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) by Eclipse (191). =117 Flora,= Calved September 2d, 1862; bred by M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn.; the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam MINERVA 2D 241 (1408) by Champion (385) bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d dam Minerva (1407) by Albert (2); 3d dam Fancy 2d (711) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320) imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =118 Flora,= Calved January 25th, 1858; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam JENNY LIND 2D (1339) by Baltimore (363) bred by George Patterson; 2d dam Jenny Lind (1338) by Major (237); 3d dam Beauty (1169). Jenny Lind 2d received the second prize at the New York State Fair in 1858. =119 Flora,= Calved April, 1859; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire YOUNG DUKE from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 2d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam JENNY LIND 167 by Duke of Devon (405); 2d dam Sophia 323 by Red Rover (352). =120 Flora 2d,= Calved the spring of 1849; bred by HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills.; the property of C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa. There has been twenty-one pounds of butter made from the milk produced by this cow in nine successive days. Sire imported ECLIPSE (191). Dam JOSEPHINE (1345) by Anchises (140). =121 Flora 3d,= Calved March 22d, 1860; bred by HORACE CAPRON, Peoria County, Ills.; the property of C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam FLORA 2D 120 by Eclipse (191); 2d dam Josephine (1345) by Anchises (140). =122 Flora 4th,= Calved March 14th, 1861; bred by and the property of C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa. Sire imported MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam FLORA 2D 120 by imported Eclipse (191); 2d dam Josephine (1345) by Anchises (140). =123 Flora 5th,= Calved March 8th, 1862; bred by and the property of C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa. Sire imported MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam FLORA 2D 120 by Eclipse (191); 2d dam Josephine (1345) by Anchises (140) imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. =124 Flora,= Calved June 1st, 1861; bred by and the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, Mich. Sire DICK bred by William Garbut, Wheatland, N. Y.; 2d sire Coke (160). Dam LILY 205 by Coke (386); 2d dam Silvy 3d (1642E) by Major (240); 3d dam Young Selvy (1042) by Splendid (314). =125 Flora,= Calved 1857; bred by GEORGE PATTERSON, Maryland; the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire imported NORFOLK (266); 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam by imported Eclipse (191); 2d dam by Anchises (140); 3d dam a Coke Devon imported. =126 Flora 2d,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FLORA (726) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =127 Florence,= Calved January 2d, 1854; bred by HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire BLOOMFIELD (373); 2d sire imported Eclipse (191). Dam CLARA (1204) by imported Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191) and bred by Mr. Patterson from the Earl of Leicester stock. =128 Florence,= Calved June 24th, 1861; bred by and the property of C. W. CUSHING, South Hingham, Mass. Sire MAYBOY 62 (489); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam SONTAG 322 (1498) by Paul Dombey (523); 2d dam Blanche (1188) by Bloomfield (148). =129 Flotilla,= Calved April 23d, 1860; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205) imported; 3d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam PHLOX 288 by Springfield bred by George Patterson; 2d dam Edith bred from stock imported by George Patterson. =130 Fruitful,= Calved 1856; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BOBTAIL BEAUTY by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =131 Funny,= Calved April 28th, 1862; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, N. Y.; the property of FRANCHOT VAN RENSSELAER. Sire TINSEL 124; 2d sire Tuscarora 134; 3d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam FLAME 116 by Tuscarora 134; 2d dam Fanny 112 by Mayboy (71); 3d dam Fancy (1268) by Megunticook (251); 4th dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) (1614E) by Eclipse (191). =132 Gazelle,= Calved July 21st, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam FAIRY 97 (696) imported, by Baron (4); 2d dam Forester Cow (735) by R. Merson's bull; 3d dam by Forester (46). =133 Gem,= Calved March 31st, 1862; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire ECLIPSE 2D from Josephine (1345); 2d sire Bloomfield (373). Dam MARGARET by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Lavinia (1370) by Herod (214); 3d dam by Eclipse (191) and bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. =134 Gem,= Calved February 26th, 1856; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam LADY JANE 195 by Bloomfield (372); 2d dam imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from the Earl of Leicester, England. =135 Gem 2d,= Calved May 9th, 1862; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK 65; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam GEM 134 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372) imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England; 3d dam imported by the same Society. =136 Gipsy 2d,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam GIPSY 137 (749) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fanny (715) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Sukey (1066) by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =137 Gipsy, (749)= Calved 1853; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam FANNY (715) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Sukey (1066) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197) 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =138 Gipsy 3d,= Calved June 15th, 1861; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire REUBEN 106 from imported Pedley; 2d sire Roscius (267); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Mr. Hurlbut. Dam GIPSY MAID (1302) by Baron imported by John Allen, Saybrook, Conn., from the herd of George Turner, England; 2d dam Pretty Maid imported by John Allen, Saybrook, Conn. =139 Grace,= Calved May, 1858; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of THOMAS BIDWELL, Wentworth, Lake County, Ills. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam PINK 291 (957) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy 2d 107 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 4th dam one of the heifers presented to Mr. Patterson, Maryland, in 1817, by the Earl of Leicester. =140 Grace,= Calved April 6th, 1857; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire ECLIPSE 2D from Josephine (1345); 2d sire Bloomfield (373). Dam ADELINE 2 by imported Eclipse (191); 2d dam Ella (1246) by Herod (214) imported in 1846 by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. =141 Grace,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam PINK 291 (957) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy 2d 107 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =142 Hattie,= Calved in 1859; bred by L. A. THRALL, Torrington, Conn.; the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire NELSON 75; 2d sire Roscius (267); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam KATE 184 by John bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Strawberry 6th by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 4th dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =143 Hattie,= Calved 1854; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam JANE 162 (788) by Albert (2); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =144 Hattie 2d,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam HATTIE 143 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Jane 162 (788) by Albert (2); 3d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197). =145 Helen,= Calved February 27th, 1861; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam HOLLYHOCK 154 by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d and 4th dam by Anchises (140); 5th dam imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, from the herd of Mr. Coke, then Earl of Leicester, England. =146 Helena 3d,= (776) Calved October 29th, 1853; bred by C. S. WAINWRIGHT, Rhinebeck, N. Y.; the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire MAYBOY (71) imported; 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam BRENDA (547) by Megunticook (251) imported; 2d dam Helena (774) imported by Mr. Wainwright from the herd of George Turner, England. Helena 3d was the winner of the first prize as a two year old at the United States Show at Philadelphia in 1856. =147 Helena 4th,= Calved April 3d, 1860; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire OMER PASHA (513) (473E) imported by C. S. Wainwright; 2d sire Louis Napoleon (231). Dam HELENA 3D 146 (776) by Mayboy (71); 2d dam Brenda (547) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Helena (774) imported. =148 Helena 16th,= Calved April 20th, 1859; bred by C. S. WAINWRIGHT, Rhinebeck, N. Y.; the property of EZRA CORNELL, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y. Sire OMER PASHA (513); 2d sire Louis Napoleon (231). Dam HELENA 3D 146 (776) by Mayboy (71); 2d dam Brenda (547) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Helena (774) by Mr. Tapp's bull. She won the first prize in her class as a yearling heifer at the New York State Fair at Elmira, in 1860; also, the _special prize_, a silver medal, as the best Devon female of any age over one year at the same Fair. =149 Hetty,= (1321) Calved May 22d, 1855; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire ALBERT 2D bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Albert (2) imported. Dam ROSE 312 (1468) by Remus bred by Messrs. Hurlbut and sired by Exchange (197); 2d dam Emma bred by Messrs. Hurlbut by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Rose by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (710). =150 Hetty 2d,= Calved January 15th, 1858; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire LEO out of Lily bred by John Boyd, Winsted; 2d sire Watch (585). Dam HETTY (1321) by Albert 2d bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 2d dam Rose 316 (1468) by Remus bred by Messrs. Hurlbut. =151 Heroine,= Calved October 4th, 1859; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam OCTAVIA 275 by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Josephine (1345) by imported Anchises (140). =152 Hyacinth,= Calved January 2d, 1862; bred by and the property of ANTHONY BIDERMAN, Wilmington, Del. Sire HECTOR 46; 2d sire Carroll Eclipse 18. Dam LUCERNE (1388) by Godwin (207); 2d dam Edith (679). =154 Hollyhock,= Calved May 10th, 1856; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire HEROD (214) imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. Dam by Eclipse (191); 2d dam by Anchises (140); 3d dam also by Anchises (140); 4th dam a Coke Devon imported by George Patterson, Springfield, Carroll County, Md. =155 Ida,= Calved March 21st, 1860; bred by C. B. SMITH, Wolcottville, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam ALICE by Albert 2d, bred by S. & L. Hurlbut and sold to Phelps & Cook, Wolcottville, Conn.; 2d dam Belinda bred by Gad Lewis, Bristol, Conn., from Hurlbut stock, by Remus bred by Messrs. Hurlbut. =156 Ida 2d,= Calved April 20th, 1853; bred by C. M. CRIPPEN, Coldwater, Mich.; the property of SAMUEL TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF DEVON (405) imported. Dam IDA 1ST (1325) by Red Rover (352); 2d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176). =157 Ida 4th,= Calved April 12th, 1861; bred by E. A. ELY, Elyria, Ohio; the property of SAMUEL TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire CHIPAWAY 20; 2d sire Chingagook from Helena (774); 3d sire Uncas (324). Dam IDA 2D 156 by Duke of Devon; 2d dam Ida 1st (1325) by Red Rover (352); 3d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176) imported by R. C. Gapper, Toronto, C. W. =158 Ida May,= Calved January, 1860; bred by and the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire NERO 78; 2d sire Kossuth 53; 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn., in 1850. Dam ROSE 312 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Clara bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., from stock bought of J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Md. =159 Imogene 2d,= Calved October 21st, 1859; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam IMOGENE (1328) by Candy (153); 2d dam Rosa by Rover (553); 3d dam of the Garbut stock. =160 Iowa Belle,= Calved April 24th, 1861; bred by and the property of C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251) imported; 2d sire Prince Albert (102). Dam BELLE OF WINCHESTER (1180) by Albert (2) imported. =161 Jane,= (1329) Calved October 6th, 1854; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; sold to H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam TOPSY 1ST 335 by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 4th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =162 Jane,= (788) Calved 1852; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam BROAD HORNED BEAUTY (552) by Baltimore (143); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =163 Jennie,= Calved March 8th, 1855; bred by R. B. CHAMBERLAIN, Coventry, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2) imported. Dam KATE 180 bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., from stock bought of J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Md. =164 Jennie,= Calved March 6th, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire CHIBIABUS (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71); 3d sire Duke of York (37); 4th sire Quartly's Prince of Wales (105); 5th sire Prince Albert (102); 6th sire Hundred Guinea (56); 7th sire Sillifant (120). Dam PRECOCITY by Puritan (283); 2d dam Lady Morris (1363) by Frank Quartly (205); 3d dam Camilla (562) by Herod (214); 4th dam bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. Camilla is now the property of Mr. Wentworth. =165 Jenny,= Calved March 20th, 1859; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire NELSON 75; 2d sire Roscius (267). Dam CLARA by Henry, bred by Messrs. Hurlbut and sold to John Boyd, Winchester, Conn.; 2d dam Flora by Front de Boeuf; 3d dam Clara by George, bred by J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Md.; 4th dam Finella bred by Mr. Stanley. =166 Jenny,= Calved March, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN J. JOHNSON, North Pitcher, Chenango County, N. Y. Sire a bull bred by Truman Baker, Earlville, N. Y.; 2d sire Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam LILY 3D 209 by Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 2d dam Lily bred by R. H. Van Rensselaer, sired by Bright Eyes, bred by Samuel C. Gilbert, Butternuts, N. Y., whose sire was Baltimore, bred by George Patterson, Maryland, and owned by H. N. Washbon, Morris, N. Y., and whose dam was bred by Mr. Titus, Truxton, direct from a cow and bull imported by the late John Couland, Truxton, Cortland County, N. Y.; 3d dam Leonora (1371) by Sweepstakes, imported in the cow by Francis Rotch, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. =167 Jenny Lind,= Calved April, 1856; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire DUKE OF DEVON (405) imported. Dam SOPHIA 323 by Red Rover (352); 2d dam Camilla Scott by Dibble (176); 3d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176). =168 Jessica,= Calved August 17th, 1859; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam ADELINE 2 by imported Eclipse (191); 2d dam Ella (1246) by imported Herod (214). =169 Jessie,= Calved March 20th, 1861; bred by and the property of M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich. Sire MAJOR (476); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam MAYFLOWER (1400) by Coke (160); 2d dam Rosa (1466) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Beauty (1172). =170 Jessie,= Calved 1855; bred by and the property of A. CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn. Sire REUBENS (116); 2d sire Duke of Cornwall (33). Dam LOLA 213 by Prince of Oldenburg (104); 2d dam Pedley 283 (334) by Baronet (6); 3d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6); 4th dam by Hundred Guinea (56). =171 Jessie,= Calved May 6th, 1861; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK 12 (368); 2d sire Watch (585). Dam JENNY 165 by Nelson 75. =172 Jessie,= Calved February, 1854; bred by JOSEPH BURNETT, Southboro', Mass.; the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire ALEXANDER owned by Samuel Chandler, Lexington, Mass. Dam BALTIMORE 3D 11 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. She gained the first prize in Framingham in 1855, as the best yearling; also, the first premium at the Worcester Show, 1857, as the best of her class. =173 Jessie Davy 2d,= Calved 1861; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut. Dam JESSIE DAVY (1418E) imported by R. Linsley, by Richmond (292); 2d dam Floweret (1358E) by Earl of Exeter (38); 3d dam Flower (190) by Brinsworthy bred by R. Merson, England. =174 Josephine 2d,= Calved July 19th, 1859; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire imported MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam JOSEPHINE (1345) by Anchises (140); 2d dam bred by George Patterson, Maryland, from stock imported from the Earl of Leicester. =175 Julia,= Calved April, 1860; bred by and the property of A. B. ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire HANNIBAL from Duchess 83; 2d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam BEAUTY 16 by Duke of Devon (405); 2d dam Sophia 323 by Red Rover (352). =176 Julia,= Calved September 12th, 1861; bred by and the property of J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUFORT (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam EMILY SIBLEY 88 by Duke of Beaufort (400); 2d dam Lady Day 193 by Beauty (365); 3d dam Flora (1285) by Rollo (546); 4th dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =177 Julia,= Calved April, 1854; bred by and the property of A. CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn. Sire EMPEROR bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam LOLA 213 by Prince of Oldenburg (104); 2d dam Pedley 283 (334) by Baronet (6); 3d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6); 4th dam by Hundred Guinea (56). =178 Julia,= Calved June 3d, 1853; bred by WILLIAM BUCKMINSTER, Framingham, Mass.; the property of WALDO M. HEALY, Dudley, Mass. Sire PAUL DOMBEY (523); 2d sire Bloomfield (148); 3d sire Eclipse (191). Dam JULIET (1347) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn., and sold to William Buckminster, Framingham, Mass. =179 Juliet,= Calved April 22d, 1858; bred by and the property of WALDO M. HEALY, Dudley, Mass. Sire TURK 133; 2d sire Paul Dombey (523); 3d sire Bloomfield (148). Dam JULIA 178 by Paul Dombey (523); 2d dam Juliet (1347) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn., from stock obtained of Mr. Patterson, Maryland. =180 Kate,= Calved April, 1853; bred by JOHN BOYD, Winchester, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire RICHARD bred by Mr. Boyd from the Stanley stock; 2d sire a bull bred by Mr. Colt, Paterson, N.J. Dam ROWENA bred by Mr. Boyd, by Henry, a thorough-bred bull, bought of S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d dam Flora by Front de Boeuf, bred by J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Md.; 3d dam Clara by George and from Finella, both bred by J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Md. =181 Kate,= Calved October 9th, 1858; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam GEM 134 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =182 Kate,= Calved February 14th, 1859; bred by and the property of JOSEPH M. MUNSON, Watertown, Conn. Sire ORPHAN BOY 83; 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam ROSE 314 by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Fancy bred by H. N. Washbon from imported stock; 3d dam Emily imported by Mr. Couland, New York. =183 Kate,= Calved 1855; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 3D (524) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =184 Kate,= Calved 1856; bred by LEWIS A. THRALL, Torrington, Conn.; the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire JOHN bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam STRAWBERRY 6TH by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 3d dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320); 4th dam one of the heifers the Earl of Leicester gave Mr. Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =185 Kate 2d,= Calved February 16th, 1862; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire NERO from Belle 38; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. Dam KATE 184 by John 50. (See Kate 184.) =186 Kitty,= Calved February 20th, 1862; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam HOLLYHOCK 154 by Herod (214) imported in 1846; 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d and 4th dam by Anchises (140); 5th dam imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, from the herd of Mr. Coke then Earl of Leicester. =187 La Belle,= Calved January 3d, 1855; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of WILLIAM GORTON, Jr., Waterford, Conn. Sire DUKE OF YORK bred by Mr. Andrews; 2d sire Red Jacket bred by Mr. Andrews; 3d sire Juno bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 4th sire Bloomfield (148). Dam BLOOMING BEAUTY (1196) by Champion (385). Blooming Beauty won the first prize at the New York State Fair in 1857, and a silver medal to her breeder, B. H. Andrews. =188 Lady,= Calved April 10th, 1859; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198); 3d sire General (50). Dam LONG HORN FANCY 214 by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =189 Lady 2d,= Calved April 29th, 1862; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY 188 by Young Exeter 148; 2d dam Long Horn Fancy 214 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =190 Lady,= Calved April 2d, 1858; bred by WILLIAM GARBUT, Wheatland, N. Y.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, Mich. Sire COKE (386); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam SILVY (1041) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Slickey (1044) by Holkham (217). =191 Ladybird 2d,= Calved June 26th, 1862; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TURK 131; 2d sire Tuscarora 134; 3d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam LADYBIRD (820b); 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =192 Lady Dodge,= Calved October 18th, 1851; bred by HARVEY DODGE, Sutton, Mass.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire EARL OF LEICESTER bred by Harvey Dodge, Sutton, Mass., from the Massachusetts imported stock; 2d sire Roebuck bred from same stock; 3d sire Bloomfield (372) imported by the Massachusetts Society in 1844. Dam LADY JANE 195 by Bloomfield (372); 2d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester. =193 Lady Day,= Calved June 12th, 1857; bred by J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio; the property of Rev. M. A. HOGE, Zanesville, Ohio. Sire BEAUTY (365); 2d sire Rollo (546). Dam FLORA (1285) by Rollo (546); 2d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =194 Lady Gapper 2d,= Calved April, 1860; bred by J. W. HAMLIN, Aurora, Erie County, N. Y.; the property of SAMUEL TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire CHINGAGOOK from Helena (774); 2d sire Uncas (324); 3d sire Megunticook (251) imported by C. S. Wainwright, Rhinebeck, N. Y. Dam LADY GAPPER bred from stock imported by R. C. Gapper; 2d dam Fairy bred by R. C. Gapper, Toronto, C. W., by Duke of Devon (405); 3d dam Rose bred by Mr. Gapper from imported stock. =195 Lady Jane,= Calved July, 1849; bred by ELIAS PHINNEY, Lexington, Mass.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire BLOOMFIELD (372) imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture from the herd of the Earl of Leicester. Dam imported by the Massachusetts Society at the same time. =196 Ladyslipper,= Calved November 15th, 1859; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam LADY OF THE LAKE (1362) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Ladybird (820b); 3d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =197 Lalla Rookh,= Calved July 4th, 1858; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire PONTIAC (527) (483E); 2d sire imported Exeter (198). Dam imported LADYBIRD (820b); 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =198 Lantern,= Calved September 27th, 1862; bred by and the property of R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TURK 131; 2d sire Tuscarora 134; 3d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam LADYSLIPPER 196 by Tuscarora 134; 2d dam Lady of the Lake (1362) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Lady Lightfoot (824) by Duke of York (37). =199 Laura,= Calved March 1st, 1859; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam HOLLYHOCK 154 by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d and 4th dam by Anchises (140); 5th dam imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester. =200 Lib,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam FANCY 2D 107 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =201 Lida,= Calved February, 1857: bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER; the property of H. O. BANKS, McDonough, Chenango County, N. Y. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251); 2d sire Prince Albert (102); 3d sire Hundred Guinea (56). Dam LILY, bred by R. H. Van Rensselaer, by Bright Eyes bred by Samuel C. Gilbert, Butternuts, N. Y., whose sire was Baltimore, bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, and owned by H. N. Washbon, Morris, N. Y., and whose dam was bred by Mr. Titus, Truxton, direct from a cow and bull imported by the late John Couland, Truxton, Cortland County, N. Y.; 2d dam Leonora (1371) by Sweepstakes imported in the cow by Francis Rotch, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. =202 Lilac,= Calved November 30th, 1862; bred by and the property of ANTHONY BIDERMAN, Wilmington, Del. Sire HECTOR 46; 2d sire Carroll Eclipse 18. Dam LUCERNE (1388) by Godwin (207); 2d dam Edith (679). =203 Lily,= Calved April 16th, 1855; bred by R. B. CHAMBERLAIN, Coventry, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn., in 1850. Dam FLORA, bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., sired by Front de Boeuf bred by J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Md.; 2d dam Clara by George and from Finella, both bred by Mr. Stanley, Baltimore, Md. =204 Lily,= Calved May 10th, 1854; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire HEROD (214) imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, in 1846. Dam FANCY 103 by Anchises (140) imported in 1836; 2d dam a cow imported by Francis Rotch, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. =205 Lily,= Calved August 4th, 1858; bred by WILLIAM GARBUT, Wheatland, N. Y.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, Mich. Sire COKE (386); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam SILVY 3D (1642E) by Major (240); 2d dam Young Silvy (1042) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Silva (1041) by Sir Walter (311); 4th dam Slickey (1044) by Holkham (217). =206 Lily,= Calved April 13th, 1860; bred by and the property of WILLIAM GORTON, Jr., Waterford, Conn. Sire WATERBURY (586); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam SILVER MEDAL 320 by Hannibal (441); 2d dam Blooming Beauty (1190) by Champion (385). =207 Lily,= Calved May, 1856; bred by L. G. COLLINS, Indiana; the property of W. W. HENDERSON, Bridgeton, St. Louis County, Mo. Sire HEROD (214) imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. Dam DUCHESS by Anchises (140); 2d dam bred by George Patterson, Maryland. =208 Lily 2d,= Calved April, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire MAJOR from Duchess; 2d sire Young Duke from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 3d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam LILY (1373) by Prince Albert (278); 2d dam Beauty (504). =209 Lily 3d,= Calved April 1st, 1858; bred by and the property of JOHN J. JOHNSON, North Pitcher, Chenango County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205); 3d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam LILY, bred by R. H. Van Rensselaer, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y., by Bright Eyes bred by Samuel C. Gilbert, Butternuts, N. Y., whose sire was Baltimore bred by George Patterson, Maryland, and owned by H. N. Washbon, Morris, N. Y., and whose dam was bred by Mr. Titus, direct from a cow and bull imported by the late John Couland, Truxton, Cortland County, N. Y.; 2d dam Leonora (1371) by Sweepstakes, imported in the cow by Francis Rotch, Morris, N. Y. =210 Lizzie,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 7TH (528) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =211 Lizzie B.,= Calved April 29th, 1861; bred by and the property of J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUFORT (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam LADY DAY 193 by Beauty (365); 2d dam Flora (1285) by Rollo (546); 3d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =212 Lizzie,= Calved January 27th, 1860; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam JANE 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 2d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =213 Lola,= Calved March, 1852; bred by and the property of ABIJAH CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn. Sire PRINCE OF OLDENBURG (104); 2d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam PEDLEY 283 (334) by Baronet (6); 2d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6); 3d dam by Hundred Guinea (56). =214 Long Horn Fancy,= Calved March, 1847; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; formerly the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; now the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire BLOOMFIELD (148); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam FANCY (710) by Exchange (197); 2d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =215 Lophorn,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BOBTAIL BEAUTY by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =216 Lottie,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam KATE 183 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =217 Lovely,= (858) Calved 1853; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam BEAUTY 4TH (525) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =218 Lucy,= Calved April, 1862; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire MAJOR from Duchess; 2d sire Young Duke from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 3d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam LILY (1373) by Prince Albert (278); 2d dam Beauty (504). =219 Lucy,= Calved April 27th, 1856; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251); 2d sire Prince Albert (102); 3d sire Hundred Guinea (56). Dam imported LADYBIRD (820b); 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =220 Lucy 2d,= Calved April 18th, 1862; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam LUCY 219 by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Ladybird (820b); 3d dam Lucy by Hundred Guinea (56). =221 Lulu,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BROAD HORNED BEAUTY (552) by Baltimore (143); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =222 Lulu,= Calved May, 1859; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY DODGE 192 by Earl of Leicester; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =223 Maggie,= Calved April 26th, 1862; bred by and the property of R. H. WILSON, Cambridge, Ohio. Sire STEPHEN (564); 2d sire Marion (485). Dam PRAIRIE BIRD (1445) by Marion (485); 2d dam by Roderick (544); 3d dam by Herod (214); 4th dam by Anchises (140). =224 Majestic,= (1471E) Calved 1855; bred by G. TURNER, Barton, Exeter, England; imported by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; now the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire ABD-UL-MEDJID full brother to Abd-el-Kader (134). Dam WALLFLOWER (472) by Duke of York (37); 2d dam Mayflower (290) by a son of Hundred Guinea (56); 3d dam old Mayflower. =225 Majestic 2d,= Calved June 8th, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut. Dam MAJESTIC 224 (1471E) by full brother of Abd-el-Kader (134); 2d dam Wallflower (472) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Mayflower (290) by a son of Hundred Guinea (56); 4th dam old Mayflower. =226 May,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam SPOT 324 by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =227 May 1st,= Calved May 7th, 1862; bred by and the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK 12 (368); 2d sire Watch (585). Dam DOT 79 by Watch (585); 2d dam Belle 38 by Champion (385). =228 May 2d,= Calved May 11th, 1862; bred by and the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK 12 (368); 2d sire Watch (585). Dam BELLE 38 by Champion (385); 2d dam Belinda bred by Gad Lewis, Bristol, from stock bred by Messrs. Hurlbut and sold to William Scoville, Watertown, Conn., by the bull Remus bred Messrs. Hurlbut. =229 May Beauty,= Calved May 1st, 1862; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire YOUNG TECUMSEH 151; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam TOPSY 2D 336 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Topsy (1090) by Albert (2); 3d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =230 Mayflower,= Calved May, 1860; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire SHAKSPEARE from Victoria 242; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland; 3d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam JENNY (1332) by Blucher (149); 2d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6). =231 May Queen 2d,= Calved 1854; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam MAY QUEEN (882) by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =232 May Queen 3d,= Calved June, 1860; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of THOMAS BIDWELL, Wentworth, Lake County, Ills. Sire YOUNG TECUMSEH 151; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam MAY QUEEN 2D 231 by Roscius (267); 2d dam May Queen (882) by Albert (2) imported by Mr. Hurlbut; 3d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320) imported. =234 Mary 2d,= Calved April, 1857; bred by and the property of A. CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam MARY 1ST by Reubens (116); 2d dam Pedley 283 (334) by Baronet (6); 3d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6); 4th dam by Hundred Guinea (56). =235 Mary Hurlbut,= (1394) Calved in 1858; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut. Dam BEAUTY 6TH (527) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). Beauty 6th (527) gained the first prize at the American Institute, as a calf, in 1849. =236 Mary Hurlbut 2d,= Calved January, 1860; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut. Dam MARY HURLBUT 235 by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Beauty 6th (527) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =237 Maud,= Calved April 17th, 1861; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam TOPSY 334; 2d dam Flora bred by Messrs. Mason & Brown from the Beck & Garbut stock; 3d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176); 4th dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217). =238 Maud,= Calved 1859; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire HEROD 2D bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland; 2d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam DARLING 77 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Beauty 7th (528) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =239 Meme,= Calved February 28th, 1858; bred by and the property of J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire KIRK AYRS full brother to the bull Beauty (365); 2d sire Rollo (546). Dam FLORA (1285) by Rollo (546); 2d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =240 Mina,= Calved March 19th, 1861; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire SOMERVILLE (563); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam PATSY 278 by Comet bred by Daniel C. Howe from the Beck & Garbut stock; 2d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 3d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =241 Minerva 2d,= (1408) Calved May 3d, 1858; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire CHAMPION bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Roscius (267); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam MINERVA (1407) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy 2d (711) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 4th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =242 Minnehaha 3d,= Calved May, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam MINNEHAHA 243 (1409) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy 97 (696) imported, by Baron (4). =243 Minnehaha,= (1409) Calved 1855; bred by and the property of R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Darn FAIRY 97 (696) by Baron (4); 2d dam Forester Cow (735) by a bull bred by R. Merson; 3d dam bred by Mr. Dee, by Forester (46). =244 Minneola,= (1412) Calved June 22d, 1857; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire REUBENS 2D 105 (552); 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam JANE 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 2d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 5th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =245 Minnie 1st,= Calved May 15th, 1860; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam MINNEOLA 244 (1412) by Reubens 2d 105 (552); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 3d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Fancy 1st (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 6th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =246 Minnie 2d,= Calved May 17th, 1861; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire MERIDEN 66; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam MINNEOLA 244 (1412) by Reubens 2d 105 (552); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 3d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Fancy 1st (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 6th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =247 Minnie 3d,= Calved March 25th, 1862; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire MERIDEN 66; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam MINNEOLA 244 (1412) by Reubens 2d 105 (552); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 3d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 6th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =248 Minnie 4th,= Calved February 26th, 1863; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire MERIDEN 66; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam MINNEOLA 244 (1412) by Reubens 2d 105 (552); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 3d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =249 Minnie,= Calved December 6th, 1860; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire CHIBIABUS (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71) imported. Dam CAMILLA (562) bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, and now the property of J. Wentworth, Chicago, Ills., by Herod (214); 2d dam bred by Mr. Patterson. =250 Minnie,= Calved June 30th, 1859; bred by and the property of C. W. CUSHING, South Hingham, Mass. Sire MAYBOY 62 (489); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam SONTAG 322 (1498) by Paul Dombey (523); 2d dam Blanche (1188) by Bloomfield (148). =51 Minnie,= Calved February 20th, 1861; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam JANE 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 2d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =252 Minnie,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam STRAWBERRY 327 (1061) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 3d dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =253 Miss Gay,= Calved June 22d, 1857; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire PONTIAC (527) (483E); 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam LADY GAY (1357) by Megunticook (251) imported; 2d dam Lady Lightfoot (824) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Ladybird (820b) by Venture. =254 Model,= Calved May 21st, 1860; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam EMPRESS EUGENIE (1308E) by Duke of Wellington (187); 2d dam Lily (1446E) by Earl of Exeter (38); 3d dam Sylph (1069) by Duke of Devonshire (35); 4th dam Sylph (434) by Prince Albert (102); 5th dam Picture bred by Quartly; 6th dam Picture by Forester (46). =255 Moss Rose,= Calved June 2d, 1860; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of R. O. STORRS, Mansfield, Conn. Sire COMET 22, (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut. Dam BEAUTY 2D 26 by Kossuth 53: 2d dam Beauty 25 by Albert (2); 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 4th dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, Norfolk, England. =256 Myrtle,= Calved August 11th, 1858; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of HUBBARD TUCKER, Vernon, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY DODGE 192 by Earl of Leicester bred by Harvey Dodge, Sutton, Mass., from the Massachusetts imported stock; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =257 Nancy Dawson,= Calved September 5th, 1857; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam EXTRA 93 by Bishop 11; 2d dam Long Horned Baltimore bred by George Patterson, Maryland. =258 Nannie,= Calved 1859; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam MAY QUEEN 2d 231 by Roscius (267); 2d dam May Queen (882) by Albert (2); 3d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =259 Nellie,= Calved March 25th, 1859; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire ORPHAN BOY, 83; 2d sire Reubens, (116). Dam CURL 3D by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Curl 2d by Champion (385); 3d dam Curl bred by S. & L. Hurlbut by Bloomfield (148). =260 Nellie,= Calved June, 1859; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of E. S. PENNIMAN, North Woodstock, Conn. Sire STAFFORD 2D 115; 2d sire Stafford 114; 3d sire Kossuth 53; 4th sire Albert (2). Dam LADY DODGE 192; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =261 Nelly,= Calved May 15th, 1859; bred by WM. GARBUT, Wheatland, N. Y.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, St. Joseph County, Mich. Sire COKE (386); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam CRESCENT (1237E) by Major (240); 2d dam Crescent (603) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Crescent (602) by Sir Walter (311). =262 Nelly,= Calved August, 1858; bred by JOSEPH BURNETT, Southboro', Mass.; the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire PLOUGHMAN (226); 2d sire Roscius (267); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam BALTIMORE 3D 11 bred by Messrs. Hurlbut. =263 Nelly 2d,= Calved March 8th, 1862; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horicon (452) (439E). Dam NELLY 162 by Ploughman, (226); 2d dam Baltimore 3d bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =264 Nelly Bly,= Calved February 12th, 1859; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY JANE 195 by Bloomfield (372); 2d dam imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =265 Nelly Bly=, (1423) Calved 1851; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; sold to R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn., now the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251) imported; 2d sire Prince Albert (102). Dam BEAUTY 3D (524) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =266 Nelly Bly 2d=, (1424) Calved 1853; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; sold to E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn., now the property of T. S. GOLD, West Cornwall, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam NELLY BLY 252 (1423) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield 148; 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =267 Nelly Bly 4th,= Calved April 26th, 1861; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET, 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam NELLY BLY 265 (1423) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =268 Nettie,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam GIPSY 137 (749) by Albert (2); 3d dam Fanny (715) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Sukey (1066) by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =269 Nina,= Calved April 12th, 1860; bred by and the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire NERO 78; 2d sire Kossuth 53; 3d sire imported Albert (2). Dam LILY 203 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Flora bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., by Front de Boeuf bred by J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore; 3d dam Clara by George and from Finella, both bred by Mr. Stanley, Baltimore. =270 Ninevah,= Calved July 30th, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN CORP, Freetown, Cortland Co., N. Y. Sire MESSENGER 68; 2d sire Pontiac (527) (483E). Dam NANCY DAWSON (912) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Nonpareil (925) by Sultan (122). =271 Nonsense,= Calved May 6th, 1862; bred by and the property of J. HENRY CORP, Freetown, Cortland Co., N. Y. Sire FANCY'S VALIANT 35; 2d sire Valiant (578). Dam NONSENSE (1429) by Megunticook, (251) 2d dam Nonpareil, (925) by Sultan (122). =272 Nora Vane,= Calved May 14th, 1862; bred by and the property of CHAUNCEY B. CORP, Freetown, Cortland County, N. Y. Sire FANCY'S VALIANT 35; 2d sire Valiant (578). Dam NANCY DAWSON (912) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Nonpareil (925) by Sultan (122). =273 Norma,= Calved November 2d, 1858; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire imported MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam FLORENCE 127 by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Clara (1204) by Herod (214); 3d dam by Eclipse (191), and bred by Mr. Patterson, Md. =274 Norna,= Calved October 10th, 1861; bred by W. W. HENDERSON, Bridgeton, St. Louis County, Mo.; the property of W. C. FLAGG, Moro, Madison County, Ills. Sire RED PATH 101; 2d sire Megunticook (251) imported. Dam MAUD (1397) by Albert (2); 2d dam Smith 4th (1049) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Smith 1st (1046) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =275 Octavia,= Calved October 26th, 1855; bred by HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire BLOOMFIELD (873); 2d sire imported Eclipse (191). Dam JOSEPHINE (1345) by Anchises (140); 2d dam bred by George Patterson, Md., from stock imported from the Earl of Leicester. =276 Pansey,= Calved 1859; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER, 148; 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam DAISY 76 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Spot 324 by Albert (2); 3d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =277 Pansy,= Calved February, 1861, bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire STAFFORD 2D 115; 2d sire Stafford 114; 3d sire Kossuth 53; 4th sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 25 by Albert (2); 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =278 Patsy,= Calved April 6th, 1855; bred by DAVID C. HOWE, Brutus, Cayuga County, N. Y.; the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, N. Y. Sire COMET bred by Mr. Howe from the Beck & Garbut stock; 2d sire Criterion bred by Messrs. Mason & Brown, Ellridge, Onondaga County, N. Y., who purchased her dam of Messrs. Beck & Garbut; 3d sire Criterion bred by Messrs. Beck & Garbut; 4th sire Dibble (176). Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =279 Pauline,= Calved August 20th, 1859; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam PAULINE, (1436) by Bonaparte (369); 2d dam Rosa by Rover (353); 3d dam from the Garbut stock. =280 Pauline 2d,= Calved May 2d, 1862; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam PAULINE (1436) by Bonaparte (369). =281 Pauline,= Calved May 10th, 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAY BOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam AMBER by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Adeline 2 by Eclipse (191); 3d dam Ella (1246) by Herod (214). =282 Pearlette,= Calved February 12th, 1860; bred by and the property of JAMES BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUFORT (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam FLORA (1285) by Rollo (546); 2d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =283 Pedley,= (334) Calved March, 1850; imported from the herd of GEORGE TURNER, Barton, England, in September, 1851 by D. W. CATLIN, New York city; the property of ABIJAH CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn. Sire BARONET (6); 2d sire Quartly's Prince of Wales (105); 3d sire Prince Albert (102). Dam LILY (263) by Baronet (6); 2d dam by Hundred Guinea (56). =284 Peony,= Calved March 25th, 1858; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery Co., Indiana. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam HOLLYHOCK 154 by Herod (214) imported in 1846; 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d and 4th dams by Anchises (404); 5th dam a Coke Devon, imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. =285 Pet 4th,= Calved July, 1855; bred by L. F. ALLEN, Black Rock, N. Y.; the property of SILAS ROOT, Westfield, Mass. Sire QUARTLY (284); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam PET 2D by Red Rover (352); 2d dam Pet by Red Rover (353); 3d dam descended from stock imported by the late Rufus King, Long Island, N. Y. =286 Pet 5th,= Calved April, 1862; bred by and the property of SILAS ROOT, Westfield, Mass. Sire DUKE OF CAMBRIDGE (401) bred by L. F. Allen, N. Y.; 2d sire imported Candy (153). Dam PET 4TH 285 by Quartly (284); 2d dam Pet 2d by Red Rover (352); 3d dam Pet by Red Rover (353); 4th dam descended from the stock imported by the late Rufus King, Long Island, N. Y. =287 Phebe,= Calved April 1st, 1860; bred by and the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire NERO 78; 2d sire Kossuth 53; 3d sire imported Albert (2). Dam JENNIE 163 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Kate 189 by Richard, bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., from the Stanley stock. =288 Phlox,= Calved March 4th, 1852; bred by ANTHONY BIDERMAN, Wilmington, Del.; the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster Co., Pa. Sire SPRINGFIELD, bred by George Patterson, Maryland; 2d sire imported Eclipse (191). Dam EDITH; 2d dam was presented, when in calf, to Edward Kinley, by Geo. Patterson. =289 Pink,= Calved April 15th, 1858; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery Co., Ind. Sire HEROD, (214) imported in 1846 by Mr. Patterson. Dam by ECLIPSE (191); 2d and 3d dams by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =290 Pink,= Calved March 15th, 1860; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK 12 (368); 2d sire Watch, (585). Dam NELLIE by Albert 2d, bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 2d dam Fancy by Young Holkham, bred by the Messrs. Hurlbut, from Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Nelly by Young Eclipse from Eclipse (191); 4th dam Nell by Red Rover (352); 5th dam Ellen, R. L. Colt's prize Cow; 6th dam Miss Brooks, owned by George Law, Baltimore, Maryland. =291 Pink,= (957) Calved 1853; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2) 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam FANCY 2d 107 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320.) =292 Pocahontas 2d,= Calved May 10th, 1859; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire SOMERVILLE (563); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =293 Polly,= Calved August 29th, 1858; bred by E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y.; the property of H. W. KNOWLTON, Freeport, Ills. Sire BALTIMORE (364); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam ROSE by Rover (353); 2d dam from the Beck & Garbut stock. =294 Pretty,= Calved June 5th, 1861; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam PHLOX 288 by Springfield, bred by G. Patterson. =295 Primrose,= Calved April 15th, 1857; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire HEROD (214) imported by Mr. Patterson in 1846. Dam LILY 204 by Herod (214); 2d dam Fancy 103 by Anchises (140) imported by Mr. Patterson in 1836; 3d dam imported by Francis Rotch, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. =296 Princess,= Calved August 19th, 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam FLORENCE 127 by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Clara (1204) by Herod (214). =297 Princess Royal 2d,= Calved 1861; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam EMPRESS EUGENIE bred by R. Linsley, West Meriden, Conn. by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Empress Eugenie (1308E) (imported by R. Linsley) by Duke of Wellington (187); 3d dam Lily (1446E) by Earl of Exeter (38); 4th dam Sylph (1069) by Duke of Devonshire (35); 5th dam Sylph (434) by Prince Albert (102). =298 Queen of Oaks,= Calved March 23d, 1856; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire BLOOMFIELD (373); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam ADELINE 2 by imported Eclipse (191); 2d dam Ella (1246) by Herod (214) imported by Mr. Patterson in 1846. =299 Queen Victoria,= Calved 1856; bred by GEORGE PATTERSON, Md.; the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire imported NORFOLK (266); 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam bred by Mr. Patterson by Eclipse (191). =300 Rebe,= Calved October 24th, 1857; bred by JOSEPH BURNETT, Southboro', Mass.; the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire COMET owned by H. G. White, South Framingham, Mass. Dam JESSIE 172 by Alexander owned by Samuel Chandler, Lexington, Mass.; 2d dam Baltimore 3d 11 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =301 Rebe 2d,= Calved December 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horicon (452) (439E); 3d sire Mayboy (71) imported by C. S. Wainwright, Rhinebeck, N. Y. Dam REBE 300 by Comet owned by H. G. White, South Framingham, Mass.; 2d dam Jessie 172 by Alexander owned by Samuel Chandler, Lexington, Mass.; 3d dam Baltimore 3d 11 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =302 Red Lady,= Calved May 27th, 1861; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam GEM 134 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =303 Red Lady 2d,= Calved February 16th, 1861; bred by and the property of M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich. Sire WYOMING (595); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam RED LADY (1460) by Coke (160); 2d dam Julia (1346) by Splendid (314): 3d dam Ticket (1079) by Red Jacket (289); 4th dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham, (217). =304 Red Lady 3d,= Calved December 26th, 1861; bred by and the property of M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich. Sire WYOMING (595): 2d sire Coke (160). Dam RED LADY (1460) by Coke (160); 2d dam Julia (1346) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Ticket (1079) by Red Jacket (289); 4th dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217). =305 Red Rose,= Calved May, 1860; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162). Dam GEM 134 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Jane (195) by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =306 Robin,= Calved April 6th, 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam QUEEN OF OAKS 298 by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Adeline 2 by Eclipse (191); 3d dam Ella (1246) by Herod (214). =307 Rosa,= Calved February 27th, 1862; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut. Dam BRIDGET 51 by Charter Oak (334); 2d dam Gipsy (1301) by Hannibal (441); 3d dam Gipsy Maid 1303; by Baron imported by John Allen, Saybrook, Conn., from the herd of George Turner, England; 4th dam Pretty Maid also imported by Mr. Allen. =308 Rosa,= Calved March 15th, 1859; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & Son, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire FRANK MORRIS (433); he received the first premium at the New York State Fair in 1858; 2d sire Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam ROSA BELLE 311 by Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 2d dam Extra 93 by Bishop 11; 3d dam Long Horned Baltimore bred by George Patterson, Md. =309 Rosa,= Calved February 27th, 1862; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam BRIDGET 51 by Charter Oak (334); 2d dam Gipsy (1301) by Hannibal (441); 3d dam Gipsy Maid (1303) by Baronet (6). =310 Rosa,= Calved May 31st, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Illinois. Sire CHIBIABUS, (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71) imported. Dam LADY GAY (1357) by Megunticook (251) imported; 2d dam Lady Lightfoot (824) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Lady Bird (820b). =311 Rosa Belle,= Calved March 25th, 1856; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON of Earlville, Madison Co., N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam EXTRA 93 by Bishop 11; 2d dam Long Horned Baltimore, bred by Mr. Patterson and purchased by H. N. Washbon, Butternuts, Otsego Co., N. Y. =312 Rose,= Calved April, 1854; bred by R. B. CHAMBERLIN, Coventry, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut in 1850. Dam CLARA bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., from Finella and George, both bred by J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Maryland. =313 Rose,= Calved February 25th, 1862; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery Co., Indiana. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam PRIMROSE 295 by Herod (214); 2d dam Lily 204 by Herod (214); 3d dam Fancy 103 by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported by Francis Rotch, Morris, Otsego Co., New York, from the Duke of Norfolk, England. =314 Rose,= Calved 1849; bred by WASHBURN & BLACKMAN, Butternuts, Otsego Co., N. Y.; the property of JOSEPH M. MUNSON, Watertown, Conn. Sire BALTIMORE, (364); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam FANCY bred by Mr. Washburn; 2d dam Emily imported by Mr. Couland, Truxton, Courtland Co., N. Y. =315 Rose,= Calved 1856; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FANCY 4TH (713) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =316 Rose,= (1468) Calved February, 1850; bred by F. W. COWLES, Farmington, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire REMUS, bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 2d sire Exchange, (197). Dam EMMA bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Rosa by Exchange (197); 3d dam Fancy (710). =317 Rosette,= Calved April 10th, 1858; bred by and the property of HEZEKIAH TILLOTSON, Farmington, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam FANCY 4TH (713) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =318 Ruby,= Calved July 3d, 1859; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire SOMERVILLE (563); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam PATSY 278 by Comet bred by David C. Howe, Brutus, N. Y., from the Beck & Garbut stock; 2d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 3d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =319 Ruby,= Calved April 10th, 1859; bred by and the property of HEZEKIAH TILLOTSON, Farmington, Conn. Sire NELSON 75; 2d sire Roscius (267). Dam BEAUTY 8TH 36 by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =320 Silver Medal,= Calved May 2d, 1857; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of WM. GORTON, JR., Waterford, Conn. Sire HANNIBAL (441); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6); 4th sire Quartly's Prince of Wales (106). Dam LA BELLE 187 by Duke of York bred by Mr. Andrews; 2d dam Blooming Beauty (1190) by Champion (385). =321 Snowdrop,= Calved March 14th, 1862; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire FRANK QUARTLY 39; 2d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam BLOSSOM 47 by Priam 87; 2d dam Daisy 3d 75 by Herod (214); 3d dam Daisy 73 by Anchises (140); 4th dam Duchess imported by the late Rufus King, Long Island, N. Y., in 1819 from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =322 Sontag,= Calved April 23d, 1853; bred by WM. BUCKMINSTER, Framingham, Mass.; the property of C. W. CUSHING, South Hingham, Mass. Sire PAUL DOMBEY (523); 2d sire Bloomfield (148); 3d sire Eclipse (191). Dam BLANCHE (1188) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =323 Sophia,= Calved April 15th, 1852; bred by J. W. HAMLIN, West Aurora, N. Y., the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire RED ROVER (352); 2d sire Rover (353). Dam CAMILLA SCOTT bred by J. W. Hamlin by Dibble (176); 2d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176); 4th dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (215); 5th dam Devon (658). =324 Spot,= Calved 1854; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam BEAUTY 3D (524) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy 709 by Taurus (320). =325 Sprightly,= Calved June 10th, 1854; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire HEROD (214) imported by Mr. Patterson, Md. in 1846, from the herd of Mr. Bloomfield, Norfolk, England. Dam by Eclipse (191); 2d dam by Anchises (140); 3d dam imported from the Earl of Leicester by George Patterson, Springfield, Carroll County, Md. =326 Stella,= Calved November 12th, 1858; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71) imported; 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam CLARA (1204) by Herod (214) imported by Mr. Patterson in 1846. =327 Strawberry=, (1061) Calved October, 1850; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire BLOOMFIELD (148); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam STRAWBERRY by Exchange (197); 2d dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =328 Sukey,= Calved May 10th, 1861; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam DAISY 3D 75 by Herod (214); 2d dam Daisy 73 by Anchises (140); 3d dam Duchess imported by the late Rufus King, Long Island, in 1819, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =329 Susan,= Calved 1851; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251); 2d sire Prince Albert (102). Dam FANCY 2D 107 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =330 Tilly,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam BEAUTY 7TH (528) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =331 Tiptoe,= Calved September 20th, 1859; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam JENNY LIND (1338) by Major (237); 2d dam Beauty (1169) by Bloomfield (148). =332 Topsy,= Calved April 11th, 1862; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Mr. Hurlbut. Dam CAPATOLA 55 by Hannibal (441); 2d dam Blossom (1191) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =333 Topsy,= Calved March 20th, 1860; bred by and property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire NERO out of Bell 38; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, Md. Dam ROSE 316 (1468) by Remus, bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 2d dam Emma by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Rose by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (710). =334 Topsy,= Calved May 25th, 1855; bred by DAVID C. HOWE, Brutus, N. Y.; the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire COMET bred by Mr. Howe from the Beck & Garbut stock. Dam FLORA bred by Messrs. Mason & Brown, Ellridge, N.Y., from the Beck & Garbut stock; 2d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217). =335 Topsy 1st,= Calved 1851; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire BLOOMFIELD (148); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam FANCY 1ST (710) by Exchange (197); 2d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 3d dam one of the heifers the Earl of Leicester presented to Robert Patterson, Md., in 1817. =336 Topsy 2d,= Calved 1856; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam TOPSY (1090) by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197) 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =337 Tracy,= Calved 1853; bred by GEORGE PATTERSON, Md.; the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck County, Pa. Sire imported HEROD (214). Dam bred by Mr. Patterson, by Eclipse (191). =338 Twinkle,= Calved September 29th, 1862; bred by and the property of JAMES BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUFORT (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam MEME 239 by Kirk Ayrs, full brother to the bull Beauty (365); 2d dam Flora (1285) by Rollo (546). =339 Venus,= Calved April 14th, 1860; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam DAISY 3D 75 by Herod (214); 2d dam Daisy 73 by Anchises (140); 3d dam Duchess imported by the late Rufus King, Long Island, N. Y., from the herd of the Earl of Leicester. =340 Venus,= Calved April 4th, 1861; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire REUBEN 105; 2d sire Roscius (267); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY 177 by Young Exeter 148; 2d dam Long Horn Fancy 214 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =341 Venus,= Calved July, 1860; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY DODGE 192 by Earl of Leicester; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844. =342 Victoria,= Calved April, 1847; bred by and the property of J. N. BLAKESLEE, Watertown, Conn. Sire JUNO bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Bloomfield (148). Dam BEAUTY bred by E. M. White, Danbury, Conn., by Matchless 2d bred by J. F. Baird, both bred from stock procured from S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =343 Victoria 2d,= Calved June, 1854; bred by Messrs. PHELPS & COOK, Wolcottville, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire ALBERT 2D bred by Messrs. Hurlbut and owned by N. B. Phelps, Wolcotville, Conn.; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam VICTORIA bred by George Patterson, Md., by Eclipse (191); 2d dam imported by Mr. Patterson from Mr. Bloomfield's herd, Norfolk, England. =344 Victoria 3d,= Calved January 1st, 1859; bred by C. F. WEST, Elyria, Ohio; the property of SAMUEL TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF DEVON (405) imported by R. C. Gapper, Toronto, C. W.; and bred by Mr. Davy, North Molton, England. Dam VICTORIA (1513) by Dibble (176) imported; 2d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (215). =345 Victoria 3d,= Calved March 27th, 1859; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn.; the property of SETH S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK (368) 2d sire Watch (585). Dam VICTORIA 2D 343 by Albert 2d bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Victoria bred by George Patterson, Md., bought by Mr. Colt, N. J., and sold to W. L. Cowles, Farmington, Conn., by Eclipse (191); 3d dam presented to Mr. Patterson in 1817, by the Earl of Leicester. =346 Victoria 4th,= Calved February 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire NERO from Bell 38; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, Md. Dam VICTORIA 3d 345 by Bobolink (368); 2d dam Victoria 2d 343 by Albert (2); 3d dam Victoria bred by George Patterson, Md., by Eclipse (191). =347 Waterbury Beauty,= Calved March 2d, 1856; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterford, Conn.; the property of WM. GORTON, Jr., Waterford, Conn. Sire DUKE OF YORK bred by Mr. Andrews; 2d sire Red Jacket bred by Mr. Andrews; 3d sire Juno bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 4th sire Bloomfield (148). Dam ELLA bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, and exported to Canada in 1856. =348 Wynona,= (1524) Calved May 8th, 1858; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire REUBENS 2D 105 (552); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam JANE 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 2d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy 1st (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 5th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Md., in 1817. =349 Young Fairy,= Calved June, 1855; bred by W. H. MILLER, Mosco, Mich.; the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire BALTIMORE (364); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam FAIRY bred by J. W. Collins, Sodus, N. Y., by Eclipse (191); 2d dam Caroline (1200) by a bull bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 3d dam Victoria (1512) by Exchange (197). =350 Young Fancy,= Calved March 1st, 1859; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of HUBBARD TUCKER, Vernon, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FANCY 105 (1271) from a pair bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn., and sold to Bela Tiffany. =351 Yuba 3d,= Calved December 4th, 1859; bred by and the property of EZRA CORNELL, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y. Sire FORDHAM (432); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam YUBA (1529) by Uncas (324); 2d dam Rose (1020) by Major (237) 3d dam Cherry (581). Yuba 3d won the first prize as a heifer calf, at the New York State Fair at Elmira, in 1860. * * * * * Transcriber's Notes: Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Text uses both Nonpariel and Nonpareil. The individual listing of cattle is in only slightly alphabetical order. For example, Dawn comes after Dora Haines and before Dairy Maid and Diana. This was retained. Some of the names were probably misprints such as the occurrence of both Phatasie and Phantassie, but, as each only occurred once and you may name a cow whatever you like, these were retained. First section: Page 6, "Rotch, F. M." was out of order on the list of owners. It originally came after "Robbins". It was relocated. Page 8, "prefererable" changed to "preferable" (orange much preferable) Page 14, "Howit" changed to "Howitt" (owned by JOHN HOWITT) Page 16, "Mamaluke" changed to "Mameluke" (Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258)) Page 37, "prop-" changed to "property" (Conn.; property) Page 41, "Gywnne" changed to "Gwynne" (Gwynne, by Phenomenon) Page 44, "propperty" changed to "property" (Windsor, Conn.; property) Page 54, repeated word "and" deleted. Original read (white, bred and and) Second Section: Page 25, word "of" added to text (for the Promotion of) Page 29, "Willam" changed to "William" (Eliza, imported by William) Page 30, "importted" changed to "imported" (Lanarkshire, Scotland; imported) Page 31, "Tustees" changed to "Trustees" (Trustees of Massachusetts Society) Page 51, "Lannarkshire" changed to "Lanarkshire" (JAMES PEATE, Lanarkshire) Section Three: Page 6, "Chatauqua" changed to "Chautauqua" (Westfield, Chautauqua Co.) Page 20, (under 11 Bishop) "Renselear" changed to "Rensselaer" (by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER) Page 20, "Canadas" changed to "Canada" (other States and Canada) Page 29, (under 47 Hiawatha) "Hurlburt" changed to "Hurlbut" (Hurlbut; 3d sire Baronet) Page 33, "Sumerville" changed to "Somerville" (292 by Somerville (563)) Page 37, "Jannary" changed to "January" (Calved January 1st, 1860) Page 71, "Beuaty" changed to "Beauty" (Dam BEAUTY 16) Page 119, "Stawberry" changed to "Strawberry" (Dam STRAWBERRY 327) Page 123, "proporty" changed to "property" (property of E. H. HYDE) Page 134, "Hrrlbut" changed to "Hurlbut" (property of S. & L. HURLBUT) Page 142, "Water-" changed to "Waterford" (B. H. ANDREWS, Waterford, Conn.) 
30310	----	U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. J. R. MOHLER, CHIEF OF BUREAU. * * * * * SPECIAL REPORT ON DISEASES OF CATTLE. BY Drs. ATKINSON, DICKSON, EICHHORN, HICKMAN, LAW, LOWE, MARSH, MOHLER, MURRAY, PEARSON, RANSOM, TRUMBOWER, and WOODWARD. * * * * * REVISED EDITION, 1923. [Illustration: USDA seal] WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1923. * * * * * Transcriber's note: Minor typos have been corrected, tables have been modified where necessary to fit within the constraints of a text file, and footnotes have been moved to the ends of the sections. Inconsistencies in spelling (e.g., D'Arboval/D'Arborval) and hyphenation (e.g., postmortem/post-mortem) have been resolved in all cases where it was possible to divine the author's intent with a reasonable degree of certainty. The occasional error which could not be resolved was marked [sic]. Italicized letters and words are enclosed by _underscores_. Subscripts are represented by an underscore and curly braces: _{2} (for example, SiO_{2}). Ligatures which cannot be reproduced in the Latin-1 character set are enclosed in [brackets] (for example, C[oe]nurus). * * * * * [Extract from "An act making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1924, and for other purposes," approved February 26, 1923. Public--No. 446.] For printing, binding, and distribution of the publications entitled "Diseases of the Horse" and "Diseases of Cattle," $200,000: _Provided_, That said publications shall be deposited one-third in the folding room of the Senate and two-thirds in the folding room of the House of Representatives, and said documents shall be distributed by Members of the Senate and House of Representatives. CONTENTS. Page. Administration of medicines. By LEONARD PEARSON 7 Diseases of the digestive organs. By A. J. MURRAY 12 Poisons and poisoning. By V. T. ATKINSON 51 Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics. By W. H. HARBAUGH 73 Noncontagious diseases of the organs of respiration. By WILLIAM HERBERT LOWE 87 Diseases of the nervous system. By W. H. HARBAUGH 101 Diseases of the urinary organs. By JAMES LAW 113 Diseases of the generative organs. By JAMES LAW 147 Diseases following parturition. By JAMES LAW 214 Diseases of young calves. By JAMES LAW 247 Bones: Diseases and accidents. By V. T. ATKINSON 264 Surgical operations. By WILLIAM DICKSON and WILLIAM HERBERT LOWE 289 Tumors affecting cattle. By JOHN R. MOHLER 303 Diseases of the skin. By M. R. TRUMBOWER 320 Diseases of the foot. By M. R. TRUMBOWER 335 Diseases of the eye and its appendages. By M. R. TRUMBOWER 340 Diseases of the ear. By M. R. TRUMBOWER 355 Infectious diseases of cattle. Revised by JOHN R. MOHLER 358 The animal parasites of cattle. By B. H. RANSOM 502 Mycotic stomatitis of cattle. By JOHN R. MOHLER 532 Index 538 ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. Page. PLATE I. Position of the first stomach (rumen or paunch) 48 II. Stomachs of ruminants 48 III. Instruments used in treating diseases of digestive organs 48 IV. Microscopic anatomy of the liver 48 V. Ergot in hay 48 VI. Ergotism 48 VII. Diagram of the circulation of the blood 86 VIII. Position of the lung 90 IX. Kidney and male generative and urinary organs 145 X. Microscopic anatomy of the kidney 145 XI. Calculi of kidney and bladder 146 XII. Fetal calf within its membranes 210 XIII. Pregnant uterus with cotyledons 210 XIV. Vessels of umbilical cord 211 XV. Normal position of calf in utero 211 XVI. Abnormal positions of calf in utero 211 XVII. Abnormal positions of calf in utero 211 XVIII. Abnormal positions of calf in utero; surgical instruments and sutures 212 XIX. Monstrosities 212 XX. Instruments used in difficult labor 212 XXI. Instruments used in difficult labor 213 XXII. Supports for prolapsed uterus 246 XXIII. Supports for prolapsed uterus 246 XXIV. Instruments used in diseases following parturition 246 XXV. Skeleton of the cow 282 XXVI. Devices for casting cattle 302 XXVII. Surgical instruments and sutures 302 XXVIII. Various bacteria which produce disease in cattle 360 XXIX. Upper or dorsal surface of the lungs of the ox 368 XXX. Broncho-pneumonia 368 XXXI. Contagious pleuro-pneumonia 368 XXXII. Contagious pleuro-pneumonia 368 XXXIII. Foot-and-mouth disease 384 XXXIV. Tuberculosis of the lungs of cattle 416 XXXV. Tuberculosis of the liver 416 XXXVI. Tuberculosis of lymph gland and of omentum (caul) 416 XXXVII. Fig. 1.--Tuberculosis of sirloin and porterhouse cuts of beef. Fig. 2.--Tuberculosis of pleura of cow, so-called "pearly disease" 416 XXXVIII. Tuberculosis of cow's udder 416 XXXIX. Actinomycosis 450 XL. Actinomycosis of the jaw 450 XLI. Actinomycosis of the lungs 450 XLII. Section of muscle from a blackleg swelling 464 XLIII. Necrotic stomatitis (calf diphtheria) 464 XLIV. Normal spleen and spleen affected by Texas fever 504 XLV. Texas fever 504 XLVI. The cattle tick (_Margaropus annulatus_), the carrier of Texas fever 504 XLVII. The cattle tick (_Margaropus annulatus_) 504 XLVIII. Portion of a steer's hide showing the Texas fever tick (_Margaropus annulatus_) 504 XLIX. Fig. 1.--Tick-infested steer. Fig. 2.--Dipping cattle to kill ticks 504 L. Facsimile of poster comparing ticky and tick-free cattle 504 TEXT FIGURES. FIG. 1. Hornfly (_Hæmatobia serrata_) in resting position 504 2. Hornflies (_Hæmatobia serrata_) on cow horn 505 3. Buffalo gnat 506 4. Screw worm (larva of _Chrysomyia macellaria_) 506 5. Screw-worm fly (_Chrysomyia macellaria_) 507 6. The warble fly (_Hypoderma lineata_) 508 7. Short-nosed blue louse (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_) of cattle 512 8. Long-nosed blue louse (_Hæmatopinus vituli_) of cattle 512 9. Red louse (_Trichodectes scalaris_) of cattle 513 10. Egg of short-nosed blue louse (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_) attached to a hair 513 11. Mite which causes psoroptic scab of sheep 514 12. Portion of the wall of the first stomach with conical flukes (_Paramphistomum cervi_) attached 519 13. Twisted stomach worms (_Hæmonchus contortus_) 519 14. Twisted stomach worms (_Hæmonchus contortus_) enlarged 520 15. Embryo of twisted stomach worm (_Hæmonchus contortus_) coiled on tip of grass blade 521 16. A drenching tube made from an ordinary tin funnel, a piece of rubber hose, and a piece of brass pipe 522 17. Piece of lining of fourth stomach showing cysts of the encysted stomach worm (_Ostertatia ostertagi_) 523 18. A tapeworm (_Moniezia planissima_) which infests cattle 524 19. The common liver fluke (_Fasciola hepatica_) 526 20. The large American fluke (_Fasciola magna_) 526 21. Portion of grass stalk bearing three encysted cercariæ of the common liver fluke (_Fasciola hepatica_) 527 22. Hydatids (_Echinococcus granulosus_) in portion of hog's liver 528 23. Thin-necked bladder worm (_Tænia hydatigena_) from abdominal cavity of a steer 529 24. Lung worms (_Dictyocaulus viviparus_) of cattle 530 SPECIAL REPORT ON DISEASES OF CATTLE ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES. By LEONARD PEARSON, B. S., V. M. D. Medicines may be administered to cattle in many ways. The channel and method of administration depend on whether a general or local effect is desired, the condition of the animal, and the nature of the medicine that is to be given. The easiest method, and therefore the most common, is to give ordinary remedies by the mouth with the food, with drink, or separately. There, are, however, some conditions in which medicines administered in this way will not act promptly enough, or wherein a desired effect of the medicine on a distant part of the body is wholly lacking unless it is applied in some other way. The various methods of administering medicines to cattle will be considered below. BY THE MOUTH.--The simplest way to give medicines by the mouth is to mix them with the food or water. This can be done when the medicine is in the form of a powder or fluid, if but a small quantity is to be given, if it does not have a taste that is disagreeable to the animal and is not so irritant as to injure the lining membranes of the mouth and throat. The usual method of administering bulky or unpalatable doses is to mix them with a fluid vehicle, such as water, milk, molasses, or broth, and give from a bottle. A dose given in this way is known as a "drench." In administering a drench the head of the animal should be elevated a little by an assistant. This is best accomplished when standing on the left side of the cow's head and by grasping the nose with the thumb and fingers of the right hand inserted in the nostrils; with the left hand beneath the chin the head is further raised and supported. If the animal is unruly, it may be tied in a stall or placed in a stanchion. The medicine can now be poured into the mouth by inserting the neck of the bottle between the lips on the right side. Care must be taken to avoid getting the bottle between the back teeth. The mouth of the bottle should be inserted as far as the middle of the tongue and the contents poured slowly. If the cow coughs, the head must at once be lowered to permit the fluid to escape from the larynx. If medicine is given during coughing, some of the dose may pass down the windpipe to the lungs and cause a severe or a fatal pneumonia. This is especially to be guarded against when the throat is partly paralyzed or insensitive, as in parturient paresis (milk fever). In this disease it has often happened that drenches have been poured into the lungs, thus killing the cow. The quantity of fluid to be given in a drench depends upon the effect desired and the nature of the medicine. In impactions of the stomach very large quantities of fluid may be given--as much as a gallon or several gallons at a time. Usually, however, it is not customary or desirable to give more than from 1 to 2 quarts at a dose, and not more than a pint unless it is necessary on account of the irritant quality of the drug that has to be shielded with a large quantity of the vehicle. Soluble medicines should be completely dissolved before they are given; insoluble ones should be finely divided by powdering or by shaking, and should be well agitated and mixed immediately before they are given. In the latter case a menstruum with considerable body, such as molasses or flaxseed tea or milk, will help to hold solids or oils in suspension until swallowed. _Balls_ are large pills adapted for the larger animals. Powders or gums are sometimes mixed with an adhesive substance and rolled into balls for the purpose of convenience of administration. Balls are not used so much and are not so well adapted to the medication of cattle as of horses. The process of solution is slower in the paunch of a cow than in the stomach of a horse; if the cow is so sick as to have stopped ruminating, a ball may get covered up and lost in the mass of material in the paunch and so lie for days, producing no effect whatever. _Capsules_ are shells or envelopes made of soluble gelatin in which powders or liquids may be inclosed. Capsules and balls are administered by being placed on the tongue well back in the mouth while the tongue is drawn forward and the mouth is held open by a block of wood between the back teeth. The ball should be dropped, the tongue released, and the block removed as nearly simultaneously as possible, so that the backward carriage of the tongue will throw the ball into the throat and lead to its being swallowed. In introducing the ball care must be taken to avoid having the hand cut or crushed. After a little experience it is possible to do away with the block of wood. BY THE STOMACH.--Medicines are introduced directly into the first stomach by the use of an esophageal tube or through the cannula of a trocar passed into the paunch through the side. This method is used in the treatment of diseases of digestion. BY THE RECTUM.--Medicines are usually administered by the rectum for the purpose of controlling the bowels and for the treatment of local diseases. Sometimes, however, medicines that have a general effect are given in this way when, for any reason, it is not possible or convenient to give them through the mouth. Only drugs that are readily absorbed should be given per rectum for a general effect and in somewhat larger dose or more frequently than when given by the mouth. Such stimulants as ether, alcohol, or the aromatic spirits of ammonia, diluted with from four to six times their bulk of warm water, may be used in this way. Rectal injections, or enemata, are used in the treatment of constipation. If it is the purpose of the injection to soften hardened fecal masses, the water should be comfortably warm and may have a little clean soap in it. If it is the purpose of the injection to stimulate sluggish bowels to contraction, the water may be cold. In giving rectal injections a rectal syringe may be used, or, better, a piece of one-half to three-quarter inch rubber hose 5 feet long with a tin funnel attached to one end. The hose is soaped or oiled and introduced slowly and gently into the rectum 2 or 3 feet. The fluid is then slowly poured into the funnel and allowed to gravitate into the rectum. The same apparatus may be used for feeding by the rectum. BY THE VAGINA.--Medicines are inserted into the vagina, and through the vagina into the womb, in a manner similar to that of rectal administration. Most of the medication made use of in this way is for the local treatment of these organs. Following calving, during outbreaks of abortion, and in an infectious disease of the vagina, such injections become necessary. BY THE UDDER.--Injections into the udder are now regularly made in the treatment of parturient paresis (milk fever). For this purpose a 1 per cent solution of iodid of potassium is commonly employed, although some other solutions and oxygen gas are also used. In making this injection so many precautions are necessary in relation to the sterilization of the apparatus and the teats and skin that this work should be left to a skilled veterinarian. The introduction of even a minute quantity of infectious dirt may cause the loss of the udder. For making this injection one may use one of the prepared sets of apparatus or a milking tube and funnel connected by a piece of small rubber hose. The apparatus should be boiled and kept wrapped in a clean towel until needed. The udder and teats and the hands of the operator must be well disinfected, and the solution must be freshly made with recently boiled water kept in a sterile bottle. The udder should be emptied of milk before the injection is made. After all these precautions have been observed the milking tube may be inserted and through it one-half pint of solution introduced by gravity air pressure or by syringe. There is practically no danger in this mode of treatment if it is properly carried out. Injections into the udder are sometimes made in the treatment of garget, but so far with indifferent success. BY THE NOSTRILS.--An animal may be caused to inhale medicine in the form of gas or vapor or to snuff up a fine powder. Sometimes, for the purpose of local treatment, fluids are injected into the nose. A medicine inhaled may have either a local or a general effect. Medicated steam, carrying the volatile products of compound cresol solution, carbolic acid, balsam of Peru, compound tincture of benzoin, tincture of iodin, etc., may be liberated beneath the nostrils of a cow so that she must inhale these soothing vapors; but such treatment is not so common for cattle as for horses. In producing general anesthesia, or insensibility to pain, the vapor of chloroform or ether is administered by the nostrils. As a preliminary to this it is necessary to cast and confine the animal. Great care is necessary to avoid complete stoppage of the heart or breathing. BY THE TRACHEA.--Medicines are injected into the trachea, or windpipe, in the treatment of some forms of diseases of the lungs, and especially in that form of bronchitis or pneumonia that is caused by lungworms. For this injection a large hypodermic syringe, fitted with a very thick, strong needle, is used. The needle is to be inserted about the middle of the neck and between the cartilaginous rings of the trachea. BY THE SKIN.--Although a number of drugs, notably mercury, are so readily absorbed by the skin of cattle as to render poisoning easy, medicines are not given in this way for their general or constitutional but only for their local effect. Diseases of the skin and superficial parasites are treated or destroyed by applications in the forms of washes, ointments, dips, and powders. Liniments and lotions are applied to the skin for the relief of some near-lying part, such as a muscle, tendon, or joint. Blisters are applied to the skin for the purpose of obtaining the effect of counterirritation upon a neighboring region or organ. Cold water may be applied to the skin to reduce the temperature and to diminish congestion or inflammation in a superficial area or to reduce the temperature of the whole body. High fever and heat strokes are treated in this way. BY THE TISSUE BENEATH THE SKIN.--Hypodermic or subcutaneous injections are often made for the purpose of introducing a drug, reagent, or vaccine directly into the connecting tissue beneath the skin. Introduced in this way, the substance is quickly absorbed, none of it is lost, and its whole effect is obtained, often within a few minutes. There are numerous precautions necessary in making a subcutaneous injection, most of which have to do with cleansing and sterilization. It is also important to select a proper site for the injection, so that blood vessels, joints, and superficial nerves, organs, or cavities may all be avoided. With due regard for the necessary precautions, there is practically no danger in such an injection, but it should be attempted only by those who are able to carry it through in a surgically clean way. Only certain drugs can be given subcutaneously, and dosage must be accurately graduated. BY THE VEINS.--Certain medicines act most promptly and surely when introduced directly into the blood by injecting them into a vein, usually the jugular. Some vaccines and antitoxins are administered in this way. Intravenous injection should be practiced only by experienced veterinarians. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. By A. J. MURRAY, M. R. C. V. S. [Revised by R.W. HICKMAN, V. M. D.] CHARACTER OF FEEDS AND FEEDING. Diseases of the digestive organs are very common among cattle, and may often be traced to defects in feeding. The first three stomachs of the larger ruminants hold the feed for a long time, during which period it is subjected to macerating, mixing, and straining processes in preparation for entrance into the fourth or true stomach. The straining is accomplished through the medium of the manyplies or book, while the paunch, or rumen, with its adjunct, the waterbag, is concerned in the macerating, kneading, and mixing, as well as in regurgitation for rumination or the chewing of the cud. The action of the first three stomachs is merely preparatory to digestion. Thus it would seem that as a result of their complex anatomical and functional arrangement the feed of the ox, when of good quality and wholesome, is in the most favorable condition possible for the digestive process when it reaches the fourth stomach, where true digestion first takes place. The location and arrangement of the stomachs are shown in Plates I and II. If the feed is of improper character, or is so given that it can not be cared for by the animal in a normal way, false fermentations arise, causing indigestion, and possibly, later, organic disease. In feeding cattle there are a number of important considerations apart from the economy of the ration, and some of these are noted below. Feeds must not be damaged by exposure to the weather, by frost, by molds, or by deleterious fermentations. Damaged feeds retard or prevent digestion, and sometimes they contain or cause to be generated substances that irritate the digestive tract, or are distinctly poisonous to the animal. For example, hay that was rained on severely during curing has not only lost a part of its nutritive value through a washing-out process, but what remains is not so readily available as in good hay. Roots that have been frozen are likely to irritate and injure the digestive tract. Grass eaten with frost on it may cause severe indigestion. All moldy feeds are not injurious, for some molds appear to have no influence on the process of digestion, but those of other species may not only retard digestion and cause local injury to the digestive organs, but may cause general poisoning of a severe and fatal type. The following molds have been shown (Dammann) to be dangerous in respect to the production of the morbid conditions enumerated: _Tilletia caries_ grows chiefly in wheat and may be found with the grain, thus appearing in the bran or meal. It causes paralysis of the throat and spinal cord and irritation of the digestive tract. The rusts, such as _Puccinia graminis_, _P. straminis_, _P. Coronata_, and _P. arudinacea_, cause colic and diarrhea, and in some cases partial paralysis of the throat. The rusts that occur on clovers, beans, and peas cause very severe irritation of the lining membrane of the mouth and throat, resulting sometimes in gangrene of this tissue. _Polydesmus exitans_ grows on the leaves of rape and turnips, appearing in early summer. This fungus is very irritating to the mouths and feet of cattle, causing severe inflammation and the formation of a false membrane. In some instances this condition has been mistaken for foot-and-mouth disease, but it can be differentiated by the absence of the blister that is characteristic of that disease and by the further fact that it is nontransmissible. _Polytrincium trifolii_, which grows on clover, causing it to become black, causes severe irritation of the stomach and intestines of cattle feeding upon it. Feeds must not contain too large a proportion of woody fiber or of indigestible substances. If the dry matter ingested or the bulk of the feed is very great on account of the small proportion of digestible matter, it is impossible for the great mass to be moistened properly with and attacked by the digestive juices. In consequence of this, abnormal fermentations arise, causing indigestion and irritation of the digestive organs. On the other hand, a ration too concentrated, and especially too rich in protein, is not suitable, because, after a meal, the animal must have a certain feeling of fullness in order to be comfortable and quiet, and the digestive organs require a relatively large volume of contents to fill them to the point where secretion is properly stimulated and their activity is most efficient. If too much protein is in the ration there is a waste of expensive feed, and the tendency is for the animal to become thin. It is evident that a cow can not thrive on concentrated feeds alone, even though these contain in assimilable form all the nutritive materials needed for perfect support. It is because bulk is necessary that the standard of about 25 pounds of dry matter per cow per day has been reached by experimenters. There is no objection to feeding grain or meal separately to a cow, provided enough bulky feed is fed at another time in the day to keep the digestive tract sufficiently distended. In changing the ration, and especially in making radical changes, as at the beginning and the end of the pasturing season, the change should be made gradually, so that the digestive organs may accommodate themselves to it. After the digestive organs and juices have from long practice become adjusted to the digestion of a certain feed, which is then suddenly withheld and another of quite different character and properties is substituted, the second feed is not well digested; it may even irritate the digestive canal. It is often observed that cattle lose from 25 to 100 pounds when turned on pasture from dry stable feed. This loss can readily be prevented by not shocking the digestive organs by a sudden change of diet. Regularity in feeding has much to do with the utilization of the ration, and gross irregularity may cause indigestion and serious disease. Water for live stock should be as free from contamination and as nearly pure as that used for household purposes. When practicable it is well to warm the water in the winter to about 50° F. and allow cattle to drink often. DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. WOUNDS AND CONTUSIONS OF THE LIPS, AND SNAKE BITE. The lips may become inflamed from contusions, which are sometimes produced by a blow from the horns of another animal, or, in the case of working oxen, by a blow from the driver. While cattle are grazing, more especially when they are in woods, they may be bitten in the lips by insects or serpents. _Symptoms._--As a result of a contusion the lips become thick and swollen, and if treatment is neglected the swelling may become hard and indurated, or an abscess may form. This condition renders it difficult for the animal to get food into its mouth, on account of the lips having lost their natural flexibility. In such cases an ox will use his tongue more in the prehension of food to make up for the incapacity of the lips. In cases of snake bite the swelling is soft or puffy and its limits are not well defined. _Treatment._--When we have to deal with a bruise, the affected part should be bathed with hot water two or three times daily. In recent cases no other treatment will be required, but if the swelling is not recent and has become hard or indurated, then the swollen part should be treated each day by painting it with tincture of iodin. In snake bite a straight incision penetrating into the flesh or muscle should be made across the center of the swelling and in the direction of the long axis of the face. After this has been done a small wad of cotton batting should be pressed against the wounds until the bleeding has almost stopped. Afterwards the following lotion may be applied to the wounds several times a day: Permanganate of potassium, half a dram; distilled water, 1 pint. As snake bites are usually attended with considerable depression, which may terminate in stupor, it is advisable to give a stimulant. One ounce of aromatic spirits of ammonia mixed with a pint of water should be given, and the dose should be repeated in half an hour if the animal is sinking into a stupefied and unconscious condition. The repetition of the dose must depend on the symptoms which the animal shows. It must be borne in mind that the object of treatment is to ward off the stupor, which is one of the results of snake bite. The swelling from an insect bite should be bathed with ammonia water as soon as noticed and then treated with frequent applications of hot water. SALIVATION. Salivation is a symptom of some general or local disorder. It may be a symptom of a general disease, such as rabies or foot-and-mouth disease, or it may be a purely local trouble, as when copious secretion of the salivary glands is produced by the eating of irritating plants, such as wild mustard. When saliva is observed to dribble from the mouth, that part should be carefully examined by introducing into the mouth an instrument like a balling iron, or, if one is not at hand, by grasping the tongue and partially withdrawing it from the mouth, and by placing a block of wood between the back teeth, while all parts of the mouth are exposed to a good light, so that the presence of any foreign substance may be detected. The cause is sometimes found to be a short piece of wood becoming fixed on the palate, its two ends resting on the upper molar teeth of each side; or it may be a needle, thorn, or splinter of wood embedded in the tongue. Sometimes a sharp piece of tin or other metal may become partially embedded in the inner surface of the cheek. Hay occasionally possesses some quality, usually dependent upon its having heated in the mow or having become moldy, which produces salivation. Second-crop clover and some irritant weeds in the pasture or forage may cause salivation. Cattle rubbed with mercurial ointment may swallow enough mercury in licking themselves to bring about the same result. (See "Mercury poisoning," p. 57.) Such cases, of course, arise from the constitutional action of mercury, and, on account of the common habit which the animals have of licking themselves, indicate the danger of using such preparation externally. Mercury is also readily absorbed through the skin, and as cattle are very susceptible to its action it is thus easy for them to be poisoned by it even without licking it from the surface. Cases of mercurial poisoning sometimes follow disinfection of cattle stables with the usual 1 to 1,000 solution of mercuric chlorid. _Treatment._--If salivation depends on the irritation and inflammation set up by the ingestion of acrid plants, or forage possessing some peculiar stimulating property, the feed must be changed, and a lotion composed of an ounce of powdered alum dissolved in a quart of water may be syringed into the mouth twice a day, using half a pint of the solution each time. If, however, the salivation is due to the presence of a thorn, splinter of wood, or any other foreign substance embedded in the cheek or tongue, the offending object should be removed and the mouth washed occasionally with a weak solution (2 per cent) of carbolic acid and tepid water. When salivation is produced by mercurial poisoning or by foot-and-mouth disease, the treatment appropriate to those general conditions of the system, as well as the local treatment should be applied. (For information about foot-and-mouth disease see p. 383.) IRREGULARITIES OF THE TEETH. Irregularities of the teeth may be occasioned by the unequal wearing of some of the teeth or by some of the incisors being broken, which may happen when cattle are pastured on sandy or gravelly soil. The molar teeth may also show irregular wear from similar causes, or from a disease or malformation of the jaw. Their edges may become sharp, or it may happen that a molar tooth has been accidentally fractured. It may also occur that a supernumerary tooth has developed in an unusual position, and that it interferes with the natural and regular mastication of the feed. _Treatment._--The mouth may be examined by grasping the animal's tongue with one hand and partially withdrawing it from the mouth, so as to expose the incisor and molar teeth to inspection. When it is desired, however, to examine the molar teeth with the fingers, so as to obtain a better idea of their condition, an instrument like the balling iron which is used for the horse should be introduced into the mouth, so as to separate the jaws and keep them apart while the examination is being made. Any sharp edges of the molars must be removed by the tooth rasp, such as is used for horses. Any supernumerary tooth which interferes with mastication or any tooth which is fractured or loose should be extracted. In performing such operations it is desirable to throw, or cast, the animal, and to have its head held securely, so as to enable the operator to do what is necessary without difficulty. CARIES OR DECAY OF THE TEETH. The presence of caries may be suspected if the mouth exhales a bad odor and if the animal during mastication occasionally stops as if it were in pain. The existence of caries in a molar tooth may be ascertained by examining the mouth in the manner already described. If one of the molars is found to be carious, it should be extracted. When the crown of the tooth has been destroyed and only the stump or root is left, extraction is impracticable. In case the animal has special value the root stumps may be removed by a veterinarian by the operation of trephining; otherwise, it is best to sell the animal to the butcher. ACTINOMYCOSIS OF THE JAWBONES (BIG JAW OR LUMPY JAW). [See Actinomycosis, p. 440.] INFLAMMATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANE OF MOUTH (STOMATITIS). The membrane of the mouth may become inflamed by eating some irritating substance or plant, or little vesicles may form in the mouths of calves when they are affected with indigestion, constituting what is termed aphtha. _Symptoms._--The saliva dribbles from the mouth, and when the mouth is examined the surface of the tongue and other parts appear red and inflamed. When young animals are affected with the form of disease termed aphtha, small red elevations are observed on the tongue and other parts of the mouth, having little white points on their centers, which consist of the epithelium of the mucous membrane raised into vesicles. These white patches are succeeded by ulcerated surfaces, which are caused by the shedding of the white patches of epithelium. _Treatment._--When there is merely a reddened and inflamed condition of the mucous membrane of the mouth, it will suffice to syringe it out several times a day with 4 ounces of the following solution: Alum, 1 ounce; water, 2 pints. When the edges of the tongue and other parts of the mouth are studded with ulcers, they should be painted over once a day with the following solution until the affected surface is healed: Permanganate of potassium, 20 grains; water, 1 ounce. When indigestion is associated with an ulcerated condition of the mouth, separate treatment is required. ULCERATIVE STOMATITIS (OR ULCERS IN THE MOUTHS OF YOUNG CALVES). [See Necrotic stomatitis, p. 464.] MYCOTIC STOMATITIS (SORE MOUTH). [See p. 532.] INDURATION OF THE TONGUE (ACTINOMYCOSIS). [See Actinomycosis, p. 440.] DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX AND GULLET. PHARYNGITIS (SORE THROAT). Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the pharynx. It is frequently associated with inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract, such as laryngitis and bronchitis or pleurisy. _Symptoms._--The muzzle is dry and the saliva dribbles from the corners of the mouth; the animal swallows with difficulty or not at all, and holds its neck in a stiff, straight position, moving it as little as possible. The eyelids are half closed, the white of the eye is bloodshot, and the animal occasionally grinds its teeth. After masticating the feed the animal drops it out of its mouth as if to avoid the pain of swallowing, and also evinces pain when pressure is applied externally on the pharynx and tries to prevent the pressure from being applied. _Causes._--Pharyngitis may be produced by a sudden cooling of the surface of the body, as when cattle are exposed to a cold wind or a cold rain; or by swallowing irritant substances. _Treatment._--The throat should be syringed three times a day with an ounce of the following solution: Nitrate of silver, 1-1/2 drams; distilled water, 1 pint. Bland and soothing drinks, such as linseed tea or oatmeal and water should occasionally be offered. Diet should consist of soft food, such as bran mashes with a little linseed meal mixed in them. Dry hay and fodder should not be given. Fresh, green grass or sound ensilage may be fed in small quantities. The upper part of the throat and the space between the jaws should be well rubbed once a day with the following liniment: Liquor ammonia fortior, 4 ounces; oil of turpentine, 4 ounces; olive oil, 4 ounces; mix. When evidence of blistering appears the application of the liniment should be stopped and the skin anointed with vaseline. Under the treatment described above the inflammation of the throat will gradually subside and the animal will be able to swallow as usual in five or six days. We need hardly say that during its treatment the sick animal should be kept in a comfortable stable. PAROTITIS. Inflammation of the parotid gland may arise from the inflammation extending to it when an ox is affected with pharyngitis or laryngitis, or the inflammation may commence in the salivary ducts and may depend on some influence the nature of which is unknown. Parotitis sometimes arises from a blow or contusion severe enough to set up inflammation in the structure of the gland. Tuberculosis and actinomycosis may infrequently be characterized by the lodgment of their parasitic causes in the parotid glands, in which case parotitis may be a symptom of either of these diseases. _Symptoms._--There is an elongated, painful swelling, beginning at the base of the ear and passing downward along the posterior margin of the lower jaw. The swelling is sometimes limited to one side, and when both are swollen it is generally larger on one side than on the other. The secretion of saliva is increased, the appetite is poor, the neck is stiff, so that it is painful to raise the head, and feed is swallowed with difficulty. In many cases the swelling of the glands, when submitted to proper treatment, disappears in a comparatively short time. In other cases, however, they remain enlarged, even after the animal recovers its appetite. In tuberculosis, lymphatic glands beneath the parotid glands are sometimes enlarged, thus causing the appearance of enlarged parotid glands. _Treatment._--A warm bran poultice, made by mixing bran with a hot 2 per cent compound cresol solution in water, should be applied on the swollen gland and kept in place by means of a bandage. Whenever the poultice has cooled it should be replaced by a new one. This treatment should be continued until the pain is less and the swelling is reduced or until there is evidence of pus formation, which may be ascertained by examining the surface of the gland with the fingers; and when, on pressing any part of the surface, it is found to fluctuate or "give," then we may conclude that there is a collection of pus at that place. It is well not to open the abscess until the fluctuation is well marked, as at this stage the pus or matter is near the surface and there is less trouble in healing the wound than if the pus is deep seated. The abscess should be opened with a clean, sharp knife. The poulticing should then be continued for two or three days, but the form of the poultice should be changed, by replacing the bran with absorbent cotton and pouring the compound cresol solution on the cotton. At all times the wound should be kept clean and the cavity injected once or twice daily with a solution of 1 dram of carbolic acid in 8 ounces of water. Under this treatment the pus may cease and the wound heal without complications. Saliva may issue from the orifice and result in the formation of a salivary fistula. This requires operative treatment by a qualified veterinarian. When poulticing fails to reduce the swelling or produce softening, the inflamed area may be rubbed once daily with camphorated oil, compound iodin ointment, or painted twice daily with Lugol's solution of iodin. The diet should be as recommended under Pharyngitis (p. 17). PHARYNGEAL POLYPI. Tumors form not infrequently in the pharynx, and may give rise to a train of symptoms varying according to their size and location. The tumor may be so situated that by shifting its position a little it may partially obstruct the posterior nares (nostrils), when, of course, it will render nasal breathing very noisy and labored. In another situation its partial displacement may impede the entrance of air into the larynx. In almost any part of the pharynx, but especially near the entrance of the gullet, tumors interfere with the act of swallowing. As they are frequently attached to the wall of the pharynx by a pedicel or stalk, it will be seen that they may readily be displaced in different directions so as to produce the symptoms before described. Enlarged postpharyngeal lymphatic glands are not rare in tuberculosis, and by pressing upon the wall of the pharynx and restricting the lumen of this organ they cause difficulty in both breathing and swallowing. Such enlarged glands may be differentiated from tumors by passing the hand into the cow's throat after the jaws are separated by a suitable speculum or gag. _Treatment._--The method of treatment in such cases is to separate the animal's jaws with an instrument termed a gag, and then, after drawing the tongue partially forward, to pass the hand into the pharynx and to twist the tumor gently from its attachment. One veterinarian who has had considerable practice in treating this form of disease scrapes through the attachment of the tumor gradually with his thumb nail. When the attachment is too strong to be severed in this way an instrument like a thimble, but possessing a sharp edge at the end, may be used to effect the same purpose, or the base of the tumor may be severed by the use of a crushing instrument known as an écraseur. CHOKING. Choking usually happens from attempting to swallow too large an object, such as a turnip, potato, beet, apple, or pear, though in rare cases it may occur from bran, chaff, or some other finely divided feed lodging in and filling up a portion of the gullet. This latter form of the accident is most likely to occur in animals that are greedy feeders. _Symptoms._--The symptoms vary somewhat according to the part of the gullet or throat in which the obstruction is. In most cases there is a discharge of saliva from the mouth; the animal coughs frequently, and when it drinks the water is soon ejected. The cow stops eating and stands back from the trough, the expression is troubled, breathing is accelerated, and oftentimes there is bloating as a result of the retention of gas in the paunch. These symptoms, however, are not always present, for if the obstacle does not completely close the throat or gullet, gas and water may pass, thus ameliorating the discomfort. If the obstruction is in the neck portion of the gullet, it may be felt as a lump in the left jugular gutter. _Treatment._--If the object is in the throat, it is advisable to put a gag in the animal's mouth, and, while the head is held in a horizontal direction by two assistants, to pass the hand into the pharynx, grasp the foreign body, and withdraw it gradually and steadily. When the substance is lodged in the upper part of the gullet, pressure should be made by an assistant in an upward direction against the object while the operator passes his hand into the pharynx, and if the assistant can not by pressure dislodge the substance from the gullet, the operator may by passing his middle finger above and partly behind the substance gradually slide it into the pharynx and then withdraw it by the mouth. The presence of an obstructing substance in the cervical (neck) portion of the gullet may be ascertained by passing the hand along the left side of the neck, when a hard and painless swelling will be found to indicate the presence of the foreign body. In such cases we must endeavor by gentle and persevering pressure with the thumb and next two fingers to slide the obstructing substance gradually upward to the pharynx. To facilitate this it is well to give the animal a half pint of raw linseed or olive oil before the manipulations described are commenced. When the substance has been brought into or nearly into the pharynx, then the mouth gag should be used, the tongue drawn partially forward with the left hand, and the right should be passed backward into the pharynx to withdraw the obstruction. When bran or chaff causes the trouble it is best to give a small quantity of oil to lubricate the walls of the gullet, and then by gentle and persevering pressure, to endeavor to separate and divide the mass and to work it downward toward the stomach. This will be assisted by pouring small quantities of oil and water down the animal's throat. It is not advisable to use the probang to push down any soft material, such as oats or chaff, as this generally condenses and renders firmer the obstructing substance by pressing its particles or elements together, so that it forms a solid, resisting mass which can not be moved. In some cases the foreign body, either because it is in the chest portion of the esophagus, and so beyond reach, or because too firmly seated, can not be dislodged from the neck by pressing and manipulating that part externally. In such event we must resort to the use of the probang. (Pl. III, figs. 2 and 3.) A probang is a flexible instrument and adapts itself to the natural curvature of the gullet, and if used cautiously there is not much risk of injury. Before passing the probang, a gag which has an aperture at each end, from which straps pass to be buckled at the back of the head below the horns, is introduced into the mouth. (Pl. III, fig. 4.) The probang should then be oiled, and, the head and neck being held in a straight line by two assistants, the tongue must be partly drawn out of the mouth, the probang cautiously passed along the roof of the mouth into the pharynx and thence into the gullet, through which it is passed down. If resistance is met, gentle and continuous pressure must be used, under the influence of which the object will generally in a short time pass into the stomach. One must be careful not to pass the probang into the larynx and thence into the windpipe, as an animal may readily be killed in this way. This accident is indicated by efforts to cough and by violently disturbed breathing. If such symptoms arise the probang must be withdrawn at once. To avoid a wrong passage, the end of the tube should be pressed very slowly through the throat until its presence in the esophagus is assured. After it is once in the esophagus care is still necessary, because the walls of this tube may easily be torn. Some writers have advised that when the obstruction is lodged in the cervical (neck) portion of the gullet it should be struck with a mallet, to crush it and thus alter its shape, so that it may easily slip down into the stomach. If the obstructing substance is hard, this will be a dangerous operation, but if soft--as in the case of a ripe pear, for example--this procedure may be safely adopted. In all cases, if pressure applied on the neck fails to move the obstruction and the probang also fails to move it, it may be divided by a subcutaneous operation, or the gullet may be opened and the obstructing substance removed through the wound. In such cases the assistance of a veterinarian or a surgeon must be obtained. WOUNDS AND INJURIES OF THE GULLET. Sometimes the walls of the gullet may be more or less lacerated or abraded by the rash and too forcible use of the probang, and the animal consequently swallows with pain and difficulty. In such cases dry feed must be withheld for five or six days, so as to allow the injured parts to heal, and the diet must be limited to linseed tea, hay tea, and thin oatmeal gruel and molasses. The same kind of diet must be fed after the operation of cutting into the gullet has been performed. Sometimes the gullet is ruptured and lacerated to such an extent that treatment of any kind is hopeless. This has been known to occur when the handle of a pitchfork or buggy whip has been pushed down a cow's throat to remove an obstruction. When such treatment has been applied it is best to slaughter the animal without delay, as the flesh may be utilized so long as there is no fever or general disease, and remedial treatment would be hopeless. In this connection it may be mentioned that whatever substitute may be used for a probang, which sometimes is not at hand, it should be flexible and should possess a smooth surface. A piece of new rope, with the end closely wrapped and waxed and then oiled, or a piece of thin garden hose, or a well-wrapped twisted wire may be used in emergencies. DISEASES OF THE STOMACHS. ACUTE TYMPANITES (HOVEN, OR BLOATING). Tympanites is a distention of the rumen or paunch with gases of fermentation, and is manifested outwardly by swelling in the region of the left flank. _Causes._--Tympanites may be caused by any kind of feed which produces indigestion. When cattle are first turned into young clover they eat so greedily of it that tympanites frequently results. Turnips, potatoes, cabbage, or the discarded pulp from sugar-beet factories may also cause it. Middlings and corn meal also frequently give rise to it. Care is necessary in turning animals into fields of clover or stubble fields in which there is a strong growth of volunteer grain. It is always better to keep them from such pasturage while it is wet with dew, and they should be taken out when they have eaten a moderate quantity. When cattle are fed upon pulp from sugar beets, germinated malt, etc., they should be fed in moderate amounts until they have become accustomed to it, as any of these feeds may give rise to severe bloating. An excessive quantity of any of the before-mentioned feeds may bring on this disorder, or it may not be caused by excess, but to eating too hastily. Sometimes the quality of the feed is at fault. Grass or clover when wet by dew or rain frequently disorders digestion and brings on tympanites; frozen roots or pastures covered with hoar frost should also be regarded as dangerous. When feed has been eaten too hastily, or when it is cold and wet, the digestive process is imperfectly performed, and the feed contained in the paunch ferments, during which process large quantities of gas are formed. The same result may follow when a cow is choked, as the obstruction in the gullet prevents the eructation or passing up of gas from the stomach, so that the gas continues to accumulate until tympanites results. _Symptoms._--The swelling of the left flank is very characteristic, as in well-marked cases the flank at its upper part rises above the level of the backbone, and when struck with the tips of the fingers emits a drum-like sound. The animal has an anxious expression, moves uneasily, and is evidently distressed. If relief is not obtained in time, it breathes with difficulty, reels in walking or in standing, and in a short time falls and dies from suffocation. The distention of the stomach may become so great as to prevent the animal from breathing, and in some instances the case may be complicated by rupture of the stomach. _Treatment._--If the case is not extreme, it may be sufficient to drive the animal at a walk for a quarter or half an hour; or cold water by the bucketful may be thrown against the cow's sides. In some cases the following simple treatment is successful: A rope or a twisted straw band is coated with pine tar, wagon grease, or other unsavory substance and is placed in the cow's mouth as a bit, being secured by tying behind the horns. The efforts of the animal to dislodge this object result in movements of the tongue, jaws, and throat that stimulate the secretion of saliva and swallowing, thus opening the esophagus, which permits the exit of gas and at the same time peristalsis is stimulated reflexly. In urgent cases the gas must be allowed to escape without delay, and this is best accomplished by the use of the trocar. The trocar is a sharp-pointed instrument incased in a cannula or sheath, which leaves the sharp point of the trocar free. (See Pl. III, figs. _5a_ and _5b._) In selecting the point for using the trocar a spot on the left side equally distant from the last rib, the hip bone, and the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebræ must be chosen. Here an incision about three-fourths of an inch long should be made with a knife through the skin, and then the sharp point of the trocar, being directed downward, inward, and slightly forward, is thrust into the paunch. (Pl. I.) The cannula or sheath of the trocar should be left in the paunch so long as any gas continues to issue from it. If the cannula is removed while gas is still forming in the paunch and the left flank becomes considerably swollen, it may be necessary to insert it again. It is well, accordingly, to observe the cannula closely, and if gas is found to be issuing from it, it should not be removed. When gas issues from it in considerable quantities the sound accompanying its escape renders the exact condition obvious. It is occasionally necessary to keep the cannula in the stomach for several hours. When this is necessary a piece of stout cord should be passed round the neck of the cannula immediately below the projecting rim and then be passed round the animal's body and tied in a secure knot, and a careful attendant must remain with the cow during the entire period that the instrument is in place. The rim surrounding the mouth of the cannula should be in contact with the skin. Whenever the person in charge of the cow is convinced that gas has ceased to issue from the cannula the instrument should be removed. The trocar is to be used only in extreme or urgent cases, though everyone who has had experience in treating indigestion in cattle realizes that he has saved the lives of many animals by its prompt application. When the tympanitic animal is not distressed and the swelling of the flank is not great, or when the most distressing condition has been removed by the use of the trocar, it is best to use internal medicine. Two ounces of aromatic spirits of ammonia should be given every half hour in a quart of cold water; or half an ounce of chlorid of lime may be dissolved in a pint of tepid water and the dose repeated every half hour until the bloating has subsided; or 1 ounce of creolin in 2 quarts of tepid water may be given at one dose or carefully injected through the cannula directly into the paunch to stop fermentation and the consequent formation of gas. It is generally necessary to give a moderate dose of purgative medicine after bloating has subsided, as animals frequently show symptoms of constipation after attacks of indigestion. For this purpose 1 pound of Glauber's salt may be used. The animal should be fed carefully upon easily digested food for several days after the bloating has subsided, so that all fermenting matter may pass out of the stomach. CHRONIC TYMPANITES. Cattle, especially those that have been kept in the stable all winter, are liable to suffer from chronic tympanites. In this form they bloat up after feeding, but seldom swell so much as to cause any alarm. The chronic form of indigestion may also follow an acute attack like that previously described. This is also a symptom of tuberculosis when the lymphatic glands lying between the lungs are so enlarged as to press upon and partly occlude the esophagus. It may develop in calves as a result of the formation of hair balls in the stomach. _Treatment._--Treatment should be preceded by a moderate dose of purgative medicine: 1 pound of sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salt) or sulphate of soda (Glauber's salt), half an ounce of powdered Barbados aloes, 1 ounce of powdered ginger, 1 pint of molasses. The salts and aloes should be dissolved by stirring for a few minutes in 2 quarts of lukewarm water, then the molasses should be added, and after all the ingredients have been stirred together for about 10 minutes the dose should be administered. After the operation of the purgative it is generally necessary to give some tonic and antacid preparation to promote digestion, which is imperfectly performed in such cases. The following may be used: Powdered gentian, 3 ounces; powdered bicarbonate of potash, 3 ounces; powdered ginger, 3 ounces; powdered capsicum, 1 ounce. Mix and divide into 12 powders, one of which should be given three times a day before feeding, shaken up with a pint and a half of water. It is also advantageous in such cases to give two heaped teaspoonsfuls of wood charcoal, mixed with the animal's feed three times a day. The animal should also go out during the day, as want of exercise favors the continuance of this form of indigestion. If the dung is hard, the constipation should be overcome by feeding a little flaxseed twice daily or by giving a handful of Glauber's salt in the feed once or twice daily, as may be necessary. Roots, silage, and other succulent feeds are useful in this connection. If tuberculosis is suspected as the cause of chronic bloating, a skilled veterinarian should make a diagnosis, using the tuberculin test if necessary. Until it is settled that the cow has not tuberculosis, she should be kept apart from the other members of the herd. DISTENTION OF RUMEN OR PAUNCH WITH FEED. This form of indigestion is caused by the animal gorging itself with feed, and arises more from the animal's voracious appetite than from any defect in the quality of the feed supplied to it. The condition is, however, more severe if the feed consumed is especially concentrated or difficult of digestion. In cases of this kind there is comparatively no great formation of gas, and the gas which is formed is diffused through the stomach instead of accumulating in a layer in its upper part. On pressing the flank with the closed fist the indent of the hand remains for a short time in the flank, as if the rumen were filled with a soft, doughy mass. This form of indigestion should be treated by stimulants, such as aromatic spirits of ammonia. If the formation of gas is not great and the distention with solid material is somewhat limited, the animal may be drenched through a piece of ordinary garden hose, one end inserted in the mouth, and the other end fitted with a funnel, giving 1-1/2 pounds of Epsom salt or Glauber's salt dissolved in 2 gallons of water, at a single dose. Immediately after this treatment the left side of the animal, extending below the median line of the abdomen, should be powerfully kneaded with the fist, so that the impacted food mass will be broken, allowing the water to separate it into small portions which can be carried downward for the process of digestion. But if the treatment fails and the impacted or overloaded condition of the rumen continues, it may become necessary to make an incision with a sharp, long-bladed knife in the left flank, commencing at the point where it is usual to puncture the stomach of an ox, and prolong the incision in a downward direction until it is long enough to admit the hand. When the point of the knife is thrust into the flank and the blade cuts downward, the wall of the stomach, the muscle, and the skin should all be cut through at the same time. Two assistants should hold the edges of the wound together so as to prevent any food from slipping between the flank and the wall of the stomach, and then the operator should remove two-third [sic] of the contents of the rumen. This having been done, the edges of the wound should be sponged with a little carbolized warm water, and, the lips of the wound in the rumen being turned inward, they should be brought together with catgut stitches. The wound penetrating the muscle and the skin may then be brought together by silk stitches, which should pass through the entire thickness of the muscle and should be about 1 inch apart. The wound should afterwards be dressed once a day with a lotion and the animal covered with a tight linen sheet, to protect the wound from insects and dirt. The lotion to be used in such case is made up as follows: Sulphate of zinc, 1 dram; carbolic acid, 2 drams; glycerin, 2 ounces; water, 14 ounces; mix. It is clear that this operation requires special skill and it should be attempted only by those who are competent. IMAGINARY DISEASES (HOLLOW HORN; LOSS OF CUD; WOLF IN THE TAIL). It would appear quite in place here, in connection with the diseases of the stomach and bowels of cattle, to consider the three old fallacies or superstitions known by the above names, since these names, whenever and wherever used, seem to be invariably applied to some form of digestive derangement or disease having its origin in the stomach and bowels. HOLLOW HORN.--In the first place it should be noted that the horns of all animals of the ox tribe are hollow. The horn cores are elongations of the frontal bones of the skull, and the frontal sinuses, which are the larger of the air spaces of the head, are prolonged into the horn cores. When a cow is sick, if the horns are hot it is an evidence of fever; if they are cold it indicates impaired circulation of the blood; but these manifestations of sickness are to be regarded as symptoms of some constitutional disorder and do not in themselves require treatment. The treatment should be applied to the disease which causes the abnormal temperature of the horns. The usual treatment for the supposed hollow horn, which consists in boring the horns with a gimlet and pouring turpentine into the openings thus made, is not only useless and cruel, but is liable to set up an acute inflammation and result in an abscess of the sinus. LOSS OF CUD.--The so-called loss of cud is simply a cessation of rumination, frequently one of the first indications of some form of disease, since ruminants stop chewing the cud when they feel sick. Loss of cud is a symptom of a great many diseases, and when it is detected it should lead the observer to try to discover other symptoms upon which to base a correct opinion as to the nature of the disease from which the animal suffers. No local treatment is required. WOLF IN THE TAIL.--This term also seems to be vaguely applied to various disturbances of the digestive function, or to some disease which is in reality in the stomach or bowels. VOMITING. Vomiting is not to be confounded with rumination, though some writers have advanced the opinion that it is merely a disordered and irregular rumination. It is not of common occurrence in cattle. _Symptoms._--Animals which vomit are frequently in poor condition. After having eaten tranquilly for some time the animal suddenly becomes uneasy, arches the back, stretches the neck and head, and then suddenly ejects 10 to 12 pounds of the contents of the rumen. After having done this the uneasiness subsides and in a short time the animal resumes eating as if nothing had happened. _Cause._--The cause of this disordered state of the digestive system in cattle is usually obscure, but has in some cases been traced to a partial closure of the opening into the second stomach or to a distention of the esophagus. It has been found to occur when there was cancerous disease of the fourth stomach, and experimentally it has been shown that a suspension of digestion or great derangement of this stomach produces considerable nervous disorder of the rumen and sometimes vomiting or attempts to vomit. TREATMENT.--Easily digested feed and plenty of water should be given. Fear and excitement, chasing, or hurrying animals after they have eaten heartily are liable to bring on this result. In order to overcome irritation which may produce vomiting the following draft should be given: Hydrate of chloral, half an ounce; water, 1 pint. The dose must be repeated when the condition of the animal seems to require it. As a rule, treatment is not successful. DEPRAVED APPETITE (PICA). Cattle suffering from this disease have a capricious and variable appetite as regards their ordinary feed but evince a strong desire to lick and eat substances for which healthy cattle show no inclination. Alkaline and saline-tasting substances are especially attractive to cattle having a depraved appetite and they frequently lick lime, earth, coal, gravel, and even the dung of other cattle. Cows in calf and young cattle are especially liable to develop these symptoms. Animals affected in this way lose condition, their coat is staring, gait slow, and small vesicles containing yellow liquid form under the tongue; the milk given by such cows is thin and watery. Such animals become restless and uneasy, as is indicated by frequent bellowing. The disease may last for months, the animal ultimately dying emaciated and exhausted. Depraved appetite frequently precedes the condition in which the bones of cattle become brittle and fracture easily, which is known as osteomalacia. _Cause._--From the fact that this disease is largely one of regions, it is generally believed that some condition of the soil and water and of the local vegetation is responsible for it. It is more prevalent some years than others, and is most common in old countries, where the soil is more or less depleted. Cattle pastured on low, swampy land become predisposed to it. It occasionally happens, however, that one individual in a herd suffers though all are fed alike; in such cases the disease must arise from the affected animal's imperfect assimilation of the nutritive elements of the feed which is supplied to it. _Treatment._--The aim in such cases must be to improve the process of digestion and to supply the animal with a sufficiency of sound and wholesome feed. The following should be given to the cow three times a day, a heaping tablespoonful constituting a dose: Carbonate of iron, 4 ounces; finely ground bone or "bone flour," 1 pound; powdered gentian, 4 ounces; common salt, 8 ounces; powdered fenugreek, 4 ounces; mix. In addition to this, 3 tablespoonfuls of powdered charcoal may be mixed with the feed three times a day, and a piece of rock salt should be placed where the animal can lick it at will. German veterinarians have had brilliant results from the treatment of this disease with subcutaneous injections of apomorphin in doses of 1-1/2 to 5 grains for three or four days. HAIR CONCRETIONS. Hair concretions, or hair balls, result from the habit which some cattle have of licking themselves or other animals. As a result the hairs which are swallowed are carried around by the contractions of the stomach and gradually assume the form of a small pellet or ball. This increases in size as fresh quantities of hair are introduced into the stomach and adhere to the surface of the ball. These balls are found most frequently in the reticulum or second stomach (Pl. II, B), though sometimes in the rumen. In calves hair balls are generally found in the fourth stomach. There are no certain symptoms by which we can determine the presence of hair balls in the stomach, and therefore no treatment can be recommended for such cases. In making post-mortem examinations of cattle we have sometimes found the walls of the reticulum transfixed with nails or pieces of wire, and yet the animal had not shown any symptoms of indigestion, but had died from maladies not involving the second stomach. INDIGESTION (DYSPEPSIA, OR GASTROINTESTINAL CATARRH). Tympanites, already described, is a form of indigestion in which the chief symptom and most threatening condition is the collection of gas in the paunch. This symptom does not always accompany indigestion, so it is well here to consider other forms under a separate head. If indigestion is long continued, the irritant abnormal products developed cause catarrh of the stomach and intestines--gastrointestinal catarrh. On the other hand, however, irritant substances ingested may cause gastrointestinal catarrh, which, in turn, will cause indigestion; hence, it results that these several conditions are usually found existing together. _Causes._--Irritant feed, damaged feed, overloading of the stomach, or sudden changes of diet may cause this disease. Want of exercise predisposes to it, or feed which is coarse and indigestible may after a time produce it. Feed which possesses astringent properties and tends to check secretion may also act as an exciting cause. Feed in excessive quantity may lead to disorder of digestion and to this disease. It is very likely to appear toward the end of protracted seasons of drought; therefore a deficiency of water must be regarded as one of the conditions which favor its development. _Symptoms._--Diminished appetite, rumination irregular, tongue coated, mouth slimy, dung passed apparently not well digested and smelling bad, dullness, and fullness of the flanks. The disease may in some cases assume a chronic character, and in addition to the foregoing symptoms slight bloating or tympanites of the left flank may be observed; the animal breathes with effort and each respiration may be accompanied with a grunt, the ears and horns are alternately hot and cold, rumination ceases, the usual rumbling sound in the stomach is not audible, the passage of dung is almost entirely suspended, and the animal passes only a little mucus occasionally. Sometimes there is alternating constipation and diarrhea. There is low fever in many cases. The disease continues a few days or a week in the mild cases, while the severe cases may last several weeks. In the latter form the emaciation and loss of strength may be very great. There is no appetite, no rumination, nor peristalsis. The mouth is hot and sticky, the eyes have receded in their sockets, and milk secretion has ceased. In such cases the outlook for recovery is unfavorable. The patient falls away in flesh and becomes weaker, as is shown by the fact that one frequently finds it lying down. On examining animals which have died of this disease it is found that the lining membrane of the fourth stomach and the intestines, particularly the small intestine, is red, swollen, streaked with deeper red or bluish lines, or spotted. The lining of the first three stomachs is more or less softened, and may easily be peeled off. The third stomach (psalter) contains dry feed in hard masses closely adherent to its walls. In some cases the brain appears to become disordered, probably from the pain and weakness and from the absorption of toxins generated in the digestive canal. In such cases there is weakness and an unsteady gait, the animal does not appear to take notice of and will consequently run against obstacles; after a time it falls and gives up to violent and disordered movements. This delirious condition is succeeded by coma or stupor, and death ensues. _Treatment._--Small quantities of roots, sweet silage, or selected grass or hay should be offered several times daily. Very little feed should be allowed. Aromatic and demulcent drafts may be given to produce a soothing effect on the mucous lining of the stomachs and to promote digestion. Two ounces of camomile flowers should be boiled for 20 minutes in a quart of water and the infusion on cooling should be given to the affected animal. This may be repeated three or four times a day. When constipation is present the following purgative may be administered: One pound of Glauber's salt dissolved in a quart of linseed tea and a pint of molasses. After this purgative has acted, if there is a lack of appetite and the animal does not ruminate regularly, the powder mentioned in remarks on the treatment of chronic tympanites may be given according to directions. The diet must be rather laxative and of an easily digestible character after an attack of this form of indigestion. Feed should be given in moderate quantities, as excess by overtaxing the digestive functions may bring on a relapse. Ice-cold water should be avoided. INDIGESTION FROM DRINKING COLD WATER (COLIC). This disorder is produced by drinking copiously of cold water, which arrests digestion and produces cramp of the fourth stomach, probably of the other stomachs, and also of the bowels. _Causes._---It is not customary for the ox to drink much water at once. In fact, he usually drinks slowly and as if he were merely tasting the water, letting some fall out at the corners of his mouth at every mouthful. It would therefore seem to be contrary to the habits of the ox to drink copiously; but we find that during hot weather, when he has been working and is consequently very thirsty, if he drinks a large quantity of cold water he may be immediately taken with a very severe colic. Cows which are fed largely on dry hay drink copiously, like the working ox, and become affected in precisely the same manner. In such cases they are seized with a chill or fit of trembling before the cramps come on. _Symptoms._--There is some distension of the abdomen, but no accumulation of gas. As the distension and pain occur immediately after the animal has drunk the water, there can be no doubt as to the exciting cause. _Treatment._--Walk the animal about for 10 minutes before administering medicine, and this allows time for a portion of the contents of the stomach to pass into the bowel, and renders it safer to give medicine. In many cases the walking exercise and the diarrhea bring about a spontaneous cure of this disorder, but as in some instances the cramps and pains of the stomachs persist, one may give 1 ounce of sulphuric ether and 1 ounce of tincture of opium, shaken up with a pint of warm water, and repeat the dose in half an hour if the animal is not relieved. In an emergency when the medicine is not to be had, a tablespoonful of powdered ginger may be administered in a pint of warm water. INDIGESTION IN CALVES (GASTROINTESTINAL CATARRH, DIARRHEA, OR SCOUR). Calves are subject to a form of diarrhea to which the foregoing designations have been applied. _Causes._--Calves that suck their dams are not frequently affected with this disease, though it may be occasioned by their sucking at long intervals and thus overloading the stomach and bringing on indigestion, or from improper feeding of the dam on soft, watery, or damaged feeds. Suckling the calf at irregular times may also cause it. Exposure to damp and cold is a potent predisposing cause. Calves separated from their dams and fed considerable quantities of cold milk at long intervals are liable to contract this form of indigestion. Calves fed on artificial feed, used as a substitute for milk, frequently contract it. Damaged feed, sour or rotten milk, milk from dirty cans, skim milk from a dirty creamery skim-milk vat, skim milk hauled warm, exposed to the sun and fed from unclean buckets may all cause this disease. _Symptoms._--The calf is depressed; appetite is poor; sometimes there is fever; the extremities are cold. The dung becomes gradually softer and lighter in color until it is cream colored and little thicker than milk. It has a most offensive odor and may contain clumps of curd. Later it contains mucus and gas bubbles. It sticks to the hair of the tail and buttocks, causing the hair to drop off and the skin to become irritated. There may be pain on passing dung and also abdominal or colicky pain. The calf stands about with the back arched and belly contracted. There may be tympanites. Great weakness ensues in severe cases, and without prompt and successful treatment death soon follows. _Treatment._--Remove the cause. Give appropriate feed of best quality in small quantities. Make sure that the cow furnishing the milk is healthy and is properly fed. Clean all milk vessels. Clean and disinfect the stalls. For the diarrhea give two raw eggs or a cup of strong coffee. If the case is severe, give 1 ounce of castor oil with a teaspoonful of creolin and 20 grains of subnitrate of bismuth. Repeat the bismuth and creolin with flaxseed tea every four hours. Tannopin may be used in doses of 15 to 30 grains. Calves artificially fed on whole or skim milk should receive only such milk as is sweet and has been handled in a sanitary manner. Milk should always be warmed to the temperature of the body before feeding. When calves artificially milk-fed develop diarrhea, the use of the following treatment has given excellent results in many cases: Immediately after milking, or the separation of the skim milk from the cream, formalin in the proportion of 1 to 4,000 should be added to the milk which is used for feeding; this may be closely approximated by adding four drops of formalin to each quart of milk. This medicated milk should be fed to the calf in the usual quantity. When the diarrhea is not controlled in three or four days by this treatment, the additional use of some of the agents recommended above may assist in a recovery. INFECTIOUS DIARRHEA; WHITE SCOUR. [See chapter on Diseases of young calves, p. 247.] GASTROENTERITIS. This consists of an inflammation of the walls of the stomachs and of the bowel. Gastroenteritis, or inflammation of the walls of the stomachs and intestines, follows upon irritations more severe or longer continued than those that produce gastrointestinal catarrh. _Causes._--Severe indigestion may be followed by gastroenteritis, or it may be caused by swallowing irritant poisons, such as arsenic or corrosive sublimate or irritant plants. Exposure to cold or inclement weather may produce the disease, especially in debilitated animals or animals fed improperly. It is asserted that if cattle feed on vegetation infested with some kinds of caterpillars this disease may result. _Symptoms._--Dullness; drooping of the ears; dryness of the muzzle; dry skin; staring coat; loins morbidly sensitive to pressure; fullness of the left flank, which is caused by the distention of the fourth stomach by gas. The pulse is small, the gait is feeble and staggering; each step taken is accompanied with a grunt, and this symptom is especially marked if the animal walks in a downward direction. There is loss of appetite, and rumination is suspended. The passages at first are few in number, hard, and are sometimes coated with mucus or with blood. Later a severe diarrhea sets in, when the passages contain mucus and blood and have an offensive odor. There is evidence of colicky pain, and the abdomen is sensitive to pressure. Pain may be continuous. There is fever and acceleration of pulse rate and respirations. Mental depression and even insensibility occur before death. The disease is always severe and often fatal. _Post-mortem appearances._--The mucous membrane of the fourth stomach has a well-marked red color and sometimes presents ulcerations. The wall is thickened and softened, and similar conditions are found in the walls of the intestines. The red discoloration extends in spots or large areas quite through the wall, showing on the outside. _Treatment._--Very small quantities of carefully selected feed must be given and the appetite must not be forced. Protect the animal well from cold and dampness. Internally, give linseed tea, boiled milk, boiled oatmeal gruel, or rice water. These protectives may carry the medicine. Tannopin in doses of 30 to 60 grains is good. Subnitrate of bismuth in doses of 1 to 2 drams may be given. Pulverized opium may be used, if the diarrhea is severe, in 1 to 2 dram doses. If the bowel movements are not free, one may give from a pint to a quart of castor or raw linseed oil. TRAUMATIC INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH. This disease results from the presence of a foreign body. This condition is not rare in cattle, because these animals have the habit of swallowing their feed without careful chewing, and so nails, screws, hairpins, ends of wire, and other metal objects may be swallowed unconsciously. Such objects gravitate to the second stomach, where they may be caught in the folds of the lining mucous membrane, and in some instances the wall of this organ is perforated. From this accident, chronic indigestion results. The symptoms, more or less characteristic, are pain when getting up or lying down; grunting and pain upon sudden motion, especially downhill; coughing; pain on pressure over the second stomach, which lies immediately above the cartilaginous prolongation of the sternum. If the presence of such a foreign body is recognized, it may be removed by a difficult surgical operation, or, as is usually most economical, the animal may be killed for beef, if there is no fever. DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. DIARRHEA AND DYSENTERY. [See also Gastrointestinal catarrh, p. 32.] The word "dysentery," as it is commonly used in relation to the diseases of animals, signifies a severe form of diarrhea. _Causes._--Diarrhea is a symptom of irritation of the intestines, resulting in increased secretion or increased muscular contractions, or both. The irritation is sometimes the result of chilling from exposure, improper feeding, irritant feeds, indigestion, organic diseases of the intestines, or parasites. _Symptoms._--Passages from the bowels are frequent, at first consisting of thin dung, but as the disease continues they become watery and offensive smelling, and may be even streaked with blood. At first the animal shows no constitutional disturbance, but later it becomes weak and may exhibit evidence of abdominal pain by looking around to the side, drawing the feet together, lying down, or moving restlessly. Sometimes this malady is accompanied with fever, great depression, loss of strength, rapid loss of flesh, and it may terminate in death. _Treatment._--When the disease depends on irritating properties of the feed which has been supplied to the animal, it is advisable to give a mild purgative, such as a pint of castor or linseed oil. When the secretions of the bowels are irritating, an ounce of carbonate of magnesia and half an ounce of tincture of opium should be shaken up in a quart of linseed tea and given to the animal three times a day until the passages present a natural appearance. When there is debility, want of appetite, no fever, but a continuance of the watery discharges from the bowels, then an astringent may be given. For such cases the following is serviceable: Tannic acid, 1 ounce; powdered gentian, 2 ounces; mix and divide into 12 powders, one powder to be given three times a day until the passages present a natural appearance. Each powder may be mixed with a pint and a half of water. Tannopin is a new remedy that is most useful in such cases. The dose is from 30 grains to 2 drams. Useful household remedies are raw eggs, strong coffee, parched rye flour, or decoction of oak bark. In all cases the food must be given sparingly, and it should be carefully selected to insure good quality. Complete rest in a box stall is desirable. When diarrhea is a symptom of a malady characterized by the presence of a blood poison, the treatment appropriate to such disease must be applied. SIMPLE ENTERITIS. [See Gastroenteritis, p. 33.] CROUPOUS ENTERITIS. Under certain conditions, severe irritation of the digestive canal may, in cattle, cause a form of inflammation of the intestines (enteritis) that is characterized by the formation of a false membrane upon the surface of the lining membrane of the intestines, particularly the large ones. _Symptoms._--There is fever, depression, loss of appetite, diarrhea, and in the fecal masses shreds of leathery false membrane may be found. These shreds are sometimes mistaken for parasites or for portions of the wall of the intestine. _Treatment._--Give a pound of Glauber's salt, followed by bicarbonate of soda in doses of 2 ounces four times daily. ENTERITIS (OBSTRUCTION RESULTING FROM INVAGINATION, OR INTUSSUSCEPTION, TWISTING, AND KNOTTING OF THE BOWELS). Inflammation may arise from a knot forming on some part of the small intestine from the portion of the bowel becoming twisted on itself, or from one part of the bowel slipping into another, which is termed invagination. This form of enteritis occurs occasionally in animals of the bovine species. _Causes._--The small intestine, which in the ox rests on the right side of the rumen, is, from the position which it occupies, predisposed to this accident. It has been ascertained that animals which have shown symptoms of this malady have trotted, galloped, or made other violent exertions in coming from drinking, or that they have been chased by dogs or by animals of their own species while at pasture. The accident is most likely to occur among cattle on very hilly pastures. The danger of jumping or running is greatest when the rumen is distended with food. _Symptoms._--This form of enteritis or obstruction is manifested by severe colicky pains; the ox scrapes and strikes the ground with his front and hind feet alternately; keeps lying down and getting up again; he keeps his tail constantly raised and turns his nose frequently to his right flank; he is frequently bloated, or tympanitic, on that side. He refuses feed and does not ruminate, and for some hours suffers severe pains. At first he frequently passes thin dung, and also urinates frequently, but passes only a little urine at a time. On the second day the pains have become less acute; the animal remains lying down; moans occasionally; his pulse is small and quick; he still refuses feed and does not ruminate. At this stage he does not pass any dung, though sometimes a small quantity of bloody mucus may be passed. The animal passes very little urine. This condition may continue for a considerable time, as cattle so affected may live for 15 or even 20 days. _Post-mortem appearance._--At death the bowels are found to be misplaced or obstructed, as mentioned above, and inflamed, the inflammation always originating at the point where the intestine has been invaginated, twisted, or knotted. Sometimes the part is gangrenous, the compression of the blood vessels preventing circulation, and thus causing the death of the tissues. _Treatment._--Purgatives, anodynes, and other remedies are of no service in such cases, and bleeding also fails to produce any benefit. Indeed, it is usually true that in such cases treatment is useless. Some cases are recorded in which an incision has been made in the flank, so as to enable the operator to restore the intestine to its normal position or to remove the kink. CONSTIPATION. Constipation is to be regarded rather as a symptom of disease or of faults in feeding than as a disease in itself. It occurs in almost all general fevers unless the bowels are involved in local disease, in obstructions of all kinds, from feeding on dry, bulky feed, etc. In order to remove the constipation the treatment must be applied to remove the causes which give rise to it. Calves sometimes suffer from constipation immediately after birth when the meconium that accumulates in the bowels before birth is not passed. In such cases, give a rectal injection of warm water and an ounce of castor oil shaken up with an ounce of new milk. The mother's milk is the best food to prevent constipation in the new-born calf, as it contains a large amount of fatty matter which renders it laxative in its effects. It is usually better to treat habitual constipation by a change of diet than by medicine. Flaxseed is a good feed laxative. If the constipation has lasted long, repeated small doses of purgatives are better than a single large dose. INTESTINAL WORMS. [See chapter on "The animal parasites of cattle," p. 502.] RUPTURES (VENTRAL HERNIA). Ventral hernia, or rupture, is an escape of some one of the abdominal organs through a rupture in the abdominal muscles, the skin remaining intact. The rumen, the small intestine, or part of the large intestine, and the fourth stomach are the parts which usually form a ventral hernia in bovine animals. _Causes._--Hernia is frequently produced by blows of the horns, kicks, and falls. In old cows hernia may sometimes occur without any direct injury. HERNIA OF THE RUMEN.--Hernia of the rumen is generally situated on the left side of the abdomen, on account of the situation of the rumen. In exceptional cases it may take place on the right side, and in such cases it also generally happens that some folds of the intestine pass into the hernial sac. Hernias have been classified into simple or complicated, recent or old, traumatic (from mechanical injury) or spontaneous. In recent traumatic hernia there is swelling on the left side of the lower part of the abdomen. The swelling is greatest in the cases of hernia which are situated on the lower part of the abdomen. Unless an examination is made immediately after the injury has been inflicted it is difficult, and sometimes impossible, to ascertain the exact extent of the rupture, owing to the swelling which subsequently takes place. Frequently there is no loss of appetite, fever, or other general symptoms attending the injury. From the twelfth to the fifteenth day the swelling has generally subsided to such an extent that it is possible by an examination to determine the extent of the rupture. In old cows what is termed spontaneous hernia may sometimes take place without any direct injury. The occurrence of this form of hernia is explained by the increase in the size of the abdomen, which takes place in an advanced stage of pregnancy, causing a thinning and stretching of the muscular fibers, which at last may rupture, or give way. Such hernias frequently occur about the end of the period of gestation, and in some instances have contained the right sac of the rumen, the omentum, the small and large intestines, a portion of the liver, and the pregnant uterus. In old hernias the swelling is soft and elastic, and if they have not contracted adhesions to the sides of the laceration, they can be made to disappear by pressure carefully applied. Sometimes this accident is complicated by a rupture of the rumen, constituting a complicated hernia. If a portion of the contents of the rumen escape into the abdomen, the case will be aggravated by the occurrence of peritonitis. HERNIA OF THE BOWEL.--When the intestines (Pl. III, fig. 6) form the contents of the hernia, it will be situated at the right side of the abdomen. In an intestinal hernia the swelling is usually not painful, of a doughy consistence or elastic, according as the intestine does or does not contain alimentary matter. This swelling can generally be made to disappear by pressure, and when it has been reduced one can easily recognize the direction and extent of the hernial opening. Hernias of the bowel which are situated at the upper and right side of the abdomen are usually formed by the small intestine. They are less easily reduced than a hernia in a lower situation, but when reduction has been effected they are less readily reproduced than those occurring lower. In hernias of the small intestine, adhesion of the protruding parts to the walls of the opening, or strangulation, are complications which sometimes take place. If adhesion has taken place the hernia can not be reduced by pressure, and when strangulation has occurred the animal shows symptoms of pain--is restless, turns its nose to the painful part, and shows those symptoms which are usually collectively designated under the term colic. If relief is not afforded, the animal will die. HERNIA OF THE RENNET, OR FOURTH STOMACH.--This disease occasionally occurs in calves and is usually caused by a blow from a cow's horn on the right flank of the calf. After such an accident a swelling forms on the right flank near the last rib. This swelling may be neither hot nor painful, even at first, and is soft to the touch. It can be made to disappear by careful pressure, when the sides of the aperture through which it has passed can be felt. The application of pressure so as to cause the disappearance of the hernia is best made immediately after the occurrence of the accident, or when the edema which accompanies the swelling has disappeared. _Treatment._--When a hernia is reducible--that is, can be pushed back into the abdomen--then, if it is of recent occurrence, it is advisable to maintain the natural position of the parts by bandaging and to allow the walls of the laceration to grow together. The bowels should be kept reasonably empty by avoiding the use of bulky feed, and the animal must be kept quiet. The following method of bandaging is recommended by Bouley: First prepare a bandage (must be of strong material), about 10 yards long and between 3 and 4 inches broad, and a flexible and solid piece of pasteboard adapted in size to the surface of the hernia. The protruding organ must then be replaced in the abdomen and maintained in that position during the application of the bandage. This being done, a layer of melted pitch and turpentine is quickly spread on the skin covering the seat of the hernia, so as to extend somewhat beyond that space. This adhesive layer is then covered with a layer of fine tow, then a new layer of pitch and turpentine is spread on the tow, and the piece of pasteboard is applied on the layer of pitch, its outer surface being covered with the same preparation. Lastly, the bandage, adhering to the piece of pasteboard, to the skin, and to the different turns which it makes around the body, is carefully applied so as to form an immovable, rigid, and solid bandage, which will retain the hernia long enough for the wound in the abdominal walls to heal permanently. If the hernia is old and small it may be treated by injecting a strong solution of common salt about the edges of the tear. This causes swelling and inflammation, which, respectively, forces the protruded organ back and closes the opening. There is some risk attached to this method of treatment. In small, old, ventral hernias the method of compressing and sloughing off the skin has been used successfully. If the hernia is large a radical operation will be necessary, and this is also true when the symptoms indicate that a hernia is strangulated. This operation is performed by cutting down on the hernia, restoring the organ to the abdominal cavity, and then closing the wound with two sets of stitches; the inner stitches, in the muscular wall, should be made with catgut and the outer stitches, in the skin, may be made with silk or silver wire. The strictest surgical cleanliness must be observed. Bleeding vessels should be tied. Then a compress composed of ten or twelve folds of cloth must be placed smoothly over the seat of injury and a bandage applied around the body, the two ends being fastened at the back. In the smaller kinds of hernia, nitric acid may sometimes be applied with success. This treatment should not be applied until the swelling and inflammation attending the appearance of the hernia have subsided; then, the contents of the hernia having been returned, the surface of skin corresponding to it is sponged over with a solution composed of 1 part of nitric acid to 2 of water. This treatment acts by exciting considerable inflammation, which has the effect of causing swelling, and thus frequently closing the hernial opening and preventing the contents of the sac from returning. A second application should not be made until the inflammation excited by the first has subsided. In what is termed spontaneous hernia it is useless to apply any kind of treatment. UMBILICAL HERNIA.--The umbilicus, or navel, is the aperture through which the blood vessels pass from the mother to the fetus, and naturally the sides of this aperture ought to adhere or unite after birth. In very young animals, and sometimes in newborn calves, this aperture in the abdominal muscles remains open and a part of the bowel or a portion of the mesentery may slip through the opening, constituting what is called umbilical hernia. The wall of the sac is formed by the skin, which is covered on the inner surface by a layer of cellular tissue, and within this there is sometimes, but not always, a layer of peritoneum. The contents of the hernia may be formed by a part of the bowel, by a portion of the peritoneum, or may contain portions of both peritoneum and bowel. When the sac contains only the peritoneum it has a doughy feel, but when it is formed by a portion of the bowel it is more elastic on pressure. _Causes._--In the new-born animal the opening of the navel is generally large, and may sometimes give way to the pressure of the bowel on account of the weak and relaxed condition of the abdominal muscles. This defective and abnormal condition of the umbilicus is frequently hereditary. It may be occasioned by roughly pulling away the umbilical cord; through kicks or blows on the belly; through any severe straining by which the sides of the navel are stretched apart. We may mention in this connection that it is best in new-born calves to tie the umbilical cord tightly about 2 inches from the navel, and then to leave it alone, when in most cases it will drop off in a few days, leaving the navel closed. _Treatment._--It is well to bear in mind that many, and especially the smaller, umbilical hernias heal spontaneously; that is, nature effects a cure. As the animal gets older the abdominal muscles get stronger and possess more power of resistance to pressure, the bowels become larger and do not pass so readily through a small opening, so that from a combination of causes there is a gradual growing together or adhesion of the sides of the navel. In cases of umbilical hernia in which there are no indications that a spontaneous cure will take place, the calf should be laid on its back; immediately on this being done the hernia will often disappear into the abdomen. If it does not, its reduction may be brought about by gentle handling, endeavoring, if need be, to empty the organs forming the hernia before returning them into the abdomen. After the hernia has been returned, the hair should be clipped from the skin covering it and a compress composed of 10 or 12 folds of linen or cotton should be applied, first smearing the skin with pitch and then a bandage about 3 inches wide should be passed round the body so as to retain the compress in position. The lower part of the compress should be smeared with pitch, and also those portions of the bandage which pass over it, so as to keep it solid and prevent it from shifting. In some cases it will be found that the contents of the sac can not be returned into the abdomen, and this generally arises from the fact that some part of the contents of the sac has grown to or become adherent to the edges of the umbilical opening. In such a case the skin must be carefully laid open in the long direction, the adhesions of the protruding organs carefully separated from the umbilicus, and after the protruding parts have been returned into the abdomen, the sides of the umbilicus must be freshened if necessary by paring, and then the edges of the opening brought together by catgut stitches; the wound in the skin must then also be brought together by stitches. The wound must be carefully dressed every day and a bandage passed round the body so as to cover and protect the part operated on. In small hernias nitric acid has been used successfully in the same manner as has been described in the treatment of ventral hernia. Sulphuric acid has also been used for a similar purpose, diluting it to the extent of 1 part of acid to 3 or 5 of water. In thin-skinned animals the weaker preparations ought to be preferred, and caution must be exercised in using such preparations so as not to destroy the tissues on which they are applied. Another method of treatment is, after the contents of the sac have been returned into the abdomen, to tie a piece of strong waxed cord round the pendulous portion which formed the outer covering of the hernia. The string is apt to slacken after two or three days, when a new piece of cord should be applied above the first one. The constriction of the skin sets up inflammation, which generally extends to the umbilicus and causes the edges to adhere together, and by the time the portion of skin below the ligature has lost its vitality and dropped off, the umbilicus is closed and there is no danger of the abdominal organs protruding through it. This is what takes place when this method has a favorable result, though if the umbilicus does not become adherent and the skin sloughs, the bowels will protrude through the opening. GUT-TIE (PERITONEAL HERNIA).--In peritoneal hernia of the ox a loop or knuckle of intestine enters from the abdomen into a rent in that part of the peritoneum which is situated at the margin of the hip bone or it passes under the remains of the spermatic cord, the end of which may be grown fast to the inner inguinal ring. The onward pressure of the bowel, as well as the occasional turning of the latter round the spermatic cord, is the cause of the cord exercising considerable pressure on the bowel, which occasions irritation, obstructs the passage of excrement, and excites inflammation, which terminates in gangrene and death. The rent in the peritoneum is situated at the upper and front part of the pelvis, nearer to the sacrum than the pubes. _Causes._--Among the causes of peritoneal hernia considerable importance is attached to a method of castration which is practiced in certain districts, viz, the tearing or rupturing of the spermatic cord by main force instead of dividing it at a proper distance above the testicle in a surgical manner. After this violent and rough method of operating, the cord retracts into the abdomen and its stump becomes adherent to some part of the peritoneum, or it may wind around the bowel and then the stump becomes adherent, so that strangulation of the bowel results. The rough dragging on the cord may also cause a tear in the peritoneum, the result of which need not be described. The severe exertion of ascending hills and mountains, drawing heavy loads, or the straining which oxen undergo while fighting each other may also give rise to peritoneal hernia. _Symptoms._--The ox suddenly becomes very restless, stamps with his feet, moves backward and forward, hurriedly lies down, rises, moves his tail uneasily, and kicks at his belly with the foot of the affected side. The pain evinced may diminish but soon returns again. In the early stage there are frequent passages of dung, but after the lapse of 18 or 24 hours this ceases, the bowel apparently being emptied to the point of strangulation, and the passages now consist only of a little mucus mixed with blood. When injections are given at this time the water passes out of the bowel without even being colored. The animal lies down on the side where the hernia exists and stretches out his hind feet in a backward direction. These two particular symptoms serve to distinguish this affection from enteritis and invagination of the bowel. As time passes the animal becomes quieter, but this cessation of pain may indicate that gangrene of the bowel has set in, and may, therefore, under certain circumstances, be considered a precursor of death. Gangrene may take place in from four to six days, when perforation of the bowel may occur and death result in a short time. _Treatment._--In the first place the ox should be examined by passing the oiled hand and arm into the rectum; the hand should be passed along the margin of the pelvis, beginning at the sacrum and continuing downward toward the inguinal ring, when a soft, painful swelling will be felt, which may vary from the size of an apple to that of the two fists. This swelling will be felt to be tightly compressed by the spermatic cord. It very rarely happens that there is any similar swelling on the left side, though in such cases it is best to make a thorough examination. The bowel has sometimes been released from its position by driving the ox down a hill; by causing him to jump from a height of 2 feet to the ground; the expedient of trotting him also has been resorted to with the hope that the jolting movement might bring about a release of the bowel. If the simple expedients mentioned have been tried and failed, then the hand being passed into the rectum should be pressed gently on the swelling in an upward and forward direction, so as to endeavor to push the imprisoned portion of the bowel back into the abdomen. While this is being done the ox's hind feet should stand on higher ground than the front, so as to favor the slipping out of the bowel by its own weight, and at the same time an assistant should squeeze the animal's loins, so as to cause it to bend downward and so relax the band formed by the spermatic cord. If the imprisoned portion of gut is freed, which may be ascertained by the disappearance of the swelling, the usual sounds produced by the bowels moving in the abdomen will be heard, and in a few hours the feces and urine will be passed as usual. If the means mentioned fail to release the imprisoned portion of the gut, then an incision about 4 inches long must be made in the right flank in a downward direction, the hand introduced into the abdomen, the situation and condition of swelling exactly ascertained, and then a probe-pointed knife inserted between the imprisoned bowel and band compressing it, and turned outward against the band, the latter being then cautiously divided and the imprisoned gut allowed to escape, or, if necessary, the bowel should be drawn gently from its position into the abdomen. The wound in the flank must be brought together in the same way as in the case of the wound made in operating for impaction of the rumen. WOUNDS OF THE ABDOMEN. A wound of the abdomen may merely penetrate the skin; but as such cases are not attended with much danger, nor their treatment with much difficulty, we will consider here merely those wounds which penetrate the entire thickness of the abdominal walls and expose to a greater or less extent the organs contained in that cavity. _Causes._--Such accidents may be occasioned by falling on fragments of broken glass or other sharp objects. A blow from the horn of another animal may penetrate the abdomen. Exposure and protrusion of some of the abdominal organs may also be occasioned by the incautious use of caustics in the treatment of umbilical or ventral hernia. The parts which generally escape through an abdominal wound are the small intestine and floating colon. _Symptoms._--When the abdominal wound is small, the bowel exposed presents the appearance of a small round tumor, but in a few moments a loop of intestine may emerge from the opening. The animal then shows symptoms of severe pain by pawing with his feet, which has the effect of accelerating the passage of new loops of intestine through the wound, so that the mass which they form may even touch the ground. The pain becomes so great that the ox now not only paws but lies down and rolls, thus tearing and crushing his bowels. In such cases it is best to slaughter the animal at once; but in the case of a valuable animal in which tearing and crushing of the bowels has not taken place the bowels should be washed with freshly boiled water reduced to the temperature of the body and returned and the wounds in the muscle and skin brought together in a manner somewhat similar to that described in speaking of ventral hernia. DISEASES OF THE LIVER AND SPLEEN. JAUNDICE (THE YELLOWS, OR CONGESTION OF THE LIVER). When jaundice exists, there is a yellow appearance of the white of the eyes and of the mucous membrane of the mouth. A similar aspect of the skin may also be observed in animals which are either partly or altogether covered with white hair. Jaundice is then merely a symptom of disease and ought to direct attention to ascertaining, if possible, the cause or causes which have given rise to it. A swollen condition of the mucous membrane of that part of the bowel called the duodenum may produce jaundice, as that mechanically closes the orifice of the biliary duct. In constipation there is an inactive or torpid condition of the bowel, and the bile which passes into the intestine may be absorbed and cause the yellow staining of jaundice. Jaundice is one of the symptoms of Texas fever. It may also arise from the presence of parasites or gallstones in the ducts, forming a mechanical obstruction to the onward flow of bile. The conditions under which jaundice most commonly calls for treatment are when cattle have been highly fed and kept in a state of inactivity. At such time there is an excess of nutritive elements carried into the blood, which is associated with increased fullness of the portal vein and hepatic artery. When continued high feeding has produced this congested state of the liver, the functions of that organ become disordered, so that a considerable portion of the bile, instead of being excreted and passing into the intestine, is absorbed by the hepatic veins. The structure of the liver is shown in Plate IV. _Symptoms._--This disease, although rare, occurs most frequently among stall-fed cattle. Pressure along the margin of the short ribs on the right side produces pain; the appetite is poor and the animal shows hardly any inclination to drink; the mucous membranes of the eye and mouth are yellow, the urine has a yellow or brown appearance, the animal lies down much and moves with reluctance, moans occasionally, and has a tottering gait. The ears and horns are alternately hot and cold; in cows the secretion of milk is much diminished, and that which is secreted has a bitter taste; sometimes the animal has a dry, painful cough and presents a dull, stupefied appearance. _Treatment._--In such cases it is advisable to produce a free action of the bowels, so as to remove the usually congested condition of the portal vein and liver. For this purpose the administration of the following dose is recommended: Sulphate of soda, 16 ounces; molasses, 1 pint; warm water, 1 quart. The sulphate of soda is dissolved by stirring it up in tepid water. Following this the animal should have a heaping tablespoonful of artificial Carlsbad salt in the feed three times daily. This treatment may be assisted by giving occasional injections of warm water and soap. The diet should be laxative and moderate in quantity and may consist of coarse bran mash, pulped roots, grass in the season, and hay in moderate quantity. HEPATITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER). Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver and usually occurs as a complication of some infectious disease. It may also occur as a complication of gastrointestinal catarrh or in hot weather from overheating or damaged (putrid or fermented) feeds. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are sometimes obscure and their real significance is frequently overlooked. The most prominent symptoms are yellowness of the white of the eye and of the membrane lining the mouth; the appetite is poor, the body presents an emaciated appearance, the feces are light colored, while the urine is likely to be unusually dark; there is thirst, and pain is caused by pressing over the liver. The gait is weak and the animal lies down more than usual, and while doing so frequently rests its head on the side of its chest. _Treatment._--Give a purge of Glauber's salt and after it has operated give artificial Carlsbad salts in each feed, as advised under "Jaundice." Give green feed and plenty of water. Oil of turpentine should be rubbed in well once a day over the region of the liver. The skin on which it should be applied extends from the false ribs on the right side to 6 inches in front of the last one, and from the backbone to 12 inches on the right side of it. FLUKE DISEASE. [See chapter on "The animal parasites of cattle," p. 502.] SPLENITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE SPLEEN). This disease occurs almost solely as a result of the existence of some infectious disease, and the symptoms caused by it merge with the symptoms of the accompanying causative disease. The spleen is seriously involved and becomes enlarged and soft in Texas fever, anthrax, and blood poisoning. DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM. PERITONITIS. Peritonitis consists of an inflammation of the peritoneum, which is the thin, delicate membrane that lines the abdomen and covers the abdominal organs. _Causes._--Wounds are the usual cause in cattle. The wound may be of the abdominal wall or of the intestines, stomach, or uterus; or inflammation may extend from one of the organs of the abdominal cavity to the peritoneum; so this disease may complicate enteritis or inflamed womb. A sharp metal body may perforate the second stomach and allow the gastric contents to escape, irritating the peritoneum. This disease may follow castration or operation for hernia. _Symptoms._--A continuous or occasional shivering; the animal lies down, but appears uneasy; it frequently turns its head toward its belly and lows plaintively; pressure on the flanks produces pain; has no appetite; muzzle is dry and no rumination; while standing, its legs are placed well under its body; pulse small and hard. The evacuations from the bowels are dry and hard. If this disease is complicated by the presence of inflammation of the bowels, the pain is more severe and the animal is more restless. The skin is cold and dry in the early stage of this disease, but in a more advanced stage this condition may be succeeded by heat of the skin and quick breathing. The fits of trembling, uneasiness, small and hard pulse, and tension of the left flank are symptoms the presence of which would enable one to reach the conclusion that peritonitis exists. _Post-mortem appearance._--The membrane lining the abdomen and covering the surface of the bowels is reddened to a greater or less extent, and there is usually considerable serous, or watery, fluid collected in the abdomen. _Treatment._--When we have to do with the form of peritonitis resulting from an injury, as when the horn of another animal has been thrust through the abdominal walls, this lesion must be treated in accordance with directions before given, but the general treatment must be similar to that which follows. Peritonitis resulting from castration or from parturient fever must also be treated in connection with the special conditions which give rise to it, as the general treatment of this disease must be modified to some extent by the exciting cause. The aim must be to discover and remove the cause. The cause must be treated according to its nature. Harms strongly recommends borax in the treatment of peritonitis. He gives 6 ounces in the first 24 hours, divided into three doses, and afterwards he gives 6 drams three times daily. Opium in doses of 2 to 3 drams may be given. To bring on evacuations of the bowels it is better to give rectal injections than to administer purges. The strength may be sustained by coffee or camphor. The body should be warmly clothed, and it is advisable, when practicable, to have a blanket which has been wrung out of hot water placed over the abdomen, then covered by several dry blankets, which are maintained in position by straps or ropes passing round the body. The wet blanket must be changed as it cools--the object of treatment being to warm the surface of the body and to determine as much blood to the skin as possible. The diet should consist of laxative food and drinks, such as linseed tea. If peritonitis assumes chronic form the diet should be nutritious, such as selected clover hay, linseed cake, grass, etc., and iodid of potassium should be given three times a day in gram doses dissolved in a pint of water. DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN (ASCITES). In this disease there is a serous, or watery, effusion in the cavity of the abdomen. _Causes._--When old animals are fed on innutritious feed or when reduced by disease, they become anemic; in other words, their blood becomes impoverished and dropsy may follow. An innutritious and insufficient diet produces the same effect in young animals. It is one of the results of peritonitis, and may also arise from acute or chronic inflammation of the liver, such as is of common occurrence when flukes are present in the liver in large numbers. Heart disease and chronic lung disease may be followed by ascites. It is sometimes, in calves, a symptom of infestation with worms. _Symptoms._--A gradual increase in the size of the abdomen at its lower part, while the flanks becomes hollow; pallor of the mucous membrane of the mouth and eye; weak and sluggish gait; want of appetite, and irregularity in ruminating. On percussion or tapping the surface of the abdomen with the fingers, a dull sound is produced. If the hand and arm are oiled and passed into the rectum as far as possible, on moving the hand from one side to the other the fluctuation caused by the presence of fluid in the abdomen may be felt. _Treatment._--If possible the cause must be discovered and removed. The diet should be nutritious, and in those cases in which we have merely to deal with anemia (the bloodless state) arising from insufficient diet, the use of tonics and diuretics, at the same time keeping the skin warm, may bring about a gradual absorption of the fluid contained in the abdomen. One of the following powders may be mixed with the animal's feed three times a day; or, if there is any uncertainty as to its being taken in that way, it should be mixed with sirup, so as to form a paste, and smeared well back on the animal's tongue with a flat wooden spoon: Carbonate of iron, 3 ounces; powdered gentian, 3 ounces; powdered nitrate of potassium, 3 ounces; mix and divide into 12 powders. The administration of purgatives which promote a watery discharge from the mucous surface of the bowels also tends, by diminishing the serum of the blood, to bring about absorption and a gradual removal of the fluid contained in the abdomen. Large doses should not be given, but moderate ones should be administered morning and night, so as to produce a laxative effect on the bowels for several days. To attain this end the following may be used: Sulphate of soda, 8 ounces; powdered ginger, half an ounce; to be mixed in 2 quarts of tepid water and given at one dose. * * * * * DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE I. Position of the first stomach (rumen or paunch) on the left side. The area inclosed by heavy dotted lines represents the rumen; the elongated, shaded organ is the spleen resting upon it. The skin and muscles have been removed from the ribs to show the position of the lungs and their relation to the paunch. PLATE II. Stomach of ruminants. Fig. 1. Stomach of a full-grown sheep, 1/5 natural size (after Thanhoffer, from R. Meade Smith's Physiology of Domestic Animals): _a_, rumen, or first stomach; _b_, reticulum, or second stomach; _c_, omasum, or third stomach; _d_, abomasum, or fourth stomach; _e_, esophagus, or gullet, opening into the first and second stomachs; _f_, opening of fourth stomach into small intestine; _g_, opening of second stomach into third; _h_, opening of third stomach into fourth. The lines indicate the course of the food in the stomachs. The incompletely masticated food passes down the esophagus, or gullet, into the first and second stomachs, in which a churning motion is kept up, carrying the food from side to side and from stomach to stomach. From the first stomach regurgitation takes place; that is, the food is returned through the gullet to the mouth to be more thoroughly chewed, and this constitutes what is known as "chewing the cud." From the second stomach the food passes into the third, and from the third into the fourth, or true, stomach, and from there into the intestines. Fig. 2. Stomach of ox (after Colin, from R. Meade Smith's Physiology of Domestic Animals): _a_, rumen; _b_, reticulum; _c_, omasum; _d_, abomasum; _e_, esophagus; _f_, opening of fourth stomach into small intestine. Fürstenberg calculated that in an ox of 1,400 pounds weight the capacity of the stomach is as follows: Per cent. Rumen, 149.25 quarts, liquid measure 62.4 Reticulum, 23.77 quarts 10 Omasum, 36.98 quarts 15 Abomasum, 29.05 quarts 12.6 According to Colon-- Quarts. The capacity of a beef's stomach is 266.81 Small intestine 69.74 Cecum 9.51 Colon and rectum 25.58 Fig. 1. Clinical thermometer, 4/5 natural size. This is used to determine the temperature of the animal body. The thermometer is passed into the rectum after having been moistened with a little saliva from the mouth, or after having had a little oil or lard rubbed upon it to facilitate its passage. There it is allowed to remain two or three minutes, then withdrawn, and the temperature read as in any ordinary thermometer. The clinical thermometer is made self-registering; that is, the mercury in the stem remains at the height to which it was forced by the heat of the body until it is shaken back into the bulb by taking hold of the upper portion of the instrument and giving it a short, sharp swing. The normal temperature of cattle varies from 100° to 103° F. In young animals it is somewhat higher than in old. The thermometer is a very useful instrument and frequently is the means by which disease is detected before the appearance of any external sign. [Illustration: PLATE I. SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE RUMEN.] [Illustration: PLATE II. STOMACH OF RUMINANTS.] [Illustration: PLATE III. INSTRUMENTS USED IN TREATING DISEASES OF DIGESTIVE ORGANS.] [Illustration: PLATE IV. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE LIVER.] [Illustration: PLATE V. ERGOT IN HAY.] [Illustration: PLATE VI. ERGOTISM.] Fig. 2. Simple probang, used to dislodge foreign bodies, like apples, potatoes, eggs, etc., which have become fastened or stuck in the esophagus or gullet. Fig. 3. Grasping or forceps probang. This instrument, also intended to remove obstructions from the gullet, has a spring forceps at one end in the place of the cup-like arrangement at the end of the simple probang. The forceps are closed while the probang is being introduced; their blades are regulated by a screw in the handle of the instrument. This probang is used to grasp and withdraw an article which may have lodged in the gullet and can not be forced into the stomach by use of the simple probang. Fig. 4. Wooden gag, used when the probang is to be passed. The gag is a piece of wood which fits in the animal's mouth; a cord passes over the head to hold it in place. The central opening in the wood is intended for the passage of the probang. Figs. 5_a_ and 5_b._ Trocar and cannula; 5_a_ shows the trocar covered by the cannula; 5_b_, the cannula from which the trocar has been withdrawn. This instrument is used when the rumen or first stomach becomes distended with gas. The trocar covered by the cannula is forced into the rumen, the trocar withdrawn, and the cannula allowed to remain until the gas has escaped. Fig. 6. Section at right angles through the abdominal wall, showing a hernia or rupture. (Taken from D'Arboval. Dictionnaire de Médecine, de Chirurgie de Hygiene): _a a_, The abdominal muscles cut across; _v_, opening in the abdominal wall permitting the intestines _i i_ to pass through and outward between the abdominal wall and the skin; _p p_, peritoneum, or membrane lining the abdominal cavity, carried through the opening _o_ by the loop of intestine and forming the sac S, the outer walls of which are marked _b f b._ PLATE IV. Microscopic anatomy of the liver. The liver is composed of innumerable small lobules, from 1/20 to 1/10 inch in diameter. The lobules are held together by a small amount of fibrous tissue, in which the bile ducts and larger blood vessels are lodged. Fig. 1 Illustrates the structure of a lobule; _v v_, interlobular veins or the veins between the lobules. These are branches of the portal vein, which carries blood from the stomach and intestines to the liver; _c c_, capillaries, or very fine blood vessels, extending as a very fine network between the groups of liver cells from the interlobular vein to the center of the lobule and emptying there into the intralobular vein to the center of the lobule; _v c_, intralobular vein, or the vein within the lobule. This vessel passes out of the lobule and there becomes the sublobular vein; _v s_, sublobular vein. This joins other similar veins and helps to form the hepatic vein, through which the blood leaves the liver; _d d_, the position of the liver cells between the meshes of the capillaries; _A A_, branches of the hepatic artery to the interlobular connective tissue and the walls of the large veins and large bile ducts. These branches are seen at _r r_ and form the vena vascularis; _v v_, vena vascularis; _i i_, branches of the hepatic artery entering the substance of the lobule and connecting with capillaries from the interlobular vein. The use of the hepatic artery is to nourish the liver, while the other vessels carry blood to be modified by the liver cells in certain important directions; _g_, branches of the bile ducts, carrying bile from the various lobules into the gall bladder and into the intestines; _x x_, intralobular bile capillaries between the liver cells. These form a network of very minute tubes surrounding each ultimate cell, which receives the bile as it is formed by the liver cells and carried outward as described. Fig. 2. Isolated liver cells: _c_, blood capillary; _a_, fine bile capillary channel. PLATE V. Ergot in hay: 1, bluegrass; 2, timothy; 3, wild rye; 4, redtop. Ergot is a fungus which may affect any member of the grass family. The spore of the fungus, by some means brought in contact with the undeveloped seed of the grass, grows, obliterates the seed, and practically takes its place. When hay affected with ergot is fed to animals it is productive of a characteristic and serious affection or poisoning known as ergotism. PLATE VI. Ergotism, or the effects of ergot. The lower part of the limb of a cow, showing the loss of skin and flesh in a narrow ring around the pastern bone and the exposure of the bone itself. * * * * * POISONS AND POISONING. By V. T. ATKINSON, V. S. [Revised by C. DWIGHT MARSH, Ph. D.] DEFINITION OF A POISON. To define clearly the meaning of the word "poison" is somewhat difficult. Even in law the word has never been defined, and when a definition is attempted we are apt to include either too much or too little. The following definition given by Husemann is perhaps the best: "Poisons are those substances, inorganic or organic, existing in the organism or introduced from the outside, produced artificially or formed as natural products, which, through their chemical nature, under definite conditions, so affect some organ of a living organism that the health or well-being of the organism is temporarily or chronically injured." The common conception of a poison is any substance which, in small quantity, will destroy life, except such as act by purely mechanical means, as, for example, powdered glass. Some substances that are not usually looked upon as poisons may destroy life if given in large doses, such as common salt. Other substances which are perfectly harmless when taken into the body in the usual way are poisons if injected into the circulation, such as distilled water, milk, or glycerin. Living organisms are not "chemical substances," and are not considered in this connection. SOURCES OF POISONING. Poisoning may come from many causes, among the chief of which are the following: (1) _Errors in medication._--By using the wrong substance or too large dose an animal may be poisoned. (2) _The exposure of poisons used for horticultural, technical, or other legitimate purposes._--Poisons used for spraying plants, disinfecting, poisoning vermin, dipping cattle or sheep, painting, smelting, dyeing, or other purposes may be so handled as to come within the reach of animals. (3) _Damaged food._--Food that has undergone putrefaction or certain kinds of fermentation or heating, may have become poisonous, producing forage poisoning, meat poisoning, cheese poisoning, etc. (4) _Poisonous plants in the pasture or forage._ (5) _The bite or sting of a poisonous insect or the bite of an animal._ (6) _Malicious poisoning._ THE ACTION OF POISONS. The action of poisons may be either local, and exerted directly on the tissues with which they come in contact, or remote, acting through the circulation or the nervous system; or both local and remote action may be exerted by the same drug. Poisons which act locally generally either destroy by corrosion the tissues with which they come in contact or by inhalation set up acute inflammation. When any corrosive agent is taken into the stomach in poisonous quantities, a group of symptoms is developed which is common to all. The tissues with which the agent comes in contact are destroyed, sloughing and acute inflammation of the surrounding structures take place; intense pain in the abdomen and death ensue. In a like manner, but with less rapidity, the same result is reached if the agent used be not of a sufficiently corrosive nature to destroy the tissues, but sufficiently irritating to set up acute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the digestive tract. If the poison exerts a remote influence alone, the action is quite different, little or no local effect being produced upon the digestive organs. To produce an effect on some part of the body distant from the channel of entrance, a poison must have been absorbed and carried in the blood to the central nervous system or other region involved. The poisonous effect of any substance is modified by the quantity used; by its chemical combinations; by the part of the animal structure with which it comes in contact; by the physical condition of the subject; and also by the rapidity with which the poison is excreted. As an illustration, opium may be given with safety in much larger doses to an animal suffering from acute pain than to one free from pain, and to an adult animal with greater safety than to a young one. The rapidity with which the poison is absorbed, owing to the part of the body with which it is brought in contact, is also an important factor. So marked is this quality that some agents which have the power of destroying life with almost absolute certainty when introduced beneath the skin, may be taken into the stomach without causing inconvenience, as curara, the arrow poisons, or the venomous secretion of snakes. Other agents in chemical combination may tend to intensify, lessen, or wholly neutralize the poisonous effect. For example, arsenic in itself has well-marked poisonous properties, but when brought in contact with dialyzed iron it forms an insoluble compound and becomes innocuous. Idiosyncrasies are not so noticeable in cattle practice as in practice among human beings, but the uncertainty with which some drugs exert their influence would lead us to believe that well-marked differences in susceptibility exist. Even in some cases a tolerance for poison is engendered, so that in a herd of animals equally exposed injurious or fatal effects do not appear with uniformity. For example, among cattle that are compelled to drink water holding in solution a salt of lead the effects of the poisoning will be found varying all the way from fatality to imperceptibility. GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF POISONING. It is not always easy to differentiate between poisoning and some disease. Indeed, examination during the life of the animal is sometimes wholly inadequate to the formation of an opinion as to whether the case is one of poisoning or, if it is, as to what the poison may be. A chemical and physical examination after the death of the animal may be necessary to clear up the doubt. On the other hand, the symptoms may be of such a nature as to point unmistakably to poisoning with a certain agent. In general, the following classes of symptoms may be regarded as indicative of poisoning: Sudden onset of the disease without visible cause, a number of animals being similarly affected at once, with severe gastrointestinal disorder or derangement of the nervous system, or both; sudden alteration of heart action in relation to frequency, force, or rhythm; local irritation, dyspnea, or change in the urine or urination. After death, lesions of the greatest variety may be found, and it is necessary for one to be skilled in anatomy and pathology in order to determine their significance. Oftentimes the stomach and intestines are red, have thick walls, and contain blood. This signifies a severe irritant, such as arsenic or corrosive sublimate. Other alterations sometimes found are inflammation of the kidneys or bladder, points of hemorrhage in various organs, changes in the blood, congestion of the lungs, and certain microscopic changes. GENERAL TREATMENT. The treatment of animals suffering from poison must vary according to the nature of the toxic agent. There are a few general plans of action, however, which should be followed so far as possible. In man and in some of the smaller animals it is possible to eliminate unabsorbed poison by the use of the stomach pump or by causing vomiting. These proceedings are impracticable in cattle. It is well, therefore, in many cases to endeavor to expel the unabsorbed poison by emptying the digestive tract, so far as may be, with a nonirritating purge. Castor oil in doses of 1 pint to 2 quarts is adapted to this purpose. If the poison is known to be nonirritant--as a narcotic plant--from 10 to 20 drops of croton oil may be given with a quart of castor oil. When poisons are somewhat prolonged in their effect, Epsom salt in doses of 1 pound can be given advantageously. To protect the mucous membrane from the action of strong irritants, one may give flaxseed tea, barley water, the whites of eggs, milk, butter, olive oil, or fresh lard. Chemical antidotes may sometimes be used for special poisons, as advised below. In general, if an acid has been taken it may be neutralized with an alkali, such as chalk, magnesia, bicarbonate of soda (baking soda), ammonia (diluted), or soap. If the poison is an alkali, such as caustic soda or potash (lye), or ammonia, an acid, such as diluted (1 per cent) sulphuric acid or vinegar, may be administered. Special treatments and antidotes are considered below. A poisonous agent may be so gradually introduced into the system as to slowly develop the power of resistance against its own action. In other cases where the poison is introduced slowly the poisonous action becomes accumulative, and, although there is no increase in the quantity taken, violent symptoms are suddenly developed, as if the whole amount, the consumption of which may have extended over a considerable period, had been given in one dose. Other agents, poisonous in their nature, tend to deteriorate some of the important organs, and, interfering with their natural functions, are productive of conditions of ill health which, although not necessarily fatal, are important. Such might properly be called chronic poisons. Poisons of themselves dangerous when administered in large doses are used medicinally for curative purposes, and a very large percentage of the pharmaceutical preparations used in the practice of medicine if given in excessive quantities may produce serious results. In the administration of medicines, therefore, care should be exercised not only that the animal is not poisoned by the administration of an excessive dose but that injury is not done by continued treatment with medicines the administration of which is not called for. MINERAL POISONS. ARSENIC POISONING. Of the common irritant and corrosive poisons, arsenic, especially one of its compounds (Paris green), is likely to be the most dangerous to our class of patients. The common practice of using Paris green and other compounds of arsenic as insecticides for the destruction of potato beetle and other insect enemies of the farmer and fruit grower has had the effect of introducing it into almost all farming establishments. White arsenic is also a principal ingredient in some popular dipping preparations, and poisoning from this source occasionally takes place when, after dipping, animals are allowed to run in a yard in which there is loose fodder. The drippings from the animals falling on the fodder render it poisonous and dangerous to animal life if eaten. Familiarity with its use has in many instances tended to breed contempt for its potency as a poison. Rat poisons often contain arsenic. The excessive use of arsenic as a tonic, or of "condition powders" containing arsenic, has been the means of poisoning many animals. This is the common poison used by malicious persons with criminal intent. The poison may also be absorbed through wounds or through the skin if used as a dip or bath. If a large dose is given, at once acute poisoning is produced; if repeated small doses are given, chronic poisoning may result. The poisonous dose for an ox is from 3 drams to 1 ounce. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of acute poisoning first appear as those of colic; the animal is restless, stamping with the feet, lying down and getting up. There is tenderness on pressure over the abdomen. The acute symptoms increase; in a few hours violent diarrhea is developed; in many cases blood and shreds of detached mucous membrane are mixed with the evacuations. There is irregular and feeble pulse and respiration, and death is likely to supervene between the eighteenth hour and the third day. If the latter period is passed, there is a reasonable hope of recovery. In chronic poisoning the symptoms are similar to those of chronic gastrointestinal catarrh, with indigestion, diarrhea, and general weakness and loss of condition. _Treatment._--The antidote for arsenic is a solution of hydrated oxid of iron in water. It should be prepared fresh by mixing a solution of sulphate of iron, made by dissolving 4 ounces of sulphate of iron in one-half pint water, with a suspension of 1 ounce of magnesia in one-half pint water. This quantity is sufficient for one dose for a cow and may be repeated in an hour, if much arsenic was taken. A solution of calcined magnesia or powdered iron or iron filings or iron scale from a blacksmith's forge may be given in the absence of other remedies. Powdered sulphur is of some value as an antidote. One must also administer protectives, such as linseed tea, barley water, whites of eggs, etc. LEAD POISONING. Lead poisoning of cattle sometimes comes from their having licked freshly painted surfaces and thus swallowed compounds containing white lead. In several instances cattle have been poisoned by silage from a silo painted inside with lead paint shortly before filling. Sometimes cattle eat dried paint scrapings with apparent relish and are poisoned. Cattle grazing on rifle ranges have been poisoned by lead from the bullets. Sugar of lead has been administered by mistake for Glauber's salt. Lead poisoning may be acute or chronic. The fatal dose of sugar of lead is from 1 to 4 ounces. Water drawn from lead pipes or held in a lead-lined tank may cause poisoning. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are generally dullness, lying down with the head turned toward the flank, colic, rumbling in the abdomen, loss of control of the limbs when walking, twitching, champing of the jaws, moving in a circle, convulsions, delirium, violent bellowing, followed by stupor and death. The symptoms generally extend over considerable time but may end in death after 24 hours. _Chronic lead poisoning_ occasionally occurs in districts where lead mining is the principal industry. The waste products of the mine thrown into streams contaminate the water supply, so that the mineral is taken into the system gradually, and a very small per cent of any of the salts taken into the system in this way is pernicious. Water which contains any salt of lead to the extent of more than one-tenth of a grain to the gallon is unfit to drink. Such water when used continually is likely to produce colic from the resulting intestinal irritation, and in aggravated cases paralysis more or less severe is likely to be developed. A blue line on the margin of the gums, the last symptom, is regarded as diagnostic and its presence as conclusive evidence of the nature of the disorder. _Treatment._--The treatment should first be directed toward removing the cause. A large dose of purgative medicine should be given, and the brain symptoms be relieved by giving bromid of potassium in half-ounce doses every 4 or 5 hours and by the application of cold water to the head. Dilute sulphuric acid in half-ounce doses should be given with the purgative medicine. In this case sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salt) is the best purgative, and it may be given in doses of from 1 to 2 pounds dissolved in warm water. After the acute symptoms have abated, iodid of potassium may be given, in doses of 2 drams each, three times a day for a week. No treatment is likely to be of avail until the cause is removed. COPPER POISONING. The soluble salts of copper, though used as a tonic in the medicinal treatment of cattle, are poisonous when taken in large quantities. Like lead and arsenic, they have an irritant effect upon the mucous membrane with which they come in contact in a concentrated form. Cattle are not very likely to be poisoned from this cause unless through carelessness. Sulphate of copper, commonly called blue vitriol, is occasionally used for disinfecting and cleansing stables, where it might inadvertently be mixed with the feed. It is also used largely for making the Bordeaux mixture used in spraying fruit trees. The general symptoms produced are those of intestinal irritation, short breathing, stamping, and tender abdomen. _Treatment._--Give powdered iron, or iron reduced by hydrogen, or calcined magnesia. Sulphur may be used. This should be followed by a liberal supply of demulcents, linseed infusion, boiled starch, whites of eggs, etc. ZINC POISONING. Several of the soluble salts of zinc are irritant poisons. The chlorid and sulphate are those in most common use. In animals which have power to vomit they are emetic in their action. In others, when retained in the stomach, they set up more or less irritation of the mucous membrane and abdominal pain, producing symptoms already described in the action of other poisons which produce the same result. _Treatment._--The treatment should be the same as for copper poisoning. PHOSPHORUS POISONING. Only one of the forms of phosphorus in common use--the ordinary yellow--is poisonous. Phosphorus in this form is used for the destruction of rats and mice and other vermin, and has been largely used in the manufacture of matches. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are loss of appetite, colic, diarrhea, irritation of the mouth and throat, and paralysis of the throat. There is also weakness, difficult breathing, and rapid pulse. The course of the poisoning is usually rapid, terminating in either recovery or death within three days. The toxic dose for cattle is from 5 to 30 grains. If taken in large quantities the excreta are occasionally noticed to be luminous when examined in the dark. _Treatment._--Turpentine is given in an emulsion with flaxseed tea in a single dose of from 2 to 8 ounces. Permanganate of potassium may be given in a one-fourth of 1 per cent solution. Stimulants, such as alcohol and ether, should be administered. Oils and milk must not be given. MERCURY POISONING. Mercury poisoning is not rare in cattle from the fact that these animals have a special susceptibility to the action of this substance. Antiseptic washes or injections containing the bichlorid of mercury (corrosive sublimate) must be used on cattle with great care. Mercurial disinfecting solutions or salves must be used cautiously. Calomel can not be given freely to cattle. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are salivation, sore mouth, indigestion, diarrhea, skin eruption, paralysis of local groups of muscles, and nephritis. _Treatment._--The treatment consists in administering sulphur in large doses (2 to 4 ounces) or iron powder. Both make insoluble compounds with mercury. Follow with the whites of eggs mixed with water and with linseed tea. If the case does not terminate promptly, give iodid of potash in 1-dram doses twice daily. POISONING BY ACIDS. MINERAL ACIDS.--The mineral acids--nitric, sulphuric, hydrochloric, etc.-- when used in a concentrated form destroy the animal tissues with which they come in contact, and in this respect differ from most of the poisons previously described. When taken into the stomach the mucous membrane of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and stomach is apt to be more or less completely destroyed. If taken in large quantities death is likely to result so speedily that nothing can be done to relieve the patient, and even if time is allowed and the action of the acid can be arrested it can not be done until considerable and, perhaps, irreparable damage has been done. The mucous membrane with which the acid has come in contact in the esophagus may be destroyed by its corrosive action and carried away, leaving the muscular tissues exposed. The raw surface heals irregularly, the cicatrice contracting causes stricture, and an animal so injured is likely to die of starvation. In the stomach even greater damage is likely to be done. The peristaltic action of the esophagus carries the irritant along quickly, but here it remains quiet in contact with one surface, destroying it. It is likely to perforate the organ and, coming in contact with the abdominal lining or other organs of digestion, soon sets up a condition that is beyond repair. In a less concentrated form, when this is not sufficiently strong to be corrosive, it exerts an irritant effect. In this form it may not do much harm unless taken in considerable quantity. When thus the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines becomes inflamed pain and diarrhea are likely to result. _Treatment._--Any of the alkalies may be used as an antidote. Most convenient of these are chalk, baking soda, marble dust, magnesia, lime, soap, or plaster from a wall. Mucilaginous drinks should be given in large quantities. VEGETABLE ACIDS.--Oxalic acid in particular is corrosive in its action when taken in concentrated solution, losing its corrosive effect and becoming irritant when more dilute. It also exerts a specific effect on the heart, frequently causing death from syncope. Taken in the form either of the crystals or solution it is likely to cause death in a very short time. Failure of heart action and the attendant small pulse, weakness, staggering, and convulsions are the more noticeable symptoms. Acetic acid is irritant to the gastrointestinal tract, and may cause sudden paralysis of the heart. _Treatment._--The action of the acid should be counteracted by the use of alkalies, as advised above, by limewater or lime or plaster given promptly, by protectives to the digestive tract, and by stimulants. POISONING BY ALKALIES. The carbonates of potash and soda and the alkalies themselves in concentrated form cause symptoms of intestinal irritation similar to those produced by mineral acids. Ammonia, caustic soda, and caustic potash (lye) are those to which animals are most exposed. The degree of their caustic irritant effects depends on their degree of concentration. When they reach the stomach the symptoms are nearly as well marked as in the case of the acids. The irritation is even more noticeable, and purgation is likely to be a more prominent symptom. If death is not caused soon, the irritation of the gastrointestinal tract and malnutrition will last for a long time. _Treatment._--Treatment consists in neutralizing the alkali by an acid, such as dilute sulphuric acid (1 per cent) or strong vinegar. The administration of such an antidote and its action must be carefully watched during administration. In the chemical change which takes place when the acid and alkali are combined, carbonic-acid gas is liberated, which may be to an extent sufficient to cause considerable distention of the abdomen, and even to produce asphyxia from pressure forward on the diaphragm. Should this danger present itself, it may be averted by opening the flank, permitting the gas to escape. (See "Acute tympanites, or Bloating," p. 22.) Flaxseed or slippery-elm decoction must be given to sooth the inflamed mucous surface. Opium may be used to allay pain. COAL-OIL POISONING. Coal oil is sometimes administered empirically as a treatment for intestinal parasites. If given in large doses it produces poisonous effects, which are likely to be manifested some time after the administration. It acts as an irritant to the digestive tract, causing dribbling of ropy saliva from the mouth, diarrhea, tenesmus, and loss of appetite, with increased temperature and cold extremities. Visible mucous membranes are injected, pupils of the eyes are contracted, and there is a watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils. Remotely it exerts a depressing influence on the functions of the brain and slight coma, and occasionally convulsions, from which the animal is easily aroused. The kidneys also suffer. The urine is dark colored and has the characteristic odor of coal oil. Death may result from gastroenteritis or convulsions. _Treatment._--The patient's strength should be fostered by the frequent administration of mild stimulants, of which aromatic spirits of ammonia is perhaps the best. The animal should be encouraged to eat soft feed and given mucilaginous drinks. Crude coal oil is sometimes applied to the skin to kill parasites. If too much is used, especially in hot weather, great weakness and depression may be caused and in some cases death may result. CARBOLIC-ACID POISONING. Although one of the most valuable antiseptic remedies, carbolic acid in a concentrated form, when taken internally or used over a large surface externally, is likely to produce poisonous effects. It causes whitening, shrinking, and numbness of the structures with which it comes in contact, and, besides its irritant effect, exerts a powerful influence on the nervous system. Being readily absorbed, it produces its effect whether swallowed, injected into the rectum, inhaled, or applied to wounds, or even to a large tract of unbroken skin. Used extensively as a dressing, it may produce nausea, dizziness, and smoky or blackish colored urine. The last symptom is nearly always noticeable where the poisonous effect is produced. In more concentrated form, or used in larger quantities, convulsions, followed by fatal coma, are likely to take place. Even in smaller quantities, dullness, trembling, and disinclination for food often continue for several days. In a tolerably concentrated solution it coagulates albumen and acts as an astringent. _Treatment._--As an antidote internally, a solution of sulphate of soda or sulphate of magnesia (Glauber's or Epsom salt) may be given. The white of egg is also useful. Stimulants may be given if needed. When the poisoning occurs through too extensive applications to wounds or the skin, as in treatment of mange, cold water should be freely applied so as to wash off any of the acid that may still remain unabsorbed. As a surgical dressing a 3 per cent solution is strong enough for ordinary purposes. Water will not hold more than 5 per cent in permanent solution. No preparation stronger than the saturated solution should be used medicinally under any circumstances. SALTPETER POISONING. Both nitrate of soda and nitrate of potassium are poisonous to cattle. These substances are used for manure and for preserving meats. They may be administered in a drench by error in place of Glauber's salt, or they may be exposed within reach of cattle and thus be eaten. The toxic dose depends upon the condition of fullness of the stomach. If in solution and given on an empty stomach, as little as 3 ounces of saltpeter (nitrate of potassium) may be fatal to a cow. More of the Chile saltpeter (nitrate of soda) is required to cause serious trouble. _Symptoms._--Severe gastroenteritis, colic, tympanites, diarrhea, excessive urination, weakness, trembling, convulsions, collapse. _Treatment._--Same as for poisoning by common salt. POISONING BY COMMON SALT. A few pounds (3 to 5) of common salt will produce well-marked signs of poisoning in cattle. So much salt as this will not be taken by cattle except under unusual conditions. If the feed is poor in salt, and if no salt has been given for a long time, an intense "salt hunger" may occur that may lead an animal to eat a poisonous quantity, or an overdose of salt may be given by error as a drench. In order to prevent overeating of salt, it is doubtless better in salting cattle to use rock salt rather than that in more or less finely divided form. Herring and mackerel brine and pork pickle are also poisonous, and are especially dangerous for hogs. In these substances there are, in addition to salt, certain products extracted from the fish or meat which undergo change and add to the toxicity of the solution. Sometimes saltpeter is present in such brines. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are great thirst, abdominal pain, diarrhea, poor appetite, redness and dryness of the mouth, increased urination, paralysis of the hind legs, weak pulse, general paralysis, coma, and death in from six to eight hours. _Treatment._--Allow as much warm water as the animal will drink; give protectives, such as linseed tea, etc. Linseed or olive oil may be given. To keep up the heart action give ether, alcohol, camphor, digitalis, or coffee. To allay pain, give opium. VEGETABLE POISONS. Vegetable poisons may be divided into two classes--those that are likely to be administered to the animal as medicine, and such as may be taken in the feed, either in the shape of poisonous plants or as plants or feeds of vegetable origin that have been damaged by fungi or by bacteria which have produced fermentation or putrefaction. VEGETABLE POISONS USED AS MEDICINE. OPIUM (MORPHIN, LAUDANUM) POISONING. Opium and its alkaloid, morphia, are so commonly used in the practice of medicine that the poisonous result of an overdose is not uncommon. The common preparations are gum opium, the inspissated juice of the poppy; powdered opium, made from the gum; tincture of opium, commonly called laudanum; and the alkaloid or active principle, morphia. Laudanum has about one-eighth the strength of the gum or powder. Morphia is present in good opium to the extent of about 10 per cent. In medicine it is a most useful agent in allaying pain. It first produces a stimulating action, which is followed by drowsiness, a disposition to sleep or complete anesthesia, depending on the quantity of the drug used. In poisonous doses a state of exhilaration is well marked at first. This is particularly noticeable in cattle and in horses. The animal becomes much excited, and this stage does not pass into insensibility unless an enormous dose has been given. If the dose is large enough, a second stage sometimes supervenes, in which the symptoms are those of congestion of the brain. The visible membranes have a bluish tint (cyanotic) from interference with the air supply. The breathing is slow, labored, and later stertorous; the pupils of the eyes are very much contracted; the skin dry and warm. Gas accumulates in the stomach, so that tympanites is a prominent symptom. The patient may be aroused by great noise or the infliction of sharp pain, when the breathing becomes more natural. A lapse into the comatose condition takes place when the excitement ceases. Later, there is perfect coma and the patient can no longer be aroused from the insensible condition. The contraction of the pupil becomes more marked, the breathing intermittent and slower, there is perspiration, the pulse more feeble and rapid, till death takes place. Poisoning of cattle with opium or its products rarely goes beyond the stage of excitement, because the quantity of the drug required for the later effects is so great. Seventy-five grains of morphia administered subcutaneously has sufficed merely to excite for 12 hours. _Treatment._--Give strong coffee, 1 to 4 quarts, aromatic spirits of ammonia or carbonate of ammonia. Atropia is the physiological antidote. STRYCHNIN POISONING. Strychnin is a very concentrated poison and produces its effect very quickly, usually only a few minutes being necessary if given in sufficient dose and in such a way that it will be at once absorbed. When employed as a medicine, as a rule, minimum doses should be used, as cattle are quite susceptible to its effects and may be killed by the maximum doses given in the common manuals of veterinary medicine. The first noticeable symptom is evidence of unrest or mental excitement; at the same time the muscles over the shoulder and croup may be seen to quiver or twitch, and later there occurs a more or less well-marked convulsion; the head is jerked back, the back arched and leg extended, the eyes drawn. The spasm continues for only a few minutes, when it relaxes and another occurs in a short time. The return is hastened by excitement and in a short time again disappears, continuing to disappear and reappear until death results. As the poisonous effect advances the intervals between the spasms become shorter and less marked and the spasms more severe until the animal dies in violent struggles. _Treatment._--The best method is to put the patient under the influence of chloral, chloroform, or ether, and keep it there continuously until the effect of the poison has passed off. Alcohol may be given in large doses. ACONITE POISONING. In recent years tincture of aconite has become a popular stable remedy. If an animal is ailing, aconite is given whether indicated or not. Fortunately the dose used is generally small, and for this reason the damage done is much less than it would otherwise be. Aconite is one of the most deadly poisons known. It produces paralysis of motion and sensation, depresses the heart's action, and causes death by paralysis of respiration. In large doses it causes profuse salivation, champing of the jaws, and attempts at swallowing. If not sufficient to cause death, there is impaired appetite with more or less nausea for some time after. In poisonous doses it causes the animal to tremble violently, to lose power to support itself, and brings on slight convulsions, with perspiration. The pulse is depressed, irregular, and afterwards intermittent. _Treatment._--The chemical antidote is tannic acid, which forms an insoluble compound with the aconitin. The depressing effect on the heart should be counteracted by the use of ammonia, digitalis, alcohol, camphor, or other diffusible stimulants, which have a physiological effect opposite to aconite. POISONOUS PLANTS. An important group of poisons may be classed under this head. In most cases it is poison naturally belonging in the plant; in other cases the poisonous principle is developed in what would otherwise be harmless plants as a plant disease, or as a fermentation or putrefaction due to bacterial growth and observed in forage, grain, or meal that has become heated, damaged, or "spoilt." The subject of poisonous plants is an important one and is of especial interest to those using the western stock ranges, for it is probable that there is no other single cause producing so many fatalities. In this article only a few of the more important plants are treated in a brief way, for an extended treatise would be necessary if the subject were to be handled adequately. Further information should be sought in the more elaborate publications. Many of the American poisonous plants have been treated in bulletins issued by the United States Department of Agriculture. _Treatment for plant poisoning._--Remedies given by the mouth in most cases fail to give relief to cattle affected by poisonous plants. The material of the poisonous plants in the first stomach is not very largely affected by a remedy given as a drench. If any beneficial result is effected, it must be on the material which has already passed into the fourth stomach, so that to get any real antidotal result the remedy must be given repeatedly in order to meet the alkaloid poisons as they are passing through the fourth stomach. While certain substances like tannic acid and potassium permanganate are the logical antidotes for plant poisons, in practical application they are very disappointing in the treatment of ruminant animals. Reliance must be mainly on prevention and upon such remedies as will increase elimination. A laxative or purgative is always helpful, and for this purpose Epsom salt may be given in pound doses, or linseed oil in doses of 1 or 2 pints. In some few cases special remedies can be given as is indicated below. It is well to bear in mind that cattle while grazing freely in good pasture are not likely to eat poisonous plants to any extent. If these same plants are gathered and thrown in a pile, the animals, through a kind of pernicious curiosity, may eat them with disastrous results. This has frequently happened when freshly cut branches of cherry, yew, oleander, and other plants have been thrown where dairy cattle could get at them. OAKS. The foliage of oaks is a valuable constituent of the forage on many ranges and pastures. It has been shown, however, that when this is eaten without some admixture of other food, cattle frequently sicken and die. Many cases of the poisoning of cattle by acorns have been reported in England and Germany, and there have been some complaints in the United States. Harmful results from eating acorns do not seem likely to occur except as they are eaten in considerable quantities. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of oak poisoning are constipation, mucus and blood in the feces, emaciation, and edema. The symptoms of acorn poisoning are much the same. _Treatment._--Change of pasture or an addition of other food material. HORSE CHESTNUT--BUCKEYE. All the species of _Æsculus,_ popularly known as horse chestnut or buckeye, are considered poisonous. The bark, leaves, and fruit are injurious. It is said that if the fruit is boiled or roasted and washed out it becomes harmless and even is a desirable addition to the feed of cattle. The Indians in time of scarcity of food have used the fruit after preparing it in this way. The buckeyes are said to have a specific effect in producing abortion in cattle and goats. DEATH CAMAS (SPECIES OF ZYGADENUS). The death-camas plants, which are commonly known in the Pacific States as "lobelia," are especially destructive of sheep, but cattle sometimes eat them and are poisoned. Cases of cattle poisoning are not likely to result fatally. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are salivation, nausea accompanied by vomiting, great weakness, and lowered temperature. _Treatment._--There is no effective treatment for death-camas poisoning. FLY POISON (CHROSPERMA MUSCÆTORIUM). This plant, which is closely related to the death-camas plants, is sometimes known as "stagger grass" and causes a considerable loss in the Southern States. It grows earlier than the grasses, and on this account is more likely to be eaten. Like death camas, it produces pronounced nausea, resulting in vomiting and weakness, and in cases which recover the effects may continue for several days. Apparently the injurious effects are more common in the case of cattle than in other domestic animals. There is no known way of treating these animals, though doubtless purgatives would be beneficial. YEW (TAXUS BACCATA). The European yew has long been known as a very poisonous plant. It is cultivated in America, and while cases of poisoning have not been common, it is well to recognize its dangerous character. A comparatively small dose is poisonous and ordinarily acts with great rapidity. It causes respiratory paralysis and the animal dies in convulsions. LAUREL. The laurels, including the broad-leafed laurel, _Kalmia latifolia_, the narrow-leafed laurel, _Kalmia angustifolia_, the rhododendrons, and other closely related plants are poisonous and cause considerable losses. It is dangerous to let cattle graze where these plants are abundant at times when other forage is scarce. The symptoms are salivation, nausea and vomiting, spasms, dizziness, stupor, and death. FERN. The common brake or bracken fern, _Pteris aquilina_, has been considered responsible for the poisoning of many horses and cattle. Many cases have been reported in England and Germany, and some well-authenticated cases in the United States. Very little has been learned experimentally of fern poisoning, but there seems to be little question that it has been the cause of many deaths. The symptoms are said to be temperature higher than normal, loss of appetite, bloody discharges from mouth, nose, and bowels, and great depression followed by coma and death. Some authors say that the urine is colored by blood. It is thought by some that the disease known as "red water" in the northwestern United States and Canada is caused by eating ferns. SORGHUM POISONING. Under certain conditions sorghum contains enough hydrocyanic acid to make it exceedingly dangerous to cattle. These cases of poisoning most commonly occur when cattle are pastured upon the young plant or upon a field where the crop has been cut and is making a second growth. Conditions of drought make the sorghum especially dangerous. There is some reason to think that the frosted second growth is particularly rich in hydrocyanic acid. The cases of poisoning occur when animals are grazed upon the plant, but not from the harvested crop or from silage. If cattle are grazed on sorghum or sorghum stubble they should at first be under constant observation and should be removed as soon as any signs of illness appear. Similar precautions should be used in grazing kafir. CORNSTALK DISEASE. Considerable losses of cattle have occurred when they were turned upon cornfields in the fall. Deaths come very suddenly and there is no opportunity to apply remedies. It has been thought that these fatalities, like those from sorghum, were caused by hydrocyanic acid, but there is good reason to think that this is not true, and at the present time there is no accepted explanation of this disease, although there seems to be no doubt that it is connected in some way with the condition of the corn. Whether a given field is poisonous or not can only be determined by experiment, and the wise farmer will keep his cattle under close observation when they are first turned into a cornfield. WATER HEMLOCK (CICUTA). This plant, growing in wet places by ditches and along creeks, is the most poisonous of North American plants. The root is the poisonous part, and cattle generally get it when it is plowed up or washed out by high water. Sometimes they pull it up, for the plant occasionally grows out into ditches so that the whole plant will be taken in grazing. The most marked symptoms of Cicuta poisoning are the violent convulsions, which remind one of the effect of strychnin. _Treatment._--Little can be done in the way of treatment. The logical thing is to attempt to control the convulsions by means of morphia, but in view of the fact that the stomach can not be emptied, the prognosis is not good, and most cases die. LARKSPURS. The larkspurs are a source of heavy loss to cattle owners in the higher ranges of the West. There are a number of species, growing at altitudes from 4,000 feet to timber line, and all are poisonous. A few cases of poisoning by larkspurs have been reported in the eastern United States, but most of the losses are confined to the West, both because larkspurs grow there in greater profusion and because cattle are grazed in that region on the open ranges. The losses are confined to cattle, for sheep and horses can graze on larkspur with no resulting harm. Most of the larkspur losses occur in the spring and early summer, as the plants lose their toxicity after maturing. _Symptoms._--Larkspur poisoning is accompanied by a definite line of symptoms. In range animals the first symptom noted is generally the sudden falling of the animal and consequent inability to rise. After a while it may rise, only to fall again. This may happen repeatedly. In severe cases the animal lies prone and exhibits nausea, accompanied by vomiting. It dies of respiratory paralysis, death many times being hastened by the asphyxia following the vomiting. _Treatment._--The animal, if found down, should be turned so that its head is uphill in order to relieve the lungs. Many cases will recover with no further treatment. Nearly all cases will recover if a hypodermic injection is given immediately of physostigmin salicylate 1 grain, pilocarpin hydrochlorid 2 grains, strychnin sulphate 1/2 grain. LOCO. The loco plants have caused especially heavy losses of cattle, horses, and sheep. They grow in the semiarid regions of the West and sometimes in great luxuriance. The best known are the "blue loco," the "woolly loco" or "purple loco," and the "white loco" or "rattle-weed." The blue loco is common in parts of New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah. It affects both horses and cattle. The purple loco, _Astragalus mollissimus_, is common in Texas and the adjoining States and extends north as far as Nebraska and Colorado. It is especially destructive to horses. The white loco, _Oxytropis lamberti_, is still more widely distributed, being found in the plains region from Alaska to Mexico and west of the Rocky Mountains to central Utah. The white loco is much more important than the purple loco, for it affects not only horses but cattle and sheep. These plants belong to the pea family, and there are a number of other species of this family that are loco plants and produce the same symptoms. _Symptoms._--Loco poisoning is a chronic condition and symptoms are shown only after somewhat prolonged feeding. The condition is one of cumulative poisoning, and animals sometimes decline very rapidly after the first symptoms appear. In many cases animals acquire a habit of eating loco and prefer it to any other feed. The poison affects the central nervous system. There is a lack of muscular coordination and the animal performs very erratic movements. In the later stages the animal becomes emaciated and eventually dies of starvation. _Treatment._--Locoed animals are badly constipated, and it is important that this condition should be remedied at the start. Any purgative can be used, but Epsom salt has been found especially effective. If locoed animals can be turned into a field of alfalfa, a large proportion of them will recover with no further treatment. Recovery may be aided by giving cattle, hypodermically, daily doses of three-twentieths to four-twentieths of a grain of strychnin. By this treatment cattle can be cured and put in condition for market. WHITE SNAKEROOT (EUPATORIUM URTICÆFOLIUM). White snakeroot, frequently known as "rich weed," is a plant growing in great abundance in some of the eastern and central regions of the United States. It is particularly abundant in parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and in western North Carolina. It is responsible for most, if not all, of the cases of a disease which is commonly known as "milk sickness." _Symptoms._--The animals are constipated, sometimes have bloody feces, become weak, and exhibit muscular trembling. This trembling is very characteristic, so that the disease is sometimes known as "the trembles." _Remedy._--There are no remedies which will work very efficiently. It is desirable to give the animals purgatives like Epsom salt and, of course, to remove them from fields where this plant is abundant. RAYLESS GOLDENROD (ISOCOMA WRIGHTII). The rayless goldenrod is a plant growing in especial abundance in parts of the Pecos Valley in New Mexico and Arizona, and there produces a disease so much like that produced in the East by white snakeroot that it is sometimes called milk sickness. More generally this disease goes under the name of "alkali disease." The plant has produced heavy losses in the regions where it grows abundantly. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are much like those produced by the white snakeroot. The animals are constipated, sometimes have bloody feces, become weak, and exhibit muscular trembling. There is good reason to think, too, that the milk of cows eating this plant is more or less injurious. _Treatment._--A purgative like Epsom salt will aid an animal in recovering, but most important is to remove the cattle from pastures where the plant is abundant and give them an abundance of good forage. Under such conditions they are almost certain to recover. MILKWEEDS. Many of the milkweeds have long been known to have more or less poisonous properties. Within the last few years it has been discovered that certain of the milkweeds going under the popular name of whorled milkweeds are especially toxic. There are at least four species of whorled milkweeds, but two of them are particularly important from the standpoint of people handling livestock. One, known scientifically as _Asclepias galioides_, is harmful in Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico, while another, known as _Asclepias mexicana_, has produced losses, especially in California and Nevada. These whorled milkweeds are distasteful to all animals and are eaten only when the stock is closely confined to pastures where there is little else in the way of forage. _Symptoms._--The most prominent symptoms are weakness, producing staggering, and this is followed in acute cases by violent spasms. _Treatment._--There is no treatment which will effectively antidote the effect of the poison. In practically all cases, however, poisoning may be avoided if care is taken to prevent animals from being closely confined where this plant is abundant, as they never eat the plant by choice. CHERRY. In the leaves of the cherries more or less hydrocyanic acid is produced, and when these leaves are eaten in any considerable quantity cases of poisoning are likely to arise. It is popularly supposed that these cases arise from eating wilted cherry leaves, but there is every reason to think that the fresh leaves will produce the same results. These cases are easily prevented, because no harm results from eating a small quantity of the leaves, and if the fact is recognized that poisoning may result from eating a large quantity, it is not difficult to care for the animals so as to prevent poisoning. ERGOTISM. The poisonous effects of ergot (Pls. V, VI) appear chiefly in the winter and spring of the year and among cattle. It is developed among grasses grown on rich soil in hot, damp seasons. Rye seems more liable to ergot than any of our other crops. Of the grasses which enter into the composition of hay, bluegrass is the most likely to become affected. Ergot may also affect redtop, oats, grasses, and grains. On the plant the fungus manifests itself on the seeds, where it is easily recognized when the hay is examined in the mow. The ergotized seeds are several times larger than the natural seeds--hard, black, and generally curved in shape. The effect of the protracted use of ergot in the feed is pretty well understood to be that of producing a degeneration and obstruction of the smaller arterial branches. The result is to shut off the blood supply to the distal parts of the body, where the circulation is weakest, and thus to produce a mummification or dry gangrene of the extremities, as the ears, tail, feet, etc. Cattle seem to be more susceptible than other animals to the influence of ergot, possibly on account of the slowness of the heart's action. When the effect of the poison has become sufficient to entirely arrest the circulation in any part, the structures soon die. The disorder manifests itself as lameness in one or more limbs; swelling about the ankle which may result in only a small slough or the loss of a toe, but it may circumscribe the limb at any point below the knee or hock by an indented ring below which the tissues become dead. The indentation soon changes to a crack, which extends completely around the limb, forming the line of separation between the dead and living structures. The crack deepens till the parts below drop off without loss of blood, and frequently with very little pus. Ergot may cause serious irritation of the digestive tract, or by acting upon the nervous system it may cause lethargy or paralysis. It also operates to cause contraction of the uterus, and may thus cause abortion. _Treatment._--Regarding the treatment, change of feed and local antiseptics are, of course, indicated. The former may be useful as a preventive, but when the symptoms have appeared the animal is necessarily so completely saturated that recovery is likely to be tedious. Tannin may be given internally in doses of one-half dram twice daily for a few days to neutralize the unabsorbed alkaloids of the ergot. At the same time give castor oil. To dilate the blood vessels give chloral hydrate. Bathe the affected parts with hot water. If sloughing has gone far, amputation must be resorted to. OTHER POISONOUS FUNGI. Many other fungi poison herbivora. In some instances, however, where fungi are blamed for causing disease their presence on the feedstuff or herbage is but coincidental with some other and more potent disease-producing factor. For example, if the conditions are favorable to the growth of fungi they are also favorable to the growth of bacteria, and bacteria may produce poisons in feeds. In general it may be said that any feed that is moldy, musty, or putrid is possibly dangerous. Silage, properly cured, does not belong to this class, because the curing of silage is not a bacterial process. But spoiled silage and silage matted with mold is dangerous and should not be fed. POISONING BY ANIMAL PRODUCTS. SNAKE BITES. The poison contained in the tooth glands of certain venomous reptiles, particularly some of the snakes, which is injected into or under the skin of an animal bitten by the reptile, is a very powerful agent. It is likely to produce a serious local irritation, and in the case of the more poisonous snakes serious constitutional disturbances, even to causing death, which it may do in either of two ways: First, when very strong, by exerting a narcotic influence similar to that of some of the powerful poisons, checking heart action. Second, by diffused inflammation of the areolar tissue, gangrene, and extensive sloughing. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of snake bite are a local swelling caused by an intense local inflammation, pricks showing where the fangs penetrated, depression, weakness, feeble pulse, difficult breathing, bluish discoloration of the visible mucous membranes, stupor, or convulsions. If the poison is not powerful or plentiful enough to produce death, it is, at any rate, likely to cause severe local abscesses or sloughs. _Treatment._--The treatment may be divided into local and general. Locally every effort should be made to prevent absorption of the poison. If discovered at once the bitten part had better be excised. If that is impracticable and a ligature can be applied, as in the case of a bite to one of the limbs, no time should be lost in applying it above the injury. It should be made sufficiently tight to so far as possible arrest circulation in the bitten part. The wound should be freely incised, so that it will bleed freely, and the poison should be extracted by cupping, or pressed out by squeezing with the fingers. Permanganate of potassium in 5 per cent solution should be applied to and injected into the wound. The depressing effect of the poison on the general system should be counteracted by hypodermic injections of strychnin, or by liberal drenching with stimulants, such as coffee, digitalis, or the aromatic spirits or carbonate of ammonia. In animal practice the alcoholic stimulants and local treatment above described are likely to meet with best success. A special antitoxin for use in treating snake bite is now prepared and may be had from the leading druggists. It is quite effective if used promptly. WASP AND BEE STINGS. Wasps and bees secrete a poisonous substance which they are able to insert through the skin of an animal by the aid of their sharp stings. This poison is a severe local irritant and may even cause local gangrene. It also has a depressing effect upon the central nervous system and destroys the red-blood corpuscles. To produce these general effects it must be introduced in very large quantities, as when an animal is stung by a swarm of bees or wasps. _Treatment._--The treatment is to wash the parts with diluted ammonia or permanganate of potassium solution and to give stimulants internally. If there is so much swelling about the head and nostrils as to interfere with breathing, tracheotomy may be necessary. POISONING WITH SPANISH FLY. Spanish fly, in the form of powdered cantharides, may be given in an overdose, or when applied as a blister to too large a surface of skin enough may be absorbed to poison. If given by the mouth, it causes severe irritation of the gastrointestinal tract, shown by salivation, sore throat, colic, bloody diarrhea, etc. It also produces, whether given by the mouth or absorbed through the skin, irritation of the urinary tract, as shown by frequent and painful urination. If death results, it is due to respiratory paralysis. _Treatment._--Give protectives and the white of egg, with opium. Do not give oils or alcohol. DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. By W. H. HARBAUGH, V. S. [Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. In cattle, as in human beings, the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics may be described as the circulatory apparatus. The heart is in the thoracic cavity (chest). It is conical in form, with the base or large part uppermost, while the apex, or point, rests just above the sternum (breastbone). It is situated between the right and left lungs, the apex inclining to the left, and owing to this the heart beats are best felt on the left side of the chest, behind the elbow. The heart may be considered as a hollow muscle, containing four compartments, two on each side. The upper compartments are called auricles and the lower ones ventricles. The right auricle and ventricle are completely separated from the left auricle and ventricle by a thick septum or wall, so that there is no communication between the right and left sides of the organ. At the bottom of each auricle is the auriculo-ventricular opening, each provided with a valve to close it when the heart contracts to force the blood into the arteries. In the interval between the contractions these valves hang down into the ventricles. The muscular tissue of the heart belongs to that class known as involuntary, because its action is not controlled by the will. The cavities of the heart are lined by a serous membrane, called the endocardium, which may be considered as a continuation of the veins and the arteries, forming their internal lining. The walls of the ventricles are thicker than those of the auricles, and the walls of the left ventricle are much thicker than those of the right. The heart is enveloped by a fibrous sac (or bag), called the pericardium, which assumes much of the general shape of the outer surface of the heart. The action of the heart is similar to that of a pump and its function is to keep the blood in circulation. The auricles may be considered as the reservoirs or receivers of the blood and the ventricles as the pump chambers. During the interval between contractions, the heart being in momentary repose, the blood pours into the auricles from the veins; the auriculo-ventricular orifices being widely open, the ventricles also receive blood; the auricles contract and the ventricles are filled; contraction of the ventricles follows; the auriculo-ventricular valves are forced up by the pressure of the blood and close the auriculo-ventricular openings and prevent the return of blood into the auricles; the contraction of the ventricles forces the blood from the right ventricle into the lungs through the pulmonary artery and its branches, and from the left ventricle into the aorta, thence through the arteries to all parts of the body. After the contraction of the ventricles the heart is again in momentary repose and is being filled with blood, while the valves in the aorta and pulmonary artery close to prevent the return of blood into the ventricles. (See Pl. VII.) The average weight of the heart of an ox is said to be from 3-1/2 to 5 pounds; but, of course, owing to the many breeds and sizes of cattle, it must vary in different animals. The vessels that convey the blood from the heart to all parts of the body are called arteries; those which return the blood to the heart are called veins. The arteries divide and subdivide (like the branches of a tree), become smaller and smaller, and ultimately ramify into every part of the body. Between the ultimate ramifications of the arteries and the beginning of the veins there is an intermediate system of very minute vessels called capillaries, which connect the arterial with the venous system of the circulation. The walls of the arteries are possessed of a certain amount of rigidity, sufficient to keep the tubes open when they are empty. The blood leaves the left ventricle through a single vessel, the common aorta, consisting of the anterior and posterior aortas, which give off the large arteries. The veins take the blood from the capillaries in all parts of the body. They begin in very small tubes, which unite to become larger in size and less in number as they approach the heart. In its course an artery is usually accompanied with a vein and in many situations with a nerve. The more important arteries are placed deep within the body; when they are superficial, however, they are generally found where least exposed to injury, as, for example, on the inner side of the legs. Arteries are less numerous than veins, and their total capacity is much less than that of the veins. A great number of veins are in the tissue immediately beneath the skin and do not generally accompany arteries. The blood, throughout its course in the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins, is inclosed within these vessels. Except where the large lymphatics empty into the venous blood, there is no opening into the course of the blood. All the arteries except the pulmonary and its branches carry bright-red blood, and all the veins, except the pulmonary veins, carry dark-red blood. The impure dark-red blood is collected from the capillary vessels and carried to the right auricle by the veins; it passes down into the right ventricle, and thence into the pulmonary artery and through its branches to the capillaries of the lungs, where the carbonic-acid gas and other impurities are given up to the air in the air cells of the lungs (through the thin walls between the capillaries and the air cells), and where it also absorbs from the air the oxygen gas necessary to sustain life. This gas changes it to the bright-red, pure blood. It passes from the capillaries to the branches of the pulmonary veins, which convey it to the left auricle of the heart; it then passes through the auriculo-ventricular opening into the left ventricle, the contraction of which forces it through the common aorta into the posterior and anterior aortas, and through all the arteries of the body into the capillaries, where it parts with its oxygen and nutritive elements and where it absorbs carbonic-acid gas and becomes dark colored. (See theoretical diagram of the circulation, Pl. VII.) The branches of certain arteries in different parts unite again after subdividing. This reuniting is called anastomosing, and assures a quota of blood to a part if one of the anastomosing arteries should be tied in case of hemorrhage, or should be destroyed by accident or operation. THE BLOOD. The various kinds of food, after being digested in the alimentary canal, are absorbed and carried into the blood by the lymphatics, and by the blood to the places where nutrition is required. The blood takes from all parts of the body all that is no longer required, and carries it to the different organs through which it is eliminated from the body. It contains within itself all the elements which nourish the body. The blood may be considered as a fluid holding in solution certain inorganic elements and having certain bodies suspended in it. To facilitate description, the blood may be considered as made up of the corpuscles and the liquor sanguinis. The corpuscles are of two kinds, the red and the white, the red being the more numerous. The color of the blood is caused by the coloring matter in the red corpuscles, which are the oxygen carriers. Both kinds are very minute bodies, which require the aid of the microscope to recognize them. The liquor sanguinis is composed of water containing in solution salts, albumen, and the elements of fibrin. The lymphatics, or absorbents, are the vessels which carry the lymph and chyle in the blood. They begin as capillaries in all parts of the body, gradually uniting to form larger trunks. Placed along the course of the lymphatic vessels are glands, in some situations collected into groups; for example, in the groin. These glands are often involved in inflammation arising from the absorption of deleterious matter. Absorption is the function of the lymphatics. The liquor sanguinis passes from the blood capillaries to supply nutrition to the tissues. All of the liquor sanguinis that is not required is absorbed by the lymphatic vessels and conveyed back to the blood by the lymphatic ducts. The lymphatics which proceed from the intestines convey the chyle into the blood during digestion. As a rule, the lymphatic vessels follow the course of the veins. All the absorbent vessels convey their contents to the thoracic duct and right great lymphatic vein, which empty into the anterior vena cava, where the lymph and chyle mix with the venous blood, and thus maintain the supply of nutritive elements in the blood. THE PULSE. As fully explained, the heart pumps the blood throughout the arterial system. The arteries are always full and each contraction of the ventricle pumps more blood into them; this distends their elastic walls and sends along them a wave which gradually becomes less perceptible as it nears the very small arteries. This wave constitutes the pulse, and is lost before the capillaries are reached. The sensation or impression given to the finger when placed upon the artery shows the force exerted by the heart and some important facts concerning the condition of the circulation. In adult cattle the average number of pulsations in a minute is from 50 to 60. The pulse is faster than normal after exercise, excitement, on hot days, from pain, and as a result of fullness of the stomach. In old animals it is slower than in the young and in males slightly slower than in females. In fevers and inflammations and in local diseases of the heart the pulse rate is increased. If the rate is greater than 100 or 110 to the minute the outlook for recovery is not good. Other variations of the pulse are known as infrequent pulse, which means that the number of pulsations in a given time is less than normal. The irregular or the intermittent pulse is when the pulsations do not follow in regular order. The large pulse and the small pulse refer to the volume of the pulse, which may be larger or smaller than usual. The strong pulse and the feeble pulse refer to the strength or weakness of the pulsation. The pulse is said to be hard when the vessel feels hard and incompressible, the soft pulse being the opposite. By dicrotic pulse is meant that kind of pulsation which makes each beat seem double, and therefore it is generally called the double pulse. The venous or "jugular pulse" is the pulsation so frequently observed in the jugular vein of cattle and is particularly noticeable while they are ruminating--"chewing the cud." It is not always associated with disease, but may be a symptom of some disease of the heart; in such cases the jugular pulse is continuous. The place selected for feeling the pulse in cattle is where the submaxillary artery winds around the lower jawbones, just at the lower edge of the flat muscle on the side of the cheek; or, if the cow is lying down, the metacarpal artery on the back part of the fore fetlock is very convenient for the purpose. THE EXAMINATION OF THE HEART. Corresponding to the beats of the heart two sounds are emitted which are of a definite type in healthy animals. The first is produced by the contraction of the heart and the flow of blood out of it; the second is caused by the rebound of blood in the aorta and the closure of the valves that prevent it from flowing backward into the heart, whence it came. The first sound is the longer and louder of the two, though of low pitch. The second sound is sharper and shorter, and is not always easy to hear. There is a brief interval between them. To distinguish these sounds, the ear is placed against the left side of the chest, a little above the point where the elbow rests when the animal is standing in a natural position, and about opposite the sixth rib. Both heart sounds are reduced in intensity when the animal is weak or when the heart is forced away from the chest wall by collections of fluid or by tubercular or other growths. Nonrhythmical heart sound is often caused by pericarditis or by disease of the valves. It may also be attributable to overfilling of the heart upon the right side, as occurs in severe congestion of the lungs and in some febrile diseases. In pericarditis, sounds like scraping, rubbing, or splashing may be heard, entirely apart from the two normal sounds above described. The impulse of the heart, as felt by placing the hand against the chest, is of some consequence in reaching a conclusion in respect to disease of the heart; but it must be remembered that the impulse may be very much increased by diseases other than those of the heart, as, for example, inflammation of various organs, severe pains, etc. The impulse may be increased also (when disease does not exist) by work, exercise, fright, or any cause of excitement, or, in general, by anything that causes acceleration of the pulse. The impulse of the heart may be felt and the sounds may be heard fairly well in lean cattle, but in fat ones it is difficult and often impossible to detect either impulse or sound with any degree of satisfaction. PALPITATION. When the impulse of the heart is excessive--that is, when it beats more or less tumultuously--the familiar expression "palpitation of the heart" is applied; by many it is called "thumps." The hand or ear placed against the chest easily detects the unnatural beating. In some cases it is so violent that the motion may be seen at a distance. Palpitation is but a symptom, and in many instances not connected with disease of the structure of the heart or its membranes. A badly frightened animal may have palpitation. When it comes on suddenly and soon passes away, it depends on some cause other than diseases of the heart; when it is gradually manifested, however, and becomes constant, although more pronounced at one time than another, heart disease may be suspected, especially if other symptoms of heart disease are present. INJURY TO THE HEART BY FOREIGN BODIES. Cattle are addicted to the habit of chewing and swallowing many objects not intended as articles of food. Every veterinarian of experience has met with instances to remind him of this, and it is well known to butchers. Among the great variety of things that have thus found their way into the stomachs of cattle the following have been noticed: Finger rings, knitting needles, old shoes, table knives, wood, pieces of leather, pieces of wire, buttons, hairpins, brushes, nails, coins, etc. The more sharply pointed objects sometimes penetrate the wall of the stomach, in some cases causing gastric irritation enough to produce indigestion, gradually work their way through the diaphragm toward the heart, pierce the pericardium (bag inclosing the heart), wound the heart, and thus prove fatal to the animal. Cases are recorded in which the foreign body has actually worked its way into one of the cavities of the heart. Instances are known, however, in which the object took a different course, and finally worked its way toward the surface and was extracted from the wall of the chest. While it is possible that the foreign body may pierce the wall at different parts of the alimentary canal, as it frequently does that of the rumen (paunch), it is thought that in most cases it passes through the wall of the reticulum (smaller honeycombed compartment, or second stomach) and is drawn toward the heart by the suctionlike action of the chest. Post-mortem examinations have demonstrated the course it pursued, as adhesions and other results of the inflammation it caused were plainly to be seen. All manner of symptoms may precede those showing involvement of the heart, depending upon the location of the foreign body and the extent of inflammation caused by it. Severe indigestion may occur; stiffness and difficulty in moving about owing to the prods of the sharp body following muscular contraction; pain on pressure over the front, lower, or right side of the abdomen; coughing and difficult, quick breathing. In most cases the foreign body does not penetrate to the heart, nor even to the pericardium. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are as follows: The animal is disinclined to move actively, the step is restricted and cautious, sudden motion causes grunting, the attitude is constrained, the feet are drawn somewhat together, the back is arched, the face has an anxious expression. If the disease is of several days' standing, there is likely to be soft swelling (edema) beneath the neck, in the dewlap, and under the chest, between the fore legs. Breathing is short and difficult; it may clearly be painful. The pulse is rapid, 80 to 120 per minute. The muscles quiver as though the animal were cold. Rumination and appetite are depressed or checked. The dung is hard, and to void it appears to cause pain. These symptoms usually develop gradually, and, of course, they vary considerably in different animals, depending upon the size and location of the foreign body and the irritation it causes. As a matter of course, in such cases treatment is useless, but when it is possible to diagnose correctly the animal could be turned over to the butcher before the flesh becomes unfit for use; that is, before there is more than a little suppuration and before there is fever. Knowing that cattle are prone to swallow such objects, ordinary care may be taken in keeping their surroundings as free of them as possible. PERICARDITIS. Inflammation of the pericardium (heart bag) is often associated with pneumonia and pleurisy, rheumatism, and other constitutional diseases, or with an injury. It also occurs as an independent affection, owing to causes similar to those of other chest affections, as exposure to cold or dampness and changes of the weather. _Symptoms._--It may be ushered in with a chill, followed by fever, of more or less severity; the animal stands still and dull, with head hanging low, and anxiety expressed in its countenance. The pulse may be large, perhaps hard; there is also a venous pulse. The hand against the chest will feel the beating of the heart, which is often irregular, sometimes violent, and in other instances weak, depending in part upon the quantity of fluid that has transuded into the pericardial sac. The legs are cold, the breathing quickened and usually abdominal; if the left side of the chest is pressed on or struck, the animal evinces pain. There may be spasms of the muscles in the region of the breast, neck, or hind legs. After a variable time swelling may also appear in the legs and under the chest and brisket. In those animals in which the heart sounds may be heard somewhat distinctly, the ear applied against the chest will detect a to-and-fro friction sound, corresponding to the beats of the heart. This sound is produced by the rubbing of the internal surface of the heart bag against the external surface of the heart. During the first stages of the inflammation these surfaces are dry, and the rubbing of one against the other during the contraction and relaxation of the heart produces this sound. The dry stage is followed by the exudation of fluid into the heart sac, and the friction is not heard until the fluid is absorbed sufficiently to allow the surfaces to come in contact again. But during the time the friction sound is lost a sound which has been called a "churning noise" may take its place. The friction sound of pericarditis can not be mistaken for the friction sound of pleurisy if the examination is a careful one, because in the heart affection the sound is made in connection with the heart beats, while in the pleuritic affection the sound is synchronous with each respiration or breath of air taken in and expelled from the lungs. _Treatment._--When pericarditis is complicated with rheumatism or other diseases the latter must be treated as directed in the description of them. The animal must be kept in a quiet, comfortable place, where it will be free from excitement. Warm clothing should be applied to the body, and the legs should be hand-rubbed until the circulation in them is reestablished, and then they should be snugly bandaged. The food should be nutritive and in moderate quantity. Bleeding should not be performed unless the case is in the hands of an expert. At the beginning give as a purgative Epsom salt--1 pound to an average-sized cow--dissolved in about a quart of warm water and administered as a drench. When there is much pain 2 ounces of laudanum, diluted with a pint of water, may be given every three hours until the animal is better. Do not give the laudanum unless demanded by the severity of the pain, as it tends to constipate. Give one-half ounce of nitrate of potassium (saltpeter), dissolved in drinking water, four or five times a day. After the attack has abated mustard mixed with water may be rubbed well over the left side of the chest to stimulate the absorption of the fluid within the pericardium. The other medicines may be discontinued and the following administered: Sulphate of iron, 2 ounces; powdered gentian, 6 ounces; mix and make 8 powders. Give one powder every day at noon, mixed with feed, if the animal will eat it, or shaken up with water in a bottle as a drench. Also the following: Iodid of potassium, 2 ounces; nitrate of potassium, 8 ounces; mix and make 16 powders. Give one in drinking water or in drench every morning and evening. The last two prescriptions may be continued for several weeks if necessary. In extreme cases tapping the pericardium with a trocar and cannula to draw off the fluid is resorted to, but the operation requires exact anatomical knowledge. After death from pericarditis there is always more or less fluid found in the pericardium; the surfaces are rough and covered with a yellow-colored exudate. There are also in many cases adhesions to a greater or less extent between the heart and pericardium. MYOCARDITIS. Inflammation of the muscular structure of the heart occurs in limited, circumscribed areas, as evidenced by post-mortem examination, and it is probably always somewhat involved in connection with pericarditis and endocarditis. It may readily be inferred that if the whole organ were inflamed death would ensue immediately. Usually myocarditis results from the preexistence of blood poisoning or of some infectious febrile disease. _Symptoms._--The chief symptoms are those of heart weakness. The heart beat is fast, weak, and often irregular. Respiration is difficult and rapid. There is great general weakness and depression. Death comes suddenly. _Treatment._--Treatment consists in supporting the animal by the use of stimulants, such as ammonia, coffee, digitalis, camphor, etc. Complete quiet must be provided, and the general care should be as in pericarditis. ENDOCARDITIS. When the membrane which lines the cavities of the heart--the endocardium-- suffers inflammation, the disease is called endocarditis. The cause is another disease, during which substances that irritate the lining of the heart are produced and admitted into the circulation. These substances are usually living organisms, or it is possible that in some cases they are chemical irritants. Endocarditis occurs as a complication of or sequel to pneumonia, blood poisoning, inflammation of the womb, rheumatism, or severe wounds or abscesses. The symptoms are much the same as those of pericarditis, and it is difficult to discriminate between the two affections. There is a jugular pulse, the legs may become dropsical, and there is a tendency to faint if the head is elevated suddenly. The bellowslike sound is more distinct than it is in pericarditis. It is the most fatal of heart diseases, because of the liability of the formation of clots, which may adhere to the valves, change in the structure of the valves, and often a complication with an abnormal condition of the blood. Clots may be formed in the heart, and, being carried to other parts, prove fatal by interrupting the circulation in some vital organ. Treatment similar to that advised for myocarditis may be followed in this disease. VALVES OF THE HEART. The valves are subject to abnormal growths and structural changes in chronic endocarditis or as a result of acute endocarditis. Sometimes valves are torn by sudden, extreme muscular effort or a congenital abnormality. Cases are also reported in which they have been found ruptured. _Symptoms._--The general symptoms are those of heart weakness, accompanied with edema and congestion of the lungs. _Treatment._--Relief is sometimes afforded, but usually only temporarily, by the use of stimulants, especially digitalis. RUPTURE OF THE HEART. Sudden effort, blows, or disease may lead to rupture of the heart of the ox. The first cause does not operate so often in cattle as in horses. Tuberculosis or ulceration from other causes, such as a foreign body, is the most common source of this accident. Rupture is shown by sudden fainting, followed very shortly by death. HYPERTROPHY AND DILATATION OF THE HEART. This is an enlargement of the heart, and may consist of the thickening of the walls alone, or at the same time the cavities may be either enlarged or diminished. Dilatation of the cavities has been noticed as existing independently of thickened walls. In hypertrophy the sounds of the heart are loud and pronounced, may be heard on both sides of the chest distinctly, and palpitation occurs to a greater or less extent. Fortunately both conditions are very rare in cattle. ATROPHY. Atrophy is the technical term for wasting of the muscular tissue. Atrophy of the heart is very rare among cattle, and is usually a result of other diseases. FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART. This condition of the heart is met with in some very fat cattle, but it must be understood that the accumulation of fat around the heart is not referred to by this designation. In fatty degeneration the elements of the muscular tissue are replaced by fatty or oily granules. The muscle becomes weak, the heart contractions are insufficient, and heart weakness is shown by general weakness, shortness of breath, and weak, rapid pulse. CYANOSIS. Owing to the most prominent symptoms, cyanosis is also called "blue disease," and is seen occasionally in new-born calves. It is recognized by the blue color of the mucous membrane (easily seen by looking within the mouth and nostrils), the coldness of the surface of the body, and rapid, labored breathing. It is caused by non-closure of the foramen ovale, connecting the right with the left side of the heart, and the consequent mixing of the venous with the arterial blood. Calves so affected live but a short time. MISPLACEMENT OF THE HEART. Cases are recorded in which the heart has been found out of its natural position, sometimes even outside the chest. This is a congenital condition for which there is no remedy. A heifer calf with the heart entirely outside the thoracic cavity and beneath the skin in the lower part of the neck was kept for two years at the veterinary hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, during which time it grew to be a well-developed cow. WOUNDS OF ARTERIES AND VEINS. When a blood vessel is opened a glance will tell whether it is an artery or a vein by simply remembering that bright-red blood comes from arteries and dark-red from veins. When a vein or a very small artery is severed the blood flows from the vessel in a continuous and even stream, but when one of the larger arteries is severed the blood comes in intermitting jets or spurts corresponding to the beats of the heart. It is well to call attention to the fact that the dark-red blood which flows or oozes from a wound soon becomes bright red, because it gives up its carbonic-acid gas to the air, and absorbs oxygen gas from the air, which is exactly the change it undergoes in the capillaries of the lungs. The general treatment of wounds will be found in another section; here it is necessary only to refer briefly to some of the most practical methods used to arrest hemorrhages, as instances occur in which an animal may lose much strength from the loss of blood, or even bleed to death unless action is prompt. BLEEDING (HEMORRHAGE). The severity of a hemorrhage depends upon the size of the vessel from which the blood escapes, though it may be stated that it is more serious when arteries are severed. If the wound in an artery is in the direction of its length, the blood escapes more freely than if the vessel is completely severed, because in the latter instance the severed ends retract, curl in, and may aid very much in arresting the flow. When the blood merely oozes from the wound, and even when it flows in a small stream, the forming of the clot arrests the hemorrhage in a comparatively short time. Slight hemorrhages may be checked by the continuous application of cold water, ice, or snow, to the wound, as cold causes contraction of the small vessels. Water from a hose may be thrown on a wound, or dashed on it from the hand or a cup, or folds of cotton cloths may be held on it and kept wet. Ice or snow may be held against the wound, or they may be put into a bag and conveniently secured in position. Hot water of an average temperature of 115° to 120° F. injected into the vagina or womb is often efficient in arresting hemorrhages from those organs. Tow, raw cotton, lint, or sponges may be forced into a wound and held or bound there with bandages. This is an excellent method of checking the flow of blood until the arrival of an expert. If the flow persists, these articles may be saturated with tincture of iron, but it is not advisable to use it unless necessary, as it is a caustic and retards healing by causing a slough. In cases of necessity, the articles may be saturated with vinegar, or tannic acid or alum dissolved in water may be used instead. Whatever article is used should be left in the wound sufficiently long to make sure that its removal will not be followed by a renewal of the hemorrhage. Sometimes it must remain there one or two days. An iron heated white and then pressed on the bleeding vessel for three or four seconds is occasionally used. It should not be applied longer, or else the charred tissue will come away with the iron and thus defeat the purpose of its application. Compression may be applied in different ways, but only the most convenient will be mentioned. To many wounds bandages may easily be applied. The bandages may be made of linen, muslin, etc., sufficiently wide and long, according to the nature of the wound and the region to be bandaged. Bed sheets torn in strips the full length make excellent bandages for this purpose. Cotton batting, tow, or a piece of sponge may be placed on the wound and firmly bound there with the bandages. Many cases require ligating, which is almost entirely confined to arteries. A ligature is a piece of thread or string tied around the vessel. Veins are not ligated unless very large (and even then only when other means are not available) on account of the danger of causing phlebitis, or inflammation of a vein. The ligature is tied around the end of the artery, but in some instances this is difficult and it is necessary to include some of the adjacent tissue, although care should be taken not to include a nerve. To apply a ligature, it is necessary to have artery forceps (tweezers or small pincers may suffice) by which to draw out the artery in order to tie the string around it. To grasp the vessel it may be necessary to sponge the blood from the wound so that the end will be exposed. In case the end of the bleeding artery has retracted, a sharp-pointed hook, called a tenaculum, is used to draw it out far enough to tie. The ligature should be drawn tightly, so that the middle and internal coats will be cut through. Another method of checking hemorrhage is called torsion. It consists in catching the end of the bleeding vessel, drawing it out a little, and then twisting it around a few times with the forceps, which lacerates the internal coats so that a check is effected. This is very effectual in small vessels, and is to be preferred to ligatures, because it leaves no foreign body in the wound. A needle or pin may be stuck through the edges of the wound and a string passed around between the free ends and the skin (Pl. XXVII, fig. 10), or it may be passed around in the form of a figure 8, as is often done in the operation of bleeding from the jugular vein. ANEURISM. A circumscribed dilatation of an artery, constituting a tumor which pulsates synchronously with the beats of the heart, is called aneurism. It is caused by disease and rupture of one or two of the arterial coats. The true aneurism communicates with the interior of the artery and contains coagulated blood. It is so deeply seated in cattle that treatment is out of the question. Such abnormalities are ascribable to severe exertion, to old age, to fatty or calcareous degeneration, or to parasites in the blood vessels. Death is sudden when caused by the rupture of an aneurism of a large artery, owing to internal hemorrhage. Sometimes spontaneous recovery occurs. As a rule no symptoms are caused in cattle by the presence of deep-seated aneurisms, and their presence is not known until after death. A false aneurism results from blood escaping from a wounded artery into the adjacent tissue, where it clots, and the wound, remaining open in the artery, causes pulsation in the tumor. THROMBOSIS (OBSTRUCTION) OF THE ARTERIES. Arteries become obstructed as a result of wounds and other injuries to them, as those caused by the formation of an abscess or the extension of inflammation from surrounding structures to the coats of an artery. Arteries are also obstructed by the breaking off of particles of a plug or clot, partly obstructing the aorta or other large artery. These small pieces (emboli) are floated to an artery that is too small to permit them to pass and are there securely held, producing obstruction. These obstructions are shown by loss of power in the muscles supplied by the obstructed artery and by excitation of the heart and by respiration after exercise. The loss of power may not come into evidence until after exercise. _Symptoms._--While standing still or when walking slowly the animal may appear to be normal, but after more active exercise a group of muscles, a leg, or both hind legs, may be handled with difficulty, causing lameness, and later there is practically a local paralysis. These symptoms disappear with rest. In some cases the collateral circulation develops in time, so that the parts receive sufficient blood and the symptoms disappear. INFLAMMATION OF VEINS (PHLEBITIS). When bleeding is performed without proper care or with an unclean lancet, inflammation of the vein may result, or it may be caused by the animal rubbing the wound against some object. When inflammation follows the operation, the coats of the vein become so much enlarged that the vessel may be felt hard and knotted beneath the skin, and pressure produces pain. A thin, watery discharge, tinged with blood, issues from the wound. The blood becomes coagulated in the vessel. In inflammation of the jugular the coagulation extends from the wound upward to the first large branch. Abscesses may form along the course of the vein. The inflammation is followed by obliteration of that part in which coagulation exists. This is of small import, as cattle have an accessory jugular vein which gradually enlarges and accommodates itself to the increased quantity of blood it must carry. _Treatment._--The treatment for inflammation of the vein is to clip the hair from along the course of the affected vessel and apply a blister, the cerate of cantharides. Abscesses should be opened as soon as they form, because there is a possibility of the pus getting into the circulation. In the operation of bleeding the instruments should be clean and free from rust. If the skin is not sufficiently opened, or when closing the wound the skin is drawn out too much, blood may accumulate in the tissue, and if it does it should be removed by pressing absorbent cotton or a sponge on the part. Care should also be used in opening the vein, so that the instrument may not pass entirely through both sides of the vein and open the artery beneath it. * * * * * DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE. PLATE VII: Diagram illustrating the circulation of the blood. The arrows indicate the direction in which the blood flows. The valves of the heart, situated between the right auricle and ventricle, and left auricle and ventricle, and between the ventricles and large arteries, are represented by curved lines. These valves are intended to prevent the flow of blood in a direction contrary to that indicated by the arrows. [Illustration: PLATE VII. DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.] * * * * * NONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. By WILLIAM HERBERT LOWE, D. V. S. DIAGNOSIS. In the determination of disease in the human being the physician, in making his diagnosis, is aided by both subjective and objective symptoms, but the veterinary physician, in a very large majority of cases, is obliged to rely almost solely upon objective symptoms, and perhaps in no class of diseases is this more true than in the exploration of those under consideration. This condition of affairs has a strong tendency to develop observation and discernment in the veterinarian, and not infrequently do we find that the successful veterinary practitioner is a very accurate diagnostician. In order to make a differential diagnosis, however, it is not only necessary to know the structure and functions of the organs in health, but to adopt a rigid system of details of examination, without which successful results can not be reached. _History._--The history of a case should always be ascertained so far as possible. The information obtained is sometimes unsatisfactory and not to be depended upon, but even when this is the case it is advisable to weigh the evidence from every point of view. In connection with the history of every case it is always of primary importance to ascertain the cause of illness. A knowledge of the origin and development of a disease is important, both in making a diagnosis and in formulating the treatment. Exposure to cold and dampness is frequently the exciting cause of affections of the organs of respiration. The experienced practitioner is always sure to ascertain whether the particular animal he is called on to attend is the only one in the stable or on the premises that is similarly affected. If several animals are similarly affected, the disease may have a common cause, which may or may not be of an infectious nature. Another thing that the experienced practitioner ascertains is what previous treatment, if any, the animal has had. Medicine given in excessive doses sometimes produces symptoms resembling those of disease. The hygienic and sanitary conditions must always be considered in connection with the cause as well as the treatment of disease. Much of the disease which occurs in large dairies and elsewhere could be prevented if owners and those in charge of animals had proper regard for the fundamental laws of animal hygiene and modern sanitation. Disregard for these laws is the cause of most of the diseases under consideration in this chapter. _Attitude and general condition._--The feeling of pain in animals suffering from serious affections of the organs of respiration is expressed to the close observer in no uncertain language--by their flinching when the painful part is touched; by the care with which they move or lie down; by walking or standing to "favor" the part; by the general attitude and expression of the eye; by the distress and suffering apparent in the face; and by other evidences. The general physical condition and attitude of the sick animal tell the careful observer much that aids him in making a diagnosis and prognosis. Cows suffering from affections of the organs of respiration usually assume a position or attitude that is characteristic, well known to experienced stockmen, as well as to veterinarians. When an animal has a fever or is suffering from an inflammation, the skin is one of the first parts to undergo a change that is apparent to the average observer, for it soon loses its elasticity and tone, and the hair becomes dry and staring. From the general condition or state of nutrition one is able to judge the effect that the disease has already had upon the animal and to estimate the strength remaining available for its restoration to health; from the degree of emaciation one can approximate the length of time the animal has been ill. The age and breed of the animal, as well as its constitution and temperament, are among the things that have to be taken into account in making a diagnosis and in overcoming the disease. _The mucous membrane._--The mucous membrane should in all cases be examined. It can be readily seen by everting the eyelids or by an inspection of the lining membrane of the nostrils. Paleness of the mucous membrane indicates weak circulation or poor blood and may result from disease, hemorrhage, or from inappropriate feed. In healthy animals increased redness of the mucous membrane occurs from pain, excitement, or severe exertion, and in such instances is always transitory. In certain pathological conditions, such as fevers and inflammation, this condition of the mucous membrane will also be found. The increased redness of the mucous membrane lasts during the duration of the fever or inflammation. A bluish or blue mucous membrane indicates that the blood is imperfectly oxidized and contains an excess of carbon dioxid, and is seen in serious diseases of the respiratory tract, such as pneumonia, and in heart failure. _The secretions._--The secretions may be diminished, increased, or perverted. In the early stage of an inflammation of a secretory organ its secretion is diminished. In the early stage of pleurisy the serous membrane is dry, and as the disease advances the membrane becomes unnaturally moist. The products of secretion are sometimes greatly changed in character from the secretion in health, becoming excessively irritant and yielding evidence of chemical and other alterations in the character of the secretion. _Cough._--Cough depends upon a reflex nervous action and may be primary when the irritation exists in the lungs or air passages, or secondary when caused by irritation of the stomach, intestines, or other parts having nervous communications with the respiratory apparatus. A cough is said to be dry, moist, harsh, hollow, difficult, paroxysmal, suppressed, sympathetic, etc., according to its character. It is a very important symptom, often being diagnostic in diseases of the respiratory organs, but this is a subject, however, which can be more satisfactorily treated in connection with the special diseases of the organs in question. _Respiration._--In making an examination of an animal observe the depth, frequency, quickness, facility, and the nature of the respiratory movements. They may be quick or slow, frequent or infrequent, deep or imperfect, labored, unequal, irregular, etc., each of which indications has its significance to the experienced veterinarian. Sleep, rumination, pregnancy in cows, etc., modify the respiratory movements even in health. Respiration consists of two acts--inspiration and expiration. The function of respiration is to take in oxygen from the atmospheric air, which is essential for the maintenance of life, and to exhale the deleterious gas known as "carbon dioxid." The frequency of the respiratory movements is determined by observing the motions of the nostrils or of the flanks. The normal rate of respiration for a healthy animal of the bovine species is from 15 to 18 times a minute. The extent of the respiratory system renders it liable to become affected by contiguity to many parts and its nervous connections are very important. Rapid, irregular, or difficult breathing is known as dyspnea, and in all such cases the animal has difficulty in obtaining as much oxygen as it requires. Among the conditions that give rise to dyspnea may be mentioned restricted area of active lung tissue, owing to the filling of portions of the lungs with inflammatory exudate, as in pneumonia; painful movements of the chest, as in rheumatism or pleurisy; fluid in the chest cavity, as in hydrothorax; adhesions between the lungs and chest walls; compression of the lungs or loss of elasticity; excess of carbon dioxid in the blood; weakness of the respiratory passages; tumors of the nose and paralysis of the throat; swellings of the throat; foreign bodies and constriction of the air passages leading to the lungs; fevers, etc. As already stated, it is only the careful and constant examination of animals in health that will enable one properly to appreciate abnormal conditions. One must become familiar with the frequency and character of the pulse and of the respirations and know the temperature of the animal in health, before changes in abnormal conditions can be properly appreciated. _Temperature._--The temperature should be taken in all cases of sickness. Experienced practitioners can approximate the patient's temperature with remarkable accuracy, but I strongly recommend the use of the self-registering clinical thermometer, which is a most valuable instrument in diagnosing diseases. (See Pl. III, fig. 1.) It is advisable to get a tested instrument, as some thermometers in the market are inaccurate and misleading. The proper place to insert the thermometer is in the rectum, where the instrument should be rested against the walls of the cavity for about three minutes. The normal temperature of the bovine is 101° to 102° F., which is higher than that of the horse. A cow breathes faster, her heart beats faster, and her internal temperature is higher than that of the horse. Ordinary physiological influences--such as exercise, digestion, etc.--give rise to slight variations of internal temperature; but if the temperature rises two or three degrees above the normal some diseased condition is indicated. _Pulse._--The pulse in a grown animal of the bovine species in a state of good health beats from 45 to 55 times a minute. Exercise, fright, fear, excitement, overfeeding, pregnancy, and other conditions aside from disease may affect the frequency and character of the pulse. It assumes various characters according to its rapidity of beat, frequency of occurrence, resistance to pressure, regularity, and perceptibility. Thus we have the quick or slow, frequent or infrequent, hard or soft, full or imperceptible, large or small pulse, the character of each of which may be determined from its name; also that known as the intermittent, either regular or irregular. We may have a dicrotic, or double, pulse; a thready pulse, which is extremely small and scarcely perceptible; the venous, or jugular, pulse; the "running down" pulse, and so on. (See p. 76.) In cattle the pulse is conveniently felt over the submaxillary artery where it winds around the lower jawbone, just at the lower edge of the flat muscle on the side of the cheek. If the cow is lying down the pulse may be taken from the metacarpal artery on the back part of the fore fetlock. The pulsations can be felt from any superficial artery, but in order to ascertain the peculiarities it is necessary to select an artery that may be pressed against a bone. [Illustration: PLATE VIII. Position of the Lung.] There is a marked difference in the normal or physiological pulse of the horse and that of the cow, that of the horse being full and rather tense, while in the cow it is soft and rolling. The pulse is faster in young or old cattle than it is in those of middle age. _Auscultation._--Auscultation and percussion are the chief methods used to determine the various pathological changes that occur in the respiratory organs. Auscultation is the act of listening, and may be either mediate or immediate. Mediate auscultation is accomplished by aid of an instrument known as the stethoscope, one extremity of which is applied to the ear and the other to the chest of the animal. In immediate auscultation the ear is applied directly to the part. Immediate auscultation will answer in a large majority of cases. Auscultation is resorted to in cardiac and certain abdominal diseases, but it is mainly employed for determining the condition of the lungs and air passages. Animals can not give the various phases of respiration, as can the patients of the human practitioner. The organs themselves are less accessible than in man, owing to the greater bulk of tissue surrounding them and the pectoral position of the fore extremities, all of which render it more difficult in determining pathological conditions. (See Pl. VIII.) The air going in and out of the lungs makes a certain soft, rustling sound, known as the vesicular murmur, which can be heard distinctly in a healthy state of the animal, especially upon inspiration. Exercise accelerates the rate of respiration and intensifies this sound. The vesicular murmur is heard only where the lung contains air and its function is active. The vesicular murmur is weakened as inflammatory infiltration takes place and when the lungs are compressed by fluids in the thoracic cavity, and disappears when the lung becomes solidified in pneumonia or the chest cavity filled with fluid as in hydrothorax. The bronchial murmur is a harsh, blowing sound, heard in normal conditions by applying the ear over the lower part of the trachea, and may be heard to a limited extent in the anterior portions of the lungs after severe exercise. The bronchial murmur when heard over other portions of the lungs generally signifies that the lung tissue has become more or less solidified or that fluid has collected in the chest cavity. Other sounds, known as mucous râles, are heard in the lungs in pneumonia after the solidified parts begin to break down at the end of the disease and in bronchitis where there is an excess of secretion, as well as in other conditions. Mucous râles are of a gargling or bubbling nature. They are caused by air rushing through tubes containing secretions or pus. They are said to be large or small as they are distinct or indistinct, depending upon the quantity of fluid that is present and the size of the tubes in which the sound is produced. According to their character they are divided into dry and moist. The friction sound is produced by the rubbing together of roughened surfaces and is characteristic of pleurisy. _Percussion._--Percussion is that mode of examination by which we elicit sounds by striking or tapping over the part. It may be direct or indirect. If the middle finger of the left hand is placed firmly on the chest and smartly tapped or struck with the ends of the first three fingers of the right hand, the sound will be noticed to be more resonant and clear than when the same procedure is practiced on a solid part of the body. This is because the lungs are not solid, but are always, in health, well expanded with air. In certain pulmonary diseases, however, as in pneumonia, they fill up and become solid, when percussion produces a dull sound, like that on any other solid part of the animal. When fluid has collected in the lower part of the chest cavity the sound will also be dull on percussion. Where there is an excess of air in the chest cavity, as in emphysema or in pneumothorax, the percussion sound becomes abnormally loud and clear. By practice on healthy animals the character and boundaries of the sounds can be so well determined that any variation from them will be readily detected, and will sometimes disclose the presence of a diseased condition when nothing else will. Percussion is sometimes practiced with the aid of a special percussion hammer and an object known as a pleximeter to strike upon. A percussion hammer is made of rubber or has a rubber tip, so that when the pleximeter, which is placed against the side of the animal, is struck the impact will not be accompanied with a noise. A percussion hammer and pleximeter may be purchased from any veterinary instrument maker. CATARRH (COLD IN THE HEAD). Nasal catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nostrils and upper air passages. Simple catarrh is not a serious disease in itself, but if neglected is liable to be complicated with laryngitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, plurisy, or other serious and sometimes fatal diseases of the respiratory organs. Catarrh is a common disease among cattle. It is often caused by sudden exposure to wet and cold after they have been accustomed to shelter. It may arise from inhalation of irritating gases. It is also sometimes produced by certain specific atmospheric conditions, and may assume an enzoötic form. It is very debilitating, and requires prompt and judicious treatment. _Symptoms._--Redness of the mucous membranes of the nose and redness and watering of the eyes are symptoms of nasal catarrh. The mucous membrane first becomes dry; afterwards a watery discharge appears, and later, in severe cases, the discharge becomes mucopurulent. In mild cases there is little or no fever, but in severe ones it may run high. The animal becomes dull, languid, and is not inclined to move about, and the appetite may become impaired; there is also variable temperature of the horns and ears. If in a cow giving milk the secretion diminishes, the mucus from the eyes and nose becomes thicker and yellower. Afterwards, as the symptoms increase in severity, the discharge becomes mucopurulent. _Treatment._--The animal should be housed in a well-ventilated place, with good hygienic surroundings. In cold and damp weather it should be kept warm with blanketing, and, in severe cases, hot, medicated inhalations given. If the fever is high, it may be reduced by giving nitrate of potassium, from 1 to 2 ounces, in the drinking water, three times daily. Diffusible stimulants are beneficial in most cases. Too much importance can not be attached to good nursing. There is no necessity to resort to the old system of bleeding, purging, or the use of powerful sedatives. EPISTAXIS (BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE). Bleeding from the nostrils is rather rare in cattle. It may arise from any one of a variety of causes, but usually results from disease or injury to the mucous membranes or to violent exertions in coughing and sneezing. It is seldom serious. It generally occurs in drops from one nostril only, accompanied with sneezing, and without frothing. Bleeding from the lungs comes from both nostrils, is bright red, frothy, and accompanied with a cough. _Treatment._--In many cases the bleeding will cease spontaneously and all that is necessary is to keep the animal quiet and bathe the head and nostrils with cold water. The cause of the bleeding should be learned and governed accordingly in the treatment. In severe and exceptional cases, when the hemorrhage is persistent and long continued, the animal's head should be tied to a high rack or beam and cold water or ice applied, or recourse to styptic injections taken. If the hemorrhage is profuse and persistent, either a drench composed of 1-1/2 drams of acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water or 1-1/2 drams of gallic acid dissolved in a pint of water should be given. LARYNGITIS (SORE THROAT). An inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the larynx is known as laryngitis. It may be either a primary or a secondary disease, complicated or uncomplicated. In the majority of cases it is attributable to some form of exposure, a sudden change from warm to cold surroundings, or exposure to cold storms. It may also result from inhaling irritating gases or from external violence. In an acute attack of laryngitis there is an elevation of temperature, pain on pressure over the region of the larynx, violent paroxysms of coughing, difficult and noisy respiration. The nostrils are dilated, the nose extended, and the animal has a frightened expression. There is marked difficulty in swallowing. _Treatment._--Treatment consists of fomentations and hot applications over the throat. Stimulating liniments, mustard mixed with cold water and well rubbed in with a stiff brush, or other forms of counterirritation may be applied in severe cases. Hot inhalations should be frequently resorted to, and often afford much relief to the suffering animal. In this disease medicines should be given so far as possible in the form of electuaries (soft solid) on account of the difficulty of deglutition. Large drafts of medicines have a tendency to produce violent spells of coughing, and in this way retard recovery. The subjoined formula for an electuary will be found to answer the purpose in ordinary cases: Chlorate of potassium, pulverized, 8 ounces; fluid extract of belladonna, 2 ounces; powdered opium, 1 ounce; powdered licorice root, 8 ounces; sirup, sufficient quantity; mix. Place a small tablespoonful of the mixture frequently on the tongue or back teeth. Or the following may be used instead: Aloes, powdered opium, and gum camphor in equal parts; mix. Rub an ounce on the molar teeth every four or five hours. The bowels should be kept open and the diet should be such as the patient can easily swallow. Warm, sloppy mashes, boiled oatmeal gruel, linseed tea, and the like are the most suitable substances. If suffocation be threatened during the course of the disease, tracheotomy should be performed without delay. The details of the operation are fully described under the head of "Surgical operations." (See p. 289.) When the disease assumes a chronic form, strong counterirritation is indicated. A cantharides blister may be applied, or the following ointment used: Biniodid of mercury 1 part, lard 6 parts; mix. In some cases it will be found necessary to repeat the application. BRONCHITIS. Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes. When a primary disease, it is generally the result of what is commonly known as "catching cold." It may be secondary to or complicated with many of the diseases of the respiratory system. It may also be caused by breathing irritating gases, or by the introduction of foreign bodies into the bronchial tubes, which sometimes results from injudicious and careless drenching when the larynx is temporarily relaxed. It may be acute or chronic, and is divided, according to the seat of the inflammation, into bronchitis proper when the large tubes are affected, or capillary bronchitis when the trouble is in the smaller ones. _Symptoms._--Loss of appetite, elevation of temperature, generally 104° or 105° F. The inspiration is incomplete, short, and painful, and the expiration is prolonged. The pulse is increased in frequency and is hard. A characteristic, painful cough is present, but it is paroxysmal and incomplete. Auscultation and percussion greatly aid us in a diagnosis. A normal sound is given on percussion. On auscultation, in the early stages, rhonchus râles are detected if the larger tubes are affected, and sibilant râles if the smaller ones are affected. Later mucous râles are noted, and sometimes all sounds in certain parts are absent, owing to the plugging up of the tubes. This plugging, if extensive enough, is sometimes the cause of death, or death may result from extension of the disease to the lungs or pleura. _Treatment._--The animal should be placed in a light, well-ventilated box, and the bowels kept in a soft condition by enemas, etc. Violent purgatives should not be used. The body should be kept warm by blanketing. In the early stages a draft composed as follows should be given three times daily: Extract of belladonna, 2 drams; solution of acetate of ammonium, 4 fluid ounces; water, one-half pint. In the later stage of the disease the following formula may be substituted and given twice daily: Carbonate of ammonium, 3 drams; liquor hydrochlorate of strychnin, 2 fluid drams; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 fluid ounce; water, one-half pint. In some cases the following is preferable to either of the above, and may be given in a pint of linseed tea every four hours: Spirits of nitrous ether, 1-1/2 ounces; aromatic spirits of ammonia, 2 ounces; powdered camphor, 2 drams. The feed should be light and nutritious. Bronchitis is liable to become chronic if not properly treated in the earliest stage. In this case remedial treatment is of little value. PLEURISY. Pleurisy is an inflammation of the serous membrane lining the chest cavity and enveloping the lungs. It is somewhat rare as an independent disease, but it often complicates pneumonia; indeed, it is often caused by the same germ that causes pneumonia--pneumococcus. It may arise from exposure to cold or wet or from external violence, and is usually present in some degree in cases in which the ribs have been fractured with or without a penetrated wound. _Symptoms._--In the first stage there is great pain aggravated by movement, and the animal is usually stiff as though foundered, the pulse is quick and hard, the breathing abdominal, the chest being fixed so far as possible, the inspiration short and jerky, the expiration longer. The pain is caused by the friction of the dry, inflamed pleural surfaces of the lung and chest on each other. At this stage the ear detects a dry friction murmur, resembling somewhat the sound made by rubbing two pieces of sole leather together. Pressure between the ribs gives pain and usually causes the animal to flinch and grunt. The muzzle is hot and dry, the mouth slimy, and the secretions scanty. After a day or two the severity of the symptoms is much lessened, the temperature, which during the first days may have been as high as 106° F., falls to 103° or 104°, the pain decreases, the stiffness disappears, and the patient eats a little. The pulse softens, but remains quicker than normal. Now, day by day the patient loses a little strength, the friction sound disappears as the exudation moistens the pleural surfaces; percussion now shows a horizontal line of dullness, which day by day rises higher in the chest, the respiration grows more frequent and labored, the countenance is anxious and haggard, the eyes sink somewhat in their sockets, and in unfavorable cases death occurs during the second or third week, from either asphyxia or heart failure. In pleurisy, as in pneumonia, the elbows are usually turned outward. Care must be taken to differentiate pleurisy from traumatic pericarditis (which see). In the latter condition the area of dullness of the heart is much increased, and usually a splashing sound is heard at each beat of the heart. Another diagnostic symptom of value is that in traumatic pericarditis respiration is painful, not difficult, and the respiratory rate is very much increased on movement. In both conditions a considerable swelling of the dewlap may be noticed in the later stages. _Treatment._--Give the same general care as recommended in bronchitis or pneumonia. In the early stages give a febrifuge to reduce the fever, as directed for pneumonia. For relief of the cough give electuary formula, which will be found in the treatment of laryngitis. The bowels must be kept relaxed and the kidneys secreting freely. In the stage of effusion the following should be given three times daily: Digitalis tincture, 1 ounce; iodid of potassium, 30 to 60 grains; mix. Apply strong counterirritant to chest and put seton in dewlap. (See "Setoning," p. 293.) If collapse of the lung is threatened, a surgical operation, termed paracentesis thoracis, is sometimes performed; this consists in puncturing the chest cavity and drawing off a part of the fluid. The instruments used are a small trocar and cannula, which are introduced between the eighth and ninth ribs. The skin should be drawn forward so that the external wound may not correspond to the puncture of the chest, to prevent the entrance of air. Only a portion of the fluid should be removed. The animal gets immediate relief, but it is generally only temporary, as the fluid has a tendency to accumulate again. PNEUMONIA. Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung substance, and is divided into three forms, viz, croupous, catarrhal, and interstitial. These various forms, however, can be differentiated only by the expert, and it is therefore deemed necessary for the purpose of the present work to treat the subject under the general head of pneumonia. The causes of pneumonia in general are the same as those of the various other inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract. The germ is known as a pneumococcus. The disease mostly follows congestion of the lungs, but may in rare cases have a parasitic origin. _Symptoms._--In the first stage, that of congestion, the disease is usually ushered in by a chill, although this may not always be observed by the attendant. This is followed by an elevation of temperature, usually 105° to 106° F., or it may be even higher. The respirations are quick and shallow; the nostrils are dilated; the pulse is full and hard. Cough may or may not appear in this stage. The nose is hot and dry; the tongue sometimes protrudes and is slimy; the coat is staring, and the skin dry and harsh. The urine is usually diminished in quantity, high colored, and the bowels constipated. The animal stands with the forelegs wide apart to facilitate respiration. On auscultation crepitation will be observed over the portion of the lung affected. The sounds elicited on percussion are practically normal in this stage. In the second stage the temperature generally drops one or two degrees, and respiration is performed with much difficulty. The cough is frequent and painful. The animal still stands with the forelegs wide apart and the elbows turned outward. If it assumes the recumbent position it rests on the sternum. All secretions are more or less suspended, particularly the milk in cows. The animal has a haggard appearance, and the pulse becomes small and wiry at this period. The extremities are hot and cold alternately; the crepitation which was present in the first stage is now absent, and no sound on auscultation is heard, unless it is a slight wheezing or whistling noise. On percussion dullness over the diseased lung is manifested, indicating consolidation. The lung has now assumed a characteristic liverlike appearance. In the third stage, if the disease is to terminate favorably, the cough becomes loose, the animal improves, the appetite returns, and the symptoms above detailed rapidly subside; if, on the other hand, resolution is not progressing, the lung substance degenerates, becomes clogged up, and ceases to function. In fatal cases the breath has a peculiar, fetid, cadaverous odor, and is taken in short gasps; the horns, ears, and extremities become cold and clammy, and the pulse is imperceptible. On auscultation, when suppuration is taking place and the lung structure is breaking down, a bubbling or gurgling crepitation, caused by the passage of air through pus, is heard. _Treatment._--Good hygienic surroundings and good nursing are essential in connection with the medical treatment. The probability of recovery depends largely on the extent of the lung tissue involved, as well as on the intensity of the inflammatory process. In the early stage, when the fever is high, febrifuges should be given. If the pulse be strong and full, aconite (Fleming's tincture, 1 to 2 drams, every four or five hours) may be given for a short time, but should be discontinued as soon as the fever begins to abate. Aconite is a valuable drug in the hands of the intelligent practitioner, but my experience leads me to believe that not infrequently animals are lost by its injudicious use, for in many febrile conditions it is positively contraindicated, owing to its action upon the heart. In a plethoric animal, with a strong, bounding pulse, bleeding may be resorted to instead of administering aconite. If the bowels are constipated, calomel, 1 to 3 drams, which acts as a cathartic and a febrifuge, is advisable. In the second stage diffusible stimulants are required, viz: Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; aromatic spirits of ammonia, 1 ounce; mix, and give in gruel three times daily. In some cases carbonate of ammonia, 2 to 5 drams, has been found beneficial. Most practitioners apply counterirritants, such as mustard plasters, turpentine, and ammonia liniment, or cantharides. EMPHYSEMA (HEAVES). Emphysema is a rupture of the minute air vesicles of the lung substance, and may be either interlobular or vesicular. There is an extreme interference with respiration, inspiration being short and expiration prolonged. It is a nonfebrile condition, in which the appetite is not decreased and the milk secretion is kept up. It may be caused by an attack of asthma or may result from chronic bronchitis. The disease can be diagnosed by the marked interference with respiration. The animal, as a rule, is emaciated, has a staring coat, and is hidebound. If percussion is resorted to, the animal's chest will give a tympanic, drumlike sound. The normal resonant sound is exaggerated. _Treatment._--The disease is incurable, and only a palliative form of treatment can be carried out. The destruction of the animal is often advisable, from a humane as well as from a financial point of view. PULMONARY CONGESTION. Cattle that are overdriven or overworked are liable to pulmonary congestion in an acute form, and sometimes to pulmonary apoplexy. In such cases they should be allowed to rest, and if the weather is hot, they should be put in a shady place. Give stimulants internally, unload the venous side of the heart by bleeding, and apply stimulating applications to the legs, and bandage. HEMOPTYSIS. Hemoptysis is a term used to signify bleeding from the lungs. The trouble may result from a previous congestion of the lungs or from a breaking down of the lung substance, or from specific disorders. Bleeding from the lungs comes from both nostrils and from the mouth. The blood is bright red, frothy, and accompanied with a cough, the flow being somewhat profuse and intermingled with mucus. It may cease of its own accord. Internally hemostatics are indicated, and locally over the sides cold applications have a tendency to check the hemorrhage. A drench of 1-1/2 drams of gallic acid dissolved in a pint of water should be given. ABSCESS OF THE LUNG. Abscesses of the lung sometimes form during the course of or subsequent to tuberculosis or other diseases. An animal affected with abscess of the lung usually has a protracted, feeble cough and a general appearance of emaciation and anemia. The pulse is feeble and the breath foul. An offensive discharge from the lungs frequently occurs. Percussion and auscultation aid in making a diagnosis in this condition. The appetite is poor. Such animals go from bad to worse, and their prompt destruction would, as a rule, be to the interest of the owner. HYDROTHORAX. Hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest, is not a disease in itself, but is simply a condition in which an effusion takes place in the chest cavity, and is the result or effect of some disease, mostly pleurisy. It can be easily diagnosed by physical signs. A loss of the respiratory murmur will be noticed on auscultation, and on percussion dullness or flatness on a line as high as the effusion has taken place. When a large amount of effusion is present, tapping with the trocar and cannula is generally resorted to. The proper method of performing this operation will be found under the head of "Pleurisy." PNEUMOTHORAX. An accumulation of gas in the pleural sac is known as pneumothorax. The presence of air may result from either an injury of the lung or a wound communicating from the exterior. The indications for treatment are to remove any foreign body that may have penetrated, to exclude the further entrance of the air into the cavity by the closure of the external opening, and to employ antiseptics and adhesive dressings. The air already in the cavity will in most cases be absorbed. VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS. This is a disease that sometimes attacks young cattle when pastured in low-lying meadows near rivers subject to flood. It is caused by a small worm, _Strongylus micrurus_, which lodges in large numbers in the trachea and bronchial tubes, giving rise to considerable irritation of the air passages and inflammation. Sometimes the strongyles lodge in large numbers in the windpipe, forming themselves into a ball, and thus choke the animal to death. _Symptoms._--It is liable to attack a number of animals at once, and the weakest are the first to give way. The animal has a remarkably forcible cough, distressing, and of a special hacking and paroxysmal character. A stringy mucus is sometimes expelled during the spells of coughing. This mucus contains the _Strongylus micrurus_, which can be detected, or their ova observed, under a low power of the microscope. The attack has a subacute character and is very exhausting. The parasites, by becoming entwined in balls, seriously impede respiration, which is always remarkably labored in this disease. _Treatment._--The affected calves should be placed in a dry stable, protected from dampness, and subjected to fumigations of sulphurous anhydrid or chlorin gas. The liberation of chlorin gas is brought about by the action of sulphuric acid, either on a mixture of chlorid of sodium and black oxid of manganese or on bleaching powder. Sulphurous anhydrid may be procured by burning sulphur. Some practitioners prescribe small doses of spirits of turpentine in linseed oil. The system requires good support, and the diet should therefore be liberal and nutritious. Equal parts of sulphate of iron, gentian, and ginger make an excellent tonic. _Prevention._--Avoid pastures notorious for generating verminous bronchitis. PLEURODYNIA. Pleurodynia is a term applied to rheumatism of the intercostal muscles, the apparent symptoms being very similar to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff, is not inclined to turn around, and the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as possible. Pleurodynia may be distinguished from pleurisy by the coexistence of rheumatism in other parts and by the comparative absence of fever, cough, the friction sound, and the effusion into the chest. The treatment for this affection is the same as that for rheumatism affecting other parts. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. By W. H. HARBAUGH, V. S. [Revised by John E. Mohler, V. M. D.] THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The nervous system is the distinguishing feature of animal life. Without it there can be no intelligence, no instinct, no sensibility, no perception; in fact, existence would be nothing more than vegetable life. The senses--touch, taste, sight, hearing, smell--all depend on the nervous system. Motion depends on it. A muscle can not contract without receiving the stimulus from the nervous system. For example, if a nerve passing from a nerve center to a muscle is severed, the particular muscle that is supplied by the cut nerve is paralyzed. The nervous system is often studied in two divisions--the cerebrospinal division and the sympathetic division. The cerebrospinal division consists of the brain and spinal cord, nerves, and ganglia. The nerves of this division convey the impulses of motion and sensation and supply all parts which are under the control of the will. For example, the voluntary muscular tissue includes all the muscles which act as the will directs. Another example: If anything comes in contact with any part of the skin, the impression is immediately perceived. All the special senses belong to this division. The sympathetic division consists of nerves and ganglia. The muscular tissue, which acts independently of the will--as, for example, the stomach, intestines, womb, blood vessels, ducts, etc.--is called involuntary muscular tissue, and receives nervous stimulus from the sympathetic division. The brain, spinal cord, and the ganglia are the central organs of the nervous system. The nerves conduct the nervous influence. The nerves terminate differently according to their function. The terminations are called end organs. The terminal end organs in the skin and other parts endowed with sensation receive the impressions, which are conveyed to the brain, where they are appreciated. They are so sensitive that the most gentle zephyr is perceived. They are so abundant that the point of the finest needle can not pierce the skin without coming in contact with them, and the sensation of pain is instantly conveyed to the brain. The terminal end organs of the nerves that supply the muscles are different, as they give the impulse which is conveyed by the motor nerves to the elements which constitute the muscle, and this impulse is the excitation which causes the muscle to contract. The terminal end organs of the special senses of taste, smell, etc., receive their special impressions, and their respective nerves carry the impressions to the brain. There are two divisions of nerves, the afferent and efferent. The afferent nerves are those which convey the impression to the nerve centers. All the sensory nerves belong to this division. The efferent nerves are those which convey the nervous impulse outward from the nerve centers, and they are further classified according to the function of their respective centers. For example: Motor fibers carry the impulse from the nerve center to a muscle to cause contraction. Vasomotor fibers carry the impulse to the muscular tissue in the blood vessels, which regulates their caliber. The secretory fibers convey the impulse to the cells of the glands and excite the activity of the gland, and its particular product is secreted or evolved, as, for instance, milk in the mammary gland. Inhibitory fibers control or inhibit the action of the organ to which they are distributed, as, for instance, the heart. Nerve centers may be considered as a collection or group of nerve cells. Both the cerebrospinal and the sympathetic divisions have nerve centers. The centers derive their special names from their functions. The brain is the great center of the nervous system, as it is the center of intelligence and perception. The centers of all the special senses, as well as the centers of various functions, are located in different parts of the brain. Nerve centers also exist in the spinal cord and in connection with the sympathetic system. A nerve is a cord consisting of a certain number of fibers of nerve tissue, inclosed in a sheath of connective tissue. Nerves divide and subdivide, sending off branches, which ramify in all parts of the body, and, as they near their terminations, they contain but one or two fibers. The brain and spinal cord are contained within a bony canal, which forms a protective covering for them. The spinal cord, or spinal marrow, lodged within the spinal canal, or hollow of the backbone, is continuous with the brain anteriorly, and terminates in a point in the sacrum (that part of the spinal column which immediately precedes the tail). The spinal cord gives off branches at each of the spaces between the segments of the backbone. These branches form nerve trunks which carry both sensory and motor impressions and impulses. The spinal cord is a grand nerve trunk to carry messages to or from the brain and to and from the reflex centers contained within itself. The brain is contained within the cavity of the skull and is continuous with the spinal cord; there is nothing to mark the place where one leaves off and the other begins. The brain is the seat of reason and intelligence. Voluntary effort originates from the brain. Coordination, or harmony of movement, is controlled by the rear portion of the brain, known as the cerebellum. The meninges are the membranes, three in number, which envelop the brain and spinal cord, and separate them from the bones which form the walls of the cranial cavity and spinal canal. The sympathetic, also called the ganglionic, division of the nervous system consists of two chains of ganglia, reaching from the head to the tail, situated beneath the spinal column, one on either side. The presence of the ganglia or enlargements on the cords give them their chainlike appearance. The sympathetic nerves are closely connected with the cerebrospinal nerves, but are not under the control of the will. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES (STAGGERS). Inflammation of the brain is technically termed encephalitis and of its membranes cerebral-meningitis, but as both conditions usually occur together, and since it is practically impossible to distinguish one from the other by the symptoms shown by the diseased animal, they may as well be considered together here as varieties of the same disease. Staggers, coma, frenzy, etc., are terms that are sometimes applied to this disease in its different forms or stages. _Causes._--Severe blows on the head with a hard object, or the head coming violently in contact with the ground or other hard substance in a fall, may be followed by encephalitis. Irritation caused by tumors in the brain may produce inflammation. Feed containing deleterious matters--for example, ergot (see Pl. V) and other fungi which contain a narcotic principle--is the most frequent cause of this affection, and hence it is often called "grass staggers" and "stomach staggers." Highly nitrogenous feeds are blamed for causing this disease. Parasites, mineral and narcotic poisons, hot weather, and severe exertion or excessive excitement may cause this condition. Inflammation of the brain may occur as a complication of some infectious disease or may follow some forms of indigestion. In many localities certain plants have the reputation of causing staggers. _Symptoms._--The symptoms vary much, but a careful observer will detect a trouble connected with the nervous system without much uncertainty. The first signs may be those of frenzy, but generally at the start the animal is dull and sleepy, with little or no inclination to move about; the head may be pressed against the wall or fence and the legs kept moving, as if the animal were endeavoring to walk through the obstruction; the body, especially the hind part, may be leaned against the side of the stall or stable, as if for support. The bowels are constipated; the urine, when passed, is small in quantity and darker in color than natural. There may be trembling and even spasms of muscles in different parts. In the dull stage the animal may breathe less frequently than is natural, and each breath may be accompanied with a snoring-like sound. The pulse may be large and less frequent than normal. If suddenly aroused from the drowsy state, the animal appears startled and stares wildly. When moving about it may stagger, the hind quarters swaying from side to side. If delirium ensues, the cow is commonly said to be mad. She may bellow, stamp her feet, run about wildly, grate the teeth, froth at the mouth. If she is confined in the stable, she rears and plunges; the convulsions are so violent in many instances that it is really dangerous for one to attempt to render aid. The body may be covered with perspiration. She may fall; the muscles twitch and jerk; often the head is raised and then dashed against the ground until blood issues from the nose and mouth; the eyes may be bloodshot and sightless; the limbs stiff and outstretched, or they may be kicked about recklessly; the head may be drawn back and the tail drawn up; the urine may be squirted out in spurts; often the "washer" (membrane nictitans) is forced over the eye. When the convulsions cease they may be followed by a period of quiet unconsciousness (coma) which is more or less prolonged, when the animal may gradually regain consciousness, get up on its feet, and perhaps quietly partake of food, if there be any within reach, while at other times it arises with much difficulty and staggers blindly about the stall or field. It must be remembered that all the foregoing symptoms are not always seen in the same case. In those cases usually designated "sleepy staggers" the general symptoms of drowsiness are presented, while in other cases the symptoms of frenzy cause the affection to be called "mad staggers." In other cases there are symptoms of paralysis, swaying of the hind quarters, inability to rise, etc., and sometimes these symptoms of paralysis are the most striking manifestations and continue until death. Acute cases are accompanied by fever. It is well to remark that when the disease follows injuries to the head the symptoms may not be manifested until two or three days (or longer) after the accident. _Treatment._--Recoveries are rare in spite of careful attention. To be of any service whatever the treatment must be prompt and begin with the disease. In the early stage, when the pulse is large, most cases will admit of bleeding. Eight or 9 quarts of blood should be taken from the jugular vein. This should be followed immediately by a purgative, the following for a cow of average size: Epsom salt, 24 ounces; pulverized gamboge, one-half ounce; croton oil, 20 drops; warm water, 3 quarts; mix all together and give at once as a drench. About 2 quarts of warm water or warm soapsuds should be injected with a syringe into the rectum every three or four hours. It is best to keep the animal in a quiet, sheltered place, where it will be free from noise or other cause of excitement. All the cold water the animal will drink should be allowed, but feed must be withheld, except bran slops occasionally in small quantities, or grass, if in season, which may be cut and carried fresh to the patient. The skull must be examined, and if sign of injury is found, appropriate surgical treatment should be given. During the convulsions all possible efforts should be made to prevent the animal injuring itself. The head should be held down on the ground and straw kept under it. Cold water may be continuously poured on the head, or bags filled with ice broken in small pieces may be applied to the head. Different authors recommend different remedies to allay the convulsions, but for two reasons it will be found extremely difficult to administer medicines during the convulsions: (1) While the animal is unconscious the power to swallow is lost, and therefore the medicine is more liable to go down the windpipe to the lungs than it is to go to the paunch; (2) the convulsions are often so violent that it would be utterly useless to attempt to drench the animal; and furthermore it must be borne in mind that during this stage the functions of digestion and absorption are suspended, and as a consequence the medicine (provided it finds its way to the paunch) is likely to remain there unabsorbed and therefore useless. A blistering compound, composed of mustard, 1 ounce; pulverized cantharides, one-half ounce; hot water, 4 ounces, well mixed together, may be rubbed in over the loins, along the spine, and back of the head on each side of the neck. This is occasionally attended with beneficial effect, and especially so in those cases when paralysis is present. If the purgative acts and the animal shows signs of improvement in the course of two or three days, 2 drams of iodid of potassium may be given every night and morning, dissolved in a half bucketful of drinking water, if the animal will drink it, or it may be dissolved in a half pint of water and given as a drench. Great care must be observed in regard to the food, which should be nutritive, but not coarse, and at first in small quantities, gradually increased as the patient improves. After some progress is made toward recovery 1-1/2 drams of pulverized nux vomica may be given twice a day, added to the iodid of potassium drench. This should be administered so long as a staggering gait continues. In those rare cases when recovery takes place it is only partial as a rule, as there is generally a sequel which remains, such as partial paralysis. However, this is but a slight drawback in cattle, because when it is seen to persist the medicine should be stopped and the animal fattened for butchering. Post-mortem examinations discover congestion of the brain and its membranes. In those cases which have exhibited much paralysis of the hind legs before death the cord may be congested in the lumbar region (loins). When the disease has been caused by injury to the head, the congestion and extravasated blood may be found inside of the cavity in the location corresponding to the place where the injury was inflicted externally. In some cases pus is also discovered. It remains to be said that in all animals that have died from this affection the lungs are found very much congested. This may lead the superficial observer to suppose that the disease was a lung affection, but in fact it is only a natural consequence when death ensues from brain disease. APOPLEXY. That form of congestion of the brain known as parturient apoplexy, or parturient paresis, which is so frequently associated with the period of calving is described in another part of this work. (See "Milk fever," p. 226.) Cerebral apoplexy, not connected with parturition, is a rare disease among cattle. However, it may be due to degeneration and consequent rupture of a blood vessel in the brain. The attack is sudden, the animal in most cases falling as if it had received a blow on the head. It may stagger and reel some time before going down. After falling, there are convulsive movements of the legs or the animal sinks into insensibility. There may be remissions in the severity of the symptoms, but the pressure from the continued escape of blood soon causes death. Rest, quiet, friction to the legs and surface, frequent turning of the animal and cold to the head are to be practiced, if treatment is attempted. CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN. There is a form of congestive apoplexy affecting cattle which are in a plethoric condition. The congestion, or overfilling with blood, causes pressure on the brain substance and disorganizes its function. It occurs mostly in hot weather. In this disease the symptoms are somewhat similar to those exhibited when the animal has encephalitis, but the onset is more sudden, the duration is shorter, and there is less fever. There may be frenzy or coma, or alternations one with the other. The intelligence is diminished, staring eyes, bracing with the legs, pressing against the stall partition or manger, red mucous membranes. This condition usually terminates in recovery. In such cases bleeding should be resorted to immediately, and when the power of swallowing is not lost purgatives should be administered. Cold applications to the head and the general treatment recommended for encephalitis are indicated. CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. Severe blows on the head, striking the head against some hard object while running, or falling on the head may cause concussion of the brain. The injury may fracture bones of the cranium and produce compression of the brain. _Symptoms and treatment._--The symptoms and the treatment that is indicated differ very little from what has been said under congestion of the brain and under encephalitis. In some cases it may be necessary to operate to remove a piece of bone that is pressing on the brain or to remove a clot of blood under the area which received the blow. EPILEPSY. This affection is characterized by the occurrence of sudden convulsions. The animal may appear to be in a fair state of health usually, but at any time, in the stable or in the field, it may have a convulsion in which it will fall and lose consciousness. Epilepsy must not be confounded with vertigo--the fainting which is an effect of heart troubles. The exact cause of epilepsy in the majority of cases is unknown. Post-mortem examinations in many instances have failed to discover any lesion in connection with the brain or nervous system, while in other instances disease of the brain has been found in the form of thickening of the membranes, abscesses, and tumors, and in some cases the affection has been manifested in connection with a diseased condition of the blood. The cause has also been traced to reflex irritation, due to teething, worms, and chronic indigestion. _Treatment._--When the affection is due to the last-named causes treatment may be successful if the cause is removed. If there are symptoms of worms or of indigestion, follow the general treatment advised for those troubles under their proper heads. If due to irritation caused by teething, the inflamed gums must be lanced. Examination of the mouth often develops the fact that one of the temporary teeth causes much irritation by remaining unshed, and thereby interfering with the growth of a permanent tooth. The offending tooth should be extracted. When the cause of epilepsy can not be discovered, it must be confessed that there is no prospect of a cure. However, some benefit may be expected from the occasional administration of a purgative dose of medicine. A pound of Epsom salt dissolved in a quart of warm water, for a cow of average size, may be given as a drench once or twice a month. In addition to the purgative, 4 drams of bromid of potassium, dissolved in the drinking water, three times a day, has proved very beneficial in some cases. SUNSTROKE (PROSTRATION FROM HEAT). Owing to the fact that cattle are seldom put to work at which they would have to undergo severe exertion, especially in collars, they are not frequently prostrated by the extreme heat of the summer months. When at pasture they select the coolest places in the shade of trees, in water, etc., when the heat becomes oppressive, and thereby avoid, as much as possible, the effects of it. It does happen, however, that cattle that have been kept up for the purpose of fattening, when driven some distance in very hot weather, are sometimes prostrated, but it must be remembered that it is not really necessary for the animal to be exposed to the rays of the sun, as those confined in hot, close places may suffer. This often happens in shipping, when they are crowded together in cars. _Symptoms._--The premonitory signs are those of exhaustion--dullness, panting, frothing at the mouth, tongue hanging out, irregular gait, uneasiness, palpitation--when, if the circumstances which tend to the prostration are not mitigated, the animal staggers or sways from side to side, falls, struggles for a while, and then gradually becomes quiet, or the struggles may continue, with repeated but ineffectual efforts to regain a standing position. In serious cases the attack may be very sudden, unconsciousness occurring without continued or distressing premonitory symptoms. _Treatment._--At first, when not very serious, removal to a quiet, sheltered place, with a few days on a reduced diet, is all that need be done. When the animal has fallen, apply cold water or ice to the head; rub the body and limbs with cloths or wisps of straw and continue the rubbing for a considerable time. If the power of swallowing is not lost (which may be ascertained by pouring a little cold water into the mouth), give 3 drams of stronger liquor ammonia, diluted with a quart of cold water. Be very careful in drenching the animal when lying down. Repeat the drench in a half hour and an hour after the first one has been given. Instead of the ammonia, a drench composed of 3 ounces of spirits of nitrous ether in a pint of water may be given, if more convenient, but the ammonia drench is preferable. If unconsciousness continues, so that a drench can not be administered, the same quantity of ammonia and water may be injected with a syringe into the rectum. The popular aqua ammonia, commonly called "hartshorn," will do as well as the stronger liquor ammonia, but as it is weaker than the latter the dose for a cow is about 1-1/2 ounces, which should be diluted with a quart of water before it is given to the animal, either as a drench or an enema. When ammonia can not be obtained, an ounce of tincture of digitalis may be given. As soon as the animal is able to rise it should be assisted and moved to the nearest shelter. All the cold water it will drink should be allowed. The ammonia or spirits of nitrous ether drench should be administered every three hours so long as there is much failure of strength. The diet should be limited for several days--bran slops and a little grass. When signs of returning strength are presented, 12 ounces of Epsom salt dissolved in a quart of warm water may be given in those cases which have been down and unconscious, but do not give it while much weakness remains, which may be for several days after the attack. The flesh of an animal that is suffering from heat stroke should not be prepared for use as food. On account of the fever with which the animal suffers, the flesh contains toxins that may render it poisonous to the consumer. INJURIES TO THE SPINAL CORD. The spinal cord is liable to concussion from blows and falls, and paralysis, to a greater or less extent, may be the result. Fracture, with displacement of the bones (vertebræ) which form the spinal column, by compressing the spinal cord, produces paralysis, which varies in its effect according to the part of the cord that is compressed. If the fracture is above the middle of the neck, death soon follows, as communication between the brain and diaphragm (the essential muscle of inspiration) is stopped. When the fracture is farther down in the neck, posterior to the origin of the phrenic nerve, the breathing continues, but there is paralysis in all parts posterior to the fracture, including the fore and hind legs. When the fracture is in the region of the loins the hind legs are paralyzed, but the fore legs are not. If the fracture is in the sacrum (the division of the spinal column between the loins and the tail), the tail alone is paralyzed. As a matter of course, when the back is broken there is no remedy; the animal should be killed at once. PARALYSIS. Paralysis, or loss of motion in a part, may be due to a lesion of the brain, of the spinal cord, or of a nerve. It may also be caused by reflex irritation. When the paralysis affects both sides of the body, posterior to a point, it is further designated by the name paraplegia. When one side of the body (a lateral half) is paralyzed, the term hemiplegia is applied to the affection. When paralysis is caused by a lesion of a nerve, the paralysis is confined to the particular part supplied by the affected nerve. As already pointed out, paralysis may be due to concussion of the spine, fracture of a bone of the spinal column with consequent compression of the spinal cord, concussion of the brain, or compression of the brain. An injury to one side of the brain may produce paralysis of the same side of the head and of the opposite side of the body (hemiplegia). Paralysis may occur in connection with parturient apoplexy, lead poisoning, ergotism, etc. CONGESTION OF THE SPINAL CORD. Paraplegia, or paralysis of the rear part of the body, is the dominant symptom in congestion or inflammation of the spinal cord. The cause is not known, but the disease is probably due to chilling. It is thought by some that some toxic influence (poison) may be responsible for its development. _Symptoms._--The symptoms usually appear suddenly and consist in inability to stand. Sometimes this is preceded by a period of excitement. The animal usually lies quietly, but sometimes it groans and tosses its head about in a way that indicates pain. Cows heavy with calf are sometimes affected with a form of paraplegia, which usually attacks them from about a month to a few days before calving. Apparently they are in good health in every respect except the inability to stand up on account of the paralysis of the hind quarters. This form is generally attributed to feeding on feeds containing insufficient protein and ash. It is most likely to occur in cows that are weak and thin. With good care and feed recovery usually occurs. _Treatment._--The animal must be given a soft, dry bed under shelter and in a quiet, airy place. It is well to apply mustard along the spine. The action of the mustard may be intensified by rubbing the skin with ammonia or turpentine. Internally give a purge of Glauber's salt. Nux vomica or strychnia (1 to 2 grain doses) may be given. Turn the cow two to four times daily and rub the legs well each time. There are instances when cows will persist in lying down (in spite of all efforts that are made to compel them to stand up), when it can not really be said that they are paralyzed. They have sensation in all parts; they can move all their feet; they can change their position; and in fact every function seems to be normally performed, but they obstinately refuse to rise or even make an effort to do so. Cases of this kind have been killed, as it was an utter impossibility to get the animal on its feet. However, there are instances when a cow, after refusing to rise when all other means had been tried, quickly jumped to her feet and showed fright upon the appearance of a dog or other terrifying object. RABIES (HYDROPHOBIA). [See discussion of this disease in chapter on "Infectious diseases," p. 358.] LIGHTNING STROKE (ASPHYXIA ELECTRICA). When an animal is struck by lightning the shock is instantaneously expended on the nervous system, and as a rule death occurs immediately; but when the shock is not fatal animation is suspended to a greater or less extent, as evidenced by prostration, unconsciousness, and paralysis. _Symptoms._--When not fatal, the symptoms vary much, according to the severity of the shock. The animal usually falls, as from an apoplectic attack, and, as a matter of course, the symptoms are such as are generally manifested in connection with concussion of the brain. The muscular system may be completely relaxed; the legs limber; the muscles flabby and soft to the touch; or there may be convulsions, spasms, and twitching of the muscles. The breathing is generally labored, irregular, or interrupted, and slower than normal. In most instances the electrical fluid leaves its mark by singeing the hair, or by inflicting wounds, burns, or blisters. _Treatment._--So long as the beating of the heart is perceptible the endeavor to resuscitate the animal should be continued. Dash cold water over the head and body; rub the body and legs; smartly whip the body with wet towels or switches. Mustard, mixed with water, should be well rubbed over the legs and back of the head on each side of the neck. Inject into the rectum 4 drams of stronger liquor ammonia, or 1-1/2 ounces of hartshorn diluted with a quart of warm water. Cautiously hold an uncorked bottle of hartshorn to the nostrils, so that some of it is inhaled, but care should be taken that too much is not suddenly inhaled. If the animal is unconscious, hypodermic injections of stimulants are indicated, such as 6 drams of camphorated oil in one dose, subcutaneously, or 20 grains of caffein or 1/2 grain of strychnin, also subcutaneously. When the animal revives sufficiently to be able to swallow, 4 drams of the stronger liquor ammonia, diluted with a quart of cold water, should be given as a drench, and the dose should be repeated in an hour. One and one-half ounces of ordinary hartshorn may be used instead of the stronger liquor ammonia, but, like the latter, it should be diluted with a quart or more of water, and even then care should be exercised in drenching. In cases where the shock has not caused complete insensibility recovery may be hastened by the ammonia and water drench, or 4 ounces of brandy diluted with a quart of water, or 8 ounces of whisky diluted with a quart of water. These doses may be given every three or four hours if necessary. After recovery from the more serious symptoms 2 drams of sulphate of quinin should be given twice a day until health is restored. If any paralysis remains 1-1/2 drams of pulverized nux vomica should be given twice a day with the quinin. The foregoing treatment is also applicable when the electrical shock is given by telephone, electric car, or electric-light wires, etc. The wounds, burns, or blisters should be treated according to the antiseptic method of treating wounds. TUMORS IN THE BRAIN, ETC. Tumors of different kinds have been found within the cranial cavity, and in many cases there have been no well-marked symptoms exhibited during the life of the animal to lead one to suspect their existence. Cases are recorded where bony tumors have been found in the brain of cattle that died suddenly, but during life no signs of disease were manifested. Post-mortem examinations have disclosed tubercles in the membranes of the brain. (See "Tuberculosis," p. 407.) Abscesses, usually the result of inflammation of the brain, have been found post-mortem. For the description of hydrocephalus, or dropsy of the brain, of calves the reader is referred to the section on parturition. (See "Water in the head," p. 179.) Chorea, constant twitching and irregular spasmodic movements of the muscles, has been noticed in connection with or as a sequel to other affections, as, for example, parturient apoplexy. Various diseases, the description of which will be found in other sections of this work, affect the nervous system to a greater or less extent--for example, ergotism, lead poisoning, uremia, parturient apoplexy, colic, and other affections associated with cramps, or spasms, etc. Disease of the ovaries or of the spinal cord, by reflex irritation, may cause estromania (see "Excess of venereal desire," p. 148, constant desire for the bull). DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., _Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University._ Of the materials that have served their purpose in building up the animal body or in sustaining the body temperature, and that are now to be thrown out as waste, the greater part is expelled from the system through the lungs and the kidneys, but the agents that pass out by either of these two channels differ in the main from those passing by the other. Thus from the lungs in the form of dioxid of carbon--the same gas that comes from burning of coal or oil--there escapes most of the waste material resulting from the destruction in the system of fats, sugars, starch, and such other foods as are wanting in the element nitrogen, and do not form fibrous tissues, but go mainly to support animal heat or maintain functional activity. From the kidneys, on the other hand, are thrown out the waste products resulting from the destruction of the foods and tissues containing nitrogen--of, for instance, albumin, fibrin, gluten, casein, gelatin, woody tissue, etc. While much of the waste material containing nitrogen leaves the body by the bowels, this is virtually only such of the albuminoid food as has failed to be fully digested and absorbed; this has never formed a true constituent part of the body itself or of the blood, but is so much waste food, like that which has come to the table and again carried away unused. If the albuminoid food element has entered the blood, whether or not it has been built up into a constituent part of the structure of the body, its waste products, which contain nitrogen, are in the main expelled through the kidneys, so that the latter become the principal channels for the expulsion of all nitrogen-containing waste. It would be an error, however, to infer that all nitrogenous food, when once digested and absorbed into the blood, must necessarily leave the system in the urine. On the contrary, in the young and growing animal, all increase of the fibrous structures of the body is gained through the building up of those flesh-forming constituents into their substance; in the pregnant animal the growth of the offspring and its envelopes has a similar origin, and in the dairy cow the casein or curd of the milk is a means of constant elimination of these nitrogen-containing agents. Thus, in the breeding cow and, above all, in the milking cow, the womb or udder carries on a work in one sense equivalent to that otherwise performed by the kidneys. Not only are these organs alike channels for the excretion of albuminous products, but they are also related to each other structurally and by nervous sympathy, so that suffering in the one is liable to induce some measure of disorder in the other. As in the case of other mammals, this nitrogenous waste matter is mainly present in the urine of cattle in the form of urea, but also, to some extent, as hippuric acid, a derivative of vegetable food which, in the herbivora, replaces the uric acid found in the urine of man and carnivora. Uric acid is, however, found in the urine of sucking calves which have practically an animal diet, and it may also appear in the adult in case of absolute, prolonged starvation, and in diseases attended with complete loss of appetite and rapid wasting of the body. In such cases the animal lives on its own substance, and the product is that of the wasting flesh. The other products containing nitrogen are present in only small quantities and need not be specially referred to. The urine of cattle contains much less of carbonates than that of the horse, and effervesces less on the addition of an acid. As the carbonates form a large proportion of the solid deposits (gravel, stone) from the horse's urine, the ox may thus be held less liable, yet even in the ox the carbonates become abundant or scanty, according to the nature of the feed, and therefore gravel, formed by carbonate of lime, is not infrequent in cattle. When fed on beets, clover hay, or bean straw carbonates are present in large quantities, these aliments being rich in organic acids and alkaline carbonates; whereas upon oat straw, barley straw, and, above all, wheat straw, they are in small amount. In calves fed on milk alone no carbonates are found in the urine. Phosphates, usually in combination with lime, are, as a rule, present only in traces in the urine of cattle; however, on a dietary of wheat, bran, or other aliment rich in phosphates, these may be present in large amount, so that they render the liquid cloudy or are deposited in solid crystals. The liquid is rendered transparent by nitric acid. The cow's urine, on a diet of hay and potatoes, contained: Parts. Urea 18.5 Potassic hippurate 16.5 Alkaline lactates 17.2 Potassium bicarbonate 16.1 Magnesium carbonate 4.7 Lime carbonate 0.6 Potassium sulphate 3.6 Common salt 1.5 Silica Trace Phosphates 0.0 Water and undetermined substances 921.3 _______ Total 1,000.0 The following table after Tereg[1] gives the different conditions of the urine, and especially the amount of urea and hippuric acid under different rations. The subjects were two oxen, weighing, respectively, 1,260 pounds and 1,060 pounds: --------------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+---- Food per day.|Water. (pounds) | |Urine | |Passed. | | |Density. | | | |Solids | | | |in urine. | | | | |Hippuric | | | | |acid. | | | | | |Urea. | | | | | | |Nitrogen | | | | | | |in hippuric | | | | | | |acid and | | | | | | |urea. | | | | | | | |Total | | | | | | | |nitrogen. | | | | | | | | |Urea | | | | | | | | |per day. | | | | | | | | | |Hip- | | | | | | | | | |puric | | | | | | | | | |acid | | | | | | | | | |per | | | | | | | | | |week --------------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- |_Lbs._|_Lbs_| |_Pct_|_Pct_|_Pct_|_Pct_|_Pct_|_Ozs_|_Ozs_ 16.90 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, and | 46.46| 7.40|1,036| 8.41| 2.66| 1.33| 0.83| 0.94| 1.63|3.23 1.30 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 14.70 oat | | | | | | | | | | straw, and | 61.10|15.26|1,039| 6.93| 2.09| 0.84| 0.55| 0.49| 2.2 |5.3 2.30 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10.4 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, 10.4 | 71.76|12.36|1,043| 8.05| 0.95| 1.85| 0.93| 0.94| 3.83|1.96 clover hay, | | | | | | | | | | 0.6 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal, and | | | | | | | | | | 2.6 starch | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10.4 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, 10.4 | 80.54|12.46|1,044| 8.29| 8.07| 2.41| 1.19| 1.11| 5.8 |2.1 clover hay, | | | | | | | | | | 2.7 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal, 1.4 | | | | | | | | | | starch, and | | | | | | | | | | 0.8 sugar | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10.4 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, 10.4 | 78.96|17.62|1,043| 8.41| 0.74| 3.12| 1.45| 1.24| 9.17|2.17 clover hay, | | | | | | | | | | 5 bean meal, | | | | | | | | | | and 0.8 sugar | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, 10 |110.12|25.86|1,038| 7.00| 0.31| 2.49| 1.19| 1.25|10.9 |1.33 clover hay, | | | | | | | | | | 6.4 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal, 1.7 | | | | | | | | | | starch, 4 | | | | | | | | | | sugar, and | | | | | | | | | | 0.4 rape oil | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, 10 |101.80|27.04|1,037| 7.14| 0.20| 2.95| 1.39| 1.58|13.3 |0.9 clover hay, | | | | | | | | | | 9.4 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal, 3.1 | | | | | | | | | | sugar, and | | | | | | | | | | 0.4 rape oil | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, 10 |119.00|23.20|1,038| 7.74| 0.21| 4.06| 1.91| 1.69|15.4 |0.8 clover hay, | | | | | | | | | | 11.7 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal, 2.8 | | | | | | | | | | starch, and | | | | | | | | | | 0.5 rape oil | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 17.86 bean | | | | | | | | | | straw, and | 54.84|12.60|1,043| 7.06| 0.40| 2.53| 1.21| 1.15| 5.3 |0.83 1.6 bean meal | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 14.88 bean | | | | | | | | | | straw | 55.76|16.34|1,036| 5.45| 0.11| 1.41| 0.67| 0.64| 3.83|0.3 | | | | | | | | | | 16.90 meadow | | | | | | | | | | hay | 36.26|15.14|1,042| 7.91| 1.30| 1.73| 0.91| 0.92| 4.37|3.3 --------------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- The varying quantity of urea (from 1.6 to 15.4 ounces) is most suggestive as to the action of the more or less nitrogenous feed and the resulting concentration of the urine and blood. Hippuric acid, on the other hand, is most abundant when the animal is fed on hay and straw. The specific gravity of the urine of cattle varies from 1,030 to 1,060 in health, water being 1,000. It is transparent, with a yellowish tinge, and has a characteristic, musky smell. The chemical reaction is alkaline, turning red litmus paper blue. The quantity passed in twenty-four hours varies greatly, increasing not only with the water drunk, but with the albuminoids taken in with the feed and the urea produced. If a solution of urea is injected into the veins the secretion of urine is greatly augmented. Similarly the excess of salts like carbonate of potash in the feed, or of sugar, increases the action of the kidneys. Only about 20 per cent of the water swallowed escapes in the urine, the remaining 80 per cent passing mostly from the lungs, and to a slight extent by the bowels. The skin of the ox does not perspire so readily nor so freely as that of the horse; hence the kidneys and lungs are called upon for extra work. The influence of an excess of water in the feed is most remarkable in swill-fed distillery cattle, which urinate profusely and frequently, yet thrive and fatten rapidly. Among the other conditions that increase the flow of urine is overfilling of (internal pressure in) the blood vessels of the kidneys; hence the contraction of the blood vessels of the skin by cold drives the blood inward, tends to dilate the blood vessels of the kidneys, and to increase the secretion of urine. Nervous disorders, such as excitement, fear, congestions, or structural injuries to the back part of the base of the brain, have a similar result, hence, doubtless, the action of certain fungi growing in musty hay or oats in producing profuse flow of urine, whereas other forms of musty fodder cause stupor, delirium, or paralysis. Bacteria and their products are mainly expelled by the kidneys, and become sources of local infection, irritation, and disease. The quantity of urine passed daily by an ox on dry feeding averages 7 to 12 pints, but this may be increased enormously on a watery diet. The mutual influence of the kidneys and other important organs tends to explain the way in which disease in one part supervenes on preexisting disorder in another. The introduction of albuminoids in excess into the blood means the formation of an excess of urea, and a more profuse secretion of urine, of a higher specific gravity, and with a greater tendency to deposit its solid constituents, as gravel, in the kidneys or bladder. A torpid action of the liver, leaving the albuminoids in transition forms, less soluble than the urea into which they should have been changed, favors the onset of rheumatism or of nervous disorder, the deposit of such albuminoid products in the kidneys, the formation of a deep-brown or reddish urine, and congestion of the kidneys. Any abnormal activity of the liver in the production of sugar--more than can be burned up in the circulation--overstimulates the kidneys and produces increased flow of a heavy urine with a sweetish taste. This increased production of sugar may be primarily due to disease of the brain, which, in its turn, determines the disorder of the liver. Disease of the right side of the heart or of the lungs, by obstructing the onward flow of blood from the veins, increases the blood pressure in the kidneys and produces disorder and excessive secretion. Inactivity of the kidneys determines an increase in the blood of waste products, which become irritating to different parts, producing skin eruptions, itching, dropsies, and nervous disorders. Sprains of the loins produce bleeding from the kidneys and disease of the spinal cord, and sometimes determine albuminous or milky looking urine. The kidney of the ox (Pl. IX, fig. 1) is a compound organ made up of 15 to 25 separate lobules like so many separate kidneys, but all pouring their secretion into one common pouch (pelvis) situated in an excavation in the center of the lower surface. While the ox is the only domesticated quadruped which maintains this divided condition of the kidney after birth, this condition is common to all while at an early stage of development in the womb. The cluster of lobules making up a single kidney forms an ovoid mass flattened from above downward, and extending from the last rib backward beneath the loins and to one side of the solid chain of the backbone. The right is more firmly attached to the loins and extends farther backward than the left. Deeply covered in a mass of suet, each kidney has a strong outer, white, fibrous covering, and inside this two successive layers of kidney substance, of which the outer is that in which the urine is mainly separated from the blood and poured into the fine, microscopic urinary ducts. (Pl. X, fig. 1) These latter, together with blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves, make up the second, or internal, layer. The outer layer is mainly composed of minute globular clusters of microscopic, intercommunicating blood vessels (Malpighian bodies), each of which is furnished with a fibrous capsule that is nothing else than the dilated commencement of a urine tube. These practically microscopic tubes follow at first a winding course through the outer layer (Ferrein's tubes), then form a long loop (doubling on itself) in the inner layer (Henle's loop), and finally pass back through the inner layer (Bellini's tubes) to open through a conical process into the common pouch (pelvis) on the lower surface of the organ. (Pl. X, figs. 1, 2, 3.) The tube that conveys the urine from the kidney to the bladder is like a white, round cord, about the size of a goose quill, prolonged from the pouch on the lower surface of the kidney backward beneath the loins, then inward, supported by a fold of thin membrane, to open into the bladder just in front of its neck. The canal passes first through the middle (muscular) coat of the bladder, and then advances perceptibly between that and the internal (mucous) coat, through which it finally opens. By this arrangement in overfilling the bladder this opening is closed like a valve by the pressure of the urine, and the return of liquid to the kidney is prevented. The bladder (Pl. IX, fig. 2) is a dilatable, egg-shaped pouch, closed behind by a strong ring of muscular fibers encircling its neck, and enveloped by looped, muscular fibers extending on all sides around its body and closed anterior end. Stimulated by the presence of urine, these last contract and expel contents through the neck into the urethra. This last is the tube leading backward along the floor of the pelvic bones and downward through the penis. In the bull this canal of the urethra is remarkable for its small caliber and for the S-shaped bend which it describes in the space between the thighs and just above the scrotum. This bend is attributable to the fact that the retractor muscles are attached to the penis at this point, and in withdrawing that organ within its sheath they double it upon itself. The small size of the canal and this S-shaped bend are serious obstacles to the passing of a catheter to draw the urine, yet by extending the penis out of its sheath the bend is effaced, and a small, gum-elastic catheter, not more than one-fourth of an inch in diameter, may with care be passed into the bladder. In the cow the urethra is very short, opening in the median line on the floor of the vulva about 4 inches in front of its external orifice. Even in her, however, the passing of a catheter is a matter of no little difficulty, the opening of the urethra being very narrow and encircled by the projecting membranous and rigid margins, and on each side of the opening is a blind pouch (canal of Gärtner) into which the catheter will almost invariably find its way. In both male and female, therefore, the passing of a catheter is an operation which demands special skill. _General symptoms of urinary disorders._--These are not so prominent in cattle as in horses, yet they are of a similar kind. There is a stiff or straddling gait with the hind legs and some difficulty in turning or in lying down and rising, the act causing a groan. The frequent passage of urine in driblets, its continuous escape in drops, the sudden arrest of the flow when in full stream, the rhythmic contraction of the muscles under the anus without any flow resulting, the swelling of the sheath, the collection of hard, gritty masses on the hair surrounding the orifice of the sheath, the occurrence of dropsies in the limbs under the chest or belly, or in either of these cavities, and finally the appearance of nervous stupor, may indicate serious disorder of the urinary organs. The condition of the urine passed may likewise lead to suspicion. It may be white, from crystallized carbonate of lime; brown, red, or even black, from the presence of blood or blood-coloring matter; yellow, from biliary coloring matter; frothy, from contained albumin; cloudy, from phosphates; glairy, from pus; it may also show gritty masses from gravel. In many cases of urinary disorder in the ox, however, the symptoms are by no means prominent, and unless special examination is made of the loins, the bladder, and the urine the true nature of the malady may be overlooked. DIURESIS (POLYURIA, DIABETES INSIPIDUS, EXCESSIVE SECRETION OF URINE). A secretion of urine in excess of the normal amount may be looked on as disease, even if the result does not lead to immediate loss of condition. Cattle fed on distillery swill are striking examples of such excess caused by the enormous consumption of a liquid feed, which nourishes and fattens in spite of the diuresis; the condition is unwholesome, and cattle that have passed four or five months in a swill stable have fatty livers and kidneys, and never again do well on ordinary feed. Diuresis may further occur from increase of blood pressure in the kidneys (diseases of the heart or lungs which hinder the onward passage of the blood, the eating of digitalis, English broom, the contraction of the blood vessels on the surface of the body in cold weather, etc.); also from acrid or diuretic plants taken with the feed (dandelion, burdock, colchicum, digitalis, savin, resinous shoots, etc.); from excess of sugar in the feed (beets, turnips, ripe sorghum); also from the use of frozen feed (frosted turnip tops and other vegetables), and from the growths of certain molds in fodder (musty hay, mow-burnt hay, moldy oats, moldy bread, etc.). Finally, alkaline waters and alkaline incrustations on the soil may be active causes. In some of these cases the result is beneficial rather than injurious, as when cattle affected with gravel in the kidneys are entirely freed from this condition by a run at grass, or by an exclusive diet of roots or swill. In other cases, however, the health and condition suffer, and even inflammation of the kidneys may occur. _Treatment._--The treatment is mainly in the change of diet to a more solid aliment destitute of the special, offensive ingredient. Boiled flaxseed is often the best diet or addition to the wholesome dry food, and, by way of medicine, doses of 2 drams each of sulphate of iron and iodid of potassium may be given twice daily. In obstinate cases 2 drams ergot of rye or of catechu may be added. BLOODY URINE (RED WATER, MOOR ILL, WOOD ILL, HEMATURIA, HEMAGLOBINURIA). This is a common affection among cattle in certain localities, above all on damp, undrained lands and under a backward agriculture. It is simply bloody urine or hematuria when the blood is found in clots, or when under the microscope the blood globules can be detected as distinctly rounded, flattened disks. It is smoky urine--hemaglobinuria--when neither such distinct clots nor blood disks can be found, but merely a general browning, reddening, or blackening of the urine by the presence of dissolved, blood-coloring matter. The bloody urine is the more direct result of structural disease of the kidneys or urinary passages (inflammation, stone, gravel, tumors, hydatids, kidney worms, sprains of the loins), while the stained urine (hemaglobinuria) is usually the result of some general or more distinct disorder in which the globules are destroyed in the circulating blood and the coloring matter dissolved in and diffused through the whole mass of the blood and of the urine secreted from it. As in the two forms, blood and the elements of blood escape into the urine, albumin is always present, so that there is albuminuria with blood-coloring matter superadded. If from stone or gravel, gritty particles are usually passed, and may be detected in the bottom of a dish in which the liquid is caught. If from fracture or severe sprain of the loins, it is liable to be associated not only with some loss of control of the hind limbs and with staggering behind but also with a more or less perfect paralysis of the tail. The bloodstained urine without red globules results from specific diseases--Texas fever (Pl. XLVII, fig. 3), anthrax, spirillosis, and from eating irritant plants (broom, savin, mercury, hellebore, ranunculus, convolvulus, colchicum, oak shoots, ash privet, hazel, hornbeam, and other astringent, acrid, or resinous plants, etc.). The Maybug or Spanish fly taken with the feed or spread over a great extent of skin as a blister has a similar action. Frosted turnips or other roots will bring on the affection in some subjects. Among conditions which act by the direct destruction of the globules in the circulating blood may be named an excess of water in that fluid; the use of water from soils rich in decomposing vegetable matter and containing alkaline salts, particularly nitrites; and the presence in the water and feed of the ptomaines of bacteria growth; hence the prevalence of "red water" in marshy districts and on clayey and other impervious soils, and the occurrence of bloody urine in the advanced stages of several contagious diseases. Some mineral poisons--such as iodin, arsenic, and phosphorus taken to excess--may cause hematuria, and finally the symptoms may be merely the result of a constitutional predisposition of the individual or family to bleeding. In some predisposed subjects, exposure of the body to cold or wet will cause the affection. The specific symptom of bloody or smoky water is a very patent one. It may or may not be associated with fever, with the presence or absence of abdominal tenderness on pressure, with a very frothy state of the milk or even a reddish tinge, with or without marked paleness of the mucous membranes, and general weakness. When direct injury to the kidneys is the immediate cause of the disease the urine will be passed often, in small quantity at a time, and with much straining. When there is bloodlessness (a watery blood) from insufficient nourishment, fever is absent and the red water is at first the only symptom. When the active cause has been irritant plants, abdominal tenderness, colics, and other signs of bowel inflammation are marked features. _Treatment._--Treatment varies according as the cause has been a direct irritant operating on a subject in vigorous health or a microbian poison acting on an animal deficient in blood and vigor. In the first form of red water a smart purgative (1 pound to 1-1/2 pounds Glauber's salt) will clear away the irritants from the bowels and allay the coexistent high fever. It will also serve to divert to the bowels much of the irritant products already absorbed into the blood and will thus protect the kidneys. In many such cases a liberal supply of wholesome, easily digestible feed will be all the additional treatment required. In this connection demulcent feed (boiled flaxseed, wheat bran) is especially good. If much blood has been lost, bitters (gentian, one-half ounce) and iron (sulphate of iron, 2 drams) should be given for a week. For cases in which excess of diuretic plants has been taken, it may be well to replace the salts by 1 to 2 pints of olive oil, adding 1 ounce of laudanum and 2 drams of gum camphor; also to apply fomentations or a fresh sheepskin over the loins. Buttermilk or vinegar, one-half pint, or sulphuric acid, 60 drops in a pint of water, may also be used frequently as injections. In cases caused by sprained or fractured loins, inflamed kidneys, stone or gravel, the treatment will be as for the particular disease in question. In hematuria from anemia (watery blood), whether from insufficient or badly adjusted rations or from the poisonous products of fermentations in impervious or marshy soils, the treatment must be essentially tonic and stimulating. Rich, abundant, and easily digestible feed must be furnished. The different grains (oats, barley, wheat, bran, rye) and seeds (rape, linseed, cotton seed) are especially called for and may be given either ground or boiled. As a bitter, sulphate of quinin, one-half dram, and tincture of chlorid of iron, 2 drams, may be given in a pint of water thrice a day. In some cases 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls of oil of turpentine twice daily in milk will act favorably. In this anemic variety prevention is the great need. The drainage and cultivation of the dangerous soils is the main object. Until this can be accomplished young and newly purchased cattle not yet inured to the poisons must be kept from the dangerous fields and turned on only those which are already drained naturally or artificially. Further, they should have an abundant ration in which the local product of grass, hay, etc., is supplemented by grain or other seeds. Another point to be guarded against is the supply of water that has drained from marshes or impervious soils, rich in organic matter, as such water is charged with nitrites, ptomaines, etc., which directly conduce to the disorder. Fence out from all such waters and supply from living springs or deep wells only. ALBUMIN IN THE URINE (ALBUMINURIA). In bloody urine albumin is always present as an important constituent of the blood, and in congested and inflamed kidneys it is present as a part of the inflammatory exudate. Apart from these, albumin in the urine represents in different cases a variety of diseased conditions of the kidneys or of distant organs. Among the additional causes of albuminuria may be named: (1) An excess of albumin in the blood (after easy calving with little loss of blood and before the secretion of milk has been established, or in cases of sudden suppression of the secretion of milk); (2) under increase of blood pressure (after deep drinking, after doses of digitalis or broom, after transfusion of blood from one animal to another, or in disease of the heart or lungs causing obstruction to the flow of blood from the veins); (3) after cutting (or disease) of the motor nerves of the vessels going to the kidneys, causing congestion of these organs; (4) violent exertion, hence long drives; the same happens with violent, muscular spasms, as from strychnia poisoning, lockjaw, epilepsy, and convulsions; (5) in most fevers and extensive inflammations of important organs, like the lungs or liver, the escape of the albumin being variously attributed to the high temperature of the body and disorder of the nerves, and to resulting congestion and disorder of the secreting cells of the kidneys; (6) in burns and some other congested states of the skin; (7) under the action of certain poisons (strong acids, phosphorous, arsenic, Spanish flies, carbolic acid, and those inducing bloody urine); (8) in certain conditions of weakness or congestion of the secreting cells of the kidneys, so that they allow this element of the blood to escape; (9) when the feed is entirely wanting in common salt, albumin may appear in the urine temporarily after a full meal containing an excess of albumin. It can also be produced experimentally by puncturing the back part of the base of the brain (the floor of the fourth ventricle close to the point the injury to which causes sugary urine). In abscess, tumor, or inflammation of the bladder, ureter, or urethra the urine is albuminous. It follows, therefore, that albumin in the urine does not indicate the existence of any one specific disease, and except when from weakness or loss of function of the kidney cells, it must be looked on as an attendant on another disease, the true nature of which we must try to find out. These affections we must exclude one by one until we are left to assume the noninflammatory disorder of the secreting cells of the kidney. It is especially important to exclude inflammation of the kidney, and to do this may require a microscopic examination of the sediment of the urine and the demonstration of the entire absence of casts of the uriniferous tubes. (See "Nephritis," p. 123.) To detect albumin in the urine, the suspected and frothy liquid must be rendered sour by adding a few drops of nitric acid and then boiled in a test tube. If a solid precipitate forms, then a few more drops of nitric acid should be added, and if the liquid does not clear it up it is albumin. A precipitate thrown down by boiling and redissolved by nitric acid is probably phosphate of lime. _Treatment._--Treatment is usually directed to the disease on which it is dependent. In the absence of any other recognizable disease, mucilaginous drinks of boiled flaxseed, slippery elm, or gum may be given, tannic acid, one-half dram twice daily, and fomentations or even mustard poultices over the loins. When the disease is chronic and there is no attendant fever (elevation of temperature), tonics (hydrochloric acid, 6 drops in a pint of water; phosphate of iron, 2 drams, or sulphate of quinin, 2 drams, repeated twice daily) may be used. In all cases the patient should be kept carefully from cold and wet, a warm, dry shed, or in warm weather a dry, sunny yard or pasture being especially desirable. SUGAR IN URINE (DIABETES MELLITUS). This is a frequent condition of the urine in parturition fever, but as a specific disease, associated with deranged liver or brain, it is practically unknown in cattle. As a mere attendant on another disease it demands no special notice here. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS (NEPHRITIS). This has been divided according as it affects the different parts of the kidneys, as: (1) Its fibrous covering (perinephritis); (2) the secreting tissue of its outer portion (parenchymatous); (3) the connective tissue (interstitial); (4) the lining membrane of its ducts (catarrhal); and (5) its pelvis or sac receiving the urine (pyelitis). It has also been distinguished according to the changes that take place in the kidney, especially as seen after death, according to the quantity of albumin in the urine, and according as the affection is acute or chronic. For the purpose of this work it will be convenient to consider these as one inflammatory disease, making a distinction merely between the acute and the chronic or of long standing. The _causes_ are in the main like those causing bloody urine, such as irritant and diuretic plants, Spanish flies applied as a blister or otherwise, exposure to cold and wet, the presence of stone or gravel in the kidneys, injuries to the back or loins, as by riding one another, the drinking of alkaline or selenitic water, the use of putrid, stagnant water, of that containing bacteria and their products, the consumption of musty fodder, etc. (See "Hematuria," p. 119.) The length of the loins in cattle predisposes these parts to mechanical injury, and in the lean and especially in the thin, working ox the kidney is very liable to suffer. In the absence of an abundance of loose, connective tissue and of fat, the kidneys lie in close contact with the muscles of the loins, and any injury to them may tend to stretch the kidney and its vessels, or to cause its inflammation by direct extension of the disease from the injured muscle to the adjacent kidney. Thus, under unusually heavy draft, under slips or falls on slippery ground, under sudden unexpected drooping or twisting of the loins from missteps or from the feet sinking into holes, under the loading and jarring of the loins when animals ride one another in cases of "heat," the kidneys are subject to injury and inflammation. A hard run, as when chased by a dog, may be the occasion of such an attack. A fodder rich in nitrogenous or flesh-forming elements (beans, peas, vetches (_Vicia sativa_), and other leguminous plants) has been charged with irritating the kidneys through the excess of urea, hippuric acid, and allied products eliminated through these organs and the tendency to the formation of gravel. It seems, however, that these feeds are most dangerous when partially ripened and yet not fully matured, a stage of growth at which they are liable to contain ingredients irritating to the stomach and poisonous to the brain, as seen in their inducing so-called "stomach staggers." Even in the poisoning by the seeds of ripened but only partially cured rye grass (_Lolium perenne_), and darnel (_Lolium temulentum_), the kidneys are found violently congested with black blood; also, in the indigestions that result from the eating of partially ripened corn or millet some congestion of the kidneys is an attendant phenomenon. Cruzel says that the disease as occurring locally is usually not alone from the acrid and resinous plants charged with inducing hematuria, but also from stinking camomile (_Anthemis cotula_) and field poppy when used in the fresh, succulent condition; also from the great prevalence of dead caterpillars on the pasture, or from dead Spanish flies in the stagnant pools of water. The fresh plants are believed to be injurious only by reason of a volatile oil which is dissipated in drying. In the case of the stagnant water it may be questioned whether the chemical products of the contained ferments (bacteria) are not more frequently the cause of the evil than the alleged Spanish flies, though the latter are hurtful enough when present. Inflammation of the kidneys may further be a form or an extension of a specific contagious disease, such as erysipelas, rinderpest, septicemia, or even of poisoning by the spores of fungi. Rivolta reports the case of a cow with spots of local congestion and blood staining in the kidney, the affected parts being loaded with bacteria. Unfortunately he neither cultivated the bacteria nor inoculated them, and thus the case stands without positive demonstration that they were the cause of disease. In certain cases the _symptoms_ of nephritis are very manifest, and in others so hidden that the existence of the affection can be certainly recognized only by a microscopic examination of the urine. In violent cases there is high fever, increase of the body temperature to 103° F. and upward; hurried breathing, with a catching inspiration; accelerated pulse; dry, hot muzzle; burning of the roots of the horns and ears; loss of appetite; suspended rumination; and indications of extreme sensitiveness in the loins. The patient stands with back arched and hind legs extended backward and outward, and passes water frequently, in driblets, of a high color and specific gravity, containing albumin and microscopic casts. (Pl. XI, fig. 5.) When made to move, the patient does so with hesitation and groaning, especially if turned in a narrow circle; when pinched on the flank just beneath the lateral bony processes of the loins, especially on that side on which the disease predominates, it flinches and groans. If the examination is made with oiled hand introduced through the last gut (rectum), the pressure upward on the kidneys gives rise to great pain and to efforts to escape by moving away and by active contractions of the rectum for the expulsion of the hand. Sometimes there is a distinct swelling over the loins or quarter on one or both sides. In uncastrated males the testicle on the affected side is drawn up, or is alternately raised and dropped. In all there is a liability to tremors of the thigh on the side affected. In some severe cases colicky pains are as violent as in the worst forms of indigestion and spasms of the bowels. The animal frequently shifts from one hind foot to the other, stamps, kicks at the belly, frequently looks anxiously at its flank, moans plaintively, lies down and quickly gets up again, grinds its teeth, twists its tail, and keeps the back habitually arched and rigid and the hind feet advanced under the belly. The bowels may be costive and the feces glistening with a coat of mucus, or they may be loose and irritable, and the paunch or even the bowels may become distended with gas (bloating) as the result of indigestion and fermentation. In some animals, male and female alike, the rigid, arched condition of the back will give way to such undulating movements as are sometimes seen in the act of coition. The disease does not always appear in its full severity; for a day, or even two, however, there may be merely loss of appetite, impaired rumination, a disposition to remain lying down, yet when the patient is raised it manifests suffering by anxiously looking at the flanks, shifting or stamping of the hind feet, shaking of the tail, and attempts to urinate, which are either fruitless or lead to the discharge of a small quantity of high-colored or perhaps bloody urine. In some recent slight cases, and in many chronic ones, these symptoms may be absent or unobserved, and an examination of the urine is necessary to reach a safe conclusion. The urine may contain blood, or it may be cloudy from contained albumin, which coagulates on heating with nitric acid (see "Albuminuria," p. 121); it may be slightly glairy from pus, or gritty particles may be detected in it. In seeking for casts of the uriniferous tubes, a drop may be taken with a fine tube from the bottom of the liquid after standing, and examined under a power magnifying 50 diameters. If the fine, cylindroid filaments are seen they may then be examined with a power of 200 or 250 diameters. (Pl. XI, fig. 5.) The appearance of the casts gives some clue to the condition of the kidneys. If made up of large, rounded or slightly columnar cells, with a single nucleus in each cell (epithelial), they imply comparatively slight and recent disease of the kidney tubes, the detachment of the epithelium being like what is seen in any inflamed mucous surface. If made up largely of the small, disk-shaped and nonnucleated red blood globules, they imply escape of blood, and usually a recent injury or congestion of the kidney--it may be from sprains, blows, or the ingestion of acrid or diuretic poisons. If the casts are made of a clear, waxy, homogeneous substance (hyaline), without any admixture of opaque particles, they imply an inflammation of longer standing, in which the inflamed kidney tubules have been already stripped of their cellular (epithelial) lining. If the casts are rendered opaque by the presence of minute, spherical granular cells, like white blood globules, it betokens active suppuration of the kidney tubes. In other cases the casts are rendered opaque by entangled earthy granules (carbonate of lime), or crystals of some other urinary salts. In still other cases the casts entangle clear, refrangent globules of oil or fat, which may imply fatty degeneration of the kidneys or injury to the spinal cord. The presence of free pus giving a glairy, flocculent appearance to the urine is suggestive of inflammation of the urinary pouch at the commencement of the excretory duct (pelvis of kidney) (Pl. IX, fig. 1), especially if complicated with gritty particles of earthy salts. This condition is known as pyelitis. In the chronic cases swelling of the legs or along the lower surface of chest or abdomen, or within these respective cavities, is a common symptom. So, also, stupor or coma, or even convulsions, may supervene from the poisonous action of urea and other waste or morbid products retained in the blood. _Treatment._--In the treatment of acute nephritis the first consideration is the removal of the cause. Acrid or diuretic plants in the feed must be removed, and what of this kind is present in the stomach or bowels may be cleared away by a moderate dose of castor or olive oil; extensive surfaces of inflammation that have been blistered by Spanish flies must be washed clean with soapsuds; sprains of the back or loins must be treated by soothing fomentations or poultices or by a fresh sheepskin with its fleshy side applied on the loins, and the patient must be kept in a narrow stall in which it can not turn even its head. The patient must be kept in a warm, dry building, so that the skin may be kept active rather than the kidneys. Warm blanketing is equally important, or even mustard poultices over the loins will be useful. Blisters of Spanish flies, turpentine, or other agent which may be absorbed and irritate the kidneys must be avoided. The active fever may be checked by 15 drops tincture of aconite every four hours or by one-third ounce of acetanilid. If pain is very acute, 1 ounce of laudanum or 2 drams of solid extract of belladonna will serve to relieve. When the severity of the disease has passed, a course of tonics (quinin, 2 drams, or gentian powder, 4 drams, daily) may be given. Diuretics, too, may be given cautiously at this advanced stage to relieve dropsy and give tone to the kidneys and general system (oil of turpentine, 2 teaspoonfuls; bicarbonate of soda, 1 teaspoonful, repeated twice a day). Pure water is essential, and it should not be given chilled; warm drinks are preferable. In the chronic forms of kidney inflammation the same protection against cold and similar general treatment are demanded. Tonics, however, are important to improve the general health (phosphate of iron, 2 drams; powdered nux vomica, 20 grains; powdered gentian root, 4 drams, daily). In some instances the mineral acids (nitric acid, 60 drops, or nitrohydrochloric acid, 60 drops, daily) may be used with the bitters. Mustard applied to the loins in the form of a thin pulp made with water and covered for an hour with paper or other impervious envelope, or water hotter than the hand can bear, or cupping, may be resorted to as a counterirritant. In cupping, shave the loins, smear them with lard, then take a narrow-mouthed glass, expand the air within by smearing its interior with a few drops of alcohol, setting it on fire and instantly pressing the mouth of the vessel to the oiled portion of the skin. As the air within the vessel cools it contracts, tending to form a partial vacuum, and the skin, charged with blood, is strongly drawn up within it. Several of these being applied at once, a strong derivation from the affected kidneys is obtained. In no case of inflamed or irritable kidney should Spanish flies or oil of turpentine be used upon the skin. PARASITES OF THE KIDNEY. As the kidney is the visual channel by which the bacteria leave the system, this organ is liable to be implicated when microphytes exist in the blood, and congestions and blood extravasions are produced. In anthrax, southern cattle fever (Texas fever), and other such affections bloody urine is the consequence. Of the larger parasites attacking the kidney may be specially named the cystic form of the echinococcus tapeworm of the dog, the cystic form of the unarmed or beef tapeworm of man, the diving bladderworm--the cystic form of the marginate tapeworm of the dog, and the giant strongyle-- the largest of the roundworms. These give rise to general symptoms of kidney disease, but the true source of the trouble is likely to be detected only if the heads or hooklets of the tapeworm or the eggs of the roundworm are found on microscopical examination of the urine. TUMORS OF THE KIDNEY (HYPERTROPHY OR ATROPHY). The kidney may be the seat of cancerous or simple tumors, and it may be unnaturally enlarged or reduced in size, but though there may be signs of urinary disorder the true nature of the disease is seldom manifest until after death. The passing of blood and of large multi-nucleated cells in the urine (to be detected under the microscope) may betray the existence of an ulcerated cancer of the kidney. The presence of cancerous enlargement of (superficial) lymphatic glands may further assist and confirm the decision. RETENTION OF URINE. Inability to pass urine may come from any one of three conditions--first, spasm of the neck of the bladder; second, paralysis of the body of the bladder; third, obstruction of the channel of outlet by a stone (calculus) (see Pl. XI) or other obstacle. In _spasm of the neck of the bladder_ the male animal may stand with the tail slightly raised and making rhythmical contractions of the muscle beneath the anus (accelerator urinæ) (see Pl. IX, fig. 2), but without passing a drop of liquid. In the female the hind legs are extended, widely parted, and the back is arched as if to urinate, but the effort is vain. If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum or vagina in the early stages of the affection, the bladder may be felt beneath partially filled, but not overdistended with liquid, and its neck or mouth firm and rigid. In the more advanced stages of the affection the organ is felt as a great, tense, elastic bag, extending forward into the abdomen. In this condition the overdistended muscular coat of the bladder has lost its power of contraction, so that true paralysis has set in, the muscle closing the mouth of the sac alone retaining its contractile power. In _paralysis of the body of the bladder_ attention is rarely drawn to the urinary disorder until the bladder has been distended to full repletion and is almost ready to give way by rupture and to allow the escape of the contained liquid into the abdomen. Overdistention is the most common cause of the paralysis, yet it may occur from inflammation of the muscular wall of the bladder, or even from injury to the terminal part of the spinal marrow. In this last condition, however, the tail is liable to be powerless, and the neck of the bladder may also be paralyzed, so that the urine dribbles away continuously. _Causes._--Among the causes of spasm of the neck of the bladder may be named the lodgment of small stones or gravel, the feeding on irritant diuretics (see "Bloody urine," p. 119, or "Nephritis," p. 123), the enforced retention of urine while at work or during a painful or difficult parturition. The irritation attendant on inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bladder may be a further cause of spasms of the neck, as may also be inflammation of the channel (urethra) back of the neck. Extensive applications of Spanish flies to the skin, the abuse of diuretics, and the occurrence of indigestion and spasms of the bowels are further causes. So long as spasmodic colic is unrelieved, retention of water from spasm of the neck of the bladder usually persists. _Treatment._--Treatment depends largely on the cause. In indigestion the irritant contents of the bowels must be got rid of by laxatives and injections of warm water; Spanish-fly blisters must be washed from the surface; a prolonged and too active exertion must be intermitted. The spasm may be relaxed by injecting one-half ounce of solid extract of belladonna in water into the rectum or by a solution of tobacco. Chloroform or ether may be given by inhalation, or chloral hydrate (1 ounce) may be given in water by the mouth. Fomentations of warm water may be made over the loins and between the thighs, and the oiled hand inserted into the rectum may press moderately on the anterior part of the bladder, which can be felt as an elastic fluctuating bag of an oval shape just beneath. All other measures failing, the liquid must be drawn off through a tube (catheter). This is, however, exceedingly difficult, alike in male and female, and we can not expect an amateur to succeed in accomplishing it. In the cow the opening into the bladder is found in the median line of the floor of the generative entrance, about 4 inches in front of the external opening, but it is flanked on either side by a blind pouch, into which the catheter will pass, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, in the hands of any but the most skilled operator. In the bull or steer the penis, when retracted into its sheath, is bent upon itself like the letter S, just above the scrotum and testicles (see Pl. IX, fig. 2), and unless this bend is effaced by extending the organ forward out of its sheath it is quite impossible to pass a catheter beyond this point. When, however, by the presentation of a female, the animal can be tempted to protrude the penis, so that it can be seized and extended, or when it can be manipulated forward out of the sheath, it becomes possible to pass a catheter of small caliber (one-third inch or under) onward into the bladder. Youatt advised laying open the sheath so as to reach and extend the penis, and others have advocated opening the urethra in the space between the thighs or just beneath the anus, but such formidable operations are beyond the stock owner. The incision of the narrow urethra through the great thickness of muscular and erectile bleeding tissue just beneath the anus is especially an operation of extreme delicacy and difficulty. Drawing the liquid through the tube of an aspirator is another possible resort for the professional man. The delicate needle of the aspirator is inserted in such cases through the floor of the vagina and upper wall of the bladder in the female, or through the floor of the rectum (last gut) and roof of the bladder in the male, or finally through the lower and back part of the abdominal wall, just in front of the bones of the pelvis (pubic bones), thence through the lower and anterior part of the bladder near its blind anterior end. After relief has been obtained the administration of belladonna in 2-dram doses daily for several days will tend to prevent a recurrence of the retention. When the body of the bladder has become benumbed or paralyzed by overdistention, we may seek to restore its tone by doses of one-half a dram of powdered nux vomica repeated daily, and by mustard plaster applied over the loins, on the back part of the belly inferiorly, or between the thighs. Small doses (2 drams) of balsam of copaiba are sometimes useful in imparting tone to the partly paralyzed organ. INCONTINENCE OF URINE (PALSY OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER). This may occur from disease or injury to the posterior part of the spinal cord or from broken back, and in these cases the tail, and perhaps the hind limbs, are liable to be paralyzed. In this case the urine dribbles away constantly, and the oiled hand in the vagina or rectum will feel the half-filled and flaccid bladder beneath and may easily empty it by pressure. _Treatment._--Treatment is only successful when the cause of the trouble can be remedied. After these (sprains of the back, etc.) have recovered, blisters (mustard) on the loins, the lower part of the abdomen, or between the thighs may be resorted to with success. Two drams of copaiba or of solid extract of belladonna or 2 grains Spanish flies daily may serve to restore the lost tone. These failing, the use of electric currents may still prove successful. URINARY CALCULI (STONE OR GRAVEL). Stone or gravel consists of hard bodies mainly made up of the solid earthy constituents of the urine which have crystallized out of that liquid at some part of the urinary passage, and have remained as small particles (gravel), or have concreted into large masses (stone, calculus). (See Pl. XI, figs. 1, 2, 3.) In cattle it is no uncommon thing to find them distending the practically microscopic tubes in the red substance of the kidney, having been deposited from the urine in the solid form almost as soon as that liquid has been separated from the blood. These stones appear as white objects on the red ground formed by cutting sections of the kidney, and are essentially products of the dry feed of winter, and are most common in working oxen, which are called upon to exhale more water from the lungs and skin than are the slop-fed and inactive cows. Little water being introduced into the body with the feed and considerable being expelled with the breath and perspiration in connection with the active life, the urine becomes small in amount, but having to carry out all waste material from the tissues and the tissue-forming feed it becomes so charged with solids that it is ready to deposit them on the slightest disturbance. If, therefore, a little of the water of such concentrated urine is reabsorbed at any point of the urinary passages the remainder is no longer able to hold the solids in solution, and they are at once precipitated in the solid form as gravel or commencing stone. In cattle, on the other hand, which are kept at pasture in summer, or which are fed liberally on roots, potatoes, pumpkins, apples, or ensilage in winter, this concentrated condition of the urine is not induced, and under such circumstances, therefore, the formation of stone is practically unknown. Nothing more need be said to show the controlling influence of dry feeding in producing gravel and of a watery ration in preventing it. Calculus in cattle is essentially a disease of winter and of such cattle as are denied succulent feed and are confined to dry fodder as their exclusive ration. While there are exceptions, they are so rare that they do not invalidate this general rule. It is true that stone in the kidney or bladder is often found in the summer or in animals feeding at the time on a more or less succulent ration, yet such masses usually date back to a former period when the animals were restricted to a dry ration. In this connection is should be noted that a great drain of water from the system by any other channel than the kidneys predisposes to the production of gravel or stone. In case of profuse diarrhea, for example, or of excessive secretion of milk, there is a corresponding diminution of the water of the blood, and as the whole quantity of the blood is thus decreased and as the urine secreted is largely influenced by the fullness of the blood vessels and the pressure exerted upon their walls from within, it follows that with this decrease of the mass of the blood and the lessening of its pressure outward there will be a corresponding decrease of urine. The waste of the tissues, however, goes on as before, and if the waste matter is passed out through the kidneys it must be in a more concentrated solution, and the more concentrated the urine the greater the danger that the solids will be deposited as small crystals or calculi. Again, the concentrated condition of the urine which predisposes to such deposits is favored by the quantity of lime salts that may be present in the water drunk by the animal. Water that contains 20 or 30 grains of carbonate or sulphate of lime to the gallon must contribute a large addition of solids to the blood and urine as compared with soft waters from which lime is absent. In this connection it is a remarkable fact that stone and gravel in the domesticated herbivora are notoriously prevalent on many limestone soils, as on the limestone formations of central and western New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Michigan; on the calcareous formations of Norfolk, Suffolk, Derbyshire, Shropshire, and Gloucestershire, in England; in Landes in France, and around Munich in Bavaria. It does not follow that the abundance of lime in the water and fodder is the main cause of the calculi, as other poisons which are operative in the same districts in causing goiter in both man and animal probably contribute to the trouble, yet the excess of earthy salts in the drinking water can hardly fail to add to the saturation of both blood and urine, and thereby to favor the precipitation of the urinary solids from their state of solution. The known results of feeding cattle a generous or forcing ration in which phosphate of lime is present to excess adds additional force to the view just advanced. In the writer's experience, the Second Duke of Oneida, a magnificent product of his world-famed family, died as the result of a too liberal allowance of wheat bran, fed with the view of still further improving the bone and general form of the Duchess strain of Shorthorns. Lithotomy was performed and a number of stones removed from the bladder and urethra, but the patient succumbed to an inflammation of the bowels, induced by the violent purgatives given before the writer arrived, under the mistaken idea that the straining had been caused by intestinal impaction. In this case not only the Second Duke of Oneida, but the other males of the herd as well, had the tufts of hairs at the outlet of the sheath encased in hard, cylindroid sheaths of urinary salts, precipitated from the liquid as it ran over them. The tufts were in reality resolved into a series of hard, rollerlike bodies, more or less constricted at intervals, as if beaded. When it is stated that the ash of the whole grain of wheat is but 3 per cent, while the ash of wheat bran is 7.3 per cent, and that in the case of the former 46.38 per cent of the ash is phosphoric acid, and in that of the latter 50 per cent, it can easily be understood how a too liberal use of wheat bran should prove dangerous if fed dry. The following table shows the relative proportion of ash and phosphoric acid in wheat bran and in some common farm seeds: _Ash and phosphoric acid in bran and some common farm seeds._ --------------------+----------+-------------+--------------- Kind of grain. | Ash. | Phosphoric | Phosphoric | |acid in ash. | acid in the | | | entire feed. --------------------+----------+-------------+--------------- |_Per cent_| _Per cent_ | _Per cent_ Wheat bran | 7.3 | 50 | 3.65 Wheat, grain | 3 | 46.38 | 1.3914 Oats, grain | 2.50 | 26.5 | .6625 Barley, grain | 3.10 | 39.6 | 1.2276 Bean, grain | 3.10 | 31.9 | .9864 Peas, grain | 2.75 | 34.8 | .957 Tare, grain | 3 | 36.2 | 1.086 Indian corn, grain. | 1.5 | -- | -- Rye, grain | 1.6 | 39.9 | .6384 --------------------+----------+-------------+--------------- Wheat bran, it will be observed, contains three times as much phosphoric acid as is found in any of the other grains, and four times as much as oats, beans, peas, or rye; so that if fed in excess it will readily overcharge the urine with phosphates. There is another point to be considered, however, in estimating this danger. Wheat bran contains a far greater quantity of albuminoids and other nitrogen-containing constituents than the common grains (these being made up mainly of starch, which contains no nitrogen); and, all nitrogen-bearing products contained in the blood and tissues being expelled from the body mainly through the kidneys in the form of urea and (in cattle) hippuric acid, it follows that the excess of urea formed when such feed is consumed must load the urine with solids and bring it constantly nearer to the point of saturation, when such solids (or the least soluble of them) must be deposited. The following table will show the relative amounts of the nitrogen-bearing products in wheat bran and some of our common grains: _Nitrogenous matter in wheat bran and some common farm grains._ -----------------+---------------+----------------+---------------------- Kind of grain. | Albuminoids | Woody fiber | Total nitrogenous- | (nitrogenous).| (nitrogenous.) | bearing constituents. -----------------+---------------+----------------+---------------------- | _Per cent_ | _Per cent_ | _Per cent_ Wheat bran. | 16.1 | 8 | 24.1 Wheat, grain | 12.5 | 1.8 | 14.3 Barley, grain | 12.4 | 2.7 | 15.1 Oats, grain | 11.8 | 9.5 | 21.3 Rye, grain | 10.6 | 1.7 | 12.3 Indian corn | 10.1 | 1.7 | 11.8 -----------------+---------------+----------------+---------------------- It will be observed that, with the exception of oats, none of the grains contain more than two-thirds of the nitrogenous material present in the wheat bran, while in the case of rye and maize there is practically but one-half. Even in the case of oats the albuminoids, which are the more digestible principles, and therefore those that are the most easily and speedily converted into urea, are present only to the amount of two-thirds of that which exists in the wheat bran. With such an excess of ash, of phosphates, and of nitrogenous (urea-forming) constituents in wheat bran, its tendency to favor the formation of calculi is fully explained. It must not, however, be inferred that wheat bran is not a valuable feedstuff. The inference is only that it should be fed with an abundance of water, as a sloppy mash, or in combination with an abundance of roots, potatoes, pumpkins, or other succulent aliment. In this connection the presence of magnesia in the feed or water must be named as favoring calculous formations in the urinary passages. The explanation is that while the phosphate of magnesia thrown out in the urine is soluble in water, the compound phosphate of ammonia and magnesia is insoluble, and, accordingly, if at any time ammonia is introduced into urine containing the phosphate of magnesia there is instantly formed the ammonio-magnesium phosphate, which is as promptly deposited in the solid form. The common source of ammonia in such cases is from decomposition of the urea in fermenting urine. In order to produce this a ferment is necessary, however, and therefore, as an additional prerequisite, the presence of bacteria, or fungi, in the urine is essential. These ferments may make their way from without along the urinary passage (urethra), and their propagation in the bladder is greatly favored by the prolonged retention of urine, as in case of spasm of the neck of the bladder or obstruction by an already existing stone. Another mode of entrance of the ferment is an unclean catheter used to draw the urine. Still another is the elimination through the kidneys of the bacteria of infectious diseases, or of such as, without producing a general infection, yet determine fermentation in the urine. The precipitation is favored not only by the production of ammonia, but also by the formation of viscid (colloid) products of fermentation. In this sense bacteria are most important factors in causing gritty deposits in the urine. Another insoluble salt which enters largely into the composition of many urinary calculi of the ox is carbonate of lime. This is derived mainly from the lime in the feed and water and from the carbon dioxid formed by the oxidation of the organic acids in the fodder. These organic acids, being composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (without nitrogen), are resolved by the addition of oxygen into carbon dioxid (CO_{2}) and water (H_{2}O). The carbon dioxid unites with the lime in the blood to form carbonate of lime, and in this state passes into the urine. Now, carbonate of lime is soluble in water containing free or uncombined carbon dioxid, but is precipitated whenever the latter is withdrawn. It is only necessary, therefore, to have in the urine sufficient lime or other available base to unite with all the free carbon dioxid in order to bring about the precipitation of the dissolved carbonate of lime in the solid, crystallized form; hence it is that, of all sediments in the urine of herbivora, this is the most frequent and usually the most abundant. A less common constituent of urinary calculi is the insoluble oxalate of lime. In this case the lime is derived as before from the feed or water, or both, while the oxalic acid is a product of the oxidation of organic acids of the feed, less oxygen having been used than in the formation of carbon dioxid. The final product of the complete oxidation of these acids is carbon dioxid, but when less oxygen is furnished, owing to some disease of the lungs or a disease of the nerve centers, which lessens the activity of the breathing, then oxalic acid may be produced. If this oxalic acid comes into contact with lime, it is instantly precipitated as crystals of oxalate of lime. Another inorganic substance at times found in urinary calculi is silica (SiO_{2}). This contributes largely to giving stiffness to the stems of growing plants, and in most of our cereals and grasses makes up a large proportion of the ashes of the burned plant. It is found in the soluble form in combination as silicate of potash, but at times is displaced by oxalic or other acid and then appears as gritty, sandy particles in the stem. This gritty, insoluble silica is especially noticeable among the horsetails (_Equisetacæceæ_), bamboos, and sedges. The per cent of silica in the ash of several common fodder plants is given below: _Silica in ash of various fodder plants._ Ash of-- Silica. _Per cent._ Wheat straw 67.6 Oats and husk 38.6 Oat straw 35.4 Barley straw 73.1 Rye straw 64.4 Rye-grass hay 64.57 Wheat chaff 81.2 Oat chaff 59.9 Barley awn 70.7 It is only soluble silica that is taken up into the system, and it is in this form (usually as silicate of potash or soda) that it enters the urine, but all that is wanted to precipitate it in crystalline form as a gritty sand is the presence of oxalic or other acid having a stronger affinity for its base (potash or soda). Other conditions, however, enter largely into the causation of stone, or gravel. A high density of urine resulting from a highly saturated condition is often present for a length of time without any precipitation of solid materials. Urea and carbonates may be present in excess, the feed may be given dry, and drinking water may be deficient in quantity without any deposition of stone or gravel. In such cases, the presence of noncrystalline organic matter in the urine becomes an exciting cause. Rainey and Ord have shown experimentally that colloid (noncrystallizable) bodies like mucus, epithelial cells, albumin, pus, blood, hyaline casts of the kidney tubes, etc., not only determine the precipitation of crystallizable salts from a strong solution, but they determine the precipitation in the form of globular masses, or minute spheres, which, by further similar accessions, become stones, or calculi, of various sizes. The salts that are deposited by mere chemical reaction without the intervention of colloids appear in the form of sharply defined angular crystals, and hence the rough, jagged crystals of oxalate of lime or ammonia-magnesium phosphate. Heat intensifies the action of the colloids in causing precipitation of the dissolved salts, so that the temperatures of the kidneys and bladder constitute favorable conditions. Colloids that are undergoing decomposition are also specially powerful, so that the presence of bacteria or fungi causing fermentation is an important factor. In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of urinary calculi we must accord a high place to all those conditions which determine the presence of excess of mucus, albumin, pus, blood, kidney casts, blood-coloring matter, etc., in the urine. A catarrhal inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney, of the ureter, or of the bladder, generating excess of mucus or pus; inflammation of the kidneys, causing the discharge of blood, albumin, or hyaline casts into the urinary passages; inflammation of the liver, lungs, or other distant organ, resulting in the escape of albumin in the urine; disorders of the liver or of the blood-forming functions, resulting in hematuria or hemoglobinuria; sprains or other injuries to the back, or disease of the spinal marrow, which cause the escape of blood with the urine; the presence in the bladder of a bacterial ferment, which determines the decomposition of the mucus and urea, the evolution of ammonia and the consequent destruction of the protecting cellular (epithelia) lining of the bladder, or the irritation caused by the presence of an already formed calculus, may produce the colloid or uncrystallizable body that proves so effective in the precipitation of stone or gravel. It has long been known that calculi almost invariably form around any foreign body introduced into the kidney or bladder, and I have seen a large, calculous mass surrounding a splinter of an arrow that had penetrated and broken off in the body of a deer. The explanation is now satisfactory--the foreign body carries in with it bacteria, which act as ferments upon the urine and mucus in addition to the mechanical injury caused by its presence. If such a body has been introduced through the solid tissues, there is, in addition, the presence of the blood and lymph derived from the wounded structures. CLASSIFICATION OF URINARY CALCULI. Urinary calculi are most conveniently divided according to the locality in which they are found. Thus we find first renal calculi, formed in the kidney (Pl. XI, fig. 1), and which for cattle must be again divided into calculi of the uriniferous tubes and calculi of the pelvis. The second class are named ureteral calculi because they are found in the duct leading from the kidney to the bladder (ureter). The third class are the vesical calculi, from the bladder or vesicle in which they are found. The fourth class are the urethral calculi, and are found in the duct leading outward from the bladder through the penis (urethra). The fifth and last class are the preputial calculi, since they are found within the sheath of the penis (prepuce). Calculi may also be classed according to their chemical composition and this has the advantage of suggesting the special cause of each as found in the feed, water, soil, or general conditions of health. This classification affords no guide to their location or symptoms, as calculi of the same chemical composition may be formed at any part of the urinary passages, as those formed in the kidney may pass on through all the various passages outward, unless it is found at any point of their progress that they have grown so large that the passage will not admit them. The following are among the concretions found in the various parts: (1) _Coralline calculi._--These are of a dull-white color and irregular surface, like coral. They are made up of hard and resistant layers evenly deposited around a central nucleus. (Pl. XI, fig. 3.) Their specific gravity is 1,760, water being 1,000, and they contain 74 per cent of carbonate of lime with some carbonate of magnesia, organic matter, and a trace of carbonate of iron. Yellowish-white, smooth, round calculi of the same chemical composition are met with. (2) _Pearly calculi._--These are more frequent than the first-named variety. They are very hard and smooth on the surface, reflecting a play of various colors after the fashion of a pearl. This peculiarity appears to be caused by the thinness and semitransparency of the supposed layers. They have a specific gravity of 2,109 to 2,351, and nearly the same chemical composition as the coralline variety. Golding Bird found a specimen of this kind formed of carbonate of lime and organic matter only. (3) _Green calculi_ (_metalloid calculi_).--These are usually small and numerous, as they are exceedingly common. They are of a very hard consistency, and have a clear-polished, greenish surface of almost metallic brilliancy. They have a specific gravity of 2.301 and a composition almost identical with the second variety. (4) _White calculi._--Pure white, smooth, lustrous calculi are rare. They have a specific gravity of 2.307, and contain as much as 92 per cent of carbonate of lime with carbonate of magnesia and organic matter. (5) _Ammonio-magnesium calculi._--These are of a grayish color and a very rough, crystalline surface, which proves very irritating to the mucous membrane. They have a specific gravity of 1.109 to 1.637, and are composed chiefly of ammonio-magnesium phosphate, oxalate of lime, and organic matter, with a little carbonate of lime and magnesia. (6) _Siliceous calculi._--These are clear, smooth, and hard, and usually spherical. They have a specific gravity of 1.265 to 1.376, and contain 57 per cent of silica with carbonates of iron and magnesia, organic matter, and traces of iron. In other specimens of siliceous calculi there was a specific gravity of 3.122, and there was 79 to 85 per cent of carbonate of lime together with carbonate of magnesia, and iron, silica, and organic matter. Others are almost exclusively made of silica. (7) _Oxalate of lime calculi_ (_mulberry calculi_) (Pl. XI, fig. 2).-- These are characterized by their extremely rough, angular surface, formed by the octahedral crystals of oxalate of lime. Their specific gravity may be 3.441, and they contain oxalate of lime to the extent of 81 per cent, together with carbonates of lime and magnesia and organic matter. (8) _Gravel_ (_pultaceous deposits_).--Simple crystals may be met with at any point from the kidneys to the external opening at the end of the prepuce (sheath), and they may appear singly, as crystals, or they may accumulate in masses of fine spherical crystals almost like dirty powdered chalk suspended in water. In the ox this is especially common as a collection in the sheath, distending that into a soft, doughy swelling. FORMS OF CALCULI IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS. Apart from the rough crystalline surfaces of the calculi of oxalate of lime and ammonio-magnesium phosphate, the general tendency is to a smooth, round outline. At times, however, they show more or less flattening with rounded angular edges, caused by the contact and mutual friction of two calculi. Sometimes two or more stones lying together become united into one by a new external deposit, and the resulting mass then shows rounded swellings on opposite sides. The large calculi occupying the pelvis of the kidneys usually show a central part having the outline of the main cavity of the pelvis and two or more projections that have been molded into the corresponding branches or channels which lead to corresponding lobes of the kidney. In winter and spring small concretions in the form of plates are often met with in the branches of the pelvis, having been formed and molded in the confined space between the projecting papilla and the surrounding cuplike branch of the pelvis. Finally, the pulplike deposits in the sheath and elsewhere are made up of globular masses, individually so small as to be often practically microscopic. STONE IN THE KIDNEY (RENAL CALCULI). [Pl. XI, fig. 1.] In an animal leading the quiet, uneventful life of the ox, stones of large size may be present in the kidney without producing any disorder appreciable to the people about him. In cattle fattened on dry feed in winter, on the magnesian limestone of New York, it is exceptional to find the substance of the kidney free from calculi about the size of a grain of wheat or less, and standing out as white objects in the general red of the cut surface of the organ. Similarly around the papillæ in the cuplike arms of the pelvis we find minute, flattened or more or less rounded, yellowish-white concretions. Even the large concretions may prove apparently harmless. I have a calculus several ounces in weight which filled the entire pelvis of the kidney, that was found by accident in a fat carcass while being dressed. In work oxen, however, such concretions may give rise to symptoms of kidney disease, such as stiffness of the loins, shown especially in the acts of rising or turning, weakness of the hind parts when set to pull a heavy load, an irritability of the kidneys, shown by the frequent passage of urine in small quantity, tenderness of the loins, shown when they are pinched or lightly struck, and it may be the passage of blood or minute gritty masses with the urine. If the attack is severe, what is called "renal colic" (kidney colic) may be shown by frequent uneasy shifting of the hind limbs, shaking or twisting of the tail, looking around at the flanks, and lying down and rising again at short intervals without apparent cause. The frequent passage of urine, the blood or gritty masses contained in it, and perhaps the hard, stony cylinders around the tufts of hair of the sheath, show that the source of the suffering is the urinary organs. In bad cases active inflammation of the kidneys may set in. (See "Nephritis," p. 123.) URETERAL CALCULI. These are small stones which have passed from the pelvis of the kidney into the canal (ureter) leading from the kidney to the bladder, but, being too large to pass on easily, have blocked that canal and forced the urine back upon the kidney. The result is the production of symptoms more violent than in renal calculi, though not varying, save in intensity, from those of renal colic. In case of complete and unrelieved obstruction, the secretion of the kidney on that side is entirely abolished, and it becomes the seat of passive congestion, and it may even be absorbed in greater part or as a whole, leaving only a fibrous sac containing fluid with a urinous odor. In small cattle, in which the oiled hand introduced into the last gut may reach the affected part, the distended ureter may be felt as a tense, elastic cord, extending forward from the point of obstruction on the lateral wall of the pelvis and beneath the loins toward the kidney. If relief is obtained by the onward passage of the stone a free flow of urine usually follows, in the midst of which may often be found gritty masses. If the outlets from both kidneys are similarly blocked the animal becomes poisoned by the retention in the blood of the elements of the urine, and by their reabsorption after secretion. _Treatment of renal and ureteral calculi._--Treatment is not very successful, as only the smallest calculi can pass through the ureter and enter the bladder, and even if they should do so they are liable to a progressive increase there, so that later they may cause the symptoms of stone in the bladder. Fortunately, ordinary dairy, growing, or fattening cattle rarely show evident symptoms of illness, and even though they do so they can usually be fattened and slaughtered before the health is seriously impaired. In work oxen the case is different, and acute symptoms may develop, but even then the animal may often be fitted for the butcher. When treatment is demanded it is primarily soothing and antispasmodic. Fomentations with warm water over the loins should be persisted in without intermission until relief has been secured. The soothing effect on the kidney will often relieve inflammation and irritation, should the stone be in that situation, while if in the ureter the warm fomentations will at once soothe irritation, relax spasm of the muscular coat of the canal, and favor an abundant secretion from the kidney, which, pressing on the obstructing stone, may slowly push it on into the bladder. Large doses of laudanum (2 ounces) or of solid extract of belladonna (2 drams) will not only soothe the pain but relax the spasm and favor the onward passage of the calculus. The animal should be encouraged to drink large quantities of cool water to favor the free secretion of a very watery urine, which will not only serve to obviate irritation and continued deposit caused by a highly concentrated urine, but will press the stone onward toward the bladder, and even in certain cases will tend to disintegrate it by solution of some of its elements, and thus to favor its crumbling and expulsion. This is a principle which must never be lost sight of in the treatment of calculi. The immersion of the stone in a liquid of a lower specific gravity than that in which it has formed and grown tends to dissolve out the more soluble of its component parts, and thus to destroy its density and cohesion at all points, and thereby to favor its complete disintegration and expulsion. This explains why cattle taken from a herd on magnesian limestone in spring, after the long, dry feeding of winter, usually have renal calculi, while cattle from the same herd in the fall, after a summer's run on a succulent pasture, are almost always free from concretions. The abundance of liquid taken in the green feed and expelled through the kidneys and the low density or watery nature of the urine have so opened the texture and destroyed the density of the smaller stones and gravel that they have all been disintegrated and removed. This, too, is the main reason why benefit is derived from a prolonged stay at mineral springs by the human victims of gravel. If they had swallowed the same number of quarts of pure water at home and distributed it at suitable times each day, they would have benefited largely without a visit to the springs. It follows from what has been just said that a succulent diet, including a large quantity of water (gruels, sloppy mashes, turnips, beets, potatoes, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, succulent grasses), is an important factor in the relief of the milder forms of stone and gravel. _Prevention._--Prevention of calculus especially demands this supply of water and watery rations on all soils and in all conditions in which there is a predisposition to the disease. It must also be sought by attempts to obviate all those conditions mentioned above as causative of the malady. Sometimes good rain water can be furnished in limestone districts, but putrid or bad-smelling rain water is to be avoided as probably more injurious than that from the limestone. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to dissolve calculi by alkaline salts and mineral acids, respectively, but their failure as a remedy does not necessarily condemn them as preventives. One dram of caustic potash or of hydrochloric acid may be given daily in the drinking water. In diametrically opposite ways these attack and decompose the less soluble salts and form new ones which are more soluble and therefore little disposed to precipitate in the solid form. Both are beneficial as increasing the secretion of urine. In cases in which the diet has been too highly charged with phosphates (wheat bran, etc.), these aliments must be restricted and water allowed ad libitum. If the crystals passed with the urine are the sharp angular (octahedral) ones of oxalate of lime, then the breathing should be made more active by exercise, and any disease of the lungs subjected to appropriate treatment. If the crystals are triangular prisms of ammonia-magnesium phosphate or starlike forms with feathery rays, the indications are to withhold the feed or water that abounds in magnesia and check the fermentation in the urine by attempts to destroy its bacteria. In the latter direction plenty of pure-water diuretics, and a daily dose of oil of turpentine in milk, or a dose thrice a day of a solution containing one-tenth grain each of biniodid of mercury and iodid of potassium would be indicated. In considering the subject of prevention, it must never be forgotten that any disease of a distant organ which determines the passage from the blood into the urine of albumin or any other colloid (uncrystallizable) body is strongly provocative of calculus, and should, if possible, be corrected. Apart from cases from geological formation, faulty feeding, and other causes, the grand preventive of calculus is a long, summer's pasturage of succulent grasses, or in winter a diet of ensilage or other succulent feed. The calculi formed in part of silica demand special notice. This agent is secreted in the urine in the form of silicate of potash and is thrown down as insoluble silica when a stronger acid displaces it by combining with the potash to its exclusion. In cases of siliceous calculi, accordingly, the appropriate chemical prevention is caustic potash, which being present in the free state would attract to itself any free acid and leave the silica in its soluble condition as silicate of potash. STONE IN THE BLADDER (VESICAL CALCULUS, OR URETHRAL CALCULUS). Stone in the bladder may be of any size, but in the ox does not usually exceed half an inch in diameter. There may, however, be a number of small calculi; indeed, they are sometimes so small and numerous as to form a small, pulpy magma by which the bladder is considerably distended. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of stone in the bladder may be absent until one of the masses escapes into the urethra, but when this occurs the escape of urine is prevented, or it is allowed to pass in drops or driblets only, and the effect of such obstruction becomes manifest. The point of obstruction is not always the same, but it is most frequently at the S-shaped curve of the penis, just above the testicles or scrotum. In cows and heifers the urethra is so short and becomes so widely dilated during the urination that the calculi easily escape in the flow of liquid and dangerous symptoms practically never appear. Even in the male the signs of illness are at first very slight. A close observer may notice the cylinders of hard, earthy materials encircling the tufts of hair at the opening of the prepuce. It may further be observed that the stall remains dry and that the animal has not been seen to pass water when out of doors. The tail may at times be gently raised and contractions of the muscle (accelerator urinæ) beneath the anus (Pl. IX, fig. 2) may take place in a rhythmical or pulsating manner. As a rule, however, no symptom is noticed for two days, only the animal is lacking in his usual spirits. By this time the constantly accumulating urine has distended the bladder beyond its power of resistance and a rupture occurs, allowing the urine to escape into the cavity of the abdomen. Then dullness increases; the animal lies down most of his time; he becomes stupid and sometimes drowsy, with reddish-brown congestion of the lining membrane of the eyelids; pressure on the abdomen causes pain, flinching, and perhaps groaning, and the lowest part of the belly fluctuates more and more as the escaping urine accumulates in greater and greater amount. If at this stage the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum (last gut), the animal flinches when pressure is made downward on the floor of the pelvis, and no round, distended bladder is felt. If the same examination is made prior to the rupture, the rounded, tense, elastic bladder is felt extending forward into the abdomen, containing one or two gallons of liquid. There may be uneasy shifting of the hind limbs and twisting of the tail, also frequent lying down and rising, but these symptoms are exceptional. When the obstruction is low down between the thighs (at the S-shaped flexure), the line of the pulsating urethra from the anus downward may be felt distended with liquid, and though, by the hard swelling of the urethra, it is seldom easy to distinguish the exact seat of the stone, yet there is usually tenderness at the point of obstruction, and from this it may be accurately located. _Treatment._--The treatment of stone in the bladder or urethra consists in the removal of the stone by incision and the use of forceps. (Pl. XI, fig. 4.) When the stone has been arrested at the S-shaped flexure just above the scrotum, the patient being lean, the thickened tender part of the penis may be seized between the fingers and thumb of the left hand, while the calculus is exposed by a free incision with the knife held in the right. If there is no other obstruction between this point and the bladder, and if the latter has not yet ruptured, a flow of urine should take place from the opening. If there is no escape of liquid, a catheter or sound, one-fourth of an inch in diameter, must be passed up through the canal (urethra) until it is arrested by the next stone, on which a similar incision should then be made to effect its extraction. In case the stone has been arrested in the portion of the urethra which is in front of the arch of the hip bone and inside the pelvis, it can be reached only by making an opening into the urethra beneath the anus and over the arch of the hip bone, and from this orifice exploring the urethra with fine forceps to the neck of the bladder or until the stone has been reached and extracted. Owing to the small size of the canal (urethra) to be opened and the great thickness of erectile tissue to be cut through, the operation requires a very accurate knowledge of the parts, while the free flow of blood is blinding to the operator. A staff should always be passed up through the urethra from the lower wound, if such has been made, or, in case of its absence, through the whole length of the penis, that organ having been drawn out of its sheath until the S-shaped curve has been effaced and the course of the canal rendered straight. Upon the end of this staff the incision can be made with far more confidence and certainty. The operation can be undertaken only by a skilled veterinary anatomist, but the hints given above may be valuable in showing the stock owner when he is being properly served in such a case. In outlying districts, where no skilled operator can be had, a transverse incision may be made with a clean, sharp knife through the root of the penis, just over the arch of the hip bone, when the urine will flow out in a full stream. The attendant bleeding may be ignored, or if profuse it may be checked by packing the wound firmly with cotton wool for several hours. The urine will continue to escape by the wound, and the ox should be fattened for the butcher. The immediate relief is not to be looked upon as a permanent cure, as the calculi in the affected ox are usually numerous, and later attacks are therefore to be looked for. Hence it is desirable to fatten and kill such cases after a successful operation. If a breeding animal is too valuable to be killed, he should be subjected to preventive measures, as laid down under "Stone in the kidney," page 139. It should be added that when the bladder is filled with a soft magma a catheter may be introduced through the whole length of the urethra to be used in pumping water into the bladder. This water is extracted through the same channel when it has been charged with the suspended solids by manipulations of the bladder with the oiled hand introduced through the rectum. CALCULI, OR GRAVEL, IN THE PREPUCE, OR SHEATH. This is usually a collection of gravel, or a soft, puttylike material which causes distinct swelling of the sheath and gives it a soft, doughy feeling when handled. It may be removed in part by the oiled fingers introduced into the cavity, assisted by manipulation from without, or a tube may be inserted until the end extends behind the collection and water pumped in until the whole mass has been evacuated. Should even this fail of success, the sheath may be slit open from its orifice back in the median line below until the offending matter can be reached and removed. In all such cases the interior of the sheath should be finally lubricated with sweet oil or vaseline. It is unnecessary to stitch up the wound made in the sheath. (See "Inflammation of the sheath," p. 155.) [Illustration: PLATE IX. KIDNEY AND MALE GENERATIVE AND URINARY ORGANS.] [Illustration: PLATE X. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEY.] * * * * * DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE IX. Kidney and male generative and urinary organs. Fig. 1. Kidney of the ox. (From Handbuch des Vergleichenden Anatomie des Haus Säugethiere, vol. 7, 1890.) A, renal artery carrying blood into the kidney; V, renal vein carrying blood from the kidney back to the heart; H, ureter, the tube carrying the urine from kidney to bladder. It is formed by the union of a number of branches which begin as cups (calices), each inclosing the tip of a conical mass of tissue from which the urine excludes. Fig. 2. Genital and urinary organs of the bull. (From Leisering, Mueller, and Ellenberger, Handbuch des Verg. Anat. des Haus Säugethiere.) the serous membrane enveloping the testicles; 3, the right testicle, outer view; 3', left testicle, inner view; 4, epididymis, or the beginning of the excretory canal of the testicle; 4', globus major, or the head of the epididymis; 4'', globus minor, or the tail of the epididymis; 5, vas deferens, the duct through which the seminal fluid reaches the ejaculatory ducts; 5', pelvic dilation of the vas deferens; 6, vesicula seminalis. The vesiculæ seminalis are two oval pouches, which, in addition to their own secretions, receive the semen conveyed by the seminal ducts and hold it in reserve until copulation; 7, membranous or intrapelvic portion of the urethral canal covered by Wilson's muscle; 8, part of the prostate gland, covered by Wilson's muscle; 9, Cowper's gland. This gland, like the prostate gland, secretes a fluid which is thrown into the urethal canal in abundance immediately before ejaculation; by this means the expulsion of the semen is facilitated; 10, ejaculator seminis, or accelerator urinæ muscle; 11, penis; 11', cut portion of same; 12, cut suspensory ligaments of penis; 13, sheath, or prepuce laid open; 14, retractor muscles of sheath; 15, cremaster muscle cut at superior extremity; 16, duplicature of peritoneum; 17, ureters carrying urine from the kidneys to the bladder. PLATE X. Microscopic anatomy of the kidney. Fig. 1. In this figure the minute apparatus for the secretion, collection, and discharge of the urine into the pelvis of the kidney (see preceding plate) is shown. The course is as follows: The urine is secreted from the blood vessels in the little round bodies called glomeruli (12), and by the minute cells in the curved tubes (11, 9, 10, 8), and passes through the convoluted and straight tubes (7, 6) into the larger tube (1), and then out into the pelvis, thence through the ureters into the bladder. The fluid and salts dissolved in the urine are taken from the blood, and the minute blood vessels are therefore very abundant in the kidneys, as is shown by the branches and network on the left of the figure. The blood passes into the kidney in the artery (13), which then divides into branches which pass into the glomeruli (12) and also forms network around the secreting tubules (11, 9). The urine and salts pass from these vessels through the cells lining the tubules into the latter, and are discharged as described above. The blood is again collected in veins drawn black in the figure. Fig. 2 illustrates the manner in which the blood is distributed in the glomerulus (_f_), and also to the secreting tubules (_e_). Fig. 3 shows the relation between the blood vessel in the glomerulus (_e_) the tubule which conducts the urine therein secreted from the blood vessel; (_c_) represents a glomerulus from which the urinary tubule has been removed. PLATE XI. Calculi of kidney and bladder. Fig. 1. Calculus, or stone, from the kidney. These are in the pelvis or portion of the ureter receiving the urine. The prolongations are casts of the branches of the pelvis. See the plates of the kidney for further description. Fig. 2. Calculus made up of oxalate of lime magnified 215 times. Fig. 3. Phosphatic calculus containing a nucleus of uric acid, sawed through to show concentric layers. Fig. 4. Straight forceps used in removing stones from the bladder. Fig. 5. Casts of the minute tubules of the kidney found in the urine in various kinds of kidney disease. Highly magnified. * * * * * [Illustration: Plate XI. CALCULI OF KIDNEY AND BLADDER.] FOOTNOTES: [1] Encyklop. der Thierheilk., Vol. IV, p. 208. DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., _Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University._ [Revised by Adolph Eichhorn, D. V. S.] GENERAL DISCUSSION. Diseases of the generative organs are practically confined to animals which are kept for reproduction and the dairy. The castration of the bull condemns these organs to inactivity and protects them from the many causes of injury attendant on the engorged blood vessels in the frequent periods of sexual excitement, on the exposure to mechanical violence, and on the exposure to infective inoculation. In three respects the castrated male is especially subject to disease: (1) To inflammation and tumefaction of the cut end of the cord that supported the testicle and of the loose connective tissue of the scrotum; (2) to inflammation of the sheath and penis from the accumulation of gravel in the former, from which the penis is not usually protruded in passing water; and (3) to bruising, abrasion, and inflammation of the sheath and penis during suspension in the stocks for the purpose of shoeing. Apart from these the ox is practically almost exempt from the inflammations and injuries of the genital organs. The same applies to the castrated heifer. Inflammation may occur in the broad ligament of the womb whence the ovary has been removed or infective inflammation in the abdominal cavity (peritonitis) in case the operation has been performed through the flank, as it usually is in the young heifer. Apart from these, the castrated heifer is practically immune from any trouble of the generative apparatus. Even the virgin heifer is little subject to such troubles, though she is not exempt from inflammations, and above all, from morbid growths in the ovaries which are well developed and functionally very active after the first year, or in precocious animals after the first few months of life. The breeding cow, on the other hand, is subjected to all the disturbances attendant on the gradual enlargement of the womb, the diversion of a large mass of blood to its walls, the constant drain of nutrient materials of all kinds for the nourishment of the fetus, the risks attendant and consequent on abortion and parturition, the dangers of infection from the bull, the risks of sympathetic disturbance in case of serious diseases of other organs, but preeminently of the urinary organs and the udder, and finally the sudden extreme derangements of the circulation and of the nervous functions which attend on the sudden revulsion of a great mass of blood from the walls of the contracting womb into the body at large immediately after calving. In reviewing this class of diseases, therefore, we have to note, first, that they are almost exclusively restricted to breeding animals, and secondly that in keeping with the absolute difference of the organs in the male and female we find two essentially distinct lists of diseases affecting the two sexes. EXCESS OF VENEREAL DESIRE (SATYRIASIS IN MALE, OR NYMPHOMANIA IN FEMALE). This may occur in the male from too frequent sexual intercourse, or from injury and congestion of the base of the brain (vasodilator center in the medulla), or of the posterior end of the spinal cord, or it may be kept up by congestion or inflammation of the testicles or of the mucous membrane covering the penis. It may be manifested by a constant or frequent erection, by attempts at sexual connection, and sometimes by the discharge of semen without connection. In bad cases the feverishness and restlessness lead to loss of flesh, emaciation, and physical weakness. It is, however, in the female especially that this morbid desire is most noticeable and injurious. It may be excited by the stimulating quality of the blood in cows fed to excess on highly nitrogenous feed, as the seeds of the bean, pea, vetch, and tare, and as wheat bran, middlings, cotton seed, gluten meal, etc., especially in the case of such as have no free exercise in the fields, and are subject to constant association with a vigorous young bull. A more frequent cause is the excitation or congestion of some part of the genital organs. Disease of the ovaries is preeminently the cause, and this may be by the formation of cysts (sacs containing liquid) or of solid tumors or degenerations, or, more commonly than all, the formation of tubercle. Indeed, in case of tuberculosis attacking the abdominal organs of cows, the ovaries or the serous membranes that support and cover them (the broad ligaments of the womb) are peculiarly subject to attack, and the animal has constant sexual excitement, incessantly riding or being ridden by other cattle, having no leisure to eat or chew the cud, but moving restlessly, wearing the flesh off its bones, and gradually wasting. In some localities these cows are known as "bullers," because they are nearly always disposed to take the bull, but they do not conceive, or, if they do, they are subject to early abortions. They are, therefore, useless alike for the dairy and for the feeder, unless the removal of the ovaries subdues the sexual excitement, when, in the absence of tuberculous disease elsewhere, they may be fattened for the butcher. Among the other sources of irritation charged with causing nymphomania are tumors and cancers of the womb, rigid closure of the neck of the womb so that conception can not occur and the frequent services by the male which stimulate the unsatisfied appetite, inflammation, and a purulent discharge from the womb or vagina. _Treatment._--The treatment in each case will vary with the cause and is most satisfactory when that cause is a removable one. Overfeeding on richly nitrogenous feed can be stopped, exercise in the open field given, diseased ovaries may be removed (see "Castration," p. 299), catarrhs of the womb and passages overcome by antiseptic, astringent injections (see "Leucorrhea," p. 224), and tumors of the womb may often be detached and extracted, the mouth of that organ having been first dilated by sponge tents or otherwise. The rubber dilator (impregnator), sometimes helpful in the mare, is rarely available for the cow, owing to the different condition of the mouth of the womb. DIMINUTION OR LOSS OF VENEREAL DESIRE (ANAPHRODISIA). This occurs in either sex from low condition and ill health. Longstanding, chronic diseases of important internal organs, leading to emaciation and weakness, or a prolonged semistarvation in winter may be sufficient cause. It is, however, much more common as the result of degeneration or extensive and destructive disease of the secreting organs (testicles, ovaries) which elaborate the male and female sexual products, respectively. Such diseases are, therefore, a common cause of sterility in both sexes. The old bull, fat and lazy, becomes sluggish and unreliable in serving, and finally gets to be useless for breeding purposes. This is not attributable to his weight and clumsiness alone, but largely to the fatty degeneration of his testicles and their excretory ducts, which prevents the due formation and maturation of the semen. If he has been kept in extra high condition for exhibition in the show ring, this disqualification comes upon him sooner and becomes more irremediable. Similarly the overfed, inactive cow, and above all the show cow, fails to come in heat at the usual times, shows little disposition to take the bull, and fails to conceive when served. Her trouble is the same in kind, namely, fatty degeneration of the ovaries and of their excretory ducts (Fallopian tubes), which prevents the formation or maturation of the ovum or, when it has formed, hinders its passage into the womb. Another common defect in such old, fat cows is a rigid closure of the mouth of the womb, which prevents conception, even if the ovum reaches the interior of that organ and even if the semen is discharged into the vagina. _Preventive._--The true preventive of such conditions is to be found in a sound hygiene. The breeding animal should be of adult age, neither overfed nor underfed, but well fed and moderately exercised; in other words, the most vigorous health should be sought, not only that a strong race may be propagated, but that the whole herd, or nearly so, may breed with certainty. Fleming gives 79 per cent as the general average of cows that are found to breed in one year. Here more than a fifth of the progeny is sacrificed and a fifth of the product of the dairy. With careful management the proportion of breeders should approach 100 per cent. The various local and general obstacles to conception should be carefully investigated and removed. The vigorous health which comes from a sufficiently liberal diet and abundant exercise should be solicited, and the comparative bloodlessness and weakness which advance with undue fattening should be sedulously avoided. In bull or cow which is becoming unduly fat and showing indications of sexual indifference, the treatment must be active. Turning out on a short pasture where it must work hard for a living will often suffice. The bull which can not be turned out to pasture may sometimes be utilized in the yoke or tread power, or he may be kept a part of his time in a field or paddock chained by the ring in his nose to a strong wire extending from one side of the lot to the other and attached securely to two trees or posts. The wire should be higher than the back of the bull, which will move frequently from end to end. If he is indisposed to take sufficient exercise in this way he may be safely driven. An instance of the value of the exercise in these incipient cases of fatty degeneration is often quoted. The cow Dodona, condemned as barren at Earl Spencer's, was sold cheap to Jonas Webb, who had her driven by a road a distance of 120 miles to his farm at Wilbraham, soon after which she became pregnant. In advanced cases, however, in which the fatty degeneration is complete, recovery is impossible. In case of rigid closure of the mouth of the womb the only resort is dilatation. This is far more difficult and uncertain in the cow than in the mare. The neck of the womb is longer, is often tortuous in its course, and its walls so approximated to each other and so rigid that it may be all but impossible to follow it, and there is always danger of perforating its walls and opening into the cavity of the abdomen, or, short of that, of causing inflammation and a new, rigid, fibrous formation which on healing leaves matters worse than before. The opening must be carefully made with the finger, and when that has entered the womb further dilatation may be effected by inserting a sponge tent or by careful stretching with a mechanical dilator. (Pl. XX, fig. 6.) STERILITY FROM OTHER CAUSES. The questions as to whether a bull is a sure stock getter and whether a cow is a breeder are so important that it would be wrong to pass over other prominent causes of sterility. Breeding at too early an age is a common source of increasing weakness of constitution which has existed in certain breeds. Jerseys have especially been made the victims of this mistake, the object being to establish the highest milking powers in the smallest obtainable body which will demand the least material and outlay for its constant repair of waste. With success in this line there has been the counterbalancing disadvantage of impaired vigor, with too often lessened fertility as well as increased predisposition to disease. When the heifers of the race have for generation after generation been bred under a year old, the demand for the nourishment of the fetus is too great a drain on the immature animal, which accordingly remains small and stunted. As it fails to develop in size, so every organ fails to be nourished to perfection. Similarly with the immature bull put to too many cows; he fails to develop his full size, vigor, or stamina, and transfers his acquired weakness to his progeny. An increasing number of barren females and an increasing proclivity to abortions are the necessary results of both courses. When this early breeding has occurred accidentally it is well to dry up the dam just after calving, and to avoid having her served again until full grown. Some highly fed and plethoric females seem to escape conception by the very intensity of the generative ardor. The frequent passage of urine, accompanied by contractions of the womb and vagina and a profuse secretion from their surfaces, leads to the expulsion of the semen after it has been lodged in the genital passages. This may be remedied somewhat by giving 1-1/2 pounds of Epsom salt a day or two before she comes in heat, and subjecting her at the same time to a spare diet. Should the excessive ardor of the cow not be controllable in this way, she may be shut up for a day or two, until the heat is passing off, when under the lessened excitement the semen is more likely to be retained. The various diseases of the ovaries, their tubes, the womb, the testicles and their excretory ducts, as referred to under "Excess of venereal desire," are causes of barrenness. In this connection it may be said that the discharges consequent on calving are fatal to the vitality of semen introduced before these have ceased to flow; hence service too soon after calving, or that of a cow which has had the womb or genital passages injured so as to keep up a mucopurulent flow until the animal comes in heat, is liable to fail of conception. Any such discharge should be first arrested by repeated injections as for leucorrhea, after which the male may be admitted. Feeding on a very saccharine diet, which greatly favors the deposition of fat, seems to have an even more direct effect in preventing conception during such regimen. Among other causes of barrenness are all those that favor abortion, ergoted grasses, smutty wheat or corn, laxative or diuretic drinking water, and any improper or musty feed that causes indigestions, colics, and diseases of the urinary organs, notably gravel; also savin, rue, cantharides, and all other irritants of the bowels or kidneys. Hermaphrodites are barren, of course, as their sexual organs are not distinctively either male or female. The heifer born as a twin with a bull is usually hermaphrodite and barren, but the animals of either sex in which development of the organs is arrested before they are fully matured remain as in the male or female prior to puberty, and are barren. Bulls with both testicles retained within the abdomen may go through the form of serving a cow, but the service is unfruitful; the spermatozoa are not fully elaborated. So I have examined a heifer with a properly formed but very small womb and an extremely narrow vagina and vulva, the walls of which were very muscular, that could never be made to conceive. A post-mortem examination would probably have disclosed an imperfectly formed ovary incapable of bringing ova to maturity. A bull and cow that have been too closely inbred in the same line for generations may prove sexually incompatible and unable to generate together, though both are abundantly prolific when coupled with animals of other strains. Finally, a bull may prove unable to get stock, not from any lack of sexual development, but from disease of other organs (back, loins, hind limbs), which renders him unable to mount with the energy requisite to the perfect service. CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES (ORCHITIS). This visually results from blows or other direct injuries, but may be the result of excessive service or of the formation of some new growth (tumor) in the gland tissue. The bull moves stiffly, with straddling gait, and the right or left half of the scrotum in which the affected testicle lies is swollen, red, and tender, and the gland is drawn up within the sac and dropped again at frequent intervals. It may be treated by rest; by 1-1/2 pounds Epsom salt given in 4 quarts of water; by a restricted diet of some succulent feed; by continued fomentations with warm water by means of sponges or rags sustained by a sling passed around the loins and back between the hind legs. The pain may be allayed by smearing with a solution of opium or of extract of belladonna. Should a soft point appear, indicating the formation of matter, it may be opened with a sharp lancet and the wound treated daily with a solution of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a half pint of water. Usually, however, when the inflammation has proceeded to this extent, the gland will be ruined for purposes of procreation and must be cut out. (See "Castration," p. 299.) INFLAMMATION OF THE SHEATH. While this may occur in bulls from infection during copulation and from bruises, blows, and other mechanical injuries, the condition is more common in the ox in connection with the comparative inactivity of the parts. The sheath has a very small external opening, the mucous membrane of which is studded with sebaceous glands secreting a thick, unctuous matter of a strong, heavy odor. Behind this orifice is a distinct pouch, in which this unctuous matter is liable to accumulate when the penis is habitually drawn back. Moreover, the sheath has two muscles (protractors) which lengthen it, passing into it from the region of the navel, and two (retractors) that shorten it, passing into it from the lower surface of the pelvic bones above. (Pl. IX, fig. 2.) The protractors keep the sheath stretched, so that it habitually covers the penis, while the retractors shorten it up in the act of service, so that the penis can project to its full extent. In stud bulls the frequent protrusion of the erect and enlarged penis and the retraction and dilation of the opening of the sheath serve to empty the pouch and prevent any accumulation of sebaceous matter or urine. In the ox, on the other hand, the undeveloped and inactive penis is usually drawn back so as to leave the anterior preputial pouch empty, so that the sebaceous matter has space to accumulate and is never expelled by the active retraction of the sheath and protrusion of the erect penis in service. Again, the ox rarely protrudes the tip of the penis in urination, the urine is discharged into the preputial pouch and lodges and decomposes there, so that there is a great liability to the precipitation of its earthy salts in the form of gravel. The decomposing ammoniacal urine, the gritty crystals precipitated from it, and the fetid, rancid, sebaceous matter set up inflammation in the delicate mucous membrane lining the passage. The membrane is thickened, reddened, rendered friable, and ultimately ulcerated, and the now narrowed sheath is blocked by the increasing mass of sebaceous and urinous material and the decomposing mucus and pus. The penis can no longer be protruded, the urine escapes in a small stream through the narrowing sheath, and finally the outlet is completely blocked and the urine distends the back part of the sheath. This will fluctuate on being handled, and soon the unhealthy inflammation extends on each side of it, causing a thick, doughy, tender swelling under the belly and between the thighs. The next step in the morbid course is overdistention of the bladder, with the occurrence of colicky pains, looking at the flanks, uneasy movements of the hind limbs, raising or twisting of the tail, pulsatory contractions of the urethra under the anus, and finally a false appearance of relief, which is caused by rupture of the bladder. Before rupture takes place the distended bladder may press on the rectum and obstruct the passage of the bowel dejections. Two mistakes are therefore probable--first, that the bowels alone are to be relieved, and, second, that the trouble is obstruction of the urethra by a stone. Hence the need of examining the sheath and pushing the finger into its opening to see that there is no obstruction there, in all cases of retention of urine, overdistended bladder, or blocked rectum in the ox. The disease may be acute or chronic--the first by reason of acute, adhesive inflammation blocking the outlet, the second by gradual thickening and ulceration of the sheath and blocking by the sebaceous and calculous accretion. _Treatment._--The treatment of this affection depends on the stage. If recent and without instant danger of rupture of the bladder, the narrow opening of the sheath should be freely cut open in the median line below, and the sac emptied out with a finger or spoon, after which it should be thoroughly washed with tepid water. To make the cleansing more thorough a catheter or a small, rubber tube may be inserted well back into the sheath, and water may be forced through it from a syringe or a funnel inserted into the other end of the tube and considerably elevated. A fountain syringe, which should be in every house, answers admirably. The sheath may be daily washed out with tepid water, with a suds made with Castile soap, or with a weak solution of sulphate of zinc (one-half dram to a quart of water). If these attentions are impossible, most cases, after cleansing, will do well if merely driven through clean water up to the belly once a day. In case the disease has progressed to absolute obstruction, with the bladder ready to rupture any moment, no time must be lost in opening into the urethra with a sharp knife over the bony arch under the anus, where the pulsations are seen in urinating. This incision is best made in the median line from above downward, but in the absence of a skillful operator a transverse incision with a sharp knife over the bone in the median line until the urine flows with a gush is better than to let the patient die. Considerable blood will be lost and the wound will heal tardily, but the ox will be preserved. Then the slitting and cleansing of the sheath can be done at leisure, as described above. If the bladder is ruptured, the case is hopeless. INFLAMMATION OF THE SHEATH AND PENIS FROM BRUISING. This also is an affection of work oxen, caused by the pressure and friction of the sling when the animals are held in stocks for shoeing. This crushing of both sheath and penis for half an hour or more leads to the development, some hours later, of a hard, hot, and painful swelling, extending from the scrotum as far as the opening of the sheath. Fever sets in, with dry muzzle, red eyes, hard, full, rapid pulse, accelerated breathing, and elevated temperature. The ox stands obstinately with his hind legs drawn apart and urine falling drop by drop from the sheath. Appetite and rumination are suspended. In twenty-four hours there may be indications of advancing gangrene (mortification), the swelling becomes cold, soft, and doughy; it may even crack slightly from the presence of gas; a reddish brown, fetid liquid oozes from the swelling, especially around the edges, and if the animal survives it is only with a great loss of substance of the sheath and penis. _Prevention._--The prevention of such an injury is easy. It is only necessary to see that the slings do not press upon the posterior part of the abdomen. They must be kept in front of the sheath. _Treatment._--Treatment, to be effective, must be prompt and judicious. Put around the patient a strap with soft pads in contact with the affected parts, constantly soaked in cold water for at least 24 hours. A pound or two of Epsom salt in 4 quarts of hot water should also be given. The second day the parts may be washed with 1 quart of witch-hazel (extract), 2 drams sugar of lead, and 1 ounce laudanum, or the cold-water irrigations may be continued if the active inflammation persists. In case the swelling continues hard and resistant, it may be pricked at the most prominent points to the depth of one-third of an inch with a lancet first dipped in dilute carbolic acid, and the whole surface should be washed frequently with some antiseptic solution. When softening occurs in the center of a hard mass and fluctuation can be felt between two fingers pressed on different parts of such softening, it should be freely opened to let out the putrid pus, and the cavity should be syringed often with antiseptic solution. In bad cases extensive sloughs of dead skin, of the whole wall of the sheath, and even of the penis, may take place, which will require careful antiseptic treatment. The soaking of the urine into the inflamed and softened tissue and the setting up of putrefactive action not only endanger great destruction of the tissues from putrid inflammation, but even threaten life itself from a general blood poisoning (septicemia). Every case should have skillful treatment to meet its various phases, but in the severe ones this is most urgently demanded. INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA. Like other males, the bull sometimes suffers from inflammation of the canal which conveys the urine through the penis, and a whitish mucopurulent discharge forms in consequence. It may have originated in gravel, the excitement of too frequent service, infection from a cow with leucorrhea, or from extension of inflammation from the sheath. Besides the oozing of the whitish liquid from the end of the penis and sheath, there is tenderness and pain when handled, and while there is no actual arrest of the urine, its flow is subject to frequent voluntary checks, as the scalding liquid irritates the tender surface. _Treatment._--If recognized before the discharge sets in, a dose of 1-1/2 pounds of Epsom salt and local, warm fomentations would be appropriate. After the onset of the whitish discharge a daily injection of a solution of 20 grains of permanganate of potassium in a pint of water into the penis will be beneficial. WARTS AND PAPILLARY GROWTHS ON THE PENIS. These are not frequent in bull or ox. They may interfere with the protrusion of the organ from its sheath or with service, and always give rise to a bad-smelling discharge. _Treatment._--They may be twisted off with a pair of small tweezers or cut off with a pair of scissors, and the seat burned with a pencil of lunar caustic. To get hold of the penis in the bull, bring him up to a cow. In the ox it will be necessary to push it out by manipulation through the sheath. In difficult cases the narrow opening of the sheath may be slit open. WOUNDS OF THE PENIS. The most common wounds are those sustained by blows of horns, sticks, etc. The blood vessels and sacs are ruptured to a greater or less extent and considerable swellings filled with coagulated blood and inflammatory products occur, leading to distortion of the organ, and it may be to the impossibility of protruding it. _Treatment._--A lotion of a dram of alum in a quart of water may be applied (injected into the sheath, if necessary), and a large sponge constantly irrigated by a stream of cold water may be kept applied by means of a surcingle to the outer side of the sheath. Incisions are rarely applicable to an organ of this kind, but in case of the existence of an extensive clot which is unlikely to be absorbed the lancet may be resorted to. If the injury leads to paralysis of the penis and hanging out of its sheath, it should be supported in a sling and astringents used freely until inflammation subsides. Then the restoration of power may be sought by a blister between the thighs, by the use of electricity, or by the careful use of nerve stimulants, such as strychnin, 1 grain twice daily. ULCERS ON THE PENIS. Sores on the penis of the bull may result from gravel or sebaceous masses in the sheath or from having served a cow having leucorrhea. _Treatment._--These may be treated by frequent injections into the sheath of a lotion made with 1 dram sugar of lead, 60 drops carbolic acid, and 1 quart water. POLYPUS OF THE VAGINA OR UTERUS. A polypus is a tumor growing from the mucous membrane, and often connected to it by a narrow neck. A definite cause can not always be assigned. If growing in the vagina, a polypus may project as a reddish, rounded tumor from the vulva, especially during the act of passing water. It can be distinguished from descent of the womb by the absence of the orifice of that cavity, which can be felt by the oiled hand beyond the tumor in the depth of the vagina. From a vaginal hernia caused by the protrusion of some abdominal organ enveloped by the relaxed wall of the vagina it may be distinguished by its persistence, its firm substance, and the impossibility of returning it into the abdomen by pressure. A hernia containing a portion of bowel gurgles when handled and can be completely effaced by pressure, the gut passing into the abdomen. A polypus in the womb is less easily recognized. At the time of calving it may be felt through the open mouth of the womb and recognized by the educated touch (it must be carefully distinguished from the mushroom-formed cotyledons (Pl. XIII, fig. 2), to which in ruminants the fetal membranes are attached). At other times, unless the womb is opened in the effort to expel it, the polypus can be detected only by examining the womb with the oiled hand introduced through the rectum. Polypi may cause a mucopurulent discharge or they may only be suspected when they prove an obstacle to parturition. The best way to remove them is to put the chain of an écraseur around the neck, or pedicle, of the tumor and tear it through; or the narrow neck may be torn through by the emasculator, or in an emergency it may be twisted through by rotating the tumor on its axis. The removal of the tumor will allow calving to proceed; after this the sore may be treated by a daily injection of one-half dram sulphate of zinc, 1 dram carbolic acid, and 1 quart milk-warm water. SIGNS OF PREGNANCY. If a cow remains for three or four weeks after service without showing signs of heat (bulling), she is probably pregnant. There are very exceptional cases in which the well-fed cow will accept the bull weeks or months after actual conception, and others equally exceptional in which the well-thriven but unimpregnated female will refuse the male persistently, but these in no way invalidate the general rule. The bull, no matter how vigorous or how ardent his sexual instinct, can not be made to pay any attention to a cow which is not in heat; hence indications of pregnancy can be had from both the male and female side. When she has conceived, the cow usually becomes more quiet and docile, and lays on flesh and fat more rapidly, especially during the first four months of gestation. The stimulus to digestion and nutrition created by the demands of the growing fetus, added to the quieter and more uneventful life, contributes to this result. Some feeders avail themselves of this disposition to prepare heifers and cows speedily for the butcher. The enlargement of the abdomen, and its dropping so that it bulges below and to each side, while it falls in at the flank, between the outer angle of the hip bone and the last rib, are significant features which, though they may be caused by abdominal tumor or dropsy, are usually marks of pregnancy. From the same increasing weight of the abdomen the spine in the region of the loins sinks so that the bones of the croup seem to rise, especially back toward the root of the tail. In the early stages of pregnancy the udder develops slowly, and toward its completion quite rapidly. For a long time there is merely a sense of greater fullness when handled; the wrinkles in the skin become shallower and are effaced, and the teats are materially enlarged. Beginning a few weeks after conception, this tends to a steady development, though slight alternations in the sense of successive growth and shrinkage are not uncommon. In milking cows this does not hold, as the milk usually tends to a steady diminution and the udder shrinks slowly until near the completion of the period, when it undergoes its sudden, remarkable development, and yields at first a serous liquid and then the yellow colostrum, which coagulates when heated. As pregnancy advances the mucous membrane lining the vulva becomes swollen and of a darker, bluish-red hue; the mucous secretion also increases, becoming very abundant just before calving. When the feeding has not been altered or restricted, a steady diminution of the salts of lime excreted in the urine is an attendant on pregnancy, the lime being demanded for the growing body of the fetus. After the fifth month the movements of the calf may often be observed in the right flank, nearly in front of the stifle, when the cow is drinking cold water. The sensation of cold on the side of the first stomach, which lies to the left and directly below the womb (Pl. I), stimulates the calf to active movements, which are detected on the sudden jerking outward of the abdominal wall as if from blows delivered from within. In a loose, pendent abdomen in the latter months of gestation the skin may often be seen pushed out at a sharp angle, irrespective of the period of drinking. Another mode of examination through the flank is by touch. The palm of the hand is pressed strongly inward, about 8 inches in front of the stifle and a little below, several times in succession, and is then brought to rest with the pressure maintained. Presently there are felt distinct and characteristic movements of the fetus, which has been disturbed and roused to action. Another mode is to press the closed fist strongly inward in the same situation and hold it so, forming a deep indentation in the abdominal wall. Presently the knuckles are felt to be struck by a solid body, which is no other than the fetus that has been displaced to the left by the push of the hand, and now floats back in its liquid covering (amniotic fluid; see Pl. XII) downward and to the right. Of all the modes of examination by touch, that done through the rectum gives the earliest satisfactory indications. The hand and arm, well oiled, are introduced, and the excrement having been removed if necessary, the palm of the hand is turned downward and the floor of the pelvis carefully examined. There will be felt in the median line the pear-shaped outline of the bladder, more or less full, rounded or tense, according to the quantity of urine it contains. Between this and the hand will be felt a soft, somewhat rounded tubular body, which divides in front into two smaller tubes or branches, extending to the right and left into the abdomen. This is the womb, which in its virgin, or unimpregnated, condition is of nearly uniform size from before backward, the main part or body being from 1-1/2 to 2 inches across, and the two anterior branches or horns being individually little over an inch wide. Immediately after conception the body and one of the horns begin to enlarge, the vacant horn remaining disproportionately small, and the enlargement will be most marked at one point, where a solid, rounded mass indicates the presence of the growing embryo. In case of twins, both horns are enlarged. At a more advanced stage, when the embryo begins to assume the form of the future animal, the rounded form gives place to a more or less irregular nodular mass, while later still the head, limbs, and body of the fetus may be distinctly made out. The chief source of fallacy is found in the very pendent abdomen of certain cows, into which in advanced gestation the fetus has dropped so low that it can not be felt by the hand in the rectum. The absence of the distinct outline of the vacant womb, however, and the clear indications obtained on external examination through the right flank will serve to prevent any mistake. The fetus may still be felt through the rectum if the abdomen is raised by a sheet passed from side to side beneath it. Still another sign is the beating of the fetal heart, which may be heard in the latter half of pregnancy when the ear is pressed on the flank in front of the right stifle or from that downward to the udder. The beats, which are best heard in the absence of rumbling, are about 120 a minute and easily distinguished from any bowel sounds by their perfect regularity. DURATION OF PREGNANCY. From extended statistics it is found that the average duration of pregnancy in the cow is 285 days. A calf born at the two hundred and fortieth day may live, and Dietrichs reported a case of a calf born on the three hundred and thirty-fifth day, and another was reported by the American Journal of Medical Science as having been born on the three hundred and thirty-sixth day. It is the general observation that in most cases of prolonged pregnancies the offspring are males. Lord Spencer found a preponderance of males between the two hundred and ninetieth and the three hundredth days, but strangely enough all born after the three hundredth day under his observation were females. It may be reasonably inferred that while the prevailing tendency is to carry the males overtime, yet that the smaller and comparatively much less developed female sometimes fails to stimulate the womb to contraction until very far beyond the regular date. HYGIENE OF THE PREGNANT COW. Among domestic animals considerations of hygiene must be made subservient to profit, and therefore the first consideration is not to obtain the most robust health, but such a measure of vigor and stamina as is compatible with the most profitable utilization of the animal. The breeding cow must carry a calf every year, and this notwithstanding that she is at the same time suckling another large, growing calf. The dairy cow must breed every year, and at the same time must furnish a generous flow of milk from nine to eleven months yearly. If her health is lowered thereby or her life shortened, the question of profit must still hold sway, and, when disqualified, she must yield her place to another. There are exceptions, of course, but this rule generally holds. There are certain points, however, in which the interests of hygiene may be considered. The pregnant cow should have exercise, and as regards both exercise and feed, nothing is better than a run on a smooth pasture. She should be withheld from all violent excitement, hunting with dogs, riding or being ridden by cows in heat, driving in herd rapidly through narrow gateways, causing to jump ditches or fences, subjecting to blows with the horns of pugnacious cattle, driving on icy or otherwise slippery ground, carrying in railroad cars, kicking by vicious attendants, and fastening or throwing down for operations. The diet should be good, not of a kind to fatten, but with a generous quantity of nitrogenous constituents which will favor both the yield of milk and the nourishment of the fetus. Aliments like wheat bran, middlings, etc., which are rich in lime and phosphates, can be used to advantage, as there is a constant drain of earthy salts for the building of the body of the calf, and thereby the danger of undue concentration of the urine is lessened. Hard, innutritious, and indigestible aliments, musty grain or hay, partially ripened rye grass, millet, Hungarian grass, vetches, peas, or maize are objectionable, as they are liable to cause indigestion or even paralysis; and corn or hay affected by smut or ergot, or that has been spoiled by wet, overripened, and rendered fibrous and innutritious, is equally objectionable. In the main the feed should be laxative, as costiveness and straining are liable to cause abortion. Roots and green feed that have been frosted are objectionable, as being liable to cause indigestion, though in their fresh condition most wholesome and desirable. Ice-cold water should be avoided, as calculated to check the flow of milk, to derange digestion, and to cause abortion. A good temperature for the drink of the dairy cow is 55° F. In the case of plethoric and heavy-milking cows of mature age and in the prime of life, the hitherto liberal diet must be changed at the last week for the scantiest possible fare, and the bowels must be kept open by laxatives, if need be, if the owner would avoid milk fever. Her stall should not incline downward from shoulder to croup, lest the pressure of the abdominal organs should produce protrusion or abortion. She should be kept aloof from all causes of acute diseases, and all existing diseases should be remedied speedily and with as little excitement of the abdominal organs as possible. Strong purgatives and diuretics are to be especially avoided, unless it is in the very last days of gestation in very plethoric cows. PROTRUSION OF THE VAGINA (PROLAPSUS VAGINÆ). During pregnancy this is common from chronic relaxation of the vaginal walls and from lying in stalls that are lower behind than in front. The protrusion is of a rounded form and smooth, and if it embraces both sides of the canal it is double, with a passage between. It may sometimes be remedied by raising the hind part of the stall higher than the front part. This failing, a truss may be applied as for eversion of the womb, and worn until the period of calving approaches. (Pls. XXII, XXIII.) HERNIA (BREACH) OF THE UTERUS. In advanced pregnancy this occurs usually from a gradual relaxation and distention of the lower wall of the abdomen in the region of the udder, so that the latter is displaced downward, and in the sac above and in front of it may be felt the form and movements of the fetus. In other cases the womb escapes through a great laceration of the abdominal muscles to one side of the udder, and the hernial mass extends down to one side of that organ. However unsightly, this often allows the animal to complete its pregnancy naturally, and a broad, supporting bandage placed around the abdomen is about all that can be recommended. After calving it is best to fatten the cow. CRAMPS OF THE HIND LIMBS. The compression of the nerves by the womb and fetus passing through the pelvis sometimes causes cramp and inability to move the limb, but it disappears under friction and motion and is never seen after calving. DROPSY OF THE HIND LIMBS AND BETWEEN THE THIGHS. In the latter months of pregnancy the hind legs may swell beneath the hocks, or a soft swelling which pits on pressure with the finger appears from the vulva down between the thighs to the udder and in front. It is mainly ascribable to the pressure of the enlarged womb on the blood vessels, is not dangerous, and disappears after calving. DROPSY OF THE MEMBRANES OF THE FETUS (DROPSY OF THE WOMB). The unimpregnated womb may be filled with a dropsical fluid, but the pregnant womb is more liable to become overdistended by an excess of fluid in the inner water bag in which the fetus floats. (Pl. XII.) From an unhealthy state of this membrane or of blood of the fetus (water blood) this liquid may go on accumulating until the cow seems almost as broad as she is long. If the trouble has not originated in the ill health of the cow, the result is still to draw on her system, overtax her strength, and derange her digestion, so that the result may prove fatal to both mother and offspring. On the other hand, I have known extreme cases that came to the natural term without help and produced a living calf, after which the dam did well. The natural resort is to draw off a portion of the fluid through a hollow needle passed through the neck of the womb or through its tense wall adjacent. This may be repeated several times, as demanded, to relieve the cow from the injurious distention. PARALYSIS OF THE HIND PARTS. In ill-fed, weak, unthrifty cows palsy of the hind limbs and tail may appear in the last weeks of pregnancy. The anus and rectum may participate in the palsy so far as to prevent defecation, and the rectum is more or less completely impacted. Exposure to wet and cold are often accessory causes, though the low condition, general weakness, and the pressure on the nerves going to the hind limbs are not to be forgotten. Something may be done for these cases by a warm, dry bed, an abundant diet fed warm, frictions with straw wisps or with a liniment of equal parts of oil of turpentine and sweet oil on the loins, croup, and limbs, by the daily use of ginger and gentian, by the cautious administration of strychnia (1 grain twice daily), and by sending a current of electricity daily from the loins through the various groups of muscles in the hind limbs. The case becomes increasingly hopeful after calving, though some days may still elapse before the animal can support herself upon her limbs. EXTRAUTERINE GESTATION (FETUS DEVELOPING OUTSIDE THE WOMB). These curious cases are rare and are usually divided into three types: (1) That in which the fetus is formed in or on the ovary (ovarian gestation); (2) that in which it is lodged in the Fallopian tube, or canal between the ovary and womb (tubal gestation); and (3) that in which it is lodged in the abdominal cavity and attached to one or more of its contents from which it draws its nourishment (abdominal gestation). Undoubted cases of the first and last varieties are recorded as occurring in the cow. The explanation of such cases is to be found in the fact that the actively moving sperm cells (spermatozoa) thrown into the womb have made their way through the Fallopian tubes to the ovary. If they met and impregnated an ovum in the tube, and if the consequent growth of that ovum prevented its descent and caused its imprisonment within the tube, it developed there, getting attached to and drawing nourishment from the mucous walls. Such product has its development arrested by compression by the undilatable tube, or, bursting through the walls of the tube, it escapes into the abdomen and perishes. If, on the contrary, the spermatozoa only meet and impregnate the ovum on or in the ovary, the development may take place in the substance of the ovary, from which the fetus draws its nourishment, or the impregnated ovum, escaping between the ovary and the open end of the tube, falls into the abdominal cavity and becomes adherent to and draws nourishment from some of the abdominal organs (womb, bowel, liver, stomach, etc.). _Symptoms._--The symptoms are those of pregnancy, which may be suddenly complicated by inflammation (peritonitis), owing to rupture of the sac containing the fetus; or at full term signs of calving appear, but no progress is made; an examination with the oiled hand in the vagina or rectum finds the womb empty and its mouth closed. Further examination will disclose the fetal sac attached in some part of the abdominal cavity and containing the more or less perfectly developed body of a calf. In the most hopeful cases the fetus perishes at an early stage of gestation, becomes inclosed in a fibrous sac, and is slowly absorbed, its soft parts becoming liquefied and removed and the bones remaining encysted. In some cases the bones have finally sloughed into the rectum or through an artificial opening in the side of the belly. _Treatment._--Little can be done in such cases except to quiet pain and excitement by anodynes (opium, chloral, etc.) and leave the rest to nature. A fistula discharging bones may be dilated and the bones extracted, the sac being then washed out with a solution of 10 grains bichlorid of mercury in a quart of water. In certain cases with a live calf a skillful operator may be justified in cutting into the abdomen and extracting the calf with its membranes, using the lotion just named as an antiseptic. PROLONGED RETENTION OF THE FETUS. Even when the fetus has developed within the womb it may fail to be delivered at the proper time; labor pains have quickly subsided and the cow resumed her usual health. In such cases the calf dies, and its soft parts are gradually liquefied and absorbed, while its bones remain for years in the womb inclosed in the remains of the fetal membranes. These may be expelled at any time through the natural channels, or they may remain indefinitely in the womb, not interfering with the general health, but preventing conception. If the true condition of things is recognized at the time of the subsidence of the labor pains, the mouth of the womb may be dilated by the fingers, by the insertion of sponge tents, or by a mechanical dilator (Pl. XX, fig. 6), the fetal membranes may be ruptured and the calf extracted. After the removal of the calf and its membranes the danger of putrid poisoning may be obviated by injecting the antiseptic solution advised in the paragraph above. ABORTION (SLINKING THE CALF). Technically, abortion is the term used for the expulsion of the offspring before it can live out of the womb. Its expulsion before the normal time, but after it is capable of an independent existence, is premature parturition. In the cow this may be after seven and one-half months of pregnancy. Earl Spencer failed to raise any calf born before the two hundred and forty-second day. Dairymen use the term abortion for the expulsion of the product of conception at any time before the completion of the full period of a normal pregnancy, and in this sense it will be used in this article. Abortion in cows is either contagious or noncontagious. It does not follow that the contagium is the sole cause in every case in which it is present. We know that the organized germs (microbes) of contagion vary much in potency at different times, and that the animal system also varies in susceptibility to their attack. The germ may therefore be present in a herd without any manifest injury, its disease-producing power having for the time abated considerably, or the whole herd being in a condition of comparative insusceptibility. At other times the same germ may have become so virulent that almost all pregnant cows succumb to its force, or the herd may have been subjected to other causes of abortion which, though of themselves powerless to actually cause abortion, may yet so predispose the animals that even the weaker germ will operate with destructive effect. In dealing with this disease, therefore, it is the part of wisdom not to rest satisfied with the discovery and removal of one specific cause, but rather to try to find every existent cause and to obtain a remedy by correcting all the harmful conditions. NONCONTAGIOUS ABORTION. As abortion most frequently occurs at those three-week intervals at which the cow would have been in heat if nonpregnant, we may assume a predisposition at such times owing to a periodicity in the nervous system and functions. Poor condition, weakness, and a too watery state of the blood is often a predisposing cause. This in its turn may result from poor or insufficient feed, from the excessive drain upon the udder while bearing the calf, from the use of feed deficient in certain essential elements, like the nitrogenous constituents or albuminoids, from chronic, wasting diseases, from roundworms or tapeworms in the bowels, from flat-worms (flukes, trematodes) in the liver, from worms in the lungs, from dark, damp, unhealthful buildings, etc. In some such cases the nourishment is so deficient that the fetus dies in the womb and is expelled in consequence. Excessive loss of blood, attended as it usually is with shock, becomes a direct cause of abortion. Acute inflammations of important organs are notorious causes of abortion, and in most contagious fevers (lung plague, rinderpest, foot-and-mouth disease) it is a common result. Affections of the chest which prevent due aeration of the blood induce contractions of the womb, as shown experimentally by Brown-Sequard. Pregnant women suffocated in smoke aborted in many cases. (Retoul.) Ergoted grasses have long been known as a cause of widespread abortion in cows. The ergot is familiar as the dark purple or black, hard, spurlike growths which protrude from the seeds of the grasses at the period of their ripening. (Pl. V.) It is especially common, in damp localities and cloudy seasons on meadows shaded by trees and protected against the free sweep of the winds. The same is to a large extent true of smut; hence, wet years have been often remarkable for the great prevalence of abortions. Abortions have greatly increased in New Zealand among cows since the introduction of rye grass, which is specially subject to ergot. As abortion is more prevalent in old dairying districts, the ergot may not be the sole cause in this instance. The riding of one another by cows is attended by such severe muscular exertion, jars, jolts, mental excitement, and gravitation of the womb and abdominal organs backward that it may easily cause abortion in a predisposed animal. Keeping in stalls that slope too much behind (more than 2 inches) acts in the same way, the compression from lying and the gravitation backward proving more than a predisposed cow can safely bear. Deep gutters behind the stalls, into which one or both hind limbs slip unexpectedly, strain the loins and jar the body and womb most injuriously. Slippery stalls in which the flooring boards are laid longitudinally in place of transversely, and on which there is no device to give a firm foothold, are almost equally dangerous. Driving on icy ground, or through a narrow doorway where the abdomen is liable to be jammed, are other common causes. Aborting cows often fail to expel the afterbirth, and if this remains hanging in a putrid condition it is most injurious to pregnant cows in the near vicinity. So with retained afterbirth in other cows after calving. That some cows kept in filthy stables or with slaughterhouses near by may become inured to the odors and escape the evil results is no disproof of the injurious effects so often seen in such cases. The excitement, jarring, and jolting of a railroad journey often cause abortion, especially as the cow nears the period of calving, and the terror or injury of railway or other accidents proves incomparably worse. All irritant poisons cause abortions by the disorder and inflammation of the digestive organs, and if such agents act also on the kidneys or womb, the effect is materially enhanced. Powerful purgatives or diuretics should never be administered to the pregnant cow. Among other causes of abortion must be named the death or the various illnesses of the fetus, which are about as numerous as those of the adult; the slipping of a young fetus through a loop in the navel string so as to tie a knot which will tighten later and interrupt the flow of blood with fatal effect, and the twisting of the navel string by the turning of the fetus until little or no blood can flow through the contorted cord. There is in addition a series of diseases of the mucous membrane of the womb, and of the fetal membranes (inflammation, effusion of blood, detachment of the membranes from the womb, fatty or other degenerations, etc.), which interfere with the supply of blood to the fetus or change its quality so that death is the natural result, followed by abortion. _Treatment._--Although the first symptoms of abortion have appeared, it does not follow that it will go on to completion. So long as the fetus has not perished, if the waters have not been discharged, nor the water bags presented, attempts should be made to check its progress. Every appreciable and removable cause should be done away with, the cow should be placed in a quiet stall alone, and agents given to check the excitement of the labor pains. Laudanum in doses of 1 ounce for a small cow or 2 ounces for a large one should be promptly administered, and repeated in three or four hours should the labor pains recur. This may be kept up for days or even weeks if necessary, though that is rarely required, as the trouble either subsides or abortion occurs. If the laudanum seems to lack permanency of action, use bromid of potassium, or, better, extract of _Viburnum prunifolium_ (black haw), 40 grains, at intervals of two or three hours until five or six doses have been given. CONTAGIOUS ABORTION. Contagious abortion (also known as epizootic abortion, enzootic abortion, and slinking of calves) is a disease affecting chiefly cattle and to a lesser degree other domestic animals, and characterized by an inflammatory condition of the female reproductive organs, which results in the expulsion of the immature young. _History._--This disease has been known in England and continental Europe for many years, and descriptions of it are mentioned in the writings of Mascal, Lafoose, Skellet, Lawrence, St. Cyr, Zündel, and Youatt. In the early part of the eighteenth century British veterinarians recognized its contagiousness, but it remained for Franck (1876), Lehnert (1878), and Bräuer (1880) to produce the disease in healthy, pregnant cows by the introduction of exudate and material from aborting animals. Nocard (1888) isolated from the exudate between the mucous membrane of the uterus and fetal membranes a micrococcus and a short bacillus which were found continually in contagious abortion, but he failed to reproduce the disease by inoculations of pure cultures of these organisms into healthy, pregnant animals. In 1897 Bang, assisted by Stribolt, published their findings regarding infectious abortion of cattle, in which they incriminated Bang's bacillus of abortion as the causative agent. With pure cultures of this bacillus they were able to produce the disease artificially and to recover the same organism from the experimental cases. Since that time many noted investigators, both in this country and in Europe, have confirmed these findings. _Cause._--The _Bacterium abortus_ of Bang is now generally recognized as the causative agent of the disease of cattle. Formerly it was thought that abortion was due to injury, such as blows, horn thrusts, falls, etc., or the eating of spoiled feed and certain plants, and while this may be true in a limited number of cases, careful investigations have demonstrated these claims to be largely unfounded. It is now generally recognized that when abortion occurs in herds from time to time, it is safe to assume that the disorder is of an infectious nature and should be so treated. _Natural mode of infection._--This phase of the disease is of greatest importance for a clear understanding of the methods of prevention. Many investigators have demonstrated that the infection is transmitted through the digestive tract, through contaminated feed and water. The germs are taken up by the body from the intestines with the liquid nourishment, reach the blood, and are carried to the genital organs, where they find conditions best suited to their development. Some assert that calves are infected in this manner by suckling infected mothers, the germs being present in the milk, or the teats having been contaminated by coming in contact with infective discharges. It is claimed that infection contracted in this manner remains dormant in the body of the calf until pregnancy begins, and then the organism, finding conditions suitable for its development, produces the disease. Abortion may occasionally be transmitted from cow to cow by direct contact. The discharges from diseased cows, swarming with the germs, soil the external genitals, tail, and hind quarters, and then a susceptible animal, by contact, gets the infective material upon the vulva, the infection traveling up the genital canal and directly infecting the uterus. The belief long entertained that the female acquires the disease at the time of copulation as a result of transference of the infection from affected to healthy females on the genital organs of the bull has failed to receive the support of experimental evidence. The view that the disease is spread to any great degree in this way has been largely discredited. Cows of all ages are more or less susceptible, but young ones in first or second pregnancy most frequently abort. A second abortion is not unusual, and a third may occasionally occur, after which the cow usually becomes immune and thereafter carries her calf to maturity. Heifers from aborting mothers sometimes seem to be less susceptible than others. _Symptoms._--Contagious abortion is a very insidious disease, developing very slowly through several months of the gestation period, and resulting finally in the expulsion of the immature young, this act being simply an indication of the presence of the disease and not the disease itself. Because of this slow development and the fact that the health of the animal is not noticeably influenced, the presence of the disease may not be suspected until it has gained a firm foothold in the herd. The symptoms of approaching abortion are those preceding normal calving. In addition, there may be observed, a few days previous to abortion, a sticky, sometimes purulent, rusty, and odorless discharge. Abortion occurs most frequently from the third to the seventh month, according to the number of abortions, occurring early in first abortion, and later in each succeeding abortion until the calf is carried to full term and the mother has become immune. It happens frequently that calves are carried almost to full term, and are born alive, but are sickly, and soon die. Following abortion there is a dirty, yellowish-gray mucopurulent discharge which persists for two or more weeks. If abortion occurs early, the fetus is passed surrounded by its membranes, but if late in the period of pregnancy, the membranes are retained, decomposition sets in and blood poisoning, which may cause the death of the animal, or sterility may result. _Lesions._--The most characteristic change is found in the uterus where a dark-brown fluid, purulent or even gluey in consistency, and containing grayish-white flakes separates the material membranes from those of the fetus, preventing that intimate contact between the two which is so necessary for the interchange of fluids and gases by which the fetus is nourished and by which it obtains its oxygen. These being cut off, the fetus must of course die. The germs producing the disease are found in greatest numbers at this point. In addition there may be inflammatory changes, first in the walls of the uterus and then in the tissues of the fetus. These inflammatory changes seem most intense in the cotyledons and result in the destruction of the minute structure of those bodies, and they appear swollen, pale, and soft. The membrane of the uterus between the cotyledons also may show inflamed and necrotic patches. _Complications._--Serious results sometimes follow abortion, and this is particularly the case when there is retained afterbirth. The retained membranes decompose, the poisonous products of decomposition and the organisms of decomposition themselves are absorbed, blood poisoning results, and the animal dies. Sometimes, when the animal is able to resist the effects of this decomposition, the uterus becomes the seat of such severe changes that sterility results. The walls of that organ become thickened and hard, the lining membranes become eroded, and conception can not take place. At other times the ovaries, where the reproductive cells originate, become affected and lose their function. Abortion does not invariably follow infection, but the calf is carried to full term. In these cases, however, retained afterbirth is a common occurrence, even to the extent that frequent retention of afterbirth in a herd may be taken as an indication of the presence of the disease. Very often suppurative processes persist for a long time, preventing conception, or sterility may result without apparent cause. A sterile cow is valueless, of course, for any purpose except for beef. Such animals are a source of infection for the others and should not be allowed to remain in the herd. _Diagnosis._--The diagnosis of infectious abortion is made from the changes occurring in the fetal membranes and in the expelled fetus. This, however, is substantiated with certainty only by microscopic demonstration of the germ of abortion. The fact that repeated abortions are observed in a herd is also evidence of the presence of the disease. In consideration, however, of the fact that animals may be affected with the disease and disseminate the germs, even though they carry the fetus to full time, a diagnosis in such instances is only possible by laboratory methods. For this purpose the agglutination and also the complement-fixation tests are being used with splendid results, and by the aid of these biological tests it is possible to determine all infected animals in a herd. The tests are carried out with the serum from animals to be examined, only a teaspoonful of serum being necessary for the execution of both of these tests. It, however, has to be confined to laboratories which are properly equipped for such work. _Treatment and prevention._--It may be said in general that treatment is without avail and all efforts should be directed toward prevention. Various medicinal agents, such as carbolic acid administered subcutaneously and methylene blue fed in large quantities, have been recommended, but have failed to stand the tests of scientific investigation and practical use. Serums and vaccines have also been prepared and sold as cures and preventives, but the work is still considered in the experimental stage. Bacterial vaccines are at present extensively used in the control of this disease, and while numerous reports indicate beneficial results from their administration, in other instances total failures have been recorded. It appears that the experiments in this line have not progressed sufficiently to justify definite conclusions. The spread of the disease can be controlled to a great degree by the practice of sanitary measures directed toward the disinfection of premises and the isolation of animals at time of calving and aborting. For methods of disinfection of premises see page 363. Make frequent observations of the animals of affected herds for symptoms of aborting, such as swelling of vulva or udder enlargement, and upon the discovery of an animal showing these symptoms place her immediately in a stall which is somewhat remote from healthy stock as a means of confining the products of abortion as much as possible should the act occur. If an animal aborts unexpectedly she should be removed to separate quarters and given proper attention as promptly as possible. The fetus, afterbirth, provided it has been expelled, and all litter that has been contaminated with them and uterine discharges should be gathered up and destroyed either by burning or burying. Clean and thoroughly disinfect the floor, gutters, and manger in the vicinity of the aborting animal. Daily irrigations of the uterus with nonirritating antiseptic solutions, such as 0.5 per cent solution of cresol or compound solution of cresol, at body temperature have a tendency to prevent the multiplication of microorganisms in the uterus and in this way promote recovery. Douching of the uterus should be continued until the discharge ceases. In addition, the external genitals, root of the tail, escutcheon, etc., should be sponged daily with the antiseptic solution. Aim to place all pregnant animals in disinfected individual pens or stalls a few days before they are expected to calve, and confine them to these quarters for three or four weeks following the delivery of the calf, or as long thereafter as uterine discharges are observed. Avoid carrying infection from the maternity stalls to other portions of stable, on shoes or otherwise. This may be prevented to some degree by the use of disinfectant solutions on shoes after the stalls have been entered or by wearing rubbers while in the maternity stalls, removing them after the isolated animals have been attended to. The isolation of cows at time of calving and the aborting animal is based upon the knowledge that the fetus, afterbirth, and uterine discharges of an affected animal at these times very frequently contain myriads of the abortion bacteria, and that unless these substances are confined and promptly destroyed an abundant opportunity is provided for the contamination of the food substances of the healthy animals and their contraction of the disease. Refrain from breeding fresh cows for a period of six weeks to two months following calving. The aborting animal should be isolated for a period of six weeks to two months and under no consideration be permitted to mingle with the rest of the herd as long as uterine discharges are observed. Douching of the external genitals of the bull, a practice formerly regarded as highly important for preventing the spread of the disease, is now recognized as being of doubtful value. The bull is protected from abortion infection to a great degree by permitting him to serve only such animals as have calved or aborted from six weeks to two months previously. Investigational work has indicated that when the bull is affected with the disease the organs of his generative system commonly involved are not reached by the antiseptic solutions. A more rational method for the prevention of the spread of the disease by the bull consists in keeping him in an inclosure separate from the females and in having all services take place on neutral ground. Great care should be used in purchasing cattle, and cows not known to be free from the disease should be kept in separate quarters until this point is determined. GRANULAR VENEREAL DISEASE (INFECTIOUS GRANULAR VAGINITIS). The affection to which the foregoing names have been given is a chronic, mild, and apparently contagious disease of cattle, characterized by an inflammatory condition of the mucous membrane of the vagina and the development of nodules upon its surface. This disease is very widely spread, but from an economic point of view it does not appear to have great significance. Williams, who investigated it, asserts that it is difficult to find a single herd in this country which is free of this disease. He considers it of great importance, claiming that granular vaginitis has a vital relation to abortion. This view, however, is not substantiated by other investigators, it being now generally accepted that the disease is only rarely responsible for abortion, and further, that it exerts no apparent ill effects on the health of the animal and that it has no effect on the milk yield. _Symptoms._--Natural infection may take place either by direct contact of animals or at the time of service. Most of the cows in the affected herd contract the disease, but the bulls are rarely or very mildly affected. The inflamed condition of the membranes of the vagina results in a catarrhal exudate, and this discharge, which soils the external genitals and the tail, and the uneasiness and sometimes the straining of the animal, are the first and most prominent symptoms observed. Upon examination, small, hard, grayish nodules can be seen and felt upon the inflamed membranes. This acute stage may last for three or four weeks, then it gradually subsides and assumes the chronic form, only to flare up again as the animal comes in heat. These nodules are sometimes found on the membranes of the uterus, and some investigators have argued from this fact that it was responsible for abortion and sterility. Others, however, deny this and point out that the bacillus of abortion can be demonstrated in nearly every case. The importance of the disease is therefore in dispute and the decision must be left to future investigation. _Treatment._--The exaggerated importance which has been attached to this disease resulted in the exploitation of the most varied kinds of remedies for its treatment. It is true that with a protracted and laborious treatment it is possible to effect cures in from one to three months, but with our present knowledge of this disorder it is advisable to limit the treatment to animals which show an acute inflammatory condition of the vagina and vulva with a discharge as a result of the granular affection. The treatment should be local and confined to the application of antiseptic washes in the form of irrigations. For this purpose a 0.5 per cent solution of the compound solution of cresol or of Lugol's solution has been found satisfactory. PARTURITION (CALVING). SYMPTOMS OF CALVING. In the cow the premonitions of calving are the enlargement of the udder, which becomes firm and resistant to the touch, with more or less swelling in front, and yields a serous, milky fluid; the enlargement and swelling of the vulva, which discharges an abundant, stringy mucus; the drooping of the belly, and the falling in of the muscles at each side of the root of the tail, so as to leave deep hollows. When this last symptom is seen, calving may be counted on in 24 hours or in 2 or 3 days. When the act is imminent, the cow becomes uneasy, moves restlessly, leaves off eating, in the field leaves the herd, lies down and rises again as if in pain, shifts upon her hind feet, moves the tail, and may bellow or moan. When labor pains come on the back is arched, the croup drooped, the belly is drawn up, and straining is more or less violent and continuous. Meanwhile blood may have appeared on the vulva and tail, and soon the clear water bags protrude between the lips of the vulva. They increase rapidly, hanging down toward the hocks, and the fore or hind feet can be detected within them. With the rupture of the bags and escape of the waters the womb contracts on the solid, angular body of the fetus and is at once stimulated to more violent contractions, so that the work proceeds with redoubled energy to the complete expulsion. This is why it is wrong to rupture the water bags if the presentation is normal, as they furnish a soft, uniform pressure for the preliminary dilation of the mouth of the womb and passages, in anticipation of the severe strain put upon them as the solid body of the calf passes. The cow often calves standing, in which case the navel string is broken as the calf falls to the ground. If, however, she is recumbent, this cord is torn through as she rises. The afterpains come on 3 or 4 hours later and expel the membranes, which should never be left longer than 24 hours. NATURAL PRESENTATION. When there is but one calf the natural presentation is that of the fore feet with the front of the hoofs and knees turned upward toward the tail of the dam and the nose lying between the knees. (Pl. XV.) If there are twins the natural position of the second is that of the hind feet, the heels and hocks turned upward toward the cow's tail. (Pl. XVIII, fig. 1.) In both of these natural positions the curvature of the body of the calf--the back arched upward--is the same with the curvature of the passages, which descend anteriorly into the womb, ascend over the brim of the pelvis, and descend again toward the external opening (vulva). Any presentation differing from the above is abnormal. OBSTACLES TO PARTURITION. With a well-formed cow and calf and a natural presentation as above, calving is usually prompt and easy. Obstacles may, however, come from failure of the mouth of the womb to dilate; from twisting of the neck of the womb; from tumors in the vagina; from dropsy in the womb or abdomen; from overdistention of the rectum or bladder; from undue narrowing of the passages; from excess of fat in the walls of the pelvis; from the disturbance of a nervous cow by noises; from stone or urine in the bladder; from wrong presentation of the calf, its back being turned downward or to one side in place of upward toward the spine of the dam; from the bending backward of one or more limbs or of the head into the body of the womb; from presentation of the back, shoulder, or croup, all four limbs being turned back; from presentation of all four feet at once; from obstruction caused by an extra head or extra limbs, or double body on the part of the offspring (Pl. XIX); from dropsy or other disease of the calf; from excessive or imperfect development of the calf; from the impaction of twins into the passages at the same time; or at times it may be from the mere excessive volume of the fetus. GENERAL MAXIMS FOR THE ASSISTANT CONCERNING DIFFICULT PARTURITION. Do not interfere too soon. "Meddlesome midwifery is bad" with animals as with women. After labor pains set in, give a reasonable time for the water bags to protrude and burst spontaneously, and only interfere when delay suggests some mechanical obstruction. If there is no mechanical obstruction, let the calf be expelled slowly by the unaided efforts of the cow. Bruises and lacerations of the passages and flooding from the uncontracted womb may come from the too speedy extraction of the calf. When assistance is necessary, the operator should dress in a thick flannel shirt from which the sleeves have been cut off clear to the shoulders. This avoids danger of exposure and yet leaves the whole arm free and untrammeled. Before inserting the hand it and the arm should be smeared with oil, lard, or vaseline, care being taken that the oil or lard is fresh, neither salted nor rancid, and that it has been purified by boiling or rendered antiseptic by the addition of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid to the pound. This is a valuable precaution against infecting the cow by introducing putrid ferments into the passages and against poisoning of the arm by decomposing discharges in case the calving is unduly protracted. When labor pains have lasted some time without any signs of the water bags, the dropping in at the sides of the rump, and the other preparations for calving being accomplished, the hand should be introduced to examine. When the water bags have burst and neither feet nor head appear for some time, examination should be made. When one fore foot only and the head appear, or both fore feet without the head, or the head without the fore feet, examine. If one hind foot appears without the other, make examination. The presenting limb or head should be secured by a rope with a running noose, so that it may not pass back into the womb and get lost during the subsequent manipulations, but may be retained in the vagina or brought up again easily. In searching for a missing member it is usually better to turn the head of the cow downhill, so that the gravitation of the fetus and abdominal organs forward into the belly of the cow may give more room in which to bring up the missing limb or head. If the cow is lying down, turn her on the side opposite to that on which the limb is missing, so that there may be more room for bringing the latter up. Even if a missing limb is reached, it is vain to attempt to bring it up during a labor pain. Wait until the pain has ceased and attempt to straighten out the limb before the next pain comes on. If the pains are violent and continuous, they may be checked by pinching the back or by putting a tight surcingle around the body in front of the udder. These failing, 1 ounce or 1-1/2 ounces of chloral hydrate in a quart of water may be given to check the pains. If the passages have dried up or lost their natural, lubricating liquid, smear the interior of the passages and womb and the surface of the calf, so far as it can be reached, with pure fresh lard; or pure sweet oil may be run into the womb through a rubber tube (fountain syringe). In dragging upon the fetus apply strong traction only while the mother is straining, and drag downward toward the hocks as well as backward. The natural curvature of both fetus and passages is thus followed and the extraction rendered easier. LABOR PAINS BEFORE RELAXATION OF THE PASSAGES. Any of the various causes of abortion may bring on labor pains before the time. Straining comes on days or weeks before the time, and there is not the usual enlargement, swelling, and mucous discharge from the vulva. There is little or no falling in by the sides of the root of the tail; the abdomen has not dropped to the usual extent, and the udder is less developed and yields little or no milk. In spite of the pains no water bags appear, and the oiled hand cautiously introduced into the vagina finds the neck of the womb firmly closed, rigid, and undilatable. If it is known that the cow has not reached her proper time of calving, the examination through the vagina should be omitted and the animal should be placed in a dark, quiet place by herself, and be given 1 to 2 ounces laudanum. _Viburnum prunifolium_ (black haw), 1 ounce, may be added, if necessary, and repeated in three hours. The pains will usually subside. In some instances the external parts are relaxed and duly prepared, but the neck of the womb remains rigidly closed. In such case the solid extract of belladonna should be smeared around the constricted opening and the animal left quiet until it relaxes. DISEASED INDURATION OF THE MOUTH OF THE WOMB. From previous lacerations or other injuries the neck of the womb may have become the seat of fibrous hardening and constriction, so as to prevent its dilatation, when all other parts are fully prepared for calving. The enlarged, flabby vulva, the sinking at each side of the rump, the full udder, and drooping abdomen indicate the proper time for calving, but the labor pains effect no progress in the dilatation of the mouth of the womb, and the oiled hand introduced detects the rigid, hard, and, in some cases, nodular feeling of the margins of the closed orifice which no application of belladonna or other antispasmodic suffices to relax. Sponge tents may be inserted or the mechanical dilator (Pl. XX, fig. 6) may be used if there is opening enough to admit it, and if not, a narrow-bladed, probe-pointed knife (Pl. XXIV, fig. 2) may be passed through the orifice and turned upward, downward, and to each side, cutting to a depth not exceeding a quarter of an inch in each case. This done, a finger may be inserted, then two, three, and four, and finally all four fingers and thumb brought together in the form of a cone and made to push in with rotary motion until the whole hand can be introduced. After this the labor pains will induce further dilation, and finally the presenting members of the calf will complete the process. TWISTING OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. This is not very uncommon in the cow, the length of the body of the womb and the looseness of the broad ligaments that attach it to the walls of the pelvis favoring the twisting. It is as if one were to take a long sack rather loosely filled at the neck and turn over its closed end, so that its twisting should occur in the neck. The twist may be one-quarter round, so that the upper surface would come to look to one side, or it may be half round, so that what was the upper surface becomes the lower. The relation of the womb of the cow to the upper and right side of the paunch favors the twisting. The paunch occupies the whole left side of the abdomen and extends across its floor to the right side. Its upper surface thus forms an inclined plane, sloping from the left downward and to the right, and on this sloping surface lies the pregnant womb. It is easy to see how, in the constant movements of the paunch upon its contents and the frequent changes of position of the growing fetus within the womb, to say nothing of the contractions of the adjacent bowels and the more or less active movements of the cow, the womb should roll downward to the right. Yet in many cases the twist is toward the left, showing that it is not the result of a simple rolling downward over the paunch, but rather of other disturbances. The condition may be suspected when labor pains have continued for some time without any sign of the water bags, and it is confirmed when the oiled hand, introduced through the vagina, finds the mouth of the womb soft and yielding, but furnished with internal folds running forward in a spiral manner. If the folds on the upper wall of the orifice run toward the right, the womb is twisted to the right; if, on the contrary, they turn toward the left, it indicates that the womb is turned over in that direction. The direction of the twist must be known before treatment can be undertaken. Then, if the twist is toward the right, the cow is laid upon her right side with her head downhill, the hand of the operator is introduced through the spirally constricted neck of the womb, and a limb or other portion of the body of the calf is seized and pressed firmly against the wall of the womb. Meanwhile two or three assistants roll the cow from her right side over on her back to her left side. The object is to hold the womb and calf still while the body of the cow rolls over. If successful, the twist is undone, its grasp on the wrist is slackened, and the water bags and calf press into the now open passage. If the first attempt does not succeed, it is to be repeated until success has been attained. If the spiral folds on the upper wall of the opening turn toward the left, the cow is laid on her left side and rolled over on her back and on to the right side, the hand being, as before, within the womb and holding the fetus, so that all may not rotate with the cow. In introducing the hand it will usually be found needful to perforate the membranes, so that a limb of the calf may be seized direct and firmly held. Among my occasional causes of failure with these cases have been, first, the previous death and decomposition of the fetus, leading to such overdistention of the womb that it could not be made to rotate within the abdomen, and, second, the occurrence of inflammation and an exudate on the twisted neck of the womb, which hindered it from untwisting. In obstinate cases, in which the hand can be made to pass through the neck of the womb easily, additional help may be had from the use of the instrument shown in Plate XX, figure 5. Two cords, with running nooses, are successively introduced and made fast on two limbs of the calf; the cords are then passed through the two rings on the end of the instrument, which is passed into the womb and the cords drawn tight and fixed round the handle. Then, using the handle as a lever, it is turned in the direction opposite to the twist. The hand should meanwhile be introduced into the womb and the snared limbs seized and pressed against its walls so as to secure the rotation of the uterus along with the body of the fetus. The relaxation of the constriction and the effacement of the spiral folds will show when success has been gained, and the different members at one end of the body should then be brought up so as to secure a natural presentation. NARROW PELVIS FROM FRACTURE OR DISEASE. In a small cow the pelvis may be too narrow to pass a calf sired by a bull of a large breed, but this is exceptional, as the fetus usually accommodates itself to the size of the dam and makes its extra growth after birth. When the pelvic bones have been fractured repair takes place with the formation of a large permanent callus, which, projecting internally, may be a serious obstacle to calving. Worse still, if the edge of the broken bone projects internally as a sharp spike or ridge, the vaginal walls are cut upon it during the passage of the calf, with serious or fatal result. In other cases, where the cow has suffered from fragility of bone (fragilitas ossium) the thickening of the bone causes narrowing of the long passage of the pelvis and the crumbling fractures poorly repaired, with an excess of brittle new material, may form an insuperable obstacle to parturition. Cows affected in any of these ways should never again be bred, but if they do get pregnant and reach full time a careful examination will be necessary to determine whether natural parturition can take place or if the calf must be extracted in pieces. (See "Embryotomy," p. 202.) OBSTRUCTION BY MASSES OF FAT. This is not unknown in old cows of the beef breeds, the enormous masses of fat upon and within the pelvis being associated with weakness or fatty degeneration of the muscles. If the presentation is natural, little more is wanted than a judicious traction upon the fetus to compress and overcome the soft resisting masses. OBSTRUCTION BY A FULL BLADDER OR RECTUM OR BY STONE. In all cases of delayed or tardy parturition the evacuation of rectum and bladder is important, and it is no less so in all difficult parturitions. Stone in the bladder is fortunately rare in the cow, but when present it should be removed to obviate crushing and perhaps perforation of the organ during calving. CALVING RETARDED BY NERVOUSNESS. In a public fair ground I have seen labor pains begin early in the day and keep up in a weak and insufficient manner for many hours, until the stall was thoroughly closed in and the cow secluded from the constant stream of visitors and the incessant noise, when at once the pains became strong and effective and the calf was soon born. COAGULATED BLOOD UNDER THE VAGINAL WALLS. This is common after calving, but sometimes occurs before, as the result of accidental injury. The mass may be recognized by its dark hue and the doughy sensation to the touch. It may be cut into and the mass turned out with the fingers, after which it should be washed frequently with an antiseptic lotion (carbolic acid 1 dram in 1 quart of water). CONSTRICTION OF A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING. In early fetal life the winding of the navel string around a limb may cause the latter to be slowly cut off by absorption under the constricting cord. So at calving the cord wound round a presenting member may retard progress somewhat, and though the calf may still be born tardily by the unaided efforts of the mother, it is liable to come still-born, because the circulation in the cord is interrupted by compression before the offspring can reach the open air and commence to breathe. If, therefore, it is possible to anticipate and prevent this displacement and compression of the navel string it should be done, but if this is no longer possible, then the extraction of the calf should be effected as rapidly as possible, and if breathing is not at once attempted it should be started by artificial means. WATER IN THE HEAD OF THE CALF (HYDROCEPHALUS). This is an enormous distention of the cavity holding the brain, by reason of the accumulation of liquid in the internal cavities (ventricles) of the brain substance. The head back of the eyes rises into a great rounded ball (Pl. XIX, figs. 4 and 5), which proves an insuperable obstacle to parturition. The fore feet and nose being the parts presented, no progress can be made, and even if the feet are pulled upon the nose can not by any means be made to appear. The oiled hand introduced into the passages will feel the nose presenting between the fore limbs, and on passing the hand back over the face the hard rounded mass of the cranium is met with. A sharp-pointed knife or a cannula and trocar should be introduced in the palm of the hand and pushed into the center of the rounded mass so as to evacuate the water. The hand is now used to press together the hitherto distended but thin and fragile walls, and the calf may be delivered in the natural way. If the enlarged head is turned backward it must still be reached and punctured, after which it must be brought up into position and the calf delivered. If the hind feet present first, all may go well until the body and shoulders have passed out, when further progress is suddenly arrested by the great bulk of the head. If possible, the hand, armed with a knife or trocar, must be passed along the side of the shoulder or neck so as to reach and puncture the distended head. Failing in this, the body may be skinned up from the belly and cut in two at the shoulder or neck, after which the head can easily be reached and punctured. If in such case the fore limbs have been left in the womb, they may now be brought up into the passage, and when dragged upon the collapsed head will follow. If the distention is not sufficient to have rendered the bony walls of the cranium thin and fragile, so that they can be compressed with the hand after puncture, a special method may be necessary. A long incision should be made from behind forward in the median line of the cranium with an embryotomy knife (Pl. XXI, fig. 1) or with a long embryotome (Pl. XX, fig. 3). By this means the bones on the one side are completely separated from those on the other and may be made to overlap and perhaps to flatten down. If this fails they may be cut from the head all around the base of the rounded cranial swelling by means of a guarded chisel (Pl. XX, fig. 8) and mallet, after which there will be no difficulty in causing them to collapse. DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN OF THE CALF (ASCITES). This is less frequent than hydrocephalus, but no less difficult to deal with. With an anterior presentation the fore limbs and head may come away easily enough, but no effort will advance the calf beyond the shoulders. The first thought should be dropsy of the belly, and the oiled hand introduced by the side of the chest will detect the soft and fluctuating yet tense sac of the abdomen. If there is space to allow of the introduction of an embryotomy knife, the abdomen may be freely cut with this, when the fluid will escape into the womb and parturition may proceed naturally. If this can not be effected, a long trocar and cannula may be passed between the first two ribs and straight on beneath the spine until it punctures the abdomen. (Pl. XVIII, fig. 2.) Then the trocar is to be withdrawn and the liquid will flow through the cannula and will be hastened by traction on the fore limbs. In the absence of the trocar and cannula, two or three of the first ribs may be cut from the breastbone, so that the hand may be introduced through the chest to puncture the diaphragm with an embryotomy knife and allow an escape of the water. In some slighter cases a tardy delivery may take place without puncture, the liquid bulging forward into the chest as the abdomen is compressed in the pelvic passages. With a posterior presentation the abdomen may be punctured more easily either in the flank or with a trocar and cannula through the anus. GENERAL DROPSY OF THE CALF. This occurs from watery blood or disease of some internal organ, like the liver or kidney, and is recognized by the general puffed-up and rounded condition of the body, which pits everywhere on pressure but without crackling. If not too extreme a case, the calf may be extracted after it has been very generally punctured over the body, but usually the only resort is to extract it in pieces. (See "Embryotomy," p. 202.) SWELLING OF THE CALF WITH GAS. This is usually the result of the death and decomposition of the fetus when extraction has been delayed for a day or more after the escape of the waters. It is impossible to extract it whole, owing to its large size and the dry state of the skin of the calf, the membranes, and the wall of the womb. These dry surfaces stick with such tenacity that no attempt at traction leads to any advance of the calf out of the womb or into the passages. When the fetus is advanced the adherent womb advances with it, and when the strain is relaxed both recede to where they were at first. The condition may be helped somewhat by the free injection of oil into the womb, but it remains impossible to extract the enormously bloated body, and the only resort is to cut it in pieces and extract it by degrees. (See "Embryotomy," p. 202.) RIGID CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLES. In the development of the calf, as in after life, the muscles are subject to cramps, and in certain cases given groups of muscles remain unnaturally short, so that even the bones grow in a twisted and distorted way. In one case the head and neck are drawn round to one side and can not be straightened out, even the bones of the face and the nose being curved around to that side. In other cases the flexor muscles of the fore legs are so shortened that the knees are kept constantly bent and can not be extended by force. The bent neck may sometimes be sufficiently straightened for extraction by cutting across the muscles on the side to which it is turned, and the bent knees by cutting the cords on the back of the shank bones just below the knees. If this fails, there remains the resort of cutting off the distorted limbs or head. (See "Embryotomy," p. 202.) TUMORS OF THE CALF (INCLOSED OVUM). Tumors or new growths grow on the unborn calf as on the mature animal, and by increasing the diameter of the body render its progress through the passage of the pelvis impossible. In my experience with large, fleshy tumors of the abdomen, I have cut open the chest, removed the lungs and heart, cut through the diaphragm with the knife, and removed the tumor piecemeal by alternate tearing and cutting until the volume of the body was sufficiently reduced to pass through. Where this failed it would remain to cut off the anterior part of the body, removing as much of the chest as possible, and cutting freely through the diaphragm; then, pushing back the remainder of the body, the hind limbs may be seized and brought into the passages and the residue thus extracted. The tumor, unless very large, will get displaced backward so as not to prove an insuperable obstacle. In many cases the apparent tumor is a blighted ovum which has failed to develop, but has grafted itself on its more fortunate twin and from it has drawn its nourishment. These are usually sacs containing hair, skin, muscle, bone, or other natural tissues, and only exceptionally do they show the distinct outline of the animal. MONSTROSITY IN THE CALF. As a monstrous development in the calf may hinder calving, it is well to consider shortly the different directions in which these deviations from the natural form appear. Their origin and significance will be rendered clearer if we divide them according to the fault of development in individual cases. Monsters are such-- (1) From absence of parts--absence of head, limb, or other organ--arrested development. (2) From some organ being unnaturally small, as a dwarfed head, limb, trunk, etc.--arrested development. (3) From unnatural division of parts--cleft lips, palate, head, trunk, limbs, etc.--abnormal growth. (4) From the absence of natural divisions--absence of mouth, nose, eye, anus; the cloven foot of ox or pig becomes solid, like that of the horse, etc.--confluence of parts which are rightfully separate. (5) From the fusion of parts--both eyes replaced by central one, both nostrils merged into one central opening, etc.--confluence of parts. (6) From unnatural position or form of parts--curved nose, neck, back, limbs, etc.--lack of balance in the growth of muscles during development. (7) From excessive growth of one or more organs--enormous size of head, double penis, superfluous digits, etc.--redundancy of growth at given points. (8) From imperfect differentiation of the sexual organs--hermaphrodites (organs intermediate between male and female), male organs with certain feminine characters, female organs with certain well-marked male characters. (9) From the doubling of parts or of the entire body--double monsters, doubled heads, doubled bodies, extra limbs, etc.--redundant development. (Pl. XIX, figs. 1, 2, 3.) _Causes._--The causes of monstrosities are varied. Some, like extra digits, lack of horns, etc., run in families, which produce them with absolute certainty when bred in the direct line, although they were originally acquired peculiarities which have merely been fixed by long habit in successive generations. The earliest horse had five toes, and even the most recent fossil horse had three toes, of which the two lateral ones are still represented in the modern animal by the two splint bones. Yet if our horse develops an extra toe it is pronounced a monstrosity. A more genuine monstrosity is the solid-hoofed pig, in which two toes have been merged into one. Another of the same kind is the solid shank bone of the ox, which consists of two bones united into one, but which are still found apart in the early fetus. Though originally acquired peculiarities, they now breed as invariably as color or form. Other monstrosities seem to have begun in too close breeding, by which the powers of symmetrical development are impaired, just as the procreative power weakens under continuous breeding from the closest blood relations. A monstrosity consisting in the absence of an organ often depends on a simple lack of development, the result of disease or injury, as a young bone is permanently shortened by being broken across the soft part between the shaft and the end, the only part where increase in length can take place. As the result of the injury the soft, growing layer becomes prematurely hard and all increase in length at that end of the bone ceases. This will account for some cases of absence of eye, limb, or other organ. Sometimes a monstrosity is owing to the inclosure of one ovum in another while the latter is still but a soft mass of cells and can easily close around the first. Here each ovum has an independent life; they develop simultaneously, only the outer one having direct connection with the womb and being furnished with abundant nourishment advances most rapidly and perfectly, while the inclosed and starved ovum is dwarfed and imperfect often to the last degree. In many cases of excess of parts the extra part or member is manifestly derived from the same ovum, and even the same part of the ovum, being merely the effect of a redundancy and vagary of growth. Such cases include most instances of extra digits or other organs, and even of double monsters, as manifested by the fact that such extra organs grow from the normal identical organs. Hence the extra digit is attached to the normal digit, the extra head to the one neck, the extra tail to the croup, extra teeth to the existing teeth, and even two similarly formed bodies are attached by some point common to both, as the navels, breastbones, backs, etc. (Pl. XIX, figs. 1, 2, 3.) This shows that both have been derived from the same primitive layer of the embryo, which possessed the plastic power of building up a given structure or set of organs. An inclosed ovum, on the other hand, has no such identity or similarity of structure to the part with which it is connected, showing an evident primary independence of both life and the power of building tissues and organs. The power of determining extra growth along a given natural line is very highly developed in the early embryo and is equally manifest in the mature examples of some of the lower forms of animal life. Thus a newt will grow a new tail when that member has been cut off, and a starfish will develop as many new starfishes as the pieces made by cutting up the original one. This power of growth in the embryo and in the lower form of animals is comparable to the branching out again of a tree at the places from which branches have been lopped. The presence of this vegetablelike power of growth in the embryo accounts for most double monsters. The influence of disease in modifying growth in the early embryo, increasing, decreasing, distorting, etc., is well illustrated in the experiments of St. Hilaire and Valentine in varnishing, shaking, or otherwise disturbing the connections of eggs and thereby producing monstrosities. One can easily understand how inflammations and other causes of disturbed circulation in the womb, fetal membranes, or fetus would cause similar distortions and variations in the growing fetus. It is doubtless largely in the same way that certain mental disturbances of a very susceptible dam affect the appearance of the progeny. The monstrosities which seriously interfere with calving are mainly such as consist in extra members or head, which can not be admitted into the passages at the same time, where some organ of the body has attained extra size, where a blighted ovum has been inclosed in the body of a more perfect one, or where the body or limbs are so contracted or twisted that the calf must enter the passages doubled up. _Treatment._--Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the distorted members by the force of traction; in other cases the muscles or tendons must be cut across on the side to which the body or limbs are bent to allow of such straightening. Thus, the muscles on the concave side of a wry neck or the cords behind the shank bones of a contracted limb may be cut to allow of these parts being brought into the passages, and there will still be wanting the methods demanded for bringing up missing limbs or head, for which see paragraphs below. In most cases of monstrosity by excess of overgrowth it becomes necessary to cut off the supernumerary or overdeveloped parts, and the same general principles must be followed as laid down in "Embryotomy" (p. 202). WRONG PRESENTATIONS OF THE CALF. The following is a list of abnormal presentations of the calf: Simultaneous presentation of twins. A { {Limbs curved at the knee. Flexor tendons shortened. n {Fore Limbs{Limb crossed over the back of the neck. t { {Limb bent back at the knee. e { {Limb bent back from the shoulder. r { i { {Head bent downward on the neck. o P { {Head and neck turned downward beneath the breast. r r {Head {Head turned to one side upon the side of the neck. e { {Head and neck turned back on the side of the chest and s { { abdomen. e { {Head turned upward and backward on the back. n { t { {Hind limbs rotated outward. Toes and stifles turned a { { outward. t {Hind Limbs{Hind limbs bent forward, their feet resting in the pelvis. i { o {Transverse{Back of the calf turned to the right or left side. n { s {Inverted {Back of the calf turned to the floor of the pelvis and { { udder. P P { o r { {Hind limb bent on itself at the hock. Hock and buttocks s e {Hind Limbs{ present. t s { {Hind limb bent at the hips. Buttocks present. e e { r n {Transverse{Back of calf turned to the right or left side. i t { o a {Inverted {Back of calf turned to the floor of the pelvis and udder. r t { i { o { n { {Head up toward the spine, croup {Position of calf vertical { toward udder. T { { {Head down toward udder, croup r {Back { { toward spine. u P {and { n r {loins { {Head toward the right side, k e {presented.{Position of calf transverse{ croup toward the left. s { { e { { {Head toward the left side, n { { { croup toward the right. t { { a { { t {Breast { {Head toward right side, croup i {and {Position of calf transverse{ toward left. o {abdomen { {Head toward left side, croup n {presented.{ { toward right. s { These include all general presentations, yet other subsidiary ones will at once occur to the attentive reader. Thus, in each anterior or posterior presentation, with the back of the calf turned downward or to one side, the case may be complicated by the bending back of one or more members as a whole or at the joint just above the shank bones (knee or hock). So also in such anterior presentation the head may be turned back. _Head and fore feet presented--Back turned to one side._--The calf has a greater diameter from above down (spine to breastbone) than it has from side to side, and the same is true of the passage of the pelvis of the cow, which measures, on an average, 8-7/10 inches from above downward and 7-9/10 inches from side to side. Hence the calf passes most easily with its back upward, and when turned with its back to one side calving is always tardy and may be difficult or impossible. The obvious remedy is to rotate the calf on its own axis until its spine turns toward the spine of the cow. The operation is not difficult if the body of the calf is not yet fixed in the passages. The presenting feet are twisted over each other in the direction desired, and this is continued until the head and spine have assumed their proper place. If the body is firmly engaged in the passages the skin of the whole engaged portion should be freely lubricated with lard, and the limbs and head twisted over each other as above. The limbs may be twisted by an assistant when the head is manipulated by the operator, who drags on the rope turned halfway round the limbs and assists in the rotation with his other hand in the passages. _Head and fore feet presented--Back turned down toward the udder._--This position (Pl. XVI, fig. 6) is unnatural, and the parturition is difficult for two reasons: First, the natural curvature of the fetus is opposed to the natural curvature of the passages; and, second, the thickest part of the body of the calf (the upper) is engaged in the narrowest part of the passage of the pelvis (the lower). Yet unless the calf is especially large and the pelvis of the cow narrow, parturition may usually be accomplished in this way spontaneously or with very little assistance in the way of traction on the limbs. If this can not be accomplished, two courses are open: First, to rotate the calf as when the back is turned to one side; second, to push back the presenting fore limbs and head and search for and bring up the hind limbs, when the presentation will be a natural, posterior one. _Presentation of the hind feet with the back turned to one side or downward._--These are the exact counterparts of the two conditions last described, are beset with similar drawbacks, and are to be dealt with on the same general principles. (Pl. XVII, fig. 4.) With the back turned to one side the body should be rotated until the back turns toward the spine of the dam, and with the back turned down it must be extracted in that position (care being taken that the feet do not perforate the roof of the vagina) or it must be rotated on its own axis until the back turns upward, or the hind limbs must be pushed back and the fore limbs and head advanced, when the presentation will be a natural anterior one. _Impaction of twins in the passage._--It is very rare to have twins enter the passages together so as to become firmly impacted. As a rule, each of the twins has its own separate membranes, and as the water bags of one will naturally first enter and be the first to burst, so the calf which occupied those membranes will be the first to enter the passage and the other will be thereby excluded. When the membranes of both have burst without either calf having become engaged in the pelvis, it becomes possible for the fore legs of one and the hind legs of the other to enter at one time, and if the straining is very violent they may become firmly impacted. (Pl. XVIII, fig. 1.) The condition may be recognized by the fact that two of the presenting feet have their fronts turned forward, while the two others have their fronts turned backward. If the four feet belonged to one natural calf, they would all have the same direction. By means of this difference in direction we can easily select the two feet of one calf, place running nooses upon them just above the hoofs or fetlocks, and have an assistant drag upon the ropes while the feet of the other calf are pushed back. In selecting one of the twins to come first several considerations should have weight. The one that is most advanced in the passage is, of course, the first choice. Though the fore feet of one are presented, yet if the head is not in place the calf presenting by its hind feet is to be chosen as being less liable to obstruct. Again, if for either calf one limb only is presented and the other missing, the one presenting two feet should be selected to come first. As soon as one calf has been advanced so as to occupy the pelvis the other will be crowded back so that it will not seriously obstruct. _Fore limbs curved at the knee--Limbs sprawling outward._--In this case not only are the knees somewhat bent in a curve, but the calf has a position as if it rested on its breastbone, while the legs were drawn apart and directed to the right and left. The shoulder blades being drawn outward from the chest and the elbows turned out, the muscles extending from the trunk to the limb are unduly stretched and keep the knees bent and the feet directed outward so as to press on the sides of the passages. They become retarded in their progress as compared with the more rapidly advancing head, and may bruise or even lacerate the walls of the vagina. It would seem easy to rectify this by extending the legs, but the already tense and overstretched muscles operate against extension in the present position, and it is not easy to rotate the limbs so as to apply the shoulder flat against the side of the chest. Under these circumstances a repeller (Pl. XX, fig. 7) may be planted in the breast and the body of the calf pushed backward into the womb, when the limbs will extend easily under traction and the presentation becomes at once natural. _Fore limbs curved at knee--Flexor tendons shortening._--In this case the feet will press against the floor of the pelvis though the limb has no outward direction, and the shoulder meanwhile presses against the roof of the same passage. Unless the knees can be sufficiently straightened by force a knife must be used to cut across the cords behind the knee, when the limbs may be straightened sufficiently. _Fore limbs flexed at knee--Flexor tendons unshortened._--This is mostly seen in cases in which the body of the calf is in the proper position, its back being turned up toward the back of the dam, and in cows with a drooping abdomen. The feet have been supposed to catch beneath the brim of the pelvis, and being retarded while the head advances into the passages, they get bent at the knee and the nose and knees present. (Pl. XVI, fig. 2.) The calf, however, is not an inanimate body advanced by the mere contraction of the womb, but it moves its limbs freely under the stimulus of the unwonted compression, and in moving the feet as they are advanced they slip down over the pelvic brim and finding no other firm support they bend back until, under the impulsion, they can no longer straighten out again. The knees, therefore, advance with the neck and head, but the feet remain bent back. The result is that the upper part of the limb is also flexed, and the shoulder blade and arm bone with their masses of investing muscles are carried backward and applied on the side of the chest, greatly increasing the bulk of this already bulky part. As the elbow is carried back on the side of the chest, the forearm from elbow to knee further increases the superadded masses of the shoulder and renders it difficult or impossible to drag the mass through the passages. When the fore limbs are fully extended, on the contrary, the shoulder blade is extended forward on the smallest and narrowest part of the chest, the arm bone with its muscles is in great part applied against the side of the back part of the neck, and the forearm is continued forward by the side of the head so that the nose lies between the knees. In this natural presentation the presenting body of the calf forms a long wedge or cone, the increase of which is slow and gradual until it reaches the middle of the chest. The difficulty of extending the fore limbs will be in proportion to the advance of the head through the pelvic cavity. In the early stage all that is necessary may be to introduce the oiled hand, the left one for the right leg or the right one for the left, and passing the hand from the knee on to the foot to seize the foot in the palm, bend it forcibly on the fetlock, and lift it up over the brim of the pelvis, the knee being, of course, pressed upward against the spine. As soon as the foot has been raised above the brim of the pelvis (into the passage) the limb can be straightened out with the greatest ease. When, however, the shoulders are already engaging in the pelvis the feet can not thus be lifted up, and to gain room a repeller (Pl. XX, fig. 7) must be used to push back the body of the calf. This is an instrument with a long, straight stem, divided at the end into two short branches (2 to 3 inches long) united to the stem by hinges so that they can be brought into a line with the stem for introduction into the womb and then spread to be implanted in the breast. In the absence of a repeller a smooth, round, fork handle may be used, the prongs having been removed from the other end. A third device is to have an assistant strip his arm to the shoulder and, standing back to back with the operator, to introduce his right arm into the passages along with the operator's left (or vice versa) and push back the body of the calf while the operator seeks to bring up a limb. The repeller or staff having been planted safely in the breast of the calf, an assistant pushes upon it in a direction either forward or slightly upward, so as not only to follow the natural curve of the body and favor its turning in the line of that curve within the womb, but also to carry the shoulders upward toward the spine and obtain more room for bringing up the missing feet. It is good policy, first, to put a halter (Pl. XXI, figs. 4_a_ and 4_b_) on the head or a noose (Pl. XXI, fig. 3) on the lower jaw and a rope round each limb at the knee, so as to provide against the loss of any of these parts when the body is pushed back into the womb. This offers the further advantage that by dragging upon these ropes the body can be advanced in the passage until the foot is reached, when the rope must be slackened and the repeller used to get room for bringing up the foot. If the cow is lying, the operator should first secure the foot on the upper side and then, if necessary, turn the cow on its opposite side so as to bring up the other. In using the instruments some precautions are demanded. They must be invariably warmed before they are introduced, and they should be smeared with lard or oil to make them pass easily and without friction. The assistant who is pushing on the instrument must be warned to stop if at any time resistance gives way. This may mean the turning of the fetus, in which case the object of repulsion has been accomplished, but much more probably it implies the displacement of the instrument from the body of the fetus, and unguarded pressure may drive it through the walls of the womb. When the calf enters the passage with its back turned down toward the belly and udder, the bending back of the fore limbs is rare, probably because the feet can find a straighter and more nearly uniform surface of resistance in the upper wall of the womb and the backbone, and do not slide over a crest into an open cavity, as they do over the brim of the pelvis. The weight of the calf, too, gravitating downward, leaves more room for the straightening of the bent limbs, so that the desired relief is much more easily secured. The manipulation is the same in principle, only one must add the precaution of a steady traction on the feet in extraction, lest, owing to the adverse curvature of the fetus, the hoofs are suddenly forced through the roof of the vagina, and, perhaps, the rectum as well, during a specially powerful labor pain. When the back of the calf is turned to the right side or the left the main difference is that in addition to straightening the limbs the fetus must be rotated to turn its back upward before extraction is attempted. In this case, too, it may be difficult to bring up and straighten the lower of the two limbs until the body has been rotated into its proper position. Cord the upper straightened limb and head, then rotate the body and search for the second missing limb. _Fore limbs bent back from the shoulders._--This is an exaggeration of the condition just named, and is much more difficult to remedy, owing to the distance and inaccessibility of the missing limb. It usually happens with the proper position of the body, the back of the calf being turned toward the back of the mother. The head presents in the passage and may even protrude from the vulva during an active labor pain, but it starts back like a spring when the straining ceases. Examination with the oiled hands in the intervals between the pains fails to detect the missing limbs. (Pl. XVI, fig. 1.) If, however, the hand can be introduced during a pain it may be possible to reach the elbow or upper part of the forearm. In the absence of a pain a halter or noose on the head may be used to advance the whole body until the forearm can be seized just below the elbow. This being firmly held and the head or body pushed back into the womb, room may be obtained for bringing up the knee. The forearm is used as a lever, its upper part being strongly forced back while its lower part is pressed forward. If a pain supervenes the hold must be retained, and whatever gain has been made must be held if possible. Then during the next pain, by pushing back the body and continuing to operate the forearm as a lever, a still further advance may be made. As the knee is brought up in this way, the hand is slid down from the elbow toward the knee, which is finally brought up over the brim of the pelvis and into the passage. It is now corded at the knee, and the subsequent procedure is as described in the last article. In a large, roomy cow with a small calf the latter may pass with one or both forelegs bent back, but this is a very exceptional case, and, as early assistance is the most successful, there should never be delay in hope of such a result. _One fore limb crossed over the back of the neck._--This is a rare obstacle to calving, but one that not altogether unknown. The hand introduced into the passage feels the head and one forefoot, and farther back on the same side of the other foot, from which the womb can be traced obliquely across the back of the neck. (Pl. XVI, fig. 3.) This foot, projecting transversely, is liable to bruise or tear the vagina. If still deeply engaged in the vagina, it may be seized and pushed across to the opposite side of the neck, when the presentation will be natural. _Head bent down beneath the neck._--In this case, with drooping belly and womb allowing the brim of the pelvis to form a ridge, the advancing calf, having unduly depressed its nose, strikes it on the brim of the pelvis, and the neck advancing, the head is bent back and the poll and ears either enter the pelvis or strike against its brim. The two forefeet present, but they make no progress, and the oiled hand introduced can detect no head until the poll is felt at the entrance of the pelvis, between the forearms. The two forefeet must be fixed with running nooses and dragged on moderately while the oiled hand seeks to bring up the head. The hand is slid down over the forehead and brim of the pelvis until the nose is reached, when it is passed into the mouth, the muzzle resting in the palm of the hand. The legs are now pushed upon, and in the space thus gained the muzzle is drawn up so as to enter it into the pelvis. In doing this the operator must carefully see that the mouth does not drop open so that the sharp, front teeth cut through the floor of the womb. Should this danger threaten, the hand should be made to cover the lower jaw as well. The lessened security of the hold is more than compensated by the safety of the procedure. With the nose in the pelvis, it has only to be drawn forward and the parturition is natural. _Head bent down beneath the breast._--This is an exaggerated condition of that last named. The head, arrested by the brim of the pelvis and already bent back on the neck, is pressed farther with each successive throe until it has passed between the forelegs and lodges beneath the breast bone. (Pl. XVI, fig. 4.) On examination, the narrow upper border of the neck is felt between the forearms, but as a rule the head is out of reach below. Keeping the hand on the neck and dragging on the feet by the aid of ropes, the hand may come to touch and seize the ear, or, still better, one or two fingers may be inserted into the orbit of the eye. Then in pushing back upon the limbs, with or without the aid of a repeller applied against the shoulder, space may be obtained to draw the head into a vertical position, and even to slip the hand down so as to seize the nose. Should it prove impossible to draw the head up with the unassisted fingers, a blunt hook (Pl. XXI, fig. 6) may be inserted into the orbit, on which an assistant may drag while another pushes upon the limbs or repeller. Meanwhile the operator may secure an opportunity of reaching and seizing the nose or of passing a blunt hook into the angle of the mouth. Success will be better assured if two hooks (Pl. XXI, fig. 7) are inserted in the two orbits, so as to draw up the head more evenly. In other cases a noose may be placed on the upper jaw, or even around both jaws, and traction made upon this and on the hooks in the orbits while the legs are pushed back, and while the operator pushes back on the poll or forehead. In still more difficult cases, in which even the orbits can not be reached, a sharp hook on the end of a straight iron rod (Pl. XX, fig. 2) may be inserted over the lower jaw as far forward as it can be reached, and by dragging upon this while the body is pushed back the head will be brought up sufficiently to allow the operator to reach the orbit or nose. If even the jaw can not be reached, the hook may be inserted in the neck as near to the head as possible and traction employed so as to bring the head within reach. In all such cases the cow's head should be turned downhill, and in case of special difficulty she should be turned on her back and held there until the head is secured. In old-standing cases, with the womb closely clasping the body of the calf, relaxation may be sought by the use of chloroform or a full dose of chloral hydrate--2 ounces; the free injection of warm water into the womb will also be useful. _Head turned back on the shoulder._--With a natural, anterior presentation this may happen because of the imperfect dilation of the mouth of the womb. Under the throes of the mother the forefeet pass through the narrow opening into the vagina, while the nose, striking against it and unable to enter, is pressed backward into the womb and turns aside on the right or left shoulder. The broad muzzle of the calf forms an especial obstacle to entrance and favors this deviation of the head. The worst form of this deviation is the old-standing one with shortening of the muscles of the neck on that side, and oftentimes distortion of the face and neck bones, as noticed under "Monstrosities" (p. 182). When the head is bent on the shoulder the feet appear in the natural way, but no progress is made, and examination reveals the absence of the nose from between the knees, and farther back, from above and between the elbows, a smooth rounded mass is felt extending to the right or left, which further examination will identify with the neck. Following the upper border of this the hand reaches the crown of the head with the ears, and still further the eyes, or even, in a small calf, the nose. As the bulky head of the calf can not be extracted along with the shoulders, it becomes necessary to push the body of the fetus back and straighten out the head and neck. The cow should be laid with her head downhill and with that side up toward which the head is turned. If the throes are very violent, or the womb strongly contracted on the calf, it may be best to seek relaxation by giving chloroform, or 2 ounces of laudanum, or 2 ounces of chloral hydrate. If the calf or the passages are dry, sweet oil may be injected, or the whole may be liberally smeared with fresh lard. In the absence of these, warm water rendered slightly slippery by Castile soap may be injected into the womb in quantity. Ropes with running nooses are placed on the presenting feet and the oiled hand introduced to find the head. If, now, the fingers can be passed inside the lower jawbone, and drag the head upward and toward the passage, it unwinds the spiral turn given to the neck in bending back, and greatly improves the chances of bringing forward the nose. If, at first, or if now, the lower jaw can be reached, a noose should be placed around it behind the incisor teeth and traction made upon this, so that the head may continue to be turned, forehead up, toward the spine and jaws down, thereby continuing to undo the screwlike curve of the neck. If, on the contrary, the nose is dragged upon by a cord passing over the upper border of the neck, the screwlike twist is increased and the resistance of the bones and joints of the neck prevents any straightening of the head. As soon as the lower jaw has been seized by the hand or noose, a repeller (Pl. XX, fig. 7), planted on the inside of the elbow or shoulder most distant from the head, should be used to push back the body and turn it in the womb, so that the head may be brought nearer to the outlet. In this way the head can usually be brought into position and the further course of delivery will be natural. Sometimes, however, the lower jaw can not be reached with the hand, and then the orbit or, less desirably, the ear, may be availed of. The ear may be pulled by the hand, and by the aid of the repeller on the other shoulder the calf may be so turned that the lower jaw may be reached and availed of. Better still, a clamp (Pl. XVIII, figs. 3 and 4) is firmly fixed on the ear and pulled by a rope, while the repeller is used on the opposite shoulder, and the hand of the operator pulls on the lower border of the neck and lifts it toward the other side. To pull on the upper border of the neck is to increase the spiral twist, while to raise the lower border is to undo it. If the outer orbit can be reached, the fingers may be inserted into it so as to employ traction, or a blunt finger hook (Pl. XXI, fig. 8) may be used, or a hook with a rope attached, or, finally, a hook on the end of a long staff. Then, with the assistance of the repeller, the body may be so turned and the head advanced that the lower jaw may be reached and availed of. In case neither the ears nor the orbit can be reached, a cord should be passed around the neck of the calf as near the head as possible, and traction made upon that while the opposite shoulder is pushed toward the opposite side by the repeller, assisted by the hand dragging on the lower border of the neck. To aid the hand in passing a rope around the neck a cord carrier (Pl. XXI, fig. 5) is in use. It fails, however, to help us in the most difficult part of the operation--the passing of the cord down on the deep or farthest side of the neck--and to remedy this I have devised a cord carrier, furnished with a ring at the end, a joint 6 or 8 inches from the end, and another ring on the handle, close to this joint. (Pl. XX, fig. 4.) A cord is passed through both rings and a knot tied on its end, just back of the terminal ring. The instrument, straightened out, is inserted until it reaches just beyond the upper border of the neck, when, by dragging on the cord, the movable segment is bent down on the farther side of the neck, and is pushed on until it can be felt at its lower border. The hand now seizes the knotted end of the cord beneath the lower border of the neck and pulls it through while the carrier is withdrawn, the cord sliding through its rings. The cord, pushed up as near to the head as possible, is furnished with a running noose by tying the knotted end round the other, or, better, the two ends are twisted around each other so as to give a firm hold on the neck without dangerously compressing the blood vessels. By pushing on the opposite shoulder with the repeller, and, assisting with the hand on shoulder, breastbone, or lower border of the neck, such a change of position will be secured as will speedily bring the head within reach. Afterwards proceed as described above. These cases are always trying, but it is very rarely necessary to resort to embryotomy. When absolutely required, first remove one fore limb, and then, if still unsuccessful, the other, after which the head can easily be secured. (See "Embryotomy," p. 202.) _Head turned upward and backward._--In this case the face rests upon the spine; the forefeet appear alone in the passage, but fail to advance, and on examination the rounded, inferior border of the neck can be felt, extending upward and backward beneath the spine of the dam, and if the calf is not too large the hand may reach the lower jaw or even the muzzle. (Pl. XVI, fig. 5.) A repeller is planted in the breast and the body of the calf pushed backward and downward so as to make room and bring the head nearer to the passage; or in some cases the body may be pushed back sufficiently by the use of the fore limbs alone. Meanwhile the head is seized by the ear or the eye socket, or, if it can be reached, by the lower jaw, and pulled downward into position as space is obtained for it. If the hand alone is insufficient, the blunt hooks may be inserted in the orbits or in the angle of the mouth, or a noose may be placed on the lower paw, and by traction the head will be easily advanced. In case of a large fetus, the head of which is beyond reach, even when traction is made on the limbs, a rope may be passed around the neck and pulled, while the breastbone is pressed downward and backward by the repeller, and soon the change of position will bring the orbit or lower jaw within reach. With the above-described position the standing position is most favorable for success, but if the calf is placed with its back down toward the udder, and if the head is bent down under the brim of the pelvis, the best position for the cow is on her back, with her head downhill. In neglected cases, with death and putrefaction of the fetus and dryness of the passages, it may be necessary to extract in pieces. (See "Embryotomy," p. 202.) _Outward direction of the stifles_--_Abduction of hind limbs._--As an obstacle to parturition, this is rare in cows. It is most liable to take place in cows with narrow hip bones, and when the service has been made by a bull having great breadth across the quarter. The calf, taking after the sire, presents an obstacle to calving in the breadth of its quarters, and if at the same time the toes and stifles are turned excessively outward and the hocks inward the combined breadth of the hip bones above and the stifles below may be so great that the pelvis will not easily admit them. After the forefeet, head, and shoulders have all passed out through the vulva, further progress suddenly and unaccountably ceases, and some dragging on the parts already delivered does not serve to bring away the hind parts. The oiled hand introduced along the side of the calf will discover the obstacle in the stifle joints turned directly outward and projecting on each side beyond the bones which circumscribe laterally the front entrance of the pelvis. The evident need is to turn the stifles inward; this may be attempted by the hand introduced by the side of the calf, which is meanwhile rotated gently on its own axis to favor the change of position. To correct the deviation of the hind limb is, however, very difficult, as the limbs themselves are out of reach and can not be used as levers to assist. If nothing can be done by pushing the body of the calf back and rotating it and by pressure by the hand in the passages, the only resort appears to be to skin the calf from the shoulder back, cut it in two as far back as can be reached, then push the buttocks well forward into the womb, bring up the hind feet, and so deliver. _Hind limbs excessively bent on the body and engaged in the pelvis._--In this case the presentation is apparently a normal, anterior one; fore limbs and head advanced naturally and the parturition proceeds until half the chest has passed through the external passages, when suddenly progress ceases and no force will effect farther advance. An examination with the oiled hand detects the presence, in the passages, of the hind feet and usually the hind legs up to above the hocks. (Pl. XVII, fig. 1.) The indications for treatment are to return the hind limbs into the body of the womb. If they have not advanced too far into the pelvis, this may be done as follows: A rope with running noose is passed over each hind foot and drawn tight around the lower part of the hock; the ropes are then passed through the two rings in the small end of the rotating instrument (Pl. XX, fig. 5) which is slid into the passages until it reaches the hocks, when the ropes, drawn tight, are tied around the handle of the instrument. Then in the intervals between the pains the hocks are pushed forcibly back into the womb. If by this means flexion can be effected in hocks and stifles, success will follow; the hind feet will pass into the womb and clear of the brim of the pelvis and the body may now be advanced without hindrance, the hind limbs falling into place when the hip joints are extended. At the same time the pressure upon hind limbs must not be relaxed until the buttocks are engaged in the pelvis, as otherwise the feet may again get over the brim and arrest the progress of delivery. When the hind limbs are already so jammed into the pelvis that it is impossible to return them, the calf must be sacrificed to save the mother. Cords with running nooses are first put on the two hind feet. The body must be skinned from the shoulders back as far as can be reached, and is to be then cut in two, if possible, back of the last rib. The remainder of the trunk is now pushed back into the body of the womb and by traction upon the cords the hind feet are brought up into the passages and the extraction will be comparatively easy. _Hind presentation with one or both legs bent at the hock._--After the bursting of the water bags, though labor pains continue, no part of the fetus appears at the vulva unless it be the end of the tail. On examination the buttocks are felt wedged against the spine at the entrance of the pelvis and beneath them the bent hock joints resting on the brim of the pelvis below. (Pl. XVII, fig. 3.) The calf has been caught by the labor pains while the limb was bent beneath it and has been jammed into or against the rim of the pelvis, so that extension of the limb became impossible. With the thigh bent on the flank, the leg on the thigh, and the shank on the leg, and all at once wedged into the passage, delivery is practically impossible. The obvious remedy is to push the croup upward and forward and extend the hind legs, and in the early stages this can usually be accomplished in the cow. A repeller (Pl. XX, fig. 7) is planted across the thighs and pointed upward toward the spine of the cow and pushed forcibly in this direction during the intervals between labor pains. Meanwhile the oiled hand seizes the shank just below the hock and uses it as a lever, pushing the body back and drawing the foot forward, thus effectually seconding the action of the repeller. Soon a distinct gain is manifest, and as soon as the foot can be reached it is bent back strongly at the fetlock, held in the palm of the hand, and pulled up, while the repeller, pressing on the buttocks, assists to make room for it. In this way the foot may be brought safely and easily over the brim of the pelvis without any risk of laceration of the womb of the foot. After the foot has been lifted over the brim, the whole limb can be promptly and easily extended. In cases presenting special difficulty in raising the foot over the brim, help may be had by traction on a rope passed around in front of the hock, and later still by a rope with a noose fastened to the pastern. In the worst cases, with the buttocks and hocks wedged deeply into the passages, it may prove difficult or impossible to push the buttocks back into the abdomen, and in such case the extension of the hind limb is practically impossible without mutilation. In some roomy cows a calf may be dragged through the passages by ropes attached to the bent hocks, but even when this is possible there is great risk of laceration of the floor of the vagina by the feet. The next resort is to cut the hamstring just above the point of the hock and the tendon on the front of the limb (flexor metatarsi) just above the hock, and even the sinews behind the shank bone just below the hock. This allows the stifle and hock to move independently of each other, the one undergoing extension without entailing the extension of the other; it also allows both joints to flex completely, so that the impacted mass can pass through a narrower channel. If now, by dragging on the hocks and operating with the repeller on the buttocks, the latter can be tilted forward sufficiently to allow of the extension of the stifle, the jam will be at once overcome, and the calf may be extracted with the hock bent, but the stifle extended. If even this can not be accomplished, it may now be possible to extract the whole mass with both hocks and stifles fully bent. To attempt this, traction may be made on the rope around the hocks and on a sharp hook (Pl. XX, fig. 2) passed forward between the thighs and hooked on to the brim of the pelvis. Everything else failing, the offending limb or limbs may be cut off at the hip joint and extracted, after which extraction may proceed by dragging on the remaining limb, or by hooks on the hip bones. Very little is to be gained by cutting off the limb at the hock, and the stifle is less accessible than the hip, and amputation of the stifle gives much poorer results. _Hind limbs bent forward from the hip_--_Breech presentation._--This is an exaggeration of the condition last described, only the hocks and stifles are fully extended and the whole limb carried forward beneath the belly. (Pl. XVII, fig. 2.) The water bags appear and burst, but nothing presents unless it may be the tail. Examination in this case detects the outline of the buttocks, with the tail and anus at its upper part. The remedy, as in the case last described, consists in pushing the buttock upward and forward with a repeller, the cow being kept standing and headed downhill until the thigh bone can be reached and used as a lever. Its upper end is pushed forward and its lower end raised until, the joints becoming fully flexed, the point of the hock can be raised above the brim of the pelvis. If necessary a noose may be passed around the leg as far down toward the hock as possible and pulled on forcibly, while the hand presses forward strongly on the back of the leg above. When both hocks have been lodged above the brim of the pelvis the further procedure is as described under the last heading. If, however, the case is advanced and the buttocks wedged firmly into the passages, it may be impossible safely to push the fetus back into the womb, and the calf must either be dragged through the passage as it is or the limbs or the pelvis must be cut off. To extract successfully with a breech presentation the cow must be large and roomy and the calf not too large. The first step in this case is to separate the pelvic bones on the two sides by cutting from before backward, exactly in the median line below and where the thighs come together above. This may be done with a strong embryotomy knife, but is most easily accomplished with the long embryotome (Pl. XX, fig. 3). The form which I have designed (Pl. XX, fig. 1), with a short cutting branch jointed to the main stem, is to be preferred, as the short cutting piece may be folded on the main stem so that its cutting edge will be covered, and it can be introduced and extracted without danger. This is pushed forward beneath the calf's belly, and the cutting arm opened, inserted in front of the brim of the pelvis and pulled forcibly back through the whole length of the pelvic bones. The divided edges are now made to overlap each other and the breadth of the haunch is materially reduced. One end of the cord may then be passed forward by means of a cord carrier (Pl. XXI, fig. 5) on the inner side of one thigh until it can be seized at the stifle by the hand passed forward on the outer side of that thigh. This end is now pulled back through the vagina, the other end passed through the cord carrier and passed forward on the inner side of the other thigh until it can be seized at the stifle by the hand passed forward outside that thigh. This end is drawn back through the vagina like the first, and is tied around the other so as to form a running noose. The rope is now drawn through the ring until it forms a tight loop, encircling the belly just in front of the hind limbs. On this strong traction can be made without interfering with the full flexion of the limbs on the body, and if the case is a suitable one, and the body of the fetus and the passages are both well lubricated with oil or lard, a successful parturition may be accomplished. A less desirable method is to put a rope around one thigh or a rope around each and drag upon these, but manifestly the strain is not so directly on the spine, and the limbs may be somewhat hampered in flexion. This method being inapplicable, the next resort is to cut off one or both hind limbs at the hip joint. Free incisions are made on the side of the haunch so as to expose the hip joint, and the muscles are cut away from the head of the thigh bone down to its narrow neck, around which a rope is passed and firmly fixed with a running noose. The joint is now cut into all around, and while traction is made on the cord the knife is inserted into the inner side of the joint and the round ligament severed. The cord may now be dragged upon forcibly, and the muscles and other parts cut through as they are drawn tense, until finally the whole member has been extracted. Traction on the rope round the other thigh will now suffice to extract, in most cases, but if it should fail the other limb may be cut off in the same manner, and then hooks inserted in front of the brim of the pelvis or in the openings in the bones of its floor (obturator foramina) will give sufficient purchase for extraction. Another method is to insert a knife between the bone of the rump (sacrum) and the hip bone and sever their connections; then cut through the joint (symphysis) between the two hip bones in the median line of the floor of the pelvis, and then with a hook in the opening on the pelvic bones (obturator foramen) drag upon the limb and cut the tense soft parts until the limb is freed and extracted. _Presentation of the back._--In this presentation straining may be active, but after the rupture of the water bags no progress is made, and the hand introduced will recognize the back with its row of spinous processes and the springing ribs at each side pressed against the entrance to the pelvis. (Pl. XVII, fig. 6.) The presence or absence of the ribs will show whether it is the region of the chest or the loins. By feeling along the line of spines until the ribs are met with we shall learn that the head lies in that direction. If, on the contrary, we follow the ribs until they disappear, and a blank space is succeeded by hip bones, it shows that we are approaching the tail. The head may be turned upward, downward, to the right side, or to the left. The object must be to turn the fetus so that one extremity or the other can enter the passage, and the choice of which end to bring forward will depend on various considerations. If one end is much nearer the outlet than the other, that would naturally be selected for extraction, but if they are equidistant the choice would fall on the hind end, as having only the two limbs to deal with without any risk of complication from the head. When the head is turned upward and forward it will usually be preferable to bring up the hind limb, as, owing to the drooping of the womb into the abdomen, rotation of the fetus will usually be easier in that direction, and if successful the resulting position will be a natural posterior presentation, with the back of the calf turned toward the rump of the cow. Similarly with the croup turned upward and forward, that should be pushed on forward, and if the forefeet and head can be secured it will be a natural anterior presentation, with the back of the calf turned upward toward the rump of the cow. The womb should be injected with warm water or oil, and the turning of the calf will demand the combined action of the repeller and the hand, but in all such cases the operator has an advantage that the body of the fetus is wholly within the body of the womb, and therefore movable with comparative ease. No part is wedged into the pelvic passages as a complication. The general principles are the same as in faulty presentation fore and hind, and no time should be lost in making the manipulations necessary to bring the feet into the pelvis, lest they get inbent or otherwise displaced and add unnecessary complications. With a transverse direction of the calf, the head being turned to one side, the pressure must be directed laterally, so that the body will glide around on one side of the womb, and the extremities when reached must be promptly seized and brought into the passages. Sometimes a fortunate struggle of a live fetus will greatly aid in rectifying the position. _Breast and abdomen presented._--All four feet in the passages._--In this form the calf lies across the womb with its roached back turned forward and its belly toward the pelvis. All four feet may be extended and engaged in the passages, or one or more may be bent on themselves so as to lie in front of the pelvis. The head, too, may usually be felt on the right side or the left, and if detected it serves to identify the exact position of the fetus. The position may further be decided upon by examination of the feet and limbs. With the limbs extended the front of the hoofs and the convex aspect of the bent pasterns and fetlocks will look toward that flank in which lie the head and shoulders. On examination still higher the smooth, even outline of the knee and its bend, looking toward the hind parts, characterize the fore limb, while the sharp prominence of the point of the hock and the bend on the opposite side of the joint, looking toward the head, indicate the hind limb. (Pl. XVII, fig. 5.) The remedy of this condition is to be sought in repelling into the womb those limbs that are least eligible for extraction, and bringing into the passages the most eligible extremities. The most eligible will usually be those which project farthest into the passages, indicating the nearer proximity of that end of the calf. An exception may, however, be made in favor of that extremity which will give the most natural presentation. Thus if, owing to obliquity in the position of the fetus, the hind extremities promised a presentation with the back of the fetus turned down toward the udder, and the anterior extremities one with the back turned up toward the spine, the latter should be selected. Again, if the choice for the two extremities is evenly balanced, the hind may be chosen as offering less risk of complication, there being no head to get displaced. The first step in the treatment is to place a running noose on each of the four feet, marking those of the fore limbs to distinguish them from those of the hind ones. In case it is proposed to bring the anterior extremities into the passage, a noose should also be placed on the lower jaw. Then run the ropes attached to the two feet that are to be pushed back through the ring of a cord carrier (Pl. XXI, fig. 5), passing the rings down to the feet, and by the aid of the carrier push them well back into the womb and hold them there. Meanwhile drag upon the ropes attached to the two other feet so as to bring them into the passage (or, in case of the anterior extremity, on the two foot ropes and the head one). The other feet must be pushed back into the womb until the body of the calf is fully engaged in the passages. After this they can no longer find an entrance, but must follow as the body escapes. NEGLECTED AND AGGRAVATED CASES. In laying down the foregoing rules for giving assistance in critical cases of calving it is not intimated that all cases and stages can be successfully dealt with. Too often assistance is not sought for many hours or even days after labor pains, and the escape of the waters intimate the danger of delay. Not seldom the long delay has been filled up with unintelligent and injurious attempts at rendering assistance, violent pulling when resistance is insurmountable without change of position, injuries to the vagina and womb by ill-considered but too forcibly executed attempts to change the position, the repeated and long-continued contact with rough hands and rougher ropes and hooks, the gashes with knives and lacerations with instruments in ignorant hands, the infecting material introduced on filthy hands and instruments, and the septic inflammations started in the now dry and tender passages and womb. Not infrequently the death, putrefaction, and bloating of the calf in the womb render the case extremely unpromising and make it impossible to apply successfully many of the measures above recommended. The labor pains of the cow may have practically ceased from exhaustion; the passages of the vagina may be so dry, tender, friable, red, and swollen that it requires considerable effort even to pass the oiled hand through them, and the extraction of the calf or any portion of it through such a channel seems a hopeless task; the womb may be equally dry, inflamed and swollen, so that its lining membrane or even its entire thickness is easily torn; the fetal membranes have lost their natural, unctuous and slippery character, and cling firmly to the dry walls of the womb, to the dry skin of the calf, or to the hands of the operator; the dead and putrefying calf may be so bloated with gases that the womb has been overdistended by its presence, and the two adhere so closely that the motion of the one on the other is practically impossible. In other cases reckless attempts to cut the calf in pieces have left raw surfaces with projecting bones which dangerously scratch and tear the womb and passages. In many cases the extreme resort must be had of cutting the fetus to pieces (embryotomy), or the still more redoubtable one of Cæsarean section (extraction through the flank). DISSECTION OF THE UNBORN CALF (EMBRYOTOMY). In some cases the dissection of the calf is the only feasible means of delivering it through the natural passages; and while it is especially applicable to the dead calf, it is also on occasion called for in the case of the living. As a rule, the living calf should be preserved, if possible, but if this threatens to entail the death of the cow it is only in the case of offspring of rare value that its preservation is to be preferred. To those acquainted with the toil, fatigue, and discomfort of embryotomy, no discussion is necessary so long as there is a prospect of success from the simple and generally easier method of rectifying the faulty position of the calf. When the correction of the position is manifestly impossible, however, when distortions and monstrosities of the fetus successfully obstruct delivery, when the pelvic passages are seriously contracted by fractures and bony growths, when the passages are virtually almost closed by swelling, or when the calf is dead and excessively swollen, no other resort may be available. In many cases of distortion and displacement the dismemberment of the entire calf is unnecessary, the removal of the offending member being all that is required. It will be convenient, therefore, to describe the various suboperations one by one and in the order in which they are usually demanded. _Amputation of the fore limb._--In cutting off a fore limb it is the one presenting that should be selected, since it is much more easily operated on, and its complete removal from the side of the chest affords so much more space for manipulation that it often makes it easy to bring the other missing limb or the head into position. The first consideration is to skin the limb from the fetlock up and leave the skin attached to the body. The reasons for this are: (_a_) That the skin is the most resistant structure of the limb, and when it has been removed the entire limb can be easily detached; (_b_) the tough skin left from the amputated limb may be used as a cord in subsequent traction on the body of the calf; (_c_) the dissection and separation of the limb are far more safely accomplished under the protection of the enveloping skin than if the operator's hands and instruments were in direct contact with the walls of the passages or womb; (_d_) the dissection can be much more easily effected while the skin is stretched by the left hand, so as to form a comparatively firmer resistant point for the knife, than when it is attempted to cut the soft, yielding, and elastic tissues which naturally offer little solid resistance, but constantly recede before the cutting edge of the instrument. The preservation of the skin is therefore a cardinal principle in the amputation of all parts in which it is at all feasible. The presenting foot is inclosed in a noose and drawn well out of the passages. Then a circular incision through the skin is made around the limb just above the fetlock. From this the skin is slit up on the inner side of the limb to the breast. Then the projecting part of the limb is skinned up to the vulva, traction being made on the foot by an assistant so as to expose as much as possible. The embryotomy knife may now be taken (Pl. XXI, fig. 2), and a small hole having been cut in the free end of the detached portion of skin, that is seized by the left hand and extended while its firm connections with the deeper structures are cut through. The looser connections can be more quickly torn through with the closed fist or the tips of the four fingers held firmly together in a line or with the spud, of which there are several kinds. Much of the upper part of the limb can be skinned more speedily without the knife, but that must be resorted to to cut across tough bands whenever these interrupt the progress. The skinning should be carried upward on the outer side of the shoulder blade to the spine or nearly so. Then with the knife the muscles attaching the elbow and shoulder to the breastbone are cut across, together with those on the inner side of the shoulder joint and in front and behind it as far as these can be reached. Steady traction is now made upon the foot, the remaining muscles attaching the shoulder blade to the trunk are torn through with a cracking noise, and the whole limb, including the shoulder blade and its investing muscles, comes away. If the shoulder blade is left the bulk of the chest is not diminished, and nothing has been gained. Before going further it is well to see whether the great additional space thus secured in the passages will allow of the missing limb or head to be brought into position. If not, the other presenting part, limb or head, is to be amputated and extracted. For the limb the procedure is a repetition of that just described. _Amputation of the head._--The head is first seized and drawn well forward, or even outside the vulva, by a rope with a running noose placed around the lower jaw just behind the incisor teeth, by a sharp hook inserted in the arch of the lower jaw behind the union of its two branches and back of the incisor teeth, or by hooks inserted in the orbits, or, finally, in case the whole head protrudes, by a halter. (Pl. XXI, figs 4_a_ and 4_b._) In case the whole head protrudes, a circular incision through the skin is made just back of the ear, and the cut edge being held firmly by the left hand, the neck is skinned as far as it can be reached. Then the great ligamentous cord above the spine is cut across at the farthest available point, together with the muscles above and below the spine. Strong traction on the head will then detach it at this point and bring it away, but should there still be too much resistance the knife is inserted between the bodies of two vertebræ just behind one of the prominent points felt in the median line below, and their connecting fibrous cartilage is cut through, after which comparatively moderate pulling will bring it away. The detached neck and body at once slip back into the womb, and if the fore limbs are now brought up and pulled they are advanced so far upon the chest that the transverse diameter of that is greatly diminished and delivery correspondingly facilitated. If the head is still inclosed in the vagina two methods are available: (1) The removal of the lower jaw and subsequent separation of the head from the neck; (2) the skinning of the whole head and its separation from the neck. To remove the lower jaw the skin is dissected away from it until the throat is reached. Then the muscles of the cheeks and side of the jaw (masseters) are cut through and those connecting the jaw with the neck. When traction is made on the rope around the lower jaw it will usually come away with little trouble. Should it resist, its posterior extremity on each side (behind the grinding teeth) may be cut through with bone forceps or with a guarded bone chisel. (Pl. XX, fig. 8.) After the removal of the lower jaw the way will be open to separate the head from the neck, the knife being used to cut into the first or second joint from below, or the bone forceps or chisel being employed to cut through the bones of the neck. Then traction is made on the head by means of hooks in the orbits, and the hand, armed with an embryotomy knife, is introduced to cut through the tense resisting ligament, and muscles above the bones. The skin and the strong ligamentous cord attached to the poll are the essential things to cut, as the muscles can easily be torn across. Unless there are great difficulties in the way it is well to skin the head from the eyes back, and on reaching the poll to cut through the ligament and then bring the head away by pulling. If it is decided to remove the entire head at once, it may be skinned from the front of the eyes back to behind the lower jaw below and the poll above, then cut through the muscles and ligaments around the first joint and pull the head away, assisting, if need be, in the separation of the head by using the knife on the ligament of the joint. If the calf is a double-headed monster, the skinning of the head must be carried backward until the point has been reached where both heads branch from the single neck, and the separation must be made at that point. The muscles and ligaments are first to be cut through; and if the part can not then be detached by pulling, the bodies of the vertebræ may be separated by passing the knife through the joint. The second head may now be secured by a noose around the lower jaw or hooks in the orbits and brought up into place, the body being pushed back toward the other side by a repeller, so as to make room. It should be added that, except in the case of a double-headed monster, or in case of the head protruding or nearly so, and one or both fore limbs presenting, it is rarely desirable to undertake amputation of the head. The space desirable in the passages can usually be obtained by the much simpler and easier procedure of removing one or both fore limbs. _Amputation of the hind limbs._--This is sometimes demanded on the one extended limb when the other can not be brought up and delivery can not be effected; also in case of monsters having extra hind limbs; when the calf is dead, putrid, and bloated with gas; and in some cases of breech presentation, as described under that head. When the limb is extended the guiding principles are as in the case of the fore limbs. The skin is cut through circularly above the fetlock and slit up to beneath the pelvic bones on the inner side of the thigh. It is then dissected from the other parts as high as it has been slit on the inner side and to above the prominence (_trochanter major_) on the upper end of the thigh bone on the outer side of the joint. In this procedure the hands and spud can do much, but owing to the firmer connections the knife will be more frequently required than in the case of the fore limb. The muscles are now cut through all around the hip joint, and strong traction is made by two or three men on the limb. If there is still too much resistance, a knife is inserted into the joint on the inner side and its round ligament cut through, after which extraction will be comparatively easy. This accomplished, it will often be possible to extract the fetus with the other leg turned forward into the womb. If the calf is bloated with gas, it may be necessary to remove the other leg in the same way, and even to cut open the chest and abdomen and remove their contents before extraction can be effected. In the case of extra limbs it may be possible to bring them up into the passages after the presenting hind limbs have been removed. If this is not practicable, they may be detached by cutting them through at the hip joint, as described under "Breech presentation," page 197. Another method of removing the hind limb is, after having skinned it over the quarter, to cut through the pelvic bones from before backward, in the median line below, by knife, saw, or long embryotome (Pl. XX, fig. 1), and then disjoint the bones of the spine (sacrum) and the hip bone (ilium) on that side with embryotome, knife, or saw, and then drag away the entire limb, along with all the hip bones on that side. This has the advantage of securing more room and thereby facilitating subsequent operations. Both limbs may be removed in this way, but on the removal of the second the operator is without any solid point to drag upon in bringing away the remainder of the fetus. _Division across the middle of the body._--In cases of extra size, monstrosity, or distortion of one end of the body it may be requisite to cut the body in two and return the half from the passages into womb, even after one-half has been born. The presenting members are dragged upon forcibly by assistants to bring as much of the body as possible outside. Then cut through the skin around the body at some distance from the vulva, and with hand, knife, and spud detach it from the trunk as far back into the passages as can be reached. Next cut across the body at the point reached, beginning at the lower part (breast, belly) and proceeding up toward the spine. This greatly favors the separation of the backbone when reached, and further allows of its being extended so that it can be divided higher up. When the backbone is reached, the knife is passed between the two bones, the prominent ridges across their ends acting as guides, and by dragging and twisting the one is easily detached from the other. With an anterior presentation the separation should, if possible, be made behind the last rib, while with a posterior presentation as many of the ribs should be brought away as can be accomplished. Having removed one half of the body, the remaining half is to be pushed back into the womb, the feet sought and secured with nooses, and the second half removed in one piece if possible; and if not, then after the removal of the extra limb or other cause of obstruction. _Removed of the contents of chest or abdomen._--If the body of the calf sticks fast in the passages by reason of the mere dryness of its skin and of the passages, the obstacle may be removed by injecting sweet oil past the fetus into the womb through a rubber or other tube, and smearing the passages freely with lard. When the obstruction depends on excess of size of the chest or abdomen or thickening of the body from distorted spine, much advantage may be derived from the removal of the contents of these great cavities of the trunk. We have already seen how the haunches may be narrowed by cutting the bones apart in the median line below and causing their free edges to overlap each other. The abdomen can be cut open by the embryotomy knife or the long embryotome in the median line, or at any point, and the contents pulled out with the hand, the knife being used in any case when especial resistance is encountered. If the abdomen is so firmly impacted that it can not be dealt within this way, one hind limb and the hip bone on the same side may be removed as described under "Amputation of the hind limbs," page 205. This will allow the introduction of the hand into the abdomen from behind, so as to pull out the contents. By introducing an embryotomy knife in the palm of the hand and cutting through the muscle of the diaphragm the interior of the chest can be reached in the same way and the heart and lungs removed. When, in dealing with an anterior presentation, it becomes necessary to remove the contents of the chest, the usual course is to cut through the connections of the ribs with the breastbone (the costal cartilages) close to the breastbone on each side, and from the abdomen forward to the neck. Then cut through the muscles connecting the front of the breastbone with the neck and its hinder end with the belly, and pull out the entire breastbone. Having torn out the heart and lungs with the hand, make the rib cartilages on the one side overlap those on the other, so as to lessen the thickness of the chest, and proceed to extract the body. If it seems needful to empty the abdomen as well, it is easy to reach it by cutting through the diaphragm, which separates it from the chest. _Delivery through the flank_ (_Cæsarean section, or laparotomy_).--This is sometimes demanded, when the distortion and narrowing of the hip bones are such as to forbid the passage of the calf, or when inflammation has practically closed the natural passages and the progeny is more valuable and worthy of being saved than the dam; also in cases in which the cow has been fatally injured, or is ill beyond possibility of recovery and yet carries a living calf. It is too often a last resort after long and fruitless efforts to deliver by the natural channels, and in such cases the saving of the calf is all that can be expected, the exhausted cow, already the subject of active inflammation and too often also of putrid poisoning, is virtually beyond hope. The hope of saving the dam is greatest if she is in good health and not fatigued, in cases, for example, in which the operation is resorted to on account of broken hip bones or abnormally narrow passages. The stock owner will not attempt such a serious operation as this. Yet, if the mother has just died or is to be immediately sacrificed, no one should hesitate to resort to it in order to save the calf. If alive, it is important to have the cow perfectly still. Her left fore leg being bent at the knee by one person, another may seize the left horn and nose and turn the head to the right until the nose rests on the spine just above the shoulder. The cow will sink down gently on her left side without shock or struggle. One may now hold the head firmly to the ground, while a second, carrying the end of the tail from behind forward on the inside of the right thigh, pulls upon it so as to keep the right hind limb well raised from the ground. If time presses she may be operated on in this position, or if the cow is to be sacrificed a blow on the head with an ax will produce quietude. Then the prompt cutting into the abdomen and womb and the extraction of the calf requires no skill. If, however, the cow is to be preserved, her two forefeet and the lower hind one should be safely fastened together and the upper hind one drawn back. Two ounces chloral hydrate, given by injection, should induce sleep in 20 minutes, and the operation may proceed. In case the cow is to be preserved, wash the right flank and apply a solution of 4 grains of corrosive sublimate in a pint of water. Then, with an ordinary scalpel or knife, dipped in the above-mentioned solution, make an incision from 2 inches below and in front of the outer angle of the hip bone in a direction downward and slightly forward to a distance of 12 inches. Cut through the muscles, and more carefully through the transparent lining membrane of the abdomen (peritoneum), letting the point of the knife lie in the groove between the first two fingers of the left hand as they are slid down inside the membrane and with their back to the intestines. An assistant, whose hands, like those of the operator, have been dipped in the sublimate solution, may press his hands on the wound behind the knife to prevent the protrusion of the intestines. The operator now feels for and brings up to the wound the gravid womb, allowing it to bulge well through the abdominal wound, so as to keep back the bowels and prevent any escape of water into the abdomen. This is seconded by two assistants, who press the lips of the wound against the womb. Then an incision 12 inches long is made into the womb at its most prominent point, deep enough to penetrate its walls, but not so as to cut into the water bags. In cutting, carefully avoid the cotyledons, which may be felt as hard masses inside. By pressure the water bags may be made to bulge out as in natural parturition, and this projecting portion may be torn or cut so as to let the liquid flow down outside of the belly. The operator now plunges his hand into the womb, seizes the fore or hind limbs, and quickly extracts the calf and gives it to an attendant to convey to a safe place. The womb may be drawn out, but not until all the liquid has flowed out, and the fetal membranes must be separated from the natural cotyledons, one by one, and the membranes removed. The womb is now emptied with a sponge, which has been boiled or squeezed out of a sublimate solution, and if any liquid has fallen into the abdomen it may be removed in the same way. A few stitches are now placed in the wound in the womb, using carbolized catgut. They need not be very close together, as the wound will diminish greatly when the womb contracts. Should the womb not contract at once it may have applied against it a sponge squeezed out of a cold sublimate solution, or it may be drawn out of the abdominal wound and exposed to the cold air until it contracts. Its contraction is necessary to prevent bleeding from its enormous network of veins. When contracted, the womb is returned into the abdomen and the abdominal wound sewed up. One set of stitches, to be placed at intervals of 2 inches, is passed through the entire thickness of skin and muscles and tied around two quills or little rollers resting on the skin. (Pl. XXVII, fig. 7.) These should be of silver, and may be cut at one end and pulled out after the wound has healed. The superficial stitches are put in every half inch and passed through the skin only. They, too, may be of silver, or pins may be inserted through the lips and a fine cord twisted round their ends like a figure 8. (Pl. XXVII, fig. 9.) The points of the pins may be snipped off with pliers. The edges may be still further held together by the application of Venice turpentine, melted so as to become firmly adherent, and covered with a layer of sterilized cotton wool. Then the whole should be supported by a bandage fixed around the loins and abdomen. * * * * * DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE XII. Fetal calf within its membranes (at mid term). The uterus is opened on the left side. In the uterus the fetus is surrounded by several membranes which are known as the amnion or inner layer, the allantois or central layer, and the chorion or outer layer. The amnion is nearest the fetus and forms a closed sac around it filled with a fluid known as liquor amnii, in which the fetus floats. The allantois is composed of two layers, which form a closed sac in connection with the urachus, or the tube which extends from the fetal bladder through the umbilical cord. The one layer of the allantois is spread over the outer surface of the amnion and the other over the inner surface of chorion. The allantois also contains a fluid which is known as the allantoid liquid. The chorion is the outer envelope or membrane of the fetus, completely inclosing the fetus with its other membranes. On the outer surface of this membrane are found the fetal placentulæ, or cotyledons, which, through their attachment to the maternal cotyledons, furnish the fetus with the means of sustaining life. The relation of the fetal and maternal cotyledons to each other is illustrated on the following plate. PLATE XIII. Pregnant uterus with cotyledons. Fig. 1. Uterus of the cow during pregnancy, laid open to show the cotyledons (_d_) on the internal surface of uterus (_c_). The ovary (_a_) is shown cut across, and the two halves are laid open to show the position of the discharged ovum at _a_'. Fig. 2 illustrates the relation of the fetal and maternal parts of a cotyledon. A portion of the uterus (_A_) is shown with the maternal cotyledon (_BB_) attached to it. The fetal portion (_D_) consists of a mass of very minute hairlike processes on the chorion (_E_), which fit into corresponding depressions or pits of the maternal portion. Each portion is abundantly supplied with blood vessels, so that a ready interchange of nutritive fluid may take place between mother and fetus. PLATE XIV. Vessels of umbilical cord. Fig. 1. Fetal calf with a portion of the wall of the abdominal cavity of the right side and the stomach and intestines removed to illustrate the nature of the umbilical or navel cord. It consists of a tube (1-1') into which pass the two umbilical arteries (3) carrying blood to the placenta in the uterus or womb and the umbilical vein (4) bringing the blood back and carrying it into the liver. The cord also contains the urachus (2') which carries urine from the bladder (2) through the cord. These vessels are all obliterated at birth. 5, liver; 5', lobe of same, known as the lobus Spigelii; 5'', gall bladder; 6, right kidney; 6', left kidney; 6'', ureters, or the tubes conducting the urine from the kidneys to the bladder; 7, rectum, where it has been severed in removing the intestines; 8, uterus of the fetus, cut off at the anterior extremity; 9, aorta; 10, posterior vena cava. (From _Fürstenberg-Leisering, Anatomie und Physiologie des Rindes._) Fig. 2. Blood vessels passing through the umbilical cord in a human fetus. (From Quain's Anatomy, vol. 2.) _L_, liver; _K_, kidney; _I_, intestines; _U C_, umbilical cord; _Ua_, umbilical arteries. The posterior aorta coming from the heart passes backward and gives rise to the internal iliac arteries, and of these the umbilical arteries are branches. _Uv_, umbilical vein; this joins the portal vein, passes onward to the liver, breaks up into smaller vessels, which reunite in the hepatic vein; this empties into the posterior vena cava, which carries the blood back to the heart. * * * * * [Illustration: PLATE XII. FETAL CALF WITHIN ITS MEMBRANES.] [Illustration: PLATE XIII. PREGNANT UTERUS WITH COTYLEDONS.] [Illustration: PLATE XIV. VESSELS OF UMBILICAL CORD.] [Illustration: PLATE XV.] [Illustration: PLATE XVI.] [Illustration: PLATE XV. NORMAL POSITION OF CALF IN UTERO.] [Illustration: PLATE XVI. ABNORMAL POSITIONS OF CALF IN UTERO.] [Illustration: PLATE XVII. ABNORMAL POSITIONS OF CALF IN UTERO.] * * * * * PLATE XV. Normal position of calf in utero. This is the most favorable position of the calf or fetus in the womb at birth, and the position in which it is most frequently found. This is known as the normal anterior position. The back of the fetus is directly toward that of the mother, the forelegs are extended back toward the vulva of the mother, and the head rests between them. The birth of the calf in this position usually takes place without artificial assistance. PLATE XVI. Abnormal positions of calf in utero. (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 5 from Fleming's Veterinary Obstetrics; fig. 4 after St. Cyr, from Hill's Bovine Medicine and Surgery; fig. 6 from D'Arboval, Dictionaire de Médecine et de Chirurgie.) Fig. 1. Anterior presentation; one fore limb completely retained. The retained limb must be reached if possible and brought forward joint by joint and the fetus then extracted. Fig. 2. Anterior presentation; fore limbs bent at knee. The limbs must be extended before delivery can be accomplished. Fig. 3. Anterior presentation; fore limb crossed over neck. The leg should be grasped a little above the fetlock, raised, drawn to its proper side, and extended in genital canal. Fig. 4. Anterior presentation; downward deviation of head. The head must be brought into position seen in Plate XV before delivery can take place. Fig. 5. Anterior presentation; deviation of the head upward and backward. Retropulsion is the first indication, and will often bring the head into its normal position. Fig. 6. Anterior presentation; head presented with back down. The fetus should be turned by pushing back the fore parts and bringing up the hind so as to make a posterior presentation. PLATE XVII. Abnormal positions of calf in utero. (Figs. 2 and 3 from Fleming; figs. 4, 5, and 6 from D'Arboval.) Fig. 1. Anterior presentation, with hind feet engaged in pelvis. A very serious malpresentation, in which it is generally impossible to save the fetus if delivery is far advanced. The indications are to force back the hind feet. Fig. 2. Thigh and croup presentation, showing the fetus corded. The cord has a ring or noose at one end. The two ends of the cord are passed between the thighs, brought out at the flanks, and the plain end passed through the noose at the top of the back and brought outside the vulva. The fetus must be pushed back and an attempt made to bring the limbs properly into the genital passage. Fig. 3. Croup and hock presentation. The indications in this abnormal presentation are the same as described for Fig. 2. Fig. 4. Posterior presentation; the fetus on its back. Turn the fetus so as to make a normal anterior presentation. Fig. 5. Sterno-abdominal presentation. The fetus is on its side with limbs crossing and presenting. The limbs least eligible for extraction should be forced back into the uterus. Fig. 6. Dorso-lumbar presentation; the back presenting. The fetus must be turned so that one or the other extremity can enter the passage. PLATE XVIII. Abnormal positions of the calf in utero. Surgical instruments and sutures. Fig. 1. Twin pregnancy, showing the normal anterior and posterior presentations. (From Fleming.) Fig. 2. Abdominal dropsy of the fetus; normal presentation; fore limbs corded. (After Armatage.) The drawing illustrates the method of puncturing the abdomen through the chest with a long trocar and cannula. The fluid is represented escaping from the cannula after the withdrawal of the trocar. Fig. 3. Tallich's short, bent, crotchet forceps. The forceps have bent and toothed jaws, which are intended to take hold of the fetus where neither cords nor hooks can be applied, as the ear, nose, or skin of cheek. Fig. 4. Clamp for ear, skin, etc.: 1-1, blades with hooks and corresponding holes; 2, ring to close the blades; 3, stem with female screw for handle; 4, handle, which may be either straight or jointed and flexible. PLATE XIX. Monstrosities. This plate illustrates various malformations and diseases of the fetus which act as the cause of difficult parturition. Figs. 1, 2, 3. Fetuses with portions of their bodies double. Fig. 1 (from Fleming), double head, neck, and fore limbs. Fig. 2 (from Encyclop. der Gesam. Thierheilkunde, 1886), double head, neck, fore limbs, and body. Fig. 3 (from Fleming), double faced. Fig. 4. Fetus with head very much enlarged. (From Fleming.) This affection is known as hydrocephalus, or dropsy of the brain, and is due to a more or less considerable quantity of fluid in the cranial cavity of the fetus. Fig. 5. Skull of the calf represented in Fig. 4. The roof of the skull is absent. (From Fleming.) PLATE XX. Instruments used in difficult labor. Fig. 1. Long embryotome with joint. Fig. 2. Long, sharp hook. This instrument is about 3 feet in length, including the handle. Hooks of this kind, both blunt and sharp, are applied directly to the fetus to assist in delivery. Fig. 3. Günther's long-handled embryotome. This instrument and that represented in Fig. 1 are of special value in cutting through muscular tissue and in separating the limbs from the trunk when the fetus can not be removed entire. These embryotomes are usually 30 inches long, but may be made either longer or shorter. Fig. 4. Jointed cord-carrier, used in difficult parturition to carry a cord into regions which can not be reached by the arm. Fig. 5. Instrument used to rotate or turn the fetus, known as a rotator. Fig. 6. Dilator of the neck of the womb, used when conception can not take place owing to a contracted condition of the neck of the womb. Fig. 7. Repeller. An instrument from 2 to 3 feet long, used to force the fetus forward into the womb. This operation is generally necessary when the presentation is abnormal and the fetus has advanced too far into the narrow inlet to the uterus to be moved. Fig. 8. Cartwright's bone chisel. Including the handle, this instrument is about 32 inches in length; the chisel portion is a little more than 2 inches long and 1 to 1-1/2 broad. Only the middle portion is sharp, the projecting corners are blunt, and the sides rounded. This instrument is used for slitting up the skin of a limb and as a bone chisel when it is necessary to mutilate the fetus in order to effect delivery. * * * * * [Illustration: PLATE XVIII. ABNORMAL POSITION OF CALF IN UTERO. SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND SUTURES.] [Illustration: PLATE XIX. MONSTROSITIES.] [Illustration: PLATE XX. INSTRUMENTS USED IN DIFFICULT LABOR.] [Illustration: PLATE XXI. INSTRUMENTS USED IN DIFFICULT LABOR.] * * * * * PLATE XXI. Instruments used in difficult labor. Fig. 1. Embryotome, an instrument used when it is necessary to reduce the size of the fetus by cutting away certain parts before birth can be effected. This instrument may be long or short, straight or curved. Fig. 2. Also an embryotome. The blade can be made to slide out of or into the handle. The instrument can thus be introduced into or withdrawn from the genital passage without risk of injury to the mother. Fig. 3. Schaack's traction cord. This is merely a cord with a running noose at one end and a piece of wood at the other, to offer a better hold for the hand. Figs. 4_a_ and 4_b._ Reuff's head collar for securing the head of the fetus. Fig. 5. Curved cord-carrier, used in difficult parturition to carry a cord into regions which can not be reached by the arm. Fig. 6. Blunt hook, used in difficult parturition. Fig. 7. Short hook forceps, used in difficult parturition. Fig. 8. Blunt finger hook. * * * * * DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. By James Law, F. R. C. V. S., _Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University._ FLOODING (BLEEDING FROM THE WOMB). Though not so common in the cow as in the human female, flooding is sufficiently frequent to demand attention. It may depend on a too rapid calving and a consequent failure of the womb to contract when the calf has been removed. The pregnant womb is extraordinarily rich in blood vessels, especially in large and tortuous veins, which become compressed and almost obliterated under contraction, but remain overfilled and often bleed into the cavity of the womb should no contraction take place. Cox records cases in which the labor pains had detached and expelled the fetal membranes, while the calf, owing to large size or wrong presentation, was detained in the womb, and the continued dilatation of the womb in the absence of the fetal membranes led to a flow of blood which accumulated in clots around the calf. Other causes are laceration of the cotyledons of the womb, or from an antecedent inflammation of the placenta, and the unnatural adhesion of the membranes to the womb, which bleeds when the two are torn apart. Weakness of the womb from overdistention, as in dropsy, twins, etc., is not without its influence. Finally, eversion of the womb (casting the withers) is an occasional cause of flooding. The trouble is only too evident when the blood flows from the external passages in drops or in a fine stream. When it is retained in the cavity of the womb, however, it may remain unsuspected until it has rendered the animal almost bloodless. The symptoms in such case are paleness of the eyes, nose, mouth, and of the lips of the vulva, a weak, rapid pulse, violent and perhaps loud beating of the heart (palpitations), sunken, staring eyes, coldness of the skin, ears, horns, and limbs, perspiration, weakness in standing, staggering gait, and, finally, inability to rise, and death in convulsions. If these symptoms are seen, the oiled hand should be introduced into the womb, which will be found open and flaccid and containing large blood clots. _Treatment._--Treatment consists in the removal of the fetal membranes and blood clots from the womb (which will not contract while they are present), the dashing of cold water on the loins, right flank, and vulva, and if these measures fail, the injection of cold water into the womb through a rubber tube furnished with a funnel. In obstinate cases a good-sized sponge soaked in tincture of muriate of iron should be introduced into the womb and firmly squeezed, so as to bring the iron into contact with the bleeding surface. This is at once an astringent and a coagulant for the blood, besides stimulating the womb to contraction. In the absence of this agent astringents (solution of copperas, alum, tannic acid, or acetate of lead) may be thrown into the womb, and one-half-dram doses of acetate of lead may be given by the mouth, or 1 ounce powdered ergot of rye may be given in gruel. When nothing else is at hand, an injection of oil of turpentine will sometimes promptly check the bleeding. EVERSION OF THE WOMB (CASTING THE WITHERS). Like flooding, this is the result of failure of the womb to contract after calving. If that organ contracts naturally, the afterbirth is expelled, the internal cavity of the womb is nearly closed, and the mouth of the organ becomes so narrow that the hand can not be forced through, much less the whole mass of the matrix. When, however, it fails to contract, the closed end of one of the horns may fall into its open internal cavity, and under the compression of the adjacent intestines, and the straining and contraction of the abdominal walls, it is forced farther and farther, until the whole organ is turned outside in, slides back through the vagina, and hangs from the vulva. The womb can be instantly distinguished from the protruding vagina or bladder by the presence, over its whole surface, of 50 to 100 mushroomlike bodies (cotyledons), each 2 to 3 inches in diameter, and attached by a narrow neck. (Pls. XII, XIII.) When fully everted, it is further recognizable by a large, undivided body hanging from the vulva, and two horns or divisions which hang down toward the hocks. In the imperfect eversions the body of the womb may be present with two depressions leading into the two horns. In the cases of some standing the organ has become inflamed and gorged with blood until it is as large as a bushel basket, its surface has a dark-red, bloodlike hue, and tears and bleeds on the slightest touch. Still later lacerations, raw sores, and even gangrene are shown in the mass. At the moment of protrusion the general health is not altered, but soon the inflammation and fever with the violent and continued straining induce exhaustion, and the cow lies down, making no attempt to rise. _Treatment._--Treatment varies somewhat, according to the degree of the eversion. In partial eversion, with the womb protruding only slightly from the vulva and the cow standing, let an assistant pinch the back to prevent straining while the operator pushes his closed fist into the center of the mass and carries it back through the vagina, assisting in returning the surrounding parts by the other hand. In more complete eversion, but with the womb as yet of its natural bulk and consistency and the cow standing, straining being checked by pinching the back, a sheet is held by two men so as to sustain the everted womb and raise it to the level of the vulva. It is now sponged clean with cold water, the cold being useful in driving out the blood and reducing the bulk, and finally it may be sponged over with laudanum or with a weak solution of carbolic acid (1 dram to 1 quart water). The closed fist may now be planted in the rounded end of the largest horn and pushed on so as to turn it back within itself and carry it on through the vagina, the other hand being used meanwhile to assist in the inversion and in pushing the different masses in succession within the lips of the vulva. In case of failure, resort should be had at once to a plan which I have successfully followed for many years. Take a long linen or cotton bandage, 5 or 6 inches wide, and wind it around the protruding womb as tightly as it can be drawn, beginning at the free end and gradually covering the entire mass up to the vulva. By this means the greater part of the blood will be forced out of the organ and its bulk greatly reduced, so that its reduction is much facilitated. An additional advantage is found in the protection given to the womb by its investing bandage while it is being pushed forward into the vagina and abdomen. In manipulating the exposed womb there is always danger of laceration, but when the organ is covered with a sheet it is next to impossible to tear it. The subsequent manipulation is as in the other case, by pushing the blind end forward within itself with the closed fist and carrying this on through the vagina into the abdomen with the constant assistance of the other hand. Often it will be found convenient to use the edge of the left hand to push the outer part of the protruding mass inside the lips of the vulva, while the right hand and arm are carrying the central portions forward through the vagina. An intelligent assistant, pushing with the palms of both hands on the outer portion of the mass, will also afford material assistance. As the womb is turned within itself the wrapping bandage will gradually loosen, but once the great mass has entered the passages it is easy to compel the rest to follow, and the compression by the bandage is no longer so important. When the womb is fully replaced the bandage is left in its interior in a series of loose folds, and can be easily withdrawn. It is well to move the hand from side to side to insure that the two horns of the womb are fully extended and on about the same level before withdrawing the arm and applying a truss. When the womb has been long everted and is gorged with blood, inflamed, and friable there is often the additional disadvantage that the animal is unable or unwilling to rise. When lying down the straining can not be controlled so effectually, and, even in the absence of straining, the compression of the belly is so great as to prove a serious obstacle to reduction. The straining may be checked by 2 or 3 ounces of laudanum or 2 ounces of chloral hydrate, or by inhalation of chloroform to insensibility, and then by raising the hind parts on straw bundles the gravitation of the abdominal organs forward may be made to lessen the resistance. If not successful in this way, the cow may be further turned on her back, and if return is still impossible, the hind limbs may be tied together and drawn up to a beam overhead by the aid of a pulley. In this position, in place of the pressure backward of the bowels proving a hindrance, their gravitation forward proves a most material help to reduction. In seeking to return the womb the sponging with ice-cold water, raising on a sheet, and wrapping in a tight bandage should be resorted to. Another method which is especially commendable in these inflamed conditions of the womb is to bring a piece of linen sheet, 30 by 36 inches, under the womb, with its anterior border close up to the vulva, then turn the posterior border upward and forward over the organ, and cross the two ends over this and over each other above. The ends of the sheet are steadily drawn, so as to tighten its hold on the womb, which is thus held on the level of the vulva or above, and cold water is constantly poured upon the mass. The reduction is further sought by compression of the mass with the palms applied outside the sheet. Fifteen or twenty minutes are usually sufficient to cause the return of the womb, provided straining is prevented by pinching the back, or otherwise. In old and aggravated cases, with the womb torn, bruised, or even gangrenous, the only resort is to amputate the entire mass. This is done by tying a strong, waxed cord around the protruding mass close to the vulva, winding the cord around pieces of wood, so as to draw it as tightly as possible, cutting off the organ below this ligature, tying a thread on any artery that may still bleed, and returning the stump well into the vagina. Retention of the returned womb is the next point, and is most easily accomplished by a rope truss. Take two ropes, each about 18 feet long and an inch in thickness. Double each rope at its middle, and lay the one above the other at the bend, so as to form an ovoid of about 8 inches in its long diameter. Twist each end of the one rope twice around the other, so that this ovoid will remain when they are drawn tight. (Pls. XXII and XXIII.) Tie a strap or rope around the back part of the neck and a surcingle around the body. Place the rope truss on the animal so that the ovoid ring will surround the vulva, the two ascending ropes on the right and left of the tail and the two descending ones down inside the thighs on the right and left of the udder. These descending ropes are carried forward on the sides of the body and tied to the surcingle and to the neck collar. The ascending ropes proceed forward on the middle of the back, twisting over each other, and are tied to the surcingle and collar. The upper and lower ropes are drawn so tightly that the rope ring is made to press firmly all around the vulva without risk of displacement. This should be worn for several days, until the womb shall have closed and all risk of further eversion is at an end. Variations of this device are found in the use of a narrow triangle of iron applied around the vulva and fixed by a similar arrangement of ropes, surcingle, and collar (Pl. XXIII, fig. 3), a common crupper similarly held around the vulva (Pl. XXII, fig. 1), stitches through the vulva, and wire inserted through the skin on the two hips (Pl. XXIII, fig. 2), so that they will cross behind the vulva; also pessaries of various kinds should be inserted into the vagina. None of these devices, however, present any advantage over the simple and comparatively painless rope truss described above. Such additional precautions as keeping the cow in a stall higher behind than in front, and seeing that the diet is slightly laxative and nonstimulating may be named. If straining is persistent, ounce doses of laudanum may be used twice a day, and the same may be injected into the vagina. If the womb has been cut off, injections of a solution of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water should be used daily, or more frequently, until the discharge ceases. EVERSION OF THE BLADDER. A genuine eversion of the bladder is almost unknown in the cow, owing to the extreme narrowness of its mouth. The protrusion of the bladder, however, through a laceration sustained in calving, in the floor of the vagina and its subsequent protrusion through the vulva, is sometimes met with. In this case the protruding bladder contains urine; this can never be the case in a real eversion, in which the inner surface of the bladder and the openings of the ureters are both exposed outside the vulva. The presence of a bag containing water, which is connected with the floor of the vagina, will serve to identify this condition. If the position of the bladder in the vulva renders it impracticable to pass a catheter to draw off the urine, pierce the organ with the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe, or even a very small trocar and cannula, and draw off the water, when it will be found an easy matter to return the bladder to its place. The rent in the vagina can be stitched up, but as there would be risk in any subsequent calving it is best to prepare the cow for the butcher. RUPTURE OF THE BLADDER. This has been known to occur in protracted parturition when the fetus finally passed while the bladder was full. The symptoms are those of complete suppression of urine and tenderness of the abdomen, with a steady accumulation of liquid, and fluctuation on handling its lower part. If the hand is introduced into the vagina it is felt to be hot and tender, and perhaps slightly swollen along its floor. As a final test, if the lower, fluctuating part of the abdomen is punctured with a hypodermic needle, a straw-colored liquid of a urinous odor flows out. The condition has been considered as past hope. The only chance for recovery would be in opening the abdomen, evacuating the liquid, and stitching up the rent in the bladder, but at such a season, and with inflammation already started, there would be little to hope for. RUPTURE OF THE WOMB. When the womb has been rendered friable by disease rupture may occur in the course of the labor, but much more frequently it occurs from violence sustained in attempting assistance in difficult parturition. It is also liable to occur during eversion of the organ through efforts to replace it. If it happens while the calf is still in the womb, it will usually bleed freely and continuously until the fetus has been extracted, so that the womb can contract on itself and expel its excess of blood. Another danger is that in case of a large rent the calf may escape into the cavity of the abdomen and parturition become impossible. Still another danger is that of the introduction of septic germs and the setting up of a fatal inflammation of the lining membrane of the belly (peritoneum). Still another is the escape of the small intestine through the rent and on through the vagina and vulva, so as to protrude externally and receive perhaps fatal injuries. In case of rupture before calving, that act should be completed as rapidly and carefully as possible, the fetal membranes removed, and the contraction of the womb sought by dashing cold water on the loins, the right flank, or the vulva. If the calf has escaped into the abdomen and can not be brought through the natural channels, it may be permissible to fix the animal and extract it through the side, as in the Cæsarian section. If the laceration has happened during eversion of the womb it is usually less redoubtable, because the womb contracts more readily under the stimulus of the cold air so recently applied. In case the abdomen has been laid open it is well to stitch up the rent, but if not, it should be left to nature, and will often heal satisfactorily, the cow even breeding successfully in after years. Rupture of the floor of the vagina has been already referred to as allowing the protrusion of the bladder. Laceration of the roof of this passage is also met with as the result of deviations of the hind limbs and feet upward when the calf lies on its back. In some such cases the opening passes clear into the rectum, or the foot may even pass out through the anus, so that that opening and the vulva are laid open into one. Simple, superficial lacerations of the vaginal walls are not usually serious, and heal readily unless septic inflammation sets in, in which case the cow is liable to perish. They may be treated with soothing and antiseptic injections, such as carbolic acid, 1 dram; water, 1 quart. The more serious injuries depend on the complications. Rupture of the anterior part of the canal, close to the mouth of the womb, may lead to the introduction of infecting germs into the cavity of the abdomen, or protrusion of the bowel through the rent and externally, either of which may prove fatal. If both these conditions are escaped the wound may heal spontaneously. Rupture into the bladder may lead to nothing worse than a constant dribbling of the urine from the vulva. The cow should be fattened if she survives. Rupture into the rectum will entail a constant escape of feces through the vulva, and, of course, the same condition exists when the anus as well has been torn open. I have successfully sewed up an opening of this kind in the mare, but in the case of the cow it is probably better to prepare her for the butcher. CLOTS OF BLOOD IN THE WALLS OF THE VAGINA. During calving the vagina may be bruised so as to cause escape of blood beneath the mucous membrane and its coagulation into large bulging clots. The vulva may appear swollen, and on separating its lips the mucous membrane of the vagina is seen to be raised into irregular rounded swellings of a dark-blue or black color, and which pit on pressure of the finger. If the accumulation of blood is not extensive it may be reabsorbed, but if abundant it may lead to irritation and dangerous inflammation, and should be incised with a lancet and the clots cleared out. The wounds may then be sponged twice a day with a lotion made with 1 dram sulphate of zinc, 1 dram carbolic acid, and 1 quart water. RETAINED AFTERBIRTH. The cow, of all our domestic animals, is especially subject to this accident. This may be partly accounted for by the firm connections established through the fifty to one hundred cotyledons (Pl. XIII, fig. 2) in which the fetal membranes dovetail with the follicles of the womb. It is also most liable to occur after abortion, in which preparation has not been made by fatty degeneration for the severance of these close connections. In the occurrence of inflammation, causing the formation of new tissue between the membranes and the womb, we find the occasion of unnaturally firm adhesions which prevent the spontaneous detachment of the membranes. Again, in low conditions of health and an imperfect power of contraction we find a potent cause of retention, the general debility showing particularly in the indisposition of the womb to contract, after calving, with sufficient energy to expel the afterbirth. Hence we find the condition common with insufficient or innutritious feed, and in years or localities in which the fodder has suffered from weather. Ergoted, smutty, or musty fodder (Pl. V), by causing abortion, is a frequent cause of retention. Old cows are more subject than young ones, probably because of diminishing vigor. A temporary retention is sometimes owing to a too rapid closure of the neck of the womb after calving, causing strangulation and imprisonment of the membranes. Conditions favoring this are the drinking of cold (iced) water, the eating of cold feed (frosted roots), and (through sympathy between udder and womb) a too prompt sucking by the calf or milking by the attendant. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of retention of the afterbirth are usually only too evident, as the membranes hang from the vulva and rot away gradually, causing the most offensive odor throughout the building. When retained within the womb by closure of its mouth and similarly in cases in which the protruded part has rotted off, the decomposition continues and the fetid products escaping by the vulva appear in offensively smelling pools on the floor and mat together the hairs near the root of the tail. The septic materials retained in the womb cause inflammation of its lining membrane, and this, together with the absorption into the blood of the products of putrefaction, leads to ill health, emaciation, and drying up of the milk. _Treatment._--Treatment varies according to the conditions. When the cow is in low condition, or when retention is connected with drinking iced water or eating frozen feed, hot drinks and hot mashes of wheat bran or other aliment may be sufficient. If along with the above conditions, the bowels are somewhat confined, an ounce of ground ginger, or half an ounce of black pepper, given with a quart of sweet oil, or 1-1/2 pounds of Glauber's salt in at least 4 quarts of warm water, will often prove effectual. A bottle or two of flaxseed tea, made by prolonged boiling, should also be given at frequent intervals. Other stimulants, like rue, savin, laurel, and carminatives like anise, cumin, and coriander, are preferred by some, but with very questionable reason, the more so that the first three are not without danger. Ergot of rye, 1 ounce, or its extract, 1 dram, may be resorted to to induce contraction of the womb. The mechanical extraction of the membranes is, however, often called for; of this there are several methods. The simplest is to hang a weight of 1 or 2 pounds to the hanging portion, and allow this, by its constant dragging and by its jerking effect when the cow moves, to pull the membranes from their attachments and to stimulate the womb to expulsive contractions. It frequently happens that the afterbirth is only loosely adherent to the womb and its removal is effected if but a slight amount of traction on it is exerted. This can be determined by seizing the dependent part of the afterbirth between two sticks and rolling it up on them until they lie against the vulva; then, by careful traction, accompanied with slight jerking movements from side to side, the womb is stimulated to expulsive contractions and the afterbirth is wound up more and more on the sticks until finally its last connections with the womb are severed and the remainder is expelled suddenly en masse. It is quite evident that neglected cases with putrid membranes are poor subjects for this method, as the afterbirth is liable to tear across, leaving a mass in the womb. During the progress of the work any indication of tearing is the signal to stop and proceed with greater caution or altogether abandon the attempt in this way. The following method (that with the skilled hand) is the most promptly and certainly successful. For this the operator had better dress as for a parturition case. Again, the operation should be undertaken within twenty-four hours after calving, since later the mouth of the womb may be so closed that it becomes difficult to introduce the hand. The operator should smear his arms with carbolized lard or vaseline to protect them against infection, and particularly in delayed cases with putrid membranes. An assistant holds the tail to one side, the operator seizes the hanging afterbirth with the left hand, while he introduces the other along the right side of the vagina and womb, letting the membranes slide through his palm until he reaches the first cotyledon to which they remain adherent. In case no such connection is within reach, with the left hand gentle traction is made on the membranes until the deeper parts of the womb are brought within reach and the attachments to the cotyledons can be reached. Then the soft projection of the membrane, which is attached to the firm fungus-shaped cotyledon on the inner surface of the womb, is seized by the little finger, and the other fingers and thumb are closed on it so as to tear it out from its connections. To explain this, it is necessary only to say that the projection from the membrane is covered by soft, conical processes, which are received into cavities of a corresponding size on the summit of the firm, mushroom-shaped cotyledon growing from the inner surface of the womb. To draw upon the former, therefore, is to extract its soft, villous processes from within the follicles or cavities of the other. (Pl. XIII, fig. 2.) If at times it is difficult to start this extraction it may be necessary to get the finger nail inserted between the two, and once started the finger may be pushed on, lifting all the villi, in turn, out of their cavities. This process of separating the cotyledons must be carefully conducted, one after another, until the last has been detached and the afterbirth comes freely out of the passages. I have never found any evil result from the removal of the whole mass at one operation, but Shaack mentions the eversion of the womb as the possible result of the necessary traction, and in cases in which those in the most distant part of the horn of the womb can not be easily reached, he advises to attach a cord to the membranes inside the vulva, letting it hang out behind, and to cut off the membranes below the cord. Then, after two or three days' delay, he extracts the remainder, now softened and easily detached. If carefully conducted, so as not to tear the cotyledons of the womb, the operation is eminently successful; the cow suffers little, and the straining roused by the manipulations soon subsides. Keeping in a quiet, dark place, or driving a short distance at a walking pace, will serve to quiet these. When the membranes have been withdrawn, the hand, half closed, may be used to draw out of the womb the offensive liquid that has collected. If the case is a neglected one, and the discharge is very offensive, the womb must be injected as for leucorrhea. INFLAMMATION OF THE VAGINA (VAGINITIS). This may occur independently of inflammation of the womb, and usually as the result of bruises, lacerations, or other injuries sustained during calving. It will be shown by swelling of the lips of the vulva, which, together with their lining membrane, become of a dark-red or leaden hue, and the mucous discharge increases and becomes whitish or purulent, and it may be fetid. Slight cases recover spontaneously, or under warm fomentations or mild astringent injections (a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water), but severe cases may go on to the formation of large sores (ulcers), or considerable portions of the mucous membrane may die and slough off. Baumeister records two cases of diphtheritic vaginitis, the second case in a cow four weeks calved, contracted from the first in a newly calved cow. Both proved fatal, with formation of false membranes as far as the interior of the womb. In all severe cases the antiseptic injections must be applied most assiduously. The carbolic acid may be increased to one-half ounce to a quart, or chlorin water, or peroxid of hydrogen solution may be injected at least three times a day. Hyposulphite of soda, 1 ounce to a quart of water, is an excellent application, and the same amount may be given by the mouth. LEUCORRHEA (MUCOPURULENT DISCHARGE FROM THE PASSAGES). This is from a continued or chronic inflammation of the womb, or the vagina, or both. It usually results from injuries sustained in calving or from irritation by putrid matters in connection with retained afterbirth, or from the use of some object in the vagina (pessary) to prevent eversion of the womb. Exposure to cold or other cause of disturbance of the health may affect an organ so susceptible as this at the time of parturition so as to cause inflammation. _Symptoms._--The main symptom is the glairy, white discharge flowing constantly or intermittently (when the cow lies down), soiling the tail and matting its hairs and those of the vulva. When the lips of the vulva are drawn apart the mucous membrane is seen to be red, with minute elevations, or pale and smooth. The health may not suffer at first, but if the discharge continues and is putrid the health fails, the milk shrinks, and flesh is lost. If the womb is involved the hand introduced into the vagina may detect the mouth of the womb slightly open and the liquid collected within its cavity. Examination with the oiled hand in the rectum may detect the outline of the womb beneath, somewhat enlarged, and fluctuating under the touch from contained fluid. In some cases heat is more frequent or intense than natural, but the animal rarely conceives when served, and, if she does, is liable to abort. _Treatment._--Treatment with the injections advised for vaginitis is successful in mild or recent cases. In obstinate ones stronger solutions may be used after the womb has been washed out by a stream of tepid water until it comes clear. A rubber tube is inserted into the womb, a funnel placed in its raised end, and the water, and afterwards the solution, poured slowly through it. If the neck of the womb is so close that the liquid can not escape, a second tube may be inserted to drain it off. As injections may be used chlorid of zinc, one-half dram to the quart of water, or sulphate of iron, 1 dram to the quart. Three drams of sulphate of iron and one-half ounce ground ginger may also be given in the feed daily. INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB (METRITIS, INFLAMMATION OF WOMB AND ABDOMEN, OR METROPERITONITIS). Inflammation of the womb may be slight or violent, simple or associated with putrefaction of its liquid contents and general poisoning, or it may extend so that the inflammation affects the lining membrane of the whole abdominal cavity. In the last two cases the malady is a very grave one. _Causes._--The causes are largely the same as those causing inflammation of the vagina. Greater importance must, however, be attached to exposure to cold and wet and to septic infection. _Symptoms._--The symptoms appear two or three days after calving, when the cow may be seen to shiver, or the hair stands erect, especially along the spine, and the horns, ears, and limbs are cold. The temperature in the rectum is elevated by one or two degrees, the pulse is small, hard, and rapid (70 to 100), appetite is lost, rumination ceases, and the milk shrinks in quantity or is entirely arrested, and the breathing is hurried. The hind limbs may shift uneasily, the tail be twisted, the head and eyes turn to the right flank, and the teeth are ground. With the flush of heat to the horns and other extremities, there is redness of the eyes, nose, and mouth, and usually a dark redness about the vulva. Pressure on the right flank gives manifest pain, causing moaning or grunting, and the hind limbs are moved stiffly, extremely so if the general lining of the abdomen is involved. In severe cases the cow lies down and can not be made to rise. There is usually marked thirst, the bowels are costive, and dung is passed with pain and effort. The hand inserted into the vagina perceives the increased heat, and when the neck of the womb is touched the cow winces. Examination through the rectum detects enlargement and tenderness of the womb. The discharge from the vulva is at first watery, but becomes thick, yellow, and finally red or brown, with a heavy or fetid odor. Some cases recover speedily and may be almost well in two days; a large proportion perish within two days of the attack, and some merge into the chronic form, terminating in leucorrhea. In the worst cases there is local septic infection and ulceration, or even gangrene of the parts, or there is general septicemia, or the inflammation involving the veins of the womb causes coagulation of the blood contained in them, and the washing out of the clots to the right heart and lung leads to the blocking of the vessels in the latter and complicating pneumonia. Inflammation of the womb and passages after calving are always liable to these complications, and consequently to a fatal issue. Franck records three instances of rapidly fatal metritis in cows, all of which had been poisoned from an adjacent cow with retained and putrid afterbirth. Others have had similar cases. _Treatment._--Treatment in the slight cases of simple inflammation does not differ much from that adopted for vaginitis, only care must be taken that the astringent and antiseptic injections are made to penetrate into the womb. After having washed out the womb a solution of chlorid of lime or permanganate of potassium (one-half ounce to 1 quart of water), with an ounce each of glycerin and laudanum to render it more soothing, will often answer every purpose. It is usually desirable to open the bowels with 1-1/2 pounds of Glauber's salt and 1 ounce of ginger in 4 quarts of warm water, and to apply fomentation of warm water or even mustard poultices or turpentine to the right flank. In the violent attacks with high temperature and much prostration, besides the salts agents must be given to lower the temperature and counteract septic poisoning. Salicylate of soda one-half ounce, or quinia 2 drams every four hours will help in both ways, or ounce doses of hyposulphite of soda or dram doses of carbolic acid may be given as often until six doses have been taken. Tincture of aconite has often been used in 20-drop doses every six hours. If the temperature rises to 106° or 107° F., it must be met by the direct application of cold or iced water to the surface. The animal may be covered with wet sheets and cold water poured on them frequently until the temperature in the rectum is lowered to 102° F. In summer the cow may be allowed to dry spontaneously, while in winter it should be rubbed dry and blanketed. Even in the absence of high temperature much good may be obtained from the soothing influence of a wet sheet covering the loins and flanks and well covered at all points by a dry one. This may be followed next day by a free application of mustard and oil of turpentine. When the animal shows extreme prostration, carbonate of ammonia (1 ounce) may be given to tide over the danger, but such cases usually perish. In this disease, even more than in difficult and protracted parturition or retained placenta, the attendants must carefully guard against the infection of their hands and arms from the diseased parts. The hand and arm before entering the passages should always be well smeared with lard impregnated with carbolic acid. MILK FEVER (PARTURITION FEVER, PARTURIENT APOPLEXY, OR PARTURIENT COLLAPSE). This disease is not only peculiar to the cow, but it may be said to be virtually confined to the improved and plethoric cow. It further occurs only at or near the time of calving. Indeed, these two factors, calving and plethora, may be set apart as preeminently the causes of this disease. It is the disease of cows that have been improved in the direction of early maturity, power of rapid fattening, or a heavy yield of milk, and hence it is characteristic of those having great appetites and extraordinary power of digestion. The heavy milking breeds are especially its victims, as in them the demand for the daily yield of 50 to 100 pounds of milk means even more than a daily increase of 2 to 3 pounds of body weight, mainly fat. The victims are not always fat when attacked, but they are cows having enormous powers of digestion, and which have been fed heavily at the time. Hence the stall-fed, city-dairy cow, and the farm cow on a rich clover pasture in June or July are especially subject. The condition of the blood globules in the suffering cow attests the extreme richness and density of the blood, yet this peculiarity appears to have entirely escaped the notice of veterinary writers. I have never examined the blood of a victim of this disease without finding the red-blood globules reduced to little more than one-half their usual size. Now, these globules expand or contract according to the density of the liquid in which they float. If we dilute the blood with water they will expand until they burst, whereas if solids, such as salt or albumin, are added they shrink to a large extent. Their small size, therefore, in parturition fever indicates the extreme richness of the blood, or, in other words, plethora. Confinement in the stall is an accessory cause, partly because stabled cattle are highly fed, partly because the air is hotter and fouler, and partly because there is no expenditure by exercise of the rich products of digestion. High temperature is conducive to the malady, though the extreme colds of winter are no protection against it. Heat, however, conduces to fever, and fever means lessened secretion, which means a plethoric state of the circulation. The heats of summer are, however, often only a coincidence of the real cause, the mature rich pastures, and especially the clover ones, being the greater. Electrical disturbances have an influence of a similar kind, disturbing the functions of the body and favoring sudden variations in the circulation. A succession of cases of the malady often accompany or precede a change of weather from dry to wet, from a low to a high barometric pressure. Costiveness, which is the usual concomitant of fever, may in a case of this kind become an accessory cause, the retention in the blood of what should have passed off by the bowels tending to increase the fullness of the blood vessels and the density of the blood. Mature age is a very strong accessory cause. The disease never occurs with the first parturition, and rarely with the second. It appears with the third, fourth, fifth, or sixth--after the growth of the cow has ceased and when all her powers are devoted to the production of milk. Calving is an essential condition, as the disturbance of the circulation consequent on the contraction of the womb and the expulsion into the general circulation of the enormous mass of blood hitherto circulating in the walls of the womb fills to repletion the vessels of the rest of the body and very greatly intensifies the already existing plethora. If this is not speedily counterbalanced by a free secretion from the udder, kidneys, bowels, and other excretory organs, the most dire results may ensue. Calving may thus be held to be an exciting cause, and yet the labor and fatigue of the act are not active factors. It is after the easy calving, when there has been little expenditure of muscular or nervous energy and no loss of blood, that the malady is seen. Difficult parturitions may be followed by metritis, but they are rarely connected with parturition fever. All these factors coincide in intensifying the one condition of plethora and point to that as a most essential cause of the affection. It is needless to enter here into the much-debated question as to the mode in which the plethora brings about the characteristic symptoms and results. As the results show disorder or suspension of the nervous functions mainly, it may suffice to say that this condition of the blood and blood vessels is incompatible with the normal functional activity of the nerve centers. How much is due to congestion of the brain and how much to bloodlessness may well be debated, yet in a closed box like the cranium, in which the absolute contents can not be appreciably increased or diminished, it is evident that, apart from dropsical effusion or inflammatory exudation, there can be only a given amount of blood; therefore, if one portion of the brain is congested, another must be proportionately bloodless; and as congestion of the eyes and head generally and great heat of the head are most prominent features of the disease, congestion of the brain must be accepted. This, of course, implies a lack of blood in certain other parts or blood vessels. The latest developments of treatment indicate very clearly that the main cause is the production of poisonous, metabolic products (leucomains and toxins) by secreting cells of the follicles of the udder, acting on the susceptible nerve centers of the plethoric, calving cow. Less fatal examples of udder poisons are found in the first milk (colostrum), which is distinctly irritant and purgative, and in the toxic qualities of the first milk drawn from an animal which has been subjected to violent overexertion or excitement. Still more conclusive as to the production of such poisons is the fact that the full distention of the milk ducts and follicles, and the consequent driving of the blood out of the udder and arrest of the formation of depraved products, determines a speedy and complete recovery from the disease. This does not exclude the other causes above named, nor the influence of a reflex nervous derangement proceeding from the udder to the brain. _Symptoms._--It may be said that there are two extreme types of this disease, with intervening grades. In both forms there is the characteristic plethora and more or less sudden loss of voluntary movement and sensation, indicating a sudden collapse of nervous power; in one, however, there is such prominent evidence of congestion of head and brain that it may be called the congestive form par excellence, without thereby intimating that the torpid form is independent of congestion. In the congestive form there is sudden dullness, languor, hanging back in the stall, or drooping the head, uneasy movements of the hind limbs or tail; if the cow is moved, she steps unsteadily, or even staggers; she no longer notices her calf or her feed; the eyes appear red and their pupils dilated; the weakness increases and the cow lies down or falls and after that is unable to rise. At this time the pulse is usually full, bounding, and the temperature raised, though not invariably so, the head, horns, and ears being especially hot and the veins of the head full, while the visible mucous membranes of nose and eyes are deeply congested. The cow may lie on her breastbone with her feet beneath the body and her head turned sleepily round, with the nose resting on the right flank; or, if worse, she may be stretched full on her side, with even the head extended, though at times it is suddenly raised and again dashed back on the ground. At such times the legs, fore and hind, struggle convulsively, evidently through unconscious nervous spasm. By this time the unconsciousness is usually complete; the eyes are glazed, their pupils widely dilated, and their lids are not moved when the ball of the eye is touched with the finger. Pricking the skin with a pin also fails to bring any wincing or other response. The pulse, at first from 50 to 70 a minute, becomes weaker and more accelerated as the disease advances. The breathing is quickened, becoming more and more so with the violence of the symptoms, and at first associated with moaning (in exceptional cases, bellowing), it may, before death, become slow, deep, sighing, or rattling (stertorous). The temperature, at first usually raised, tends to become lower as stupor and utter insensibility and coma supervene. The bowels, which may have moved at the onset of the attack, become torpid or completely paralyzed, and, unless in case of improvement, they are not likely to operate again. Yet this is the result of paralysis and not of induration of the feces, as often shown by the semiliquid, pultaceous condition of the contents after death. The bladder, too, is paralyzed and fails to expel its contents. A free action of either bladder or bowels, or of both, is always a favorable symptom. The urine contains sugar, in quantity proportionate to the severity of the attack. In nearly all cases the torpor of the digestive organs results in gastric disorder; the paunch becomes the seat of fermentation, producing gas, which causes it to bloat like a drum. There are frequent eructations of gas and liquid and solid feed, which, reaching the paralyzed throat, pass in part into the windpipe and cause inflammations of the air passages and lungs. In the torpid form of the disease there is much less indication of fever or violence. There may be no special heat about the horns, ears, or forehead, nor any marked redness or congestion of the eyes or nose, nor engorgement of the veins of the head. The attack comes on more slowly, with apparent weakness of the hind limbs, dullness, drowsiness, suspension of rumination and appetite, and a general indifference to surrounding objects. Soon the cow lies down, or falls and is unable to rise, but for one or two days she may rest on the breastbone and hold the head in the flank without showing any disorderly movements. Meanwhile there is not only loss of muscular power and inability to stand, but also considerable dullness of sensation, pricking the skin producing no quick response, and even touching the edge of the eyelids causing no very prompt winking. Unless she gets relief, however, the case develops all the advanced symptoms of the more violent form, and the animal perishes. In advanced and fatal cases of either form the insensibility becomes complete; no irritation of skin or eye meets any response; the eye becomes more dull and glassy; the head rests on the ground or other object; unless prevented the cow lies stretched fully on her side; the pulse is small, rapid, and finally imperceptible; the breathing is slow, deep, stertorous, and the expirations accompanied with puffing is slow, the cheeks, and death comes quietly or with accompanying struggles. _Prevention._--For such fatal disease prevention is of far more consequence than treatment. Among the most efficient preventives may be named a spare diet (amounting to actual starvation in very plethoric, heavy-milking cows) for a week before calving and at least four days after. A free access to salt and water is most important, as the salt favors drinking and the water serves to dilute the rich and dense blood. Iced water, however, is undesirable, as a chill may favor the onset of fever. A dose of Epsom salt (1 to 2 pounds) should be given 12 to 24 hours before calving is due, so that it may operate at or just before that act. In case calving has occurred unexpectedly in the heavy milker, no time should be lost in giving the purgative thereafter. A most important precaution in the fleshy, plethoric cow, or in one that has been attacked at a previous calving, is to avoid drawing any milk from the bag for 12 or 24 hours after calving. Breeders on the island of Jersey have found that this alone has almost abolished the mortality from milk fever. If Epsom salt is not at hand, saltpeter (1 ounce) should be used for several days. Daily exercise is also of importance, and, excepting in midsummer, when the heat of the sun may be injurious, the value of open air is unquestionable. Even in summer an open shed or shady grove is incomparably better than a close, stuffy stall. A rich pasture (clover especially), in May, June, or July, when at its best, is to be carefully avoided. It is better to keep the cow indoors on dry straw with plenty of salt and water than to have access to such pastures. _Treatment._--Treatment of milk fever has been completely revolutionized, with the result that a former mortality of 50 to 70 per cent has been practically abolished. Formerly the most vigorous treatment was practiced by bleeding, purging, the increase of peristalsis by eserin or pilocarpin, enemas, cold in the head, counterirritants, aconite, tartar emetic, sponging, wet-sheet packing, etc. The gross mortality, however, was not materially reduced, and nearly all that were attacked within the first two days after calving perished. The first step in the modern treatment was made in 1897, when J. Schmidt published his successful treatment by the injection of the teats and milk ducts with a solution of iodid of potassium (1-1/2 drams to 1 quart of water). This reduced the mortality to 17 per cent. Others followed this lead by the injection of other antiseptics (lysol, creolin, creosol, chinosol, common salt, etherized air, oxygen). These succeeded as well as the iodid solution. With the injection of gases, however, a fuller distention of the udder was usually secured, and virtually every case recovered. This suggested the full distention of the udder with common atmospheric air filtered and sterilized, and this with the most perfect success. With sterile air Schmidt-Kolding claimed 96.7 per cent recoveries in 914 cases. In America the full distention of the udder, whether with oxygen or filtered air, has proved invariably successful in all kinds of cases, including the violent ones that set in within a few hours after calving. In 1 or 2 hours after the injection the cow has got up, had free passages from the bowels and bladder, bright expression of countenance, and some return of appetite. In my cases which had made no response for 8 hours to the iodid injection, the injection of the udder to full repletion with the gas (oxygen or air) has had immediately beneficial results. A similar full distention of the bag with a common-salt solution (0.5 to 100), or even with well-boiled water, is equally effective, but in these cases the weight of the liquid causes dragging upon the udder and a measure of discomfort which is escaped under the treatment with gas. The value of each method depends on the fullness of distention of the udder and the arrest in larger part of the circulation and chemical changes in its tissues. This distention acts like magic, and seems hardly to admit of failure in securing a successful outcome. It can not, however, be recommended as absolutely devoid of dangers and serious complications. To get the best results it should be applied only by one who has been trained in the careful antiseptic methods of the bacteriological laboratory. Some readers will recall the case of the injection of the udders of show cows at Toronto to impose upon the judges. The cows treated in this way had the udders infected and ruined, and several lost their lives. There is no better culture medium for septic and other germs than the first milk (colostrum) charged with albumin and retained in the warm udder. Already in the hands of veterinarians even the Schmidt treatment has produced a small proportion of cases of infective mammitis. How many more such cases will develop if this treatment becomes a popular domestic resort, applied by the dairyman himself in all sorts of surroundings and with little or no antiseptic precautions? Even then, however, the losses will by no means approach the past mortality of 50 to 70 per cent, so that the economy will be immeasurable under even the worst conditions. A fair test and judgment of this treatment, however, can be obtained only when the administrator is trustworthy and painstaking, well acquainted with bacteriological antisepsis and with the general and special pathology of the bovine animal. The necessary precautions may be summarized as follows: (1) Provide an elastic rubber ball and tubes furnished with valves to direct the current of air, as in a common Davidson syringe. (2) Fill the delivery tube for a short distance with cotton sterilized by prolonged heating in a water bath. (3) In the free end of the delivery tube fit a milking tube to be inserted into the teat. (4) Sterilize the entire apparatus by boiling for 30 minutes, and, without touching the milking tube, wrap it in a towel that has been sterilized in a water bath or in live steam and dried. (5) Avoid drawing any milk from the teats; wash them and the udder thoroughly with warm soapsuds; rinse off with well-boiled and cooled water, and apply to the teats, and especially to their tips, a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid or lysol, taking care that the teats are not allowed to touch any other body from the time they are cleansed until the teat tube is inserted. It is well to rest the cleansed and disinfected udder on a sterilized pad of cotton or a boiled towel. (6) The injecting apparatus is unwrapped; the teat tube, seized by its attached end and kept from contact with any other body, is inserted into the teat, while an assistant working the rubber pump fills the quarter as full as it will hold. The tube is now withdrawn and a broad tape is tied around the free end of the teat to prevent escape of the air. (7) The teat tube, which has been carefully preserved from possible contact with other bodies, is dipped in the carbolic acid solution and inserted in a second teat, and the second quarter is inflated, and so with the third and fourth. (8) The recumbent cow is kept resting on her breastbone, with the head elevated, even if it should be necessary to pack around her with straw bundles or to suspend the head by a halter. When lying on her side she is liable to develop fatal bloating and to have belching of gas and liquids, which, passing down the windpipe, cause fatal broncho-pneumonia. (9) If in 2 hours the cow is not on her feet, if there is no brighter or more intelligent expression, if she has passed no manure or urine, and if the air has become absorbed, leaving the udder less tense, the injection of the bag may be repeated, under the same scrupulous and rigid precautions as at first. In all cases, but especially in severe ones, it is well to keep watch of the patient, and to repeat the distention on the first indication of relapse. Should there not be a free discharge of feces and urine after rising, indicating a natural resumption of the nervous functions, the case should be all the more carefully watched, so that the treatment may be repeated if necessary. Accessory treatment may still be used, but is rarely necessary. A dose of purgative medicine (1-1/2 pounds of Epsom salt) in warm water may be given in the early stages, while as yet there is no danger of its passing into the lungs through paralysis of the throat. Eserin or pilocarpin (1-1/2 grains) may be given under the skin to stimulate the movements of the bowels. Sponging the skin, and especially the udder, with cool water, may be resorted to in hot weather. Bloating may demand puncture of the paunch, in the left flank, with a cannula and trocar, the evacuation of the gas, and the introduction through the tube of a tablespoonful of strong liquid ammonia in a quart of cold water or other antiferment. The economic value of the new treatment of milk fever is enormous. The United States has more than 22,000,000 milk cows. If we could raise their quality by preserving and breeding from the largest producers of both milk and butterfat, in place of losing the best by milk fever, as in the past, and if we could thus obtain an average increase of 2 quarts a day, the proceeds at 3 cents a quart would amount to $130,000,000 a year. PALSY AFTER CALVING (DROPPING AFTER CALVING). This consists in a more or less complete loss of control of the hind limbs occurring after calving, and caused by low condition, weakness, and exposure to cold or to injurious compression of the nerves of the hind limbs by a large calf passing through the pelvis. Its symptoms do not differ from those of palsy of the hind limbs, occurring at other times, and it may be treated in the same way, except so far as bruises of the vagina may demand special smoothing treatment. CONGESTION OF THE UDDER (GARGET). In heavy milkers, before and just after calving, it is the rule that the mammary gland is enlarged, hot, tense, and tender, and that a slight exudation or pasty swelling extends forward from the gland on the lower surface of the abdomen. This physiological congestion is looked upon as a matter of course, and disappears in two or three days when the secretion of milk has been fully established. This breaking up of the bag may be greatly hastened by the sucking of a hungry calf and the kneading it gives the udder with its nose, by stripping the glands clean thrice daily, and by active rubbing at each milking with the palm of the hand, with or without lard or, better, with camphorated ointment. The congestion may be at times aggravated by standing in a draft of cold air or by neglect to milk for an entire day or more (overstocking, hefting) with the view of making a great show of udder for purposes of sale. In such cases the surface of the bag pits on pressure, and the milk has a reddish tinge or even streaks of blood, or it is partially or fully clotted and is drawn with difficulty, mixed, it may be, with a yellowish serum (whey) which has separated from the casein. This should be treated like the above, though it may sometimes demand fomentations with warm water to ward off inflammation, and it may be a week before the natural condition of the gland is restored. INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER (SIMPLE MAMMITIS). Congestion may merge into active inflammation, or it may arise direct, in connection with exposure to cold or wet, with standing in a cold draft, with blows on the udder with clubs, stones, horns, or feet, with injury from a sharp or cold stone, or the projecting edge of a board or end of a nail in the floor, with sudden and extreme changes of weather, with overfeeding on rich albuminous feed like cotton seed, beans, or peas, with indigestions, with sores on the teats, or with insufficient stripping of the udder in milking. In the period of full milk the organ is so susceptible that any serious disturbance of the general health is liable to fall upon the udder. _Symptoms._--The symptoms and mode of onset vary in different cases. When following exposure there is usually a violent shivering fit, with cold horns, ears, tail, and limbs, and general erection of the hair. This is succeeded by a flush of heat (reaction) in which the horns, ears, and limbs become unnaturally warm and the gland swells up and becomes firm and solid in one, two, three, or all four quarters. There is hot dry muzzle, elevated temperature, full, accelerated pulse, and excited breathing, impaired or suspended appetite and rumination, with more or less costiveness, suppression of urine, and a lessened yield of milk, which may be entirely suppressed in the affected quarter. In other cases the shivering escapes notice, the general disorder of the system is little marked or comes on late, and the first observed sign of illness is the firm swelling, heat, and tenderness of the bag. As the inflammation increases and extends, the hot, tender udder causes the animal to straddle with its hind limbs, and, when walking, to halt on the limb on that side. If the cow lies down it is on the unaffected side. With the increase in intensity and the extension of the inflammation the general fever manifests itself more prominently. In some instances the connective tissue beneath the skin and between the lobules of the gland is affected, then the swelling is uniformly rounded and of nearly the same consistency, pitting everywhere on pressure. In other cases it primarily attacks the secreting tissue of the gland, then the swelling is more localized and appears as hard, nodular masses in the interior of the gland. This last is the usual form of inflammation occurring from infection entering by the teats. In all cases, but especially in the last-named form, the milk is suppressed and replaced by a watery fluid colored with blood (sometimes deeply) and mingled with masses of clotted casein. Later it becomes white and purulent, and in many cases of an offensive odor. The course of the disease is sometimes so rapid and at others so slow that no definite rule can be laid down. In two or three days, or from that to the end of the week, the bag may soften, lose its heat and tenderness, and subside into the healthy condition, even resuming the secretion of milk. The longer the inflammatory hardness continues the greater the probability that its complete restoration will not be effected. When a portion of the gland fails to be restored in this way, and has its secretion arrested, it usually shrinks to a smaller size. More commonly a greater quantity of the inflammatory product remains in the gland and develops into a solid, fibrous mass, causing permanent hardening (induration). In other cases, in place of the product of inflammation developing into a fibrous mass, it softens and breaks down into white, creamy, liquid pus (abscess). This abscess may make its way to the surface and escape externally, or it may burst into a milk duct and discharge through the teat. It may break into both and establish a channel for the escape of milk (fistula). In the worst types of the disease gangrene may ensue, a quarter or half or even the whole udder, losing its vitality, and sloughing off if the cow can bear up against the depressing influence. These gangrenous cases are probably always the result of infection and sometimes run a very rapidly fatal course. I remember one to which I was called as soon as the owner noticed it, yet I found one-quarter dark blue, cold, and showing a tendency to the formation of blebs containing a bloody secretion. The cow, which had waded through a depth of semiliquid manure to reach her stall, died within 24 hours. _Treatment._--Treatment varies with the type and the stage of the disease. If the case is seen in the shivering fit, every effort should be made to cut it short, as the inflammation may be thereby greatly moderated, if not checked. Copious drinks of warm water thrown in from horn or bottle; equally copious warm injections; the application of heat in some form to the surface of the body (by a rug wrung out of hot water; by hanging over the back and loins bags loosely filled with bran, sand, salt, chaff, or other agent previously heated in a stove; by the use of a flatiron or the warming of the surface by a hot-air bath), or by active friction with straw wisps by two or more persons; the administration of 1 ounce of ground ginger may serve to shorten the attack. After half an hour's sweat the animal should be rubbed and covered with a dry blanket. If, on the other hand, there is little or no fever, and only a slight inflammation, rub well with camphorated ointment or a weak iodin ointment, and milk three, four, or six times a day, rubbing the bag thoroughly each time. Milking must be done with great gentleness, squeezing the teat in place of pulling and stripping it, and if this causes too much pain, the teat tube (Pl. XXIV, fig. 4) or the spring teat dilator (Pl. XXIV, fig. 3) may be employed. Antiseptic injections of the teats and udder are often useful, and iodoform in water has been especially recommended. It may be replaced by one of the injections advised for parturition fever, used with the same careful precautions. In cases in which the fever has set in and the inflammation is more advanced, a dose of laxative medicine is desirable (Epsom salt, 1 to 2 pounds; ginger, 1 ounce), which may be followed, after the purging has ceased, by daily doses of saltpeter, 1 ounce. Many rely on cooling and astringent applications to the inflamed quarter (vinegar, sugar-of-lead lotion, cold water, ice, etc.), but a safer and better resort is continued fomentation with warm water. A bucket of warm water, replenished as it cools, may be set beneath the udder, and two persons can raise a rug cut of this and hold it against the udder, dipping it anew whenever the temperature is somewhat lowered. A sheet may be passed around the body, with holes cut for the teats, soft rags packed between it and the udder, and kept warm by pouring water on every 10 or 15 minutes, as warm as the hand can bear. When this has been kept up for an hour or two, the bag may be dried, well rubbed with soap, and left thus with a soapy coating. If the pain is great, extract of belladonna may be applied along with the soap, and a dry suspensory bandage with holes for the teats may be applied. Strong, mercurial ointment is very useful in relieving pain and softening the bag. This is especially valuable when the disease is protracted and induration threatens. It may be mixed with an equal quantity of soap and half as much extract of belladonna. In cases of threatened induration excellent results are sometimes obtained from a weak-induction current of electricity sent through the gland daily for 10 minutes. If _abscess_ threatens, it may be favored by fomentation and opened as soon as fluctuation from finger to finger shows the formation of matter at a point formerly hard. The wound may bleed freely, and there is a risk of opening a milk duct, yet relief will be obtained; also a dressing twice daily with a lotion of carbolic acid 1 part, water 20 parts, and glycerin 1 part will suffice to keep the wound clean and healthy. _Gangrene_ of the affected part is often fatal. It demands antiseptics (chlorid of zinc, 1 dram to 1 quart water) applied frequently to the part, or, if the case can not be attended, smear the affected quarter with Venice turpentine, melted, or even wood tar. Antiseptic tonics (tincture of chlorid of iron, 4 drams) may also be given four times daily in a quart of water. CONTAGIOUS MAMMITIS (CONTAGIOUS INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER). As stated in the last article, that form of inflammation of the udder which attacks the gland ducts and follicles, causing deep-seated, hard, nodular swellings, is often contagious. Franck has demonstrated this by injecting into the milk ducts in different cows (milking and dry) the pus from the bags of cows affected with mammitis, or the liquids of putrid flesh, or putrid blood, and in every case he produced acute inflammation of the gland tissue within twenty-four hours. He thinks that in ordinary conditions the septic germ gains access by propagating itself through the milk, filling the milk canal and oozing from the external orifice. He points to this as a reason why dry cows escape the malady, though mingling freely with the sufferers, and why such dry cows do not suffer from inflammation of the gland tissue when attacked with foot-and-mouth disease. In this last case it is evident that it is not simply the inoculation with the milker's hand that is lacking, for the skin of the bag is attacked, but not its secreting, glandular parts. Now that in any case of abscess we look for the cause in the chain forms of globular bacteria (_Streptococcus pyogenes_), in the cluster form of white, globular bacteria (_Staphylococcus pyogenes albus_), and in the golden and citron-yellow forms of clustered globular bacteria (_Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus_ and _Staphylococcus pyogenes citreus_), the formation of pus gives presumptive evidence of the action of one or more of these germs. So in cases of mortification of the bag; in the very occurrence there is fair circumstantial evidence of the presence of erysipelas micrococcus or other germ which kills the local tissues. Again, in tuberculosis affecting the bag (a not uncommon condition), the active local cause is without doubt the tubercle bacillus. It has been found that false membranes have formed in certain cases of mammitis in the cow, and Klein, after inoculating the diphtheria of man on the cow, found an ulcerous sore in the seat of inoculation and blisters on the teats and udder, in which he found what he believed to be the bacillus of diphtheria. The results are doubtful, even in the absence of false membranes. Löffler, too, in the diphtheria of calves, found that the germ was longer and more delicate than that of man, and that its pathogenesis for rodents was less, guinea pigs having only a nonfatal abscess. The presence of false membranes in one form of mammitis in cows does not necessarily imply its communicability to man. It has been asserted that scarlet fever has been transmitted from the cow to man, and it can not be denied that in many cases the infection has been spread by means of the milk. The facts, however, when brought out fully have shown that in almost every case the milk had first come into contact with a person suffering or recovering from scarlet fever, so that the milk was infected after it left the cow. The alleged exceptional cases at Hendon and Dover, England, are not conclusive. In the Hendon outbreak inoculations were made on calves from the slight eruption on the cow's teats, and they had a slight eruption on the lips and a form of inflammation of the kidneys, which Dr. Klein thought resembled that of scarlatina. The cows that had brought the disease to the Hendon dairies were traced back to Wiltshire, where cows were found suffering from a similar malady, but no sign of scarlet fever resulted. In the Dover outbreak the dairyman first denied any disease in his cows, and brought a certificate of a veterinarian to prove that they were sound at the time of the investigation; then later he confessed that the cows had had foot-and-mouth disease some time before, and consequent eruption on the teats. So the question remains whether the man who denied sickness in the cows to begin with, and adduced professional evidence of it, did not later acknowledge the foot-and-mouth disease as a blind to hide the real source of the trouble in scarlatina in his own family or in the family of an employee. In America Dr. Stickler said that he had produced scarlatina in children by inoculation with imported virus of foot-and-mouth disease, but his contention is negatived by the facts that with foot-and-mouth disease constantly present in Europe scarlatina does not accompany it, and that in America, with scarlatina constantly prevailing at some point, foot-and-mouth disease is unknown locally except at long intervals and as the result of the importation of infected animals or their products. Man is susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease, but it never appears during the frequent epidemics of scarlatina. Among other contagious forms of mammitis I may name one which I have encountered in large dairies, starting as a sore and slight swelling at the opening of the teat and extending up along the milk duct to the gland structure in the bag, all of which become indurated, nodular, and painful. The milk is entirely suppressed in that quarter of the bag, and from that it may extend to the others as it does from cow to cow through the milker's hands. Another form almost universally prevalent in this district of central New York in 1889 broke out on the teats and udders as blisters strongly resembling cowpox, but which were not propagated when inoculated on calves. It was only exceptionally that this extended through the teat to the gland tissue, yet in some instances the bag was lost from this cause. Scarlatina in man was very prevalent at the time (many schools were closed in consequence), but no definite connection seemed to exist between this and the cow disease, and on different dairy farms there were families of young children that had never had scarlet fever and who did not at that time contract it. The most common cause of contagious mammitis in cattle is a spherical bacterium in chain form (_Streptococcus_) (Moore, Ward). Yet it is clear that contagious mammitis is not a single affection, but a group of diseases which have this in common, that they attack the udder. _Prevention._--Prevention is to be especially sought in all such cases. In purchasing new cows see that they come from a herd where the teats and udder are sound. If a new cow with unknown antecedents comes from a public market, let her be milked for a week by a person who does not milk any other cows. Keep her in a separate stall from others, so that there may be no infection from litter or flooring. Wash the udder with soap and water, and wet with a solution of two teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid in a pint of water before letting the regular milker of the other cows take her. If any cow in the herd shows the indurated end of the teat or the inflammation and nodular tender character of the gland, sequestrate her at once and give her a separate milker. If another cow is to be put into the stall she occupied, first clean and scrape it, and wet it with a strong solution of bluestone, 5 ounces in a gallon of water. The milk may be drawn off with a teat tube, or spring teat dilator (Pl. XXIV, figs. 3 and 4), and the milk ducts injected frequently with a solution of peroxid of hydrogen or iodoform. I have had little success in checking the upward progress of the disease through the teat with carbolic acid or boric-acid solutions. Used on the outside of the other teats, however, they may serve to prevent them from becoming infected. In the absence of peroxid of hydrogen the affected teat may be injected with a solution of 1 grain corrosive sublimate in a pint of water, and the same may be used on the other teats, provided it is washed off every time before milking. As additional precautions, no cow with a retained afterbirth or unhealthy discharge from the womb should be left with the other cows. Such cows doubtless infect their own udders and those of the cows next them by lashing with the soiled tail. If milkers handle retained afterbirth or vaginal discharge, or unhealthy wounds, or assist in a difficult and protracted parturition, they should wash the hands and arms thoroughly with soap and warm water and then rub them with the corrosive-sublimate solution, or if not, at least with one of carbolic acid. Clothes stained with such offensive products should be thoroughly washed. The general treatment of contagious mammitis does not differ from that of the simple form, except that antiseptics should be given by the mouth as well as applied locally (hyposulphite of soda, one-half ounce daily). COWPOX. This is another form of contagious inflammation of the udder which does not spread readily from animal to animal except by the hands of the milker. It is held to occur spontaneously in the cow, but this is altogether improbable, and so-called spontaneous cases are rather to be looked on as instances in which the germs have been preserved dry in the buildings or introduced in some unknown manner. It is not uncommon in the horse, attacking the heels, the lips, or some other inoculated part of the body, and is then easily transferred to the cow, if the same man grooms and dresses the horse and milks the cow. It may also appear in the cow by infection, more or less direct, from a person who has been successfully vaccinated. Many believe that it is only a form of the smallpox of man modified by passing through the system of cow or horse. It is, however, unreasonable to suppose that this alleged modified smallpox could have been transmitted from child to child (the most susceptible of the human race) for 90 years, under all possible conditions, without once reverting to its original type of smallpox. Chauveau's experiments on both cattle and horses with the virus of smallpox and its inoculation back on the human subject go far to show that in the climate of western Europe, at least, no such transformation takes place. Smallpox remains smallpox and cowpox, cowpox. Again, smallpox is communicable to a person who visits the patient in his room but avoids touching him, while cowpox is never thus transferred through the air unless deliberately diffused in the form of spray. The disease in the cow is ushered in by a slight fever, which, however, is usually overlooked, and the first sign is tenderness of the teats. Examined, these may be redder and hotter than normal, and at the end of two days there appear little nodules, like small peas, of a pale-red color, and increasing so that by the seventh day they may measure three-fourths of an inch to 1 inch in diameter. The yield of milk diminishes, and when heated it coagulates slightly. From the seventh to the tenth day the eruption forms into a blister, with raised margins and a depression in the center, and from which the whole of the liquid can not be drawn by a single puncture. The blister, in other words, is chambered, and each chamber must be opened to evacuate the whole of the contents. If the pock forms on a surface where there is thick hair it does not rise as a blister, but oozes out a straw-colored fluid which concretes on the hairs in an amber-colored mass. In one or two days after the pock is full it becomes yellow from contained pus and then dries into a brownish-yellow scab, which finally falls, leaving one or more distinct pits in the skin. Upon the teats, however, this regular course is rarely seen; the vesicles are burst by the hands of the milker as soon as liquid is formed, and as they continue to suffer at each milking they form raw, angry sores, scabbing more or less at intervals, but are slow to undergo healing. The only treatment required is to heal the sores. As milking is the main cause of their persistence, that must be done as gently as possible, or even with the teat tube or dilator. (Pl. XXIV, figs. 3 and 4.) It is essential to check the propagation of the germ, and for this purpose the sore teats may be washed frequently with a solution of half an ounce hyposulphite of soda in a pint of water. This will usually check the inflammation and cut short the malady. SUPPRESSION OF MILK. The absence of milk in the udder may result from ill health, debility, emaciation, chronic disease of the bag, wasting of the gland from previous disease, or insufficient feed, but sometimes it will occur suddenly without any appreciable cause. The treatment consists in removing the cause of the disease, giving rich albuminoid feed made into warm mashes, and administering ounce doses of aromatic carminatives, like anise seed, fennel seed, etc. Rubbing and stripping the udder are useful; the application of oil of lavender or of turpentine, or even a blister of Spanish flies, will sometimes succeed. BLOODY MILK. Blood may escape with the milk when the udder has been injured by blows; also when it is congested or inflamed, when the circulation through it has been suddenly increased by richer and more abundant feed, or when the cow is under the excitement of heat. The milk frothing up and assuming a pink tinge is often the first sign of red water, and it may result from eating acrid or irritant plants, like the Ranunculaceæ, resinous plants, etc. Deposits of tubercle or tumors in the udder, or induration of the gland, may be efficient causes, the irritation caused by milking contributing to draw the blood. Finally, there may be a reddish tinge or sediment when madder or logwood has been eaten. In milk which becomes red after it is drawn it may be from the presence in it of the _Bacillus prodigiosus._ This also grows on bread, and is the explanation of the supposed miracle of the "bleeding host." The treatment will vary with the cause. In congested glands give 1 pound of Epsom salt, and daily thereafter one-half ounce saltpeter, with a dram of chlorate of potassium; the bag should be bathed with hot or cold water, and rubbed with camphorated lard. If the feed is too rich or abundant it must be reduced. If from acrid plants, they must be removed from pasture or fodder. Induration of the udder may be met by rubbing with a combination of iodin ointment 1 part, soft soap 2 parts; mercurial ointment and soap also may be used. Careful milking is imperative. BLUE MILK. Watery milk is blue, but the presence of a germ (_Bacillus cyanogenes_) causes a distinct blue shade even in rich milk and cream. It may reach the milk after it has been drawn, or it may find its way into the opening of the milk ducts and enter the milk as it is drawn. In the latter case frequent milking and the injection of a solution of 2 drams of hyposulphite of soda in a pint of water into the teats will serve to destroy the germs. STRINGY MILK. This may be caused by fungi developing in the liquid, and that the spores are present in the system of the cow may be safely inferred from the fact that in a large herd two or three cows only will yield such milk at a time, and that after a run of 10 days or a fortnight they will recover and others will be attacked. I have found that such affected cows had the temperature raised one or two degrees above the others. Like most other fungi this does not grow out into filaments within the body of the cow, but in five or six hours after milking the surface layers are found to be one dense network of filaments. If a needle is dipped in this and lifted the liquid is drawn out into a long thread. In one case which I investigated near Ithaca, N. Y., the contamination was manifestly from a spring which oozed out of a bank of black-muck soil and stood in pools mixed with the dejections of the animals. Inoculation of pure milk with the water as it flowed out of this bank developed in it the fungus and the stringy characters. By fencing the spring in and giving the affected cows each 2 drams bisulphite of soda daily, the trouble was arrested promptly and permanently. CHAPPED TEATS. These may be caused by anything which irritates them. The powerful sucking of the calf; the sudden chilling of the teat in winter after the calf has just let it go or after the completion of milking with a wet hand; contact with cold water or stagnant, putrid water, or with filth or irritants when lying down; slight congestions of the skin in connection with overstocking; indeed, any source of local irritation may cause chapping. This may be slight or extend into great, gaping sores and induce retention of milk or even mammitis. Soothing applications of vaseline or a combination of equal parts of spermaceti and oil of sweet almonds may be applied. If healing is tardy, add 10 grains balsam of Peru to the ounce of ointment. If the irritation is very great, wash first with a solution of 1 dram sugar of lead in 1 pint of water and then apply benzoated zinc-oxid ointment. WARTS ON THE TEATS. These are often very troublesome, yet they may be greatly benefited or entirely removed by smearing them thickly with pure olive oil after each milking. If they persist they may be cut off with a pair of sharp scissors and the sore touched with a stick of lunar caustic. They may now be oiled and the caustic repeated as demanded to prevent their renewed growth. _Scabby teats_ may be smeared with vaseline containing carbolic acid enough to give it an odor. TEAT BLOCKED BY CONCRETION OF CASEIN. Under unhealthy conditions of the gland or milk ducts clots of casein form which, pressed clear of most of their liquid and rolled into rounded masses, may block the passage. They can be moved up and down by manipulation of the teat, and if they can not be pressed out they may be extracted by using the spring teat dilator (Pl. XXIV, fig. 3), being held surrounded by its three limbs. Before extraction is attempted an ounce of almond oil, boiled, should be injected into the teat. TEAT BLOCKED BY CALCULUS. When the calcareous matter of the milk has been precipitated in the form of a smooth, rounded stone, a rough, conglomerated concretion, or a fine, sandlike débris, it may cause obstruction and irritation. These bodies are felt to be much harder than those formed by casein, and the milk usually contains gritty particles. Extraction may be attempted, in the case of the finely divided gritty matter, by simple milking or with the spring dilator (Pl. XXIV, fig. 3) in the case of the larger masses. Should this fail the teat may be laid open with the knife and sewed up again or closed with collodion, but such an operation is best deferred until the cow is dry. TEAT BLOCKED BY A WARTY OR OTHER GROWTH INSIDE. In this case the obstruction may be near the orifice of the teat or farther up, and the solid mass is not movable up and down with the same freedom as are concretions and calculi. The movement is limited by the elasticity of the inner membrane of the teat from which it grows, and is somewhat freer in certain cases because the growth has become loose and hangs by a narrow neck. In the case of the looser growths they may be snared by a fine, spring wire passed as a loop through a fine tube (like a teat tube open at each end) and introduced into the teat. When this can not be done, the only resort is to cut in and excise it while the cow is dry. THICKENING OF THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE AND CLOSURE OF THE MILK DUCT. As a result of inflammation extending from without inward, a gradual narrowing of the milk duct may occur from thickening and narrowing of its lining membrane. This may be limited to a small area near the lower end, or it may extend through the whole length of the teat. The stream of milk becomes finer and finer until it finally ceases altogether, and a firm cord is felt running through the teat. If the constriction is only at the outlet, the teat may be seized and distended by pressing the milk down into it from above, and an incision may be made with a sharp penknife in two directions at right angles to each other and directly in the original opening. The knife should be first cleansed in boiling water. The opening may be kept from closing by a dumb-bell shaped bougie of gutta-percha (Pl. XXIV, fig. 5) or by the spring dilator. If the obstruction is more extended it may be perforated by Lüthi's perforating sound. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 1A and 1B.) This is a steel wire with a ring at one end, and at the other is screwed on to the wire a conical cap with sharp cutting edges at the base, which scrapes away the thickened masses of cells as it is drawn back. This may be passed again and again to enlarge the passages sufficiently, and then the passage may be kept open by wearing a long, dumb-bell bougie, a thick piece of carbolized catgut, or a spring dilator. If the passage can not be sufficiently opened with the sound it may be incised by the hidden bistoury. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 2.) This is a knife lying alongside a flattened protector with smooth, rounded edges, but which can be projected to any required distance by a lever on the handle. The incisions are made in four directions, as deep as may be necessary, and the walls then can be held apart by the spring dilator until they heal. In case the constriction and thickening of the canal extend the whole length of the teat, it is practically beyond remedy, as the gland is usually involved so as to render it useless. CLOSURE OF THE MILK DUCT BY A MEMBRANE. In this form the duct of the teat is closed by the constriction of its lining membrane at one point, usually without thickening. The closure usually takes place while the cow is dry; otherwise its progress is gradual, and for a time the milk may still be pressed through slowly. In such case, if left at rest, the lower part of the teat fills up and the milk flows in a full stream at the first pressure, but after this it will not fill up again without sufficient time for it to filter through. This is to be cut open by the hidden bistoury (Pl. XXIV, fig. 2), which may be first passed through the opening of the membrane, if such exists. If not it may be bored through, or it may be pressed up against the membrane at one side of the teat and opened toward the center, so as to cut its way through. Incisions should be made in at least two opposite directions, and the edges then may be held apart by wearing the spring dilator until healing has been completed. In all cases of operations on the teats the instruments must be thoroughly disinfected with hot water, or by dipping in carbolic acid and then in water that has been boiled. OPENING IN THE SIDE OF THE TEAT (MILK FISTULA). This may occur from wounds penetrating the milk duct and failing to close, or it may be congenital, and then very often it leads to a distinct milk duct and an independent portion of the gland. In the first form it is necessary only to dissect away the skin leading into the opening for some distance down, to close the orifice with stitches, and to cover the whole with collodion. A teat tube or spring dilator may be worn to drain the milk off and prevent distention and reopening of the orifice. In case of an independent milk duct and gland one of two courses may be selected--to open the one duct into the other by incision and then close the offending opening, or to inject the superfluous gland through its duct with a caustic solution, so as to destroy its secreting power. In both cases it is desirable to wait until the cow goes dry. * * * * * DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATES XXII, XXIII. Supports for prolapsed uterus. These illustrations show various appliances used in prolapse or inversion of the uterus. The uterus should first be returned to its proper situation and then some apparatus applied to prevent a recurrence of the inversion or protrusion. PLATE XXII: Fig. 1. Crupper, strap truss. (From Hill's Bovine Medicine and Surgery.) Fig. 2. Renault's rope truss. The rope for this truss should be from 25 to 30 feet long and about the thickness of the little finger. PLATE XXIII: Fig. 1. Cow to which Delwart's rope truss has been applied. Fig. 1_a_ shows the loop of Delwart's truss. Fig. 2. Zundel's labial sutures. These consist of two wires passed through the lips of the vulva in a horizontal direction, and two additional wires passed through the loops at the ends of the horizontal wires in order to hold them in place. Fig. 3. Iron truss for holding the vagina or uterus in place after calving. The cords are passed through the eyes at the corners of the triangular iron; the base of the triangle fits under the tail. The truss is from 5 to 7 inches long and about 2-1/2 inches wide. PLATE XXIV. Instruments used in diseases following parturition. Fig. 1. Lüthi's perforating sound, for opening the milk canal through the teat when this has become occluded; A, the sound one-half the natural size; B, section of head of sound, natural size, showing cutting edge. Fig. 2. Bistouri caché. A blade hidden in its sheath which by pressure of the finger may be made to protrude a certain distance. This distance is regulated by the screw near the handle. The instrument is used to open the milk canal when closed up. It is introduced into the milk canal with its blade in the sheath and withdrawn with the blade protruding. Fig. 3. Spring teat dilator, about one-half natural size, for dilating the milk canal. Fig. 4. Ring teat syphon, for withdrawing milk when the teat is sore or injured. Fig. 5. Gutta-percha bougie, for dilating the opening of the teat. Fig. 6. Truss applied to calf for umbilical or navel hernia. (From Fleming's Veterinary Obstetrics.) Fig. 7. Armatage's iron clamp for umbilical or navel hernia. When this clamp is applied care must be taken not to include a portion of the bowel. * * * * * [Illustration: PLATE XXII. SUPPORTS FOR PROLAPSED UTERUS.] [Illustration: PLATE XXIII. SUPPORTS FOR PROLAPSED UTERUS.] [Illustration: PLATE XXIV. INSTRUMENTS USED IN DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION.] DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., _Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University._ SUSPENDED BREATHING. The moment the circulation through the navel string is stopped the blood of the calf begins to become overcharged with carbon dioxid (CO_{2}), and unless breathing is speedily established death promptly follows. Fortunately the desire to breathe, roused by the circulation of the venous blood and the reflex action from the wet and chilling skin, usually starts the contractions of the diaphragm at once and life is insured. Among the obstacles to breathing may be named suffocation before or during birth from compression of the navel cord and the arrest of its circulation; the detachment of the fetal membranes from the womb before the calf is born; a too free communication between the two auricles (foramen ovale) of the heart by which the nonaerated blood has mixed too abundantly with the aerated and induced debility and profound weakness; a condition of ill health and debility of the calf as a result of semistarvation, overwork, or disease of the cow; fainting in the debilitated calf when calving has been difficult and prolonged; the birth of the calf with its head enveloped in the fetal membranes, so that it has been unable to breathe, and the presence of tenacious phlegm in the mouth and nose, acting in the same manner. Besides the importance of proper care and feeding of the cow as a preventive measure, attention should be given at once to relieve the newborn calf of its investing membrane and of any mucus that has collected in mouth or nostrils. Wiping out the nose deeply with a finger or feather excites to sneezing, hence to breathing. Blowing into the nose has a similar effect. Sucking the nostril through a tube applied to it is even more effective. Slapping the chest with the palm of the hand or with a towel dipped in cold water, compression and relaxation alternately of the walls of the chest, may start the action, and ammonia or even tobacco smoke blown into the nose may suffice. Every second is precious, however, and if possible the lungs should be dilated by forcibly introducing air from a bellows or from the human lungs. As the air is blown in through bellows or a tube the upper end of the windpipe must be pressed back against the gullet, as otherwise the air will go to the stomach. In a large dairy a piece of elastic tubing one-third of an inch in bore should be kept at hand for sucking and blowing in such cases. BLEEDING FROM THE NAVEL. This may occur in two conditions--when the cord is cut off too close to the navel and left untied and when it tears off at the navel. (Pl. XIV.) It may also bleed when torn across naturally, if it is sucked by the dam or another calf. In an animal with little plasticity to its blood it will flow under almost any circumstances. When any cord is left it is always safe to tie it, and it is only when it is swollen and may possibly contain a loop of the bowel that there is danger in doing so. By pressing upward any bulky contents such danger is avoided. If torn or cut too close to be tied the bleeding may be checked by applying alum, copperas, or for a fraction of a second the end of an iron rod at a dull-red heat. If much blood has been lost it may be requisite to transfuse several ounces of blood or of a weak, common-salt solution into the open, umbilical vein. URINE DISCHARGED THROUGH THE NAVEL (PERSISTENT URACHUS). Before birth the urine passes from the bladder by a special tube through the navel and navel string into the outer water bag (allantois). (Pl. XII.) This closes at birth, and the tube shrinks into a fine cord up to the bladder. It is only in the bull calf that it is liable to remain open, doubtless because of the long, narrow channel through which the urine must otherwise escape. The urethra, too, is sometimes abnormally narrow, or even closed, in the male. If part of the cord remains, it should be tied and the whole allowed to wither up naturally. If the cord has been removed and the tube (urachus) protrudes, discharging the urine, that alone must be tied. If there is nothing pendent the urachus must be seized, covered by the skin, and a curved needle being passed through the skin and above the duct, it may be tied along with this skin. A blister of Spanish flies, causing swelling of the skin, will often close the orifice--so with the hot iron. If the urethra of the male is impervious it can rarely be remedied. INFLAMMATION OF THE URACHUS (NAVEL URINE DUCT). This may originate in direct, mechanical injury to the navel in calving, or shortly after, with or without the lodgment of irritant or septic matter on its lacerated or cut end. The mere contact with healthy urine, hitherto harmless, can now be looked on as becoming suddenly irritating. The affection is usually marked by the presence of redness and swelling at the posterior part of the navel and the escape of urine and a few drops of whitish, serous pus from the orifice of the urachus. In those cases in which urine is not discharged a tender swelling, like a thick cord extending upward and backward from the navel into the abdomen, may be identified. The navel enlargement may be considerable, but it is solid, does not gurgle on handling, and can not be done away with by pressing it back into the abdomen, as in a case of hernia. In cases at first closed the pus may burst out later, coming from the back part of the navel and the swelling extending backward. In other cases whitish pus may pass with the urine by the ordinary channel, showing that it has opened back into the bladder. In other cases the umbilical veins become involved, in which case the swelling extends forward as well as backward. Thus the disease may result in destructive disorders of the liver, lungs, and, above all, of the joints. The disease may usually be warded off or rendered simple and comparatively harmless by applying antiseptics to the navel string at birth (carbolic acid 1 part, water and glycerin 5 parts each, or wood tar). Later, antiseptics may be freely used (hyposulphite of soda 4 drams, water 1 quart) as an application to the surface and as an injection into the urachus, or even into the bladder if the two still communicate. If they no longer communicate, a stronger injection may be used (tincture of chlorid of iron 60 drops, alcohol 1 ounce). Several weeks will be required for complete recovery. ABSCESS OF THE NAVEL. As the result of irritation at calving or by the withered cord, or by licking with the rough tongue of the cow, inflammation may attack the loose connective tissue of the navel to the exclusion of the urachus and veins, and go on to the formation of matter. In this case a firm swelling appears as large as the fist, which softens in the center and may finally burst and discharge. The opening, however, is usually small and may close prematurely, so that abscess after abscess is formed. It is distinguished from hernia by the fact that it can not be returned into the abdomen, and from inflammations of the veins and urachus by the absence of swellings forward and backward along the lines of these canals. Treatment consists in an early opening of the abscess by a free incision and the injection twice a day of an astringent antiseptic (chlorid of zinc one-half dram, water 1 pint). INFLAMMATION OF THE NAVEL VEINS (UMBILICAL PHLEBITIS). In this affection of the navel the inflammation may start directly from mechanical injury, as in either of the two forms just described, but on this are inoculated infective microbes, derived from a retained and putrefying afterbirth, an abortion, a metritis, a fetid discharge from the womb, an unhealthy open sore, a case of erysipelas, from overcrowding, from filthy floor or bedding, or from an offensive accumulation of manure, solid or liquid. As the microbes vary in different cases, given outbreaks will differ materially in their nature. One is erysipelatoid; another purulent infection with the tendency to secondary abscesses in the joints, liver, lungs, etc.; another is from a septic germ and is associated with fetid discharge from the navel and general putrid blood poisoning. In estimating the causes of the disease we must not omit debility of the calf when the mother has been underfed or badly housed or when either she or the fetus has been diseased. _Symptoms._--The symptoms vary. With the chain-form germs (streptococci) the navel becomes intensely red, with a very firm, painful swelling, ending abruptly at the edges in sound skin and extending forward along the umbilical veins. The secondary diseases are circumscribed, black engorgements (infarctions) or abscesses of the liver, lungs, kidneys, bowels, or other internal organs, and sometimes disease of the joints. With the ordinary pus-producing germs (_Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus_ and _Streptococcus pyogenes_) the local inflammation in the navel causes a hot, painful swelling, which rapidly advances to the formation of matter (pus), and the raw, exposed surface, at first bright red, becomes dark red or black, soft, friable, and pultaceous. If the pus is white, creamy, and comparatively inoffensive in odor, the secondary formations in internal organs and joints are mainly of the same purulent character (secondary abscesses). If, on the other hand, the discharge is very offensive and the pus more serous, watery, or bloody, there is reason to suspect the presence of some of the septic bacteria, and the results on the general system are a high fever and softening of the liver and spleen and no tendency to abscesses of the internal organs. Diarrhea is a common symptom, and death ensues early, the blood after death being found unclotted. Complicated cases are common, and in all alike the umbilical veins usually remain open and can be explored by a probe passed at first upward and then forward toward the liver. Prevention is sought by applying a lotion of carbolic acid or iodin solution to the navel string at birth, or it may be smeared with common wood tar, which is at once antiseptic and a protective covering against germs. In the absence of either a strong decoction of oak bark may be used. _Local treatment_ consists in the application of antiseptic to the surface and their injection into the vein. As a lotion carbolic acid, 1 ounce in a quart of strong decoction of oak bark, should be used, or salicylic acid or salol may be sprinkled on the surface. The interior of the vein should be swabbed out with a probe wrapped around with cotton wool and dipped in boracic salicylic acid. If complications have extended to the liver or other internal organs, or the joints, other treatment will be demanded. In acute cases of general infection an early fatal result is to be expected. PYEMIC AND SEPTICEMIC INFLAMMATION OF JOINTS IN CALVES (JOINT ILL). This occurs in young calves within the first month after birth. It persists in the joints when once attacked, and is usually connected with disease of the navel. Rheumatism, on the other hand, rarely occurs in a calf under a month old. It tends to shift from joint to joint, and is independent of any navel disease. Again, it affects the fibrous structures of the joints, and rarely results in the formation of white matter, while the affection before named attacks the structures outside as well as inside the joints and, above all, the ends of the bones, and tends to the destruction and crumbling of their tissue, and even to the formation of open sores, through which the fragile bones are exposed. The microbes from the unhealthy and infected wound in the navel pass into the system through the veins, or lymphatics, and form colonies and local inflammations and abscesses in and around the joints. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are the swelling of one or more joints, which are very hot and tender. The calf is stiff and lame, lies down constantly, and does not care to suck. There is very high fever, accelerated breathing and pulse, and there is swelling and purulent discharge (often fetid) from the navel. There may be added symptoms of disease of the liver, lungs, heart, or bowels, on which we need not here delay. The important point is to determine the condition of the navel in all such cases of diseased and swollen joints beginning in the first month of life, and in all cases of general stiffness, for besides the diseases of the internal organs there may be abscesses formed among the muscles of the trunk, though the joints appear sound. Cases of this kind, if they do not speedily die, tend to become emaciated and perish later in a state of weakness and exhaustion. _Prevention._--Prevention must begin with the purity of the buildings and the navel, as noted in the last article. _Treatment._--Treatment is in the main antiseptic. The slighter forms may be painted daily with tincture of iodin, or an ointment of biniodid of mercury (1 dram) and lard (2 ounces) may be rubbed on the affected joints daily until they are blistered. In case of swellings containing matter, this may be drawn through the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe and the following solution injected: Compound tincture of iodin, 1 dram; distilled (or boiled) water, 2 ounces. Internally the calf may take 5 grains quinin twice daily and 15 grains hyposulphite of soda, or 20 grains salicylate of soda three times a day. UMBILICAL HERNIA (BREACH AT THE NAVEL). This may exist at birth from imperfect closure of the muscles around the opening; it may even extend backward for a distance, from the two sides failing to come together. Apart from this, the trouble rarely appears after the calf has been some time on solid feed, as the paunch then extends down to the right immediately over the navel, and thus forms an internal pad, preventing the protrusion of intestine. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of umbilical hernia are a soft swelling at the navel, with contents that usually gurgle on handling, and can be entirely returned into the abdomen by pressure. The diseases of the navel hitherto considered have no gurgling contents and can not be completely returned into the abdomen. The only exception in the case of the hernia is when the walls of the sac have become greatly thickened. These will, of course, remain as a swelling after the bowel has been returned; and when the protruding bowel has contracted permanent adhesion to the sac, it is impossible to return it fully without first severing that connection. _Treatment._--Treatment is not always necessary. A small hernia, like an egg, in a new-born calf, usually recovers of itself as the animal changes its diet to solid feed and has the paunch fully developed as an internal pad. In other cases apply a leather pad 8 inches square attached around the body by two elastic bands connected with its four corners, and an elastic band passing from its front border to a collar encircling the neck, and two other elastic bands from the neck collar along the two sides of the body to the two bands passing up over the back. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 6.) For small hernias nitric acid may be used to destroy the skin and cause such swelling as to close the orifice before the skin is separated. For a mass like a large goose egg one-half ounce of the acid may be rubbed in for three minutes. No more must be applied for 15 days. For large masses this is inapplicable, and with too much loss of skin the orifice may fail to close and the bowels may escape. The application of a clamp like those used in castration is a most effective method, but great care must be taken to see that all the contents of the sac are returned so that none may be inclosed in the clamp. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 7.) Another most effective resort is to make a saturated solution of common salt, filter and boil it, and when cool inject under the skin (not into the sac) on each side of the hernia a dram of the fluid. A bandage may then be put around the body. In 10 hours an enormous swelling will have taken place, pressing back the bowel into the abdomen. When this subsides the wound will have closed. DROPSY OF THE NAVEL. A sac formed at the navel, by contained liquid accumulated by reason of sucking by other calves, is unsightly and sometimes injurious. After making sure that it is simply a dropsical collection it may be deeply punctured at various points with a large-sized lancet or knife, fomented with hot water, and then daily treated with a strong decoction of white-oak bark. BLUE DISEASE (CYANOSIS). This appearing in the calf at birth is due to the orifice between the two auricles of the heart (foramen ovale) remaining too open, allowing the nonaerated (venous) blood to mix with the aerated (arterial) blood, and it is beyond the reach of treatment. It is recognized by the blueness of the eyes, nose, mouth, and other mucous membranes, the coldness of the surface, and the extreme sensitiveness to cold. CONSTIPATION. At birth the bowels of the calf contain the meconium, a tenacious, gluey, brownish-yellow material largely derived from the liver, which must be expelled before they can start their functions normally. The first milk of the cow (colostrum, beestings), rich in albumin and salts, is nature's laxative to expel this now offensive material and should never be withheld from the calf. If, for lack of this, from the dry feeding of the cow, or from any other cause, the calf is costive, straining violently without passage, lying down and rising as in colic, and failing in appetite, no time should be lost in giving relief by an ounce dose of castor oil, assisting its action by injections of soapsuds or oil. Whatever meconium is within reach of the finger should be carefully removed. It is also important to give the cow a sloppy, laxative diet. INDIGESTION. This may occur from many different causes, as costiveness; a too liberal supply of milk; milk too rich; the furnishing of the milk of a cow long after calving to a very young calf; allowing a calf to suck the first milk of a cow that has been hunted, driven by road, shipped by rail, or otherwise violently excited; allowing the calf too long time between meals, so that impelled by hunger it quickly overloads and clogs the stomach; feeding from the pail milk that has been held over in unwashed (unscalded) buckets, so that it is fermented and spoiled; feeding the milk of cows kept on unwholesome feed; keeping the calves in cold, damp, dark, filthy, or bad-smelling pens; feeding the calves on artificial mixtures containing too much starchy matter; or overfeeding the calves on artificial feed that may be appropriate enough in smaller quantity. The licking of hair from themselves or others and its formation into balls in the stomach will cause obstinate indigestion in the calf. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are dullness, indisposition to move, uneasiness, eructations of gas from the stomach, sour breath, entire loss of appetite, lying down and rising as if in pain, fullness of the abdomen, which gives out a drumlike sound when tapped with the fingers. The costiveness may be marked at first, but soon it gives place to diarrhea, by which the offensive matters may be carried off and health restored. In other cases it becomes aggravated, merges into inflammation of the bowels, fever sets in, and the calf gradually sinks. _Prevention._--Prevention consists in avoiding the causes enumerated above or any others that may be detected. _Treatment._--Treatment consists in first clearing away the irritant present in the bowels. For this purpose 1 or 2 ounces of castor oil with 20 drops of laudanum may be given, and if the sour eructations are marked a tablespoonful of limewater or one-fourth ounce calcined magnesia may be given and repeated two or three times a day. If the disorder continues after the removal of the irritant, a large tablespoonful of rennet, or 30 grains of pepsin, may be given at each meal along with a teaspoonful of tincture of gentian. Any return of constipation must be treated by injections of warm water and soap, while the persistence of diarrhea must be met as advised under the discussion following this. In case of the formation of loose hair balls inclosing milk undergoing putrid fermentation, temporary benefit may be obtained by giving a tablespoonful of vegetable charcoal three or four times a day, but the only real remedy is to cut the paunch open and extract them. At this early age they may be found in the third or even the fourth stomach; in the adult they are confined to the first two and are comparatively harmless. DIARRHEA (SCOURING) IN CALVES (SIMPLE AND CONTAGIOUS). As stated in the last article, scouring is a common result of indigestion, and at first may be nothing more than an attempt of nature to relieve the stomach and bowels of offensive and irritating contents. As the indigestion persists, however, the fermentations going on in the undigested masses become steadily more complex and active, and what was at first the mere result of irritation or suspended digestion comes to be a genuine contagious disease, in which the organized ferments (bacteria) propagate the affection from animal to animal and from herd to herd. More than once I have seen such epizootic diarrhea start on the headwaters of a creek and, traveling along that stream, follow the watershed and attack the herds supplied with water from the contaminated channel. In the same way the disease, once started in a cow stable, is liable to persist for years, or until the building has been thoroughly cleansed and disinfected. It may be carried into a healthy stable by the introduction of a cow brought from an infected stable when she is closely approaching calving. Another method of its introduction is by the purchase of a calf from a herd where the infection exists. In enumerating the other causes of this disease we may refer to those noted above as inducing indigestion. As a primary consideration any condition which lowers the vitality or vigor of the calf must be accorded a prominent place among factors which, apart from contagion, contribute to start the disease de novo. Other things being equal, the strong, vigorous races are the least predisposed to the malady, and in this respect the compact form, the healthy coat, the clear eye, and the bold, active carriage are desirable. Even the color of the hair is not unimportant, as in the same herd I have found a far greater number of victims among the light colors (light yellow, light brown) than among those of a darker tint. This constitutional predisposition to indigestion and diarrhea is sometimes fostered by too close breeding, without taking due account of the maintenance of a robust constitution; hence animals that are very much inbred need to be especially observed and cared for unless their inherent vigor has been thoroughly attested. The surroundings of the calf are powerful influences. Calves kept indoors suffer to a greater extent than those running in the open air and having the invigorating influences of sunshine, pure air, and exercise; close, crowded, filthy, bad-smelling buildings are especially causative of the complaint. The presence in the air of carbon dioxid, the product of breathing, and of the fetid, gaseous products of decomposing dung and urine diminish by about one-fourth of their volume the life-giving oxygen and in the same ratio hinder the aeration of the blood and the maintenance of vigorous health. Worse than this, such fetid gases are usually direct poisons to the animal breathing them; for example, sulphureted hydrogen (hydrogen sulphid 2 SH_{2}) and various alkaloids (ptomaines) and toxins (neutral poisonous principles) produced in the filth fermentations. These lower the general health and stamina, impair digestion, and by leading to the accumulation in stomach and bowels of undigested materials they lay the foundation for offensive fermentations within these organs and consequent irritation, poisoning, and diarrhea. They further weaken the system so that it can no longer resist and overcome the trouble. The condition of the nursing cow and her milk is another potent cause of trouble. The feed of the cow is important. The influence of this is shown in the following tables: _Influence of feed on milk._ (_From Becquerel and Vernois._) +--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+--------+--------+ | | | Casein | | | |Character of feed. | Water. | and | Milk | | | | |extractive| sugar. | Butter.| Salts. | | | matter. | | | +--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+--------+--------+ | |_Parts |_Parts |_Parts |_Parts |_Parts | |in 1,000_ in 1,000_|in 1,000_in 1,000_in 1,000_ |Cows on winter feed: | | | | | | Trefoil or lucern, 12-13| | | | | | pounds; oat straw, 9-10 | | | | | | pounds; beets, 7 pounds;| | | | | | water, 2 buckets | 871.26 | 47.81 | 33.47 | 42.07 | 5.34 |Cows on summer feed: | | | | | | Green trefoil, lucern, | | | | | | maize, barley, grass, | | | | | | 2 buckets water | 859.56 | 54.70 | 36.38 | 42.76 | 6.80 |Goat's milk on different | | | | | | feed: | | | | | | On straw and trefoil | 858.68 | 47.38 | 35.47 | 52.54 | 5.93 | On beets | 888.77 | 33.81 | 38.02 | 33.68 | 5.72 |Normal mean | 844.90 | 35.14 | 36.90 | 56.87 | 6.18 | | | | | | +--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+--------+--------+ In these examples the deterioration of the milk in casein on the less nutritious winter feeding is very marked, although the relative quantity of butter remains almost unchanged. In the case of the goat the result is even more striking, the beet diet giving a very large decrease of both casein and butter and an increase of milk sugar. The second table following, condensed from the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, gives the results in butter and total solids when the same cows were fed on different rations in succession. Each cow was fed a daily ration of 12 pounds corn fodder and 4 pounds clover hay, besides the test diet of (1) 12-1/4 pounds corn-and-cob meal, and (2) 10 pounds sugar meal--a product of the glucose manufacture. This special feed was given seven days before the commencement of each test period to obviate the effects of transition. The analyses of the special rations are given below: _Analyses of special rations._ ------------------------------+--------------+-----------+ Constituents. | Corn-and-cob | Sugar | | meal. | meal. | ------------------------------+--------------+-----------+ | _Per cent._ |_Per cent._| Moisture | 13.37 | 6.10 | Salts | 1.43 | 1.17 | Fat | 2.81 | 11.16 | Carbohydrates (heat formers). | 65.99 | 52.66 | Woody fiber | 8.03 | 8.64 | Proteids (flesh formers) | 8.37 | 20.27 | ------------------------------+--------------+-----------+ The great excess of fat and nitrogenous or flesh-forming principles in the sugar meal is very evident. _Influence of feed on milk._ (_Iowa station._) ------------------------+-------+----+-------+------+-------+------------ | | | | | |Ratio of fat Animal. | Milk. |Fat.|Solids.| Fat. |Solids.|to solids | | | | | |not fat. ------------------------+-------+----+-------+------+-------+------------ _Pounds__Pct_| _Pct_ _Pounds_Pounds_| Grade Shorthorn cow: | | | | | | First period, 21 days,| | | | | | corn-and-cob meal | 631.25|3.43| 11.57 |21.67 | 73.02 |422.0:1,000 Second period, 21 days| | | | | | sugar meal | 641.50|4.04| 12.53 |25.93 | 83.38 |476.2:1,000 Third period, 21 days,| | | | | | corn-and-cob meal | 559.00|3.22| 11.86 |17.97 | 66.32 |371.7:1,000 Grade Shorthorn cow: | | | | | | First period, 21 days,| | | | | | corn-and-cob meal | 604.75|3.57| 11.95 |21.56 | 72.28 |425.1:1,000 Second period, 21 days| | | | | | sugar meal | 582.00|3.91| 12.37 |22.74 | 72.57 |456.3:1,000 Third period, 21 days,| | | | | | corn-and-cob meal | 527.00|3.37| 12.05 |17.78 | 63.48 |389.1:1,000 Grade Shorthorn cow: | | | | | | First period, 21 days,| | | | | | sugar meal | 753.50|3.97| 12.43 |29.94 | 93.67 |469.8:1,000 Second period, 21 days| | | | | | corn-and-cob meal | 601.50|3.15| 11.45 |18.97 | 68.89 |380.0:1,000 Third period, 21 days,| | | | | | sugar meal | 560.50|3.85| 12.16 |21.58 | 68.16 |463.3:1,000 Grade Holstein cow: | | | | | | First period, 21 days,| | | | | | sugar meal | 487.50|4.15| 13.27 |20.25 | 64.69 |455.6:1,000 Second period, 21 days| | | | | | corn-and-cob meal | 379.00|3.51| 12.69 |13.30 | 48.09 |382.3:1,000 Third period, 21 days,| | | | | | sugar meal | 374.50|3.72| 13.01 |13.95 | 48.74 |401.0:1,000 ------------------------+-------+----+-------+------+-------+------------ Here we see in every instance a marked relative increase of the butter, and to a less extent of the other milk solids whenever the sugar meal--rich in fat and albuminoids--was furnished. The opposite theory having been largely taught, it becomes needful thus to sustain the old and well-founded belief of the dairymen. Not only does the richness of the milk vary with the nature of the food, but it varies also according to the time of the day when it is drawn, the morning milk giving 7-1/2 per cent of cream and the evening milk 9-1/2 per cent (Hassall). Boedecker found that the morning milk had 10 per cent of solids, while the evening milk had 13 per cent. Again, the milk first drawn at any milking is always poorer than the last drawn. The first may have only one-half, or in extreme cases one-fourth, the cream of the last. Once more, when the cow is in heat the milk becomes richer in solids (casein and butter), and contains granular and white blood cells like the colostrum, and often disagrees with the young animal living on it. Now, while these various modifications in the amount of solid matters may prove harmless to a strong and vigorous calf, they can easily be the occasion of intestinal disorder in a weaker one, or in one with health already somewhat impaired by sickness, exposure, or unwholesome buildings. The casein of the cow's milk coagulates in one solid mass, and is much less easily penetrated by the digesting fluids than the fine, flaky coagula of woman's or mare's milk. An excess of casein, therefore, thrown on an already overtaxed stomach can all the more readily induce disorder. So it is with butter fat. While a most important element in nutrition, it may be present in the stomach in such quantity as to interfere with the action of the gastric juice on the casein, and with the interruption of the natural stomach digestion the fats themselves undergo decomposition with the production of offensive and irritating fatty acids. The milk of the very young cow is usually more watery than that of the mature animal, and that of the old cow has a greater liability to become acid. It varies much with the breed, the Channel Island cattle being notorious for the relatively large quantity of cream, while the Holsteins, Ayrshires, and Shorthorns are remarkable rather for the quantity of casein. The milk of cows fed on potatoes and grass is very poor and watery; that from cows fed on cabbage or Swedish turnips has a disagreeable taste and odor (from the former an offensive liquid has been distilled). Cows fed on overkept, fermented, and soured rations have acid milk, which readily turns and coagulates. Thus old, long-kept brewer's grains, swill, the refuse of glucose factories, and ensilage which has been put up too green all act in this way. The same may come from disease in the cow's udder, or any general disease of the cow with attendant fever, and in all such cases the tendency is to rapid change and unwholesomeness. If the milk is drawn and fed from a pail, there is the added danger of all sorts of poisonous ferments getting into it and multiplying; it may be from the imperfect cleansing and scalding of the pail; from rinsing the pails with water that is impure; from the entrance of bacterial ferments floating in the filthy atmosphere of the stable, or from the entrance of the volatile chemical products of fermentation. In addition to the dangers coming through the milk, the calf suffers in its digestive powers from any temporary illness, and among others from the excitement attendant on the cutting of teeth, and impaired digestion means fermentations in the undigested masses and the excessive production of poisonous ptomaines and toxins. Whatever may be the starting or predisposing cause of this malady, when once established it is liable to perpetuate itself by contagion and to prove a veritable plague in a herd or a district. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of a diarrhea may appear so promptly after birth as to lead to the idea that the cause already existed in the body of the calf, and it usually shows itself before the end of the second week. It may be preceded by constipation, as in retained meconium, or by fetid eructations and colicky pains, as in acute indigestion. The tail is stained by the liquid dejections, which are at first simply soft and mixed with mucus with a sour odor, accompanied with a peculiar and characteristic fetor (suggesting rotten cheese), which continually grows worse. The quantity of water and mucus steadily increases, the normal predominance of fatty matters becoming modified by the presence of considerable undigested casein, which is not present in the normal feces, and in acute cases death may result in one or two days from the combined drain on the system and the poisoning by the absorbed products of the decomposition in the stomach and bowels. When the case is prolonged the passages, at first 5 or 6 a day, increase to 15 or 20, and pass with more and more straining, so that they are projected from the animal in a liquid stream. The color of the feces, at first yellow, becomes a lighter grayish yellow or a dirty white (hence the name white scour), and the fetor becomes intolerable. At first the calf retains its appetite, but as the severity of the disease increases the animal shows less and less disposition to suck, and has lost all vivacity, lying dull and listless, and, when raised, walking weakly and unsteadily. Flesh is lost rapidly, the hair stands erect, the skin gets dry and scurfy, the nose is dry and hot, or this condition alternates with a moist and cool one. By this time the mouth and skin, as well as the breath and dung, exhale the peculiar, penetrating, sour, offensive odor, and the poor calf has become an object of disgust to all that approach it. At first, and unless inflammation of the stomach and bowels supervenes (and unless the affection has started in indigestion and colic), the belly is not bloated or painful on pressure, symptoms of acute colicky pains are absent, and the bowels do not rumble; neither are bubbles of gas mingled with the feces. The irritant products of the intestinal fermentations may, however, irritate and excoriate the skin around the anus, which becomes red, raw, and broken out in sores for some distance. Similarly the rectum, exposed by reason of the relaxed condition of the anus, or temporarily in straining to pass the liquid dejection, is of a more or less deep red, and it may be ulcerated. Fever, with rapid pulse and increased breathing and temperature, usually comes on with the very fetid character of the feces and is more pronounced as the bowels become inflamed, the abdomen sore to the touch and tucked up, and the feces more watery and even mixed with blood. _Prevention._--The prevention of these cases is the prevention of constipation and indigestion, with all their varied causes as above enumerated, the selection of a strong, vigorous stock, and, above all, the combating of contagion, especially in the separation of the sick from the healthy, and in the thorough purification and disinfection of the buildings. The cleansing and sweetening of all drains, the removal of dung heaps, and the washing and scraping of floors and walls, followed by a liberal application of chlorid of lime (bleaching powder), 4 ounces to the gallon, are indicated. Great care must be exercised in the feeding of the cow to have sound and wholesome feed and water, so apportioned as to make the milk neither too rich nor too poor, and to her health, so that the calf may be saved from the evil consequences of poisonous principles that may be produced in the body of the cow. The calves should be carefully kept apart from all calving cows and their discharges. Similarly each calf must have special attention to see that its nurse gives milk which agrees with it, and that this is furnished at suitable times. If allowed to suck, it should either be left with the cow or be fed three times a day. If it becomes hungry twice a day, it is more liable to overload and derange the stomach, and if left too long hungry it is tempted to take in unsuitable and unwholesome feed, for which its stomach is as yet unprepared. So, if fed from the pail, it is safer to do so three times daily than twice. There should be the utmost cleanliness of feeding dishes, and the feeder must be ever on the alert to prevent the strong and hungry from drinking the milk of the weaker in addition to their own. In case the cow nurse has been subjected to any great excitement by reason of travel, hunting, or carrying, the first milk she yields thereafter should be used for some other purpose and only the second allowed to the calf. Indeed, one and all of the conditions indicated above as causes should be judiciously guarded against. _Treatment._--Treatment varies according to the nature and stage of the disease. When the disease is not widespread, but isolated cases only occur, it may be assumed to be a simple diarrhea and is easily dealt with. The first object is to remove the irritant matter from stomach and bowels, and for this 1 or 2 ounces of castor oil may be given, according to the size of the calf. Reduce the milk by one-half or two-thirds. If the stools smell particularly sour, the milk may be replaced by 1 ounce calcined magnesia, and in any case a tablespoonful or two of limewater must be given with each meal. Great harm is often done by giving opium and astringents at the outset. These serve merely to bind up the bowels and retain the irritant source of the trouble; literally, "to shut up the wolf in the sheep-fold." When the offending agents have been expelled in this way, carminatives and demulcent agents may be given--1 dram of anise water, 1 dram nitrate of bismuth, and 1 dram of gum arabic, three times a day. Under such course the consistency of the stools should increase until in a day or two they become natural. If, however, the outbreak is more general and evidently the result of contagion, the first consideration is to remove all sources of such contamination. Test the milk of the cow with blue litmus paper; if it reddens, reject the milk until by sound, dry feeding, with perhaps a course of hyposulphite of soda and gentian root, the milk is made alkaline. The castor oil or magnesia will be demanded to clear away the (now infecting) irritants, but they should be combined with antiseptics, and, while the limewater and the carminative mixture may still be used, a most valuable addition will be found in the following: Calomel, 10 grains; prepared chalk, 1 ounce; creosote, 1 teaspoonful; mix, divide into 10 parts, and give one four times a day. Or the following may be given four times a day: One dram Dover's powder, 6 grains powdered ipecacuanha; mix, divide into 10 equal parts. Injections of solutions of gum arabic are often useful, and if the anus is red and excoriated, one-half dram of copperas may be added to each pint of the gummy solution. All the milk given must be boiled, and if that does not agree, eggs made into an emulsion with barley water may be substituted. As the feces lose their watery character and become more consistent, tincture of gentian in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls may be given three or four times a day. Counter-irritants, such as mustard, ammonia, or oil of turpentine, may be rubbed on the abdomen when it becomes tender to the touch. ACUTE CONTAGIOUS SCOURING IN THE NEWBORN. The most violent and deadly form of diarrhea in the newborn calf deserves a special mention. This may appear immediately after birth, and shows itself almost invariably within the first or second day. The most intense symptoms of white scour are complicated by great dullness, weakness, and prostration, sunken eyes, retracted belly, short, hurried breathing, and very low temperature, the calf lying on its side, with the head resting on the ground, lethargic and unconscious or regardless of all around it. The bowel discharges are profuse, yellowish white, and very offensive. As a rule death ensues within 24 to 36 hours. A marked characteristic of this form of illness is that it attacks almost every calf born in the herd, or in the building, rather, and if the calf escapes an attack in the first two or three days of its life it usually survives. Those that recover from an attack, however, are liable one or two weeks later to suffer from an infective inflammation of the lungs. The infection clings to a stable for years, in many cases rendering it impossible to preserve and raise the calves. It has frequently coincided with abortions and failures to conceive in the same herd, so that it has been thought that the same infective germ produces one type of abortion. On the other hand, the removal of the calving cow from the herd to calve in a separate building, hitherto unused and therefore uninfected, usually effects the escape and survival of the offspring. The disease has been traced by Nocard and Lignières to a small bacillus having the general characters of those that produce hemorrhagic septicemia, which is usually combined with a variety of others, but is in some cases alone and in pure culture, especially in the joints. The theory of Lignières is that this bacillus is the primary offender, and that once introduced it so depresses the vital powers of the system and tissue cells that the healthy resistance to other bacteria is impaired or suspended, and hence the general and deadly invasion of the latter. Inoculations with this bacillus killed guinea pigs or rabbits in 6 to 18 hours, and calves in 30 hours, with symptoms and lesions of hemorrhagic septicemia, including profuse fetid diarrhea. The predominance of the early and deadly lesions in the alimentary tract would seem to imply infection through the feed, and the promptitude of the attack after birth, together with the frequent coincidence of contagious abortion in the herd, suggest the presence of the germ in the cow; yet the escape of the calf when the cow calves in a fresh building is equally suggestive of the infection through germs laid up in the building. This conclusion is further sustained by the observation that the bacillus evidently enters by the raw, unhealed navel, that it is diffused in the blood, and that a very careful preservation of the navel against infection gives immunity from attack. _Prevention._--The disease is so certainly and speedily fatal that it is hopeless to expect recovery, and therefore prevention is the rational resort. When a herd is small, the removal of the dam to a clean, unused stable a few days before calving and her retention there for a week usually succeeds. It is in the large herd that the disease is mainly to be dreaded, however, and in this it is impossible to furnish new and pure stables for each successive group of two or three calving cows. The thorough disinfection of the general stable ought to succeed, yet I have seen the cleanest and purest stable repeatedly disinfected with corrosive sublimate without stopping the malady. It would appear as if the germ lodged on the surface or in the bowels of the cow and tided the infection over the period of stable disinfection. Though insufficient of themselves, the supply of separate calving boxes and the frequent thorough cleaning and disinfection of both these and the stables should not be neglected. The most important measure, however, is the disinfection of the navel. The cow should be furnished with abundance of dry, clean bedding, sprinkled with a solution of carbolic acid. As soon as calving sets in the tail and hips and anus and vulva should be sponged with a carbolic-acid solution (one-half ounce to the quart), and the vagina injected with a weaker solution (2 drams to the quart). Fresh carbolized bedding should be constantly supplied, so that the calf may be dropped on that and not on soaked litter nor manure. The navel string should be at once tied with a cord that has been taken from a strong solution of carbolic acid. The stump of the cord and the adjacent skin should then be washed with the following solution: Iodin, one-half dram; iodid of potassium, one-half dram; water, 1 quart. When dry it may be covered with a coating of collodion or tar, each containing 1 per cent of iodin. Whenever a calf shows any sign of scouring it should be instantly removed to another pen and building, and the vacated one should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Different attendants should take care of the sound calves and the infected ones, and all utensils, litter, etc., kept scrupulously apart. After one week the healthy calves may usually be safely herded together, or they may be safely placed in the cow stable. OTHER AILMENTS OF THE CALF. Among these may be named several congenital imperfections, such as imperforate anus, vulva, or prepuce, which are to be recognized by the inability to pass dung or urine, in spite of straining, and the formation of swellings in the anus, vulva, or sheath. Each must be carefully incised with the knife, taking care not to injure the muscles which circumscribe the respective openings; also tongue-tie, in which the thin, flaccid, mucous membrane passing from the median line of the lower surface of the tongue binds the latter too closely to the floor of the mouth and renders the tongue unfit for gathering in the food in after life. This must be cut with knife or scissors, so as to give the tongue a reasonable degree of liberty. APHTHA, or THRUSH, is another trouble of the sucking calf, showing itself as a white, curdy elevation on the tongue, lips, cheeks, or gums, and when detached leaving a raw, red, angry surface. It is due to the growth of a vegetable parasite long recognized as the _Oïdium albicans_ (_Saccharomyces albicans_). It is easily removed by rubbing with powdered borax, but inasmuch as other colonies are liable to start either in the mouth or in the pharynx, gullet, or stomach, it is well to give a dose of one-half dram of hyposulphite of soda in water day by day for several days. RICKETS is not a common disease in calves, and comes on, if at all, later than those we have been considering. It consists in softening and friability of the bones from a deficiency of lime salts, and appears to be mainly connected with an inherited weakness of constitution, unsuitable feeding, cold, close, damp buildings, microbian infection, and other conditions inimical to health. The prevention and treatment of rickets consists essentially in the improvement of the digestion and general health; hence sunshine, open air, exercise, nourishing food, and tonics are indicated. (See p. 267.) BONES: DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. By V. T. ATKINSON, V. S. [Revised by John R. Mohler, V. M. D.] Some knowledge of the skeleton is advisable to facilitate the study of diseases of bones and the accidental injuries to which they are exposed. The skeleton of the adult ox is made up of the following number of bones: Spinal column 45 Head 28 Chest 27 Shoulder 2-- 1 on each side. Arm 2-- 1 on each side. Forearm 4-- 2 on each side. Forefoot 40--20 on each side. Pelvis 2-- 1 on each side. Thigh 2-- 1 on each side. Leg 6-- 3 on each side. Hind foot 38--19 on each side. ---- Total 196 Without attempting to burden the reader with the technical names and a scientific classification of each, it appears desirable to describe some of the characteristics of forms in general and of a few classes into which they may be divided, leaving the special study of individual bones to the illustrations of the skeleton (Pl. XXV), which will serve better than a great deal of writing to fix in the mind of the reader the location, relation, and function of each one. In early fetal life the place of bone is supplied by temporary cartilage, which gradually changes to bone. For convenience of study, bones may be said to be composed of a form of dense connective tissue impregnated with lime salts and to contain two elementary constituents--the organic or animal and the inorganic or earthy. In young animals the former predominates; with increasing years the relative proportions of the two change, so that when advanced age is reached the proportion of inorganic far exceeds the organic. The gradual change with advancing years from organic to inorganic has the effect of rendering the bone harder and more brittle, and though it is stronger, the reparative process is slower when injury does occur. The bones are nourished in two ways: First, from the outside through their covering, called the periosteum--the thin, strong membrane that covers every part of the bone except the articular surface of the joints; and, second, from within through the minute branches of blood vessels which pass into the bones through holes (foramina) on their surface and are distributed in the soft structure (medulla) of the inside. The structure of the bone is divided into two parts--the compact or hard material of the outside, which gives strength and is more abundant in the shafts of long bones, and the cancellated, softer tissue of the inside, which affords accommodation to the blood vessels necessary for the nourishment of that part of the structure. In shape, bones are divided into three classes--long, flat, and short. The long bones are the ribs and those mostly found in the limbs; the flat bones are found in the head, the shoulder, and the pelvis; the short bones in the spinal column and in the lower portions of the limbs. With this little introduction, which seems almost indispensable, we will proceed at once to the consideration of diseases of bones, for they undergo disease processes like any other living tissue. OSTEITIS. Inflammation of the compact structure of bones (osteitis) may be either acute or chronic, and may involve the whole extent of the bone affected or may be confined to only a portion of it. This inflammation results from injury, such as concussion, laceration, or a crushing bruise; also from specific influences, as in actinomycosis (lumpy jaw) or cases of foul foot. The latter affection frequently involves the bones, and for this reason the pastern is the most frequent seat of osteitis. There is dull pain on pressure and a painful swelling of bone when pus is present. Suppuration may involve the overlying soft tissues, causing an abscess, which may finally break through the skin. The inflammatory condition sometimes assumes an ulcerated form (caries) or from interrupted nutrition of the part deprived of the blood necessary to its nourishment may cause death of a large section of bone (necrosis); this dead fragment (sequestrum), becoming separated from the main portion of bone, acts as a foreign body. _Treatment._--This consists in resting the affected part and in giving vent at the earliest possible moment to whatever pus may be present. Free drainage should then be maintained. Apply dressings of lactic acid or inject with 5 per cent zinc-chlorid solution and pack with tampons of cotton soaked in antiseptic solutions. A laxative to keep the bowels moving freely is the only internal treatment necessary. PERIOSTITIS. This disease is an inflammation of the external covering of bone (periosteum) and is usually produced by wounds, pressure, or crushing the part. The periosteum is well supplied with sensitive nerve endings and when inflamed is very sensitive to pressure and may cause lameness. This condition is often difficult to determine, and even an acute observer may fail to locate the point of its existence. There are three forms of periostitis--aseptic, purulent, and fibrous. ASEPTIC PERIOSTITIS when it becomes chronic causes such a bony enlargement (exostosis) as is seen in the callous formation following the fracture of a bone. The formation of such a tumor or enlargement on the surface of a bone is liable to occur in any part of the bone covered with periosteum, and when found near a joint involving two or more bones it is liable to result in their union (anchylosis). _Treatment._--Applications of cold water to check the inflammatory processes is indicated for the first few days in aseptic periostitis, followed by hot fomentations to hurry resorption of fluids. Massage should then be given with camphor ointment, mercurial ointment, soap liniment, or Lugol's solution. In the chronic form point firing or a biniodid-of-mercury blister will be found beneficial. PURULENT PERIOSTITIS follows wounds which reach the periosteum and become infected, as observed in compound fractures, or it may result from advancing purulent conditions in neighboring structures, as in foul foot. It may also occur in the course of an infectious disease, when small abscesses are formed under the periosteum (subperiosteal abscess). It may lead to necrosis of the bone or a fistulous tract from the bone to the surface. There is usually much pain and fever, and the odor from the wound is offensive. _Treatment._--In this form of periostitis the periosteum should be freely incised, followed either by continuous irrigation or frequent injection of the wound with antiseptic solutions. FIBROUS PERIOSTITIS.--This form of the disease consists in the thickening of the outer layer of the periosteum from the inflammation reaching it from neighboring structures. This newly formed fibrous tissue may become ossified or may transmit the inflammation to the deeper bony structures. It is frequently seen in cases in which there has been an intense inflammation of the skin close to an underlying bone. _Treatment._--The treatment should be the same as that recommended for aseptic periostitis. OSTEOMYELITIS. This term refers to an inflammation of the bone marrow, which is most commonly seen following the bacterial infection of a compound fracture and usually results in pus formation. The bone is melted away and pus escapes from the bone under the periosteum, involving the soft tissues. It is principally confined to the long bones and seldom affects more than one. _Treatment._--The bone should be opened for the purpose of curetting out the diseased portion of the marrow cavity and removing all the necrotic pieces of bone. This should be undertaken only by a competent veterinarian. The after-treatment consists in tamponing the wound with pledgets of iodoform gauze or a mixture of iodoform 1 part and glycerin 4 parts. The wound in the soft tissue should be kept open until the cavity in the bone has filled with granulation tissue. RICKETS. This disease, also called "rachitis," is an inflammatory affection of young, growing bones, and mostly involves the ribs and long bones of the legs. It consists in a failure of the organism to deposit lime salts in bone, and for this reason the bones do not ossify so rapidly as they should. The cartilaginous ends of the bones grow rapidly, but ossification does not keep pace with it. The bones become long and their ends bend at the joints, the legs become crooked, and the joints are large and irregular. All the bones affected with this disease are thicker than normal, and the gait of the animal is stiff and painful. A row of bony enlargements may be found where the ribs articulate with the cartilages connecting them with the breastbone and is called the "beaded line." A catarrhal condition of the digestive tract is usually observed. The disease may result from an inherited weakness of constitution, poor hygienic surroundings, or improper diet. Calves and foals are less frequently affected with rickets than dogs and pigs. _Treatment._--The affected animal should have nourishing feed containing a proper quantity of lime salts. Outdoor exercise and plenty of fresh air are indispensable. Limewater should be given once daily for drinking purposes and ground bone meal mixed with the food. Phosphorus, one-fortieth of a grain, and calcium phosphate, 1 dram, given twice daily to a 2-month-old calf, and proportionally increased for older animals, has proved efficacious in this disease. In some cases the long bones of the limbs are too weak at birth to support the weight of the animal, and temporary splints, carefully padded and wrapped on with some soft bandages, become necessary. OSTEOMALACIA (CREEPS). This is a condition of bone brittleness or softening of bone found usually in adult life. It consists in the decalcification of mature bone, with the advancing diminution of the compact portion of bone by absorption. The periosteum strips very easily from the bone. This disease is seen in milch cows during the period of heavy lactation or in the later stages of pregnancy, and the greater the yield of milk the more rapid the progress of the disease. Heifers with their first calves are frequently affected, as these animals require a considerable quantity of mineral salts for their own growth and for the nourishment of their offspring. _Symptoms._--In marked cases there is a gradual emaciation and symptoms of gastrointestinal catarrh, with depraved appetite, the animal eating manure, decayed wood, dirt, leather, etc. Muscular weakness is prominent, together with muscle tremors, which simulate chills, but are not accompanied with any rise of temperature. The animal has a stiff, laborious gait; there is pain and swelling of the joints, and constant shifting of the weight from one leg to another. The restricted movements of the joints are frequently accompanied with a crackling sound, which has caused the name of "creeps" to be applied to the disease. The coat is dull and rough and the skin dry and hidebound. The animal is subject to frequent sprains or fracture of bones without apparent cause, as in lying down or turning around, and when such fractures occur they are difficult to unite. The bones principally involved are the upper bones of the legs, the haunch bone, and the middle bones of the spinal column. The disease in this country is confined to localized areas in the Southwest, known as the "alkali districts," and in the old dairy sections of New York State. The cause of this affection is the insufficiency of lime salts in the food, also to feeding hay of low, damp pastures, kitchen slops, and potatoes, or to overstocking lands. It occurs on old, worn-out soil poor in lime salts, and has also been observed to follow a dry season. _Treatment._--This should consist in a change of feed and the artificial feeding of lime salts, such as magnesium and sodium phosphate. Feed rich in mineral salts may be given, such as beans, cowpeas, oats, cottonseed meal, or wheat bran. Cottonseed meal is one of the best feeds for this purpose, but it should be fed carefully, as too large quantities of it are injurious to cows. Phosphorus may also be given in one-fourth grain doses twice daily, together with a tablespoonful of powdered bone meal or crude calcium phosphate at each meal. Ordinary lime dissolved in drinking water (limewater) will also be found efficacious in combating this disease, and can be provided at slight expense. A change of pasture to a locality where the disease is unknown and a free supply of common salt and bone meal will be the most convenient method of treating range cattle. SPRAINS. The most common accident occurring to bones and joints is a sprain of the ligaments uniting the bones, or the tendons uniting the muscles and bones. A sprain is the result of a sudden forcing of a joint in an unnatural direction, or, if in a natural direction, beyond the power of the ligament or tendon to restrain it properly, so that part of the fibers of either are ruptured. When such an accident occurs pain is immediately inflicted, varying in degree with the extent of the injury, which is soon followed by swelling, with more or less heat and tenderness. If the seat of the injury be in any of the limbs, lameness is likely to result. Of the causes of sprain, slipping on ice or a wet floor, playing, and fighting with another animal are the most common. SPRAIN OF THE SHOULDER JOINT.--This is liable to occur from any of the causes mentioned above or from the animal slipping suddenly into a rut or hole. When such an accident occurs, sudden lameness will attract attention. The animal will be noticed to drag the leg when walking and to carry it in a circular direction, outward and forward, at each step. The leg should be carefully examined, pressure over the joint causing the animal to evince pain. If the person making the examination is in doubt, it is well to make a comparison between the shoulders by pressing first on one and then the other. After such an accident the animal should be tied up so as to limit so far as possible the use of the injured joint. Soft feed should be given with a view of keeping the bowels acting freely. _Treatment._--During the first three days the treatment should consist of cold-water irrigation to check the inflammation and relieve the pain. Hot fomentations may then be applied to hasten the absorption of the inflammatory fluids. When the pain has somewhat abated, equal parts of mercurial ointment and green soap may be rubbed into the swollen tissue. Should lameness continue after the tenth day, good results will be obtained from the application of a blister. This may be done by carefully clipping off the hair over the joint, including a surface of 4 or 5 inches in circumference, and rubbing in the following preparation: Powdered cantharides dram 1 Biniodid of mercury do 1 Vaseline ounce 1 The animal's head should be carefully tied until the third day, to prevent its licking the blister. The blistered surface should then be smeared with lard or vaseline every other day until the scabs fall off. Gentle exercise should be allowed after the fourth or fifth day from the application of the blister. If the lameness still remains the blister may be repeated in three weeks or a month. SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK.--This may occur from misstep when the animal is moving rapidly, and the twisting or wrenching of the foot is sufficient to rupture partially the ligaments which bind the bones together at that part. Such an accident also frequently occurs by the foot getting fastened in a hole in the floor; the wrenching is the result of the animal's attempt to liberate it. Lameness, followed by swelling of the joint and pain when it is handled, or when the animal moves the joint, and heat, are the more noticeable symptoms. If the sprain is very severe, the animal occasionally does not bear its weight on the limb. _Treatment._--The most important consideration in the treatment of this affection is rest, which is best enforced by keeping the animal in the stall and placing strong, muslin bandages about the inflamed joint. As in the sprain of the shoulder, cold water in the form of douches, continuous irrigation with hose or soaking tub, or finely chopped ice poultices are indicated for the first three days. Following this apply a Priessnitz bandage[2] moderately tight about the joint, which not only conduces to rest, but also favors absorption. Massage with stimulating liniments, such as soap or camphor, may later be applied to the affected parts. If the lameness has not disappeared by the tenth day, the blister advised for the sprain of the shoulder should be applied and the same precautions observed as to tying the animal's head and subsequent smearing with vaseline. When a blister is applied in this locality, the back part of the heel should be first filled with lard or vaseline, and care taken to prevent any of the blistering preparation from coming in contact with the skin of that part. If this precaution is not observed, scratches may ensue and prove troublesome. SPRAIN OF THE HIP.--This is liable to result from the animal's slipping in such way as to spread the hind feet wide apart. The patient goes stiff in the hind legs, or lame in one hind leg, walking with a straddling gait and swinging the leg outward as it is carried forward. Tenderness may occasionally be detected on pressure, but owing to the heavy covering of muscles outside the joint this test is not always reliable. In the acute cases give rest and cold local applications. After the fourth or fifth day the blister mentioned for sprain of the shoulder may be applied with advantage, and if this proves insufficient, as a last resort we may fire in points over the joint. SPRAIN OF THE BACK.--Sprain of the back, particularly in the region of the loins, is not an uncommon accident among cattle. It is liable to occur from the animals slipping with both hind feet sidewise so as to twist the back, or from slipping violently backward so that great stress is thrown on the loins. The patient moves with difficulty, using the hind parts in a guarded manner, as if afraid of causing severe pain. Occasionally, if the sprain is severe, the animal will rise with difficulty. Pressure on the back in the immediate region of the loins causes pain. Such cases may be mistaken for paralysis, and, in fact, in severe cases, during the early stages of the injury, although the nerve supply is not interfered with, the injury to the muscles and resulting pain is so great that the condition is almost equal to paralysis, although liable to be attended with more favorable results. Hot applications, such as blankets wrung out of hot water and changed often, will be likely to afford relief during the earlier stages. Afterwards the blister mentioned for sprain of the shoulder may be applied with advantage. FRACTURES (BROKEN BONES). Bones may be accidentally broken in many ways and from different causes. Fractures in general are liable to be produced by external force suddenly and violently applied, either directly to the part or at a distance, the force being transmitted through the stronger bones until it expends itself by breaking a weaker one remote from the seat of the injury. Occasionally violent contraction of muscles is sufficient to break a bone. Certain bones, those of the limbs in particular, owing to their exposed position, are more liable to fracture than others. Owing to certain predisposing causes, such as age, habit, or hereditary constitutional weakness, the bones of some animals are more easily fractured than those of others. The bones of an animal advanced in years are more subject to fracture because of the preponderance of inorganic matter rendering them more brittle. They are also occasionally rendered liable to fracture by a previously existing diseased condition. Fractures are divided into four classes--partial, simple, compound, and comminuted. PARTIAL FRACTURES.--Partial fractures are those which are liable to occur in a young animal in which the preponderance of animal matter or the semicartilaginous condition of the bone renders it tough, so that even when considerable force is applied the bone bends, breaking on the side opposite that to which the force was applied, after the manner in which a green stick bends and breaks. SIMPLE FRACTURES. Simple fracture is one in which the bone is severed in two parts, transversely, longitudinally, or obliquely, without serious injury to the adjoining structures. COMPOUND FRACTURES.--Compound fracture is one in which there is an open wound permitting the air to communicate with the ends of the broken bones. COMMINUTED FRACTURES.--Comminuted fracture is one in which the bone is shattered or divided into a number of fragments. COMPLICATED FRACTURES.--Complicated fracture is one in which other structures surrounding the bones are injured. GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF FRACTURE.--When a fracture of one or more of the large bones of a limb occurs, symptoms are sure to be well marked. After the accident the animal refuses to touch the foot to the ground and, if compelled to move, does so with great pain and reluctance. There is more or less shortening of the limb, with trembling of the muscles in the vicinity of the injury; deformity, and increased mobility, so that, instead of the natural joints of the limb and the natural, muscular control of their motion, a new joint, over which the animal has no control, is formed where the fracture occurred. As the leg, shortened by the ends of the bones being forced past one another from the muscular contraction which invariably takes place, hangs dependent from the body it swings in an awkward and unnatural manner, permitting the toe and foot to assume positions in their relations to other parts of the body which otherwise would be impossible. If the fractured bone is so situated that the parts may be moved one upon another, a grating sound, known as crepitus, will be heard. GENERAL TREATMENT OF FRACTURES.--When a fracture occurs, the advisability of attempting treatment must first be determined. If the animal is young, valuable, and of reasonably quiet temperament, and the fracture is not too great in extent, the chances of recovery are fair. On the other hand, if the animal should be of little value, irritable, advanced in years, and the fracture is a serious compound or comminuted one, the wiser course would generally be to put the creature out of its misery. Having determined to attempt treatment, no time should be lost in restoring the parts as nearly as possible to their natural position and retaining them there. If the ends of the bones have been drawn one past the other, they should be drawn out by firm and continuous tension, until they again assume the position in which they were before the accident. All this can better be done before the swelling (which is sure to result) takes place. If the swelling has occurred before the injury is noticed, do not attempt to treat it, but proceed at once to treat the fracture as though the swelling were not present, for no step can be taken toward recovery until the ends of the bone have been restored to their proper position. When that is done and proper appliances have been used to prevent them from being again misplaced, the swelling, which is the result of irritation, will be relieved. In selecting the appliances to be used in the treatment of fracture the judgment and ingenuity of the operator are of much importance. Splints, made of wood shaped to fit the limb and padded with soft material where they come in contact with bony prominences, and held in position by means of bandages, are the oldest method, and with some are still most popular. The fracture pads used in human surgery, and for sale in surgical depots, are very convenient. After being dipped in water they may be molded to fit the limb and be retained by means of bandages. Heavy sole leather is also used after being soaked in warm water and molded to the shape of the limb and holes cut in it to fit over any sharp irregularities in the natural shape of the bones. Gutta-percha sheets are also used and answer well. They are prepared and used in the same way as the leather. Another and perhaps the simplest of all methods is the application of a plaster-of-Paris bandage, which is made as follows: Strips of thin cheesecloth 3 inches wide and 8 or 9 feet long are laid flat on a board and on them is spread a layer of plaster of Paris about one-eighth of an inch thick; then, starting at one end, roll carefully so as to gather the plaster in between the layers of the bandage. It is of course important that the cloth be thin and the plaster of Paris fresh and active. After preparing four or five of such bandages the operator is ready to dress the fracture, which, after the parts have been brought into position, should be done by covering all that part of the limb to which the plaster-of-Paris bandage is to be applied with a single layer of the dry bandage, letting it extend both above and below the part to which the plaster bandage is to be applied and including under the folds of the dry bandage at each end a layer of absorbent cotton, which is intended to form a pad to prevent the ends of the plaster bandage from chafing the skin beneath. When this is done one of the plaster bandages should be placed in a vessel of water and allowed to remain till the air bubbles have ceased to rise from it, which will generally indicate that it is soaked through. Then, taking it in the hand, wind it carefully around and around the limb, unrolling the bandage as it is wound around the limb, occasionally smoothing down the plaster of Paris. Should it form roughly or in ridges the hand may be dipped in water to impart increased moisture to it. When about finished with one bandage, place another one in the water, so that the winding operation may be continued without delay. The bandages should be applied till the cast is from one-half to three-quarters of an inch thick, then gently restrain the animal for one-half or three-quarters of an hour till the plaster is hardened. Any of the appliances used should be so manipulated as to prevent absolutely any motion of the detached parts. If the fracture is near a joint, it is generally best to include the joint in the appliance. The part of the limb below the bandage should be carefully and firmly wrapped with an ordinary cotton bandage all the way from the plaster bandage down to the hoof. This last bandage will tend to prevent swelling, which is liable to occur, the result of the dependent position in which the animal is forced by nature to keep the injured limb. When plaster-of-Paris bandages are applied to a compound fracture the injured part may be previously dressed with a small, thick pad of cotton immediately over the wound. In applying the bandage the operator may with a little care so arrange it as to keep the folds of the bandages off the cotton, or have only a thin layer over it, which may be easily cut out and the cotton removed, leaving a convenient opening through which to dress the wound without removing the bandage. The ends of the bandage or other appliance should be carefully watched to see that the skin does not become chafed, particularly at the lower end. If the bandage should become weak or broken at any part, it may be strengthened without removal by applying other bandages immediately over it. If swelling has taken place before the bandage has been applied, there is liable to be some loosening as it disappears, and even without the swelling there may be a tendency of the bandage to slide downward. This may be overcome by fastening it to a suspender attached to a surcingle or passed over the body and attached to the opposite leg. If the looseness can not be overcome in this way, the space may be filled by pouring in a thin paste of plaster of Paris. A better method, however, is to remove the bandage and apply another. Owing to the hardness of the bandage it will be removed with some difficulty. A deep groove should be cut down completely through it on the opposite sides. This may be done with a chisel and a small hammer if the bandage is carefully held by an assistant so that the concussion of the blows is not transmitted to the injured bones. The patient should have a roomy stall, and should be tied by the head to prevent any attempts to move around. In some cases slings have been used. Ordinarily, however, they are not satisfactory in cattle practice, and if applied should be for only a few days at a time, and with a view to lessen the animal's disposition to lie down, rather than to prevent it. When they are used continuously the pressure on the abdomen may interfere with digestion and the general health of the animal. _Modes of union._--The animal should be kept as quiet as possible and given such feed as will have a tendency to keep the bowels slightly relaxed. The success of the operation depends chiefly on the skill of the operator, but not alone in the selection and use of the appliances, for as much attention must be given to subsequent management. The patients are restless, and a single awkward motion may undo the work of weeks so far as the union of the parts of the bone is concerned. Union takes place after the same process and, if the conditions are favorable, with greater rapidity than in the human being. The injury that caused the fracture is almost sure to have extended to some of the adjacent tissues, and even though the fracture may be of the simplest type there is almost sure to be considerable hemorrhage around the ends of the broken bone. This, however, is unimportant if the skin remains intact, unless a very large vessel should be injured, or the fracture should open some of the important cavities of the body, in which case a fatal hemorrhage may result. If, on the other hand, the fracture is compound the external opening furnishes a fertile field for the lodgment of disease-producing germs. Unless great care is taken in such cases, a suppurative process is liable to be established which will seriously interfere with, if not entirely arrest, the process of union between the bones; or it may become so serious as to endanger the general health of the animal and even be attended with fatal results. This last danger is greater if the injury has occurred to the bones of the arm or thigh. In such cases, owing to the dense covering of fascia which ensheathes the muscular covering pus is liable to be imprisoned, and, burrowing downward, saturate the whole structure, not only endangering the limb, but, by absorption, may set up blood poisoning and seriously interfere with the general health of the patient, even to causing death. In order so far as possible to prevent such an unfortunate complication, the wound should be carefully cleansed with a mild solution of carbolic acid, then dusted over with iodoform before the bandages are applied, and cleansed and dressed daily in the same way. After dressing, always cover with absorbent cotton. In the early process of union an exudation of lymph takes place, which is at first fluid, gradually becoming thicker and firmer till it forms a callus, known as the external or ensheathing callus, in the shape of a ring or ferrule surrounding the detached portions of the bone. It occasionally happens that this callus forms only at the ends of the bones, filling the spaces that exist between them, when it is known as the intermediate callus. The process of union may be divided into five stages. In the first stage, including the first eight days, the detached portions of the bone and the sharp projections that are not sufficiently nourished are absorbed; the blood which escaped into the surrounding tissues, the result of the injury, is gradually absorbed, and the effused lymph, which is ultimately to constitute the temporary cartilage, takes it place. In the second stage, from the tenth to the twentieth day, the tumor or callus is formed and fibrocartilage is developed inside and around the exposed end of the bone. In the third stage, extending from the twentieth to the fortieth or fiftieth day, according to the age and strength of the animal, the fibrocartilaginous structure undergoes a change and is gradually converted into bone, forming a ferrule on the outside and a plug on the inside, which serve to hold the part in position. In the fourth stage, extending to about the sixth month, the whole of the new structure is converted into bone. In the fifth stage, extending to the end of the first year, the callus is absorbed, being no longer necessary, and the connection between the cavities of the two bones is again established. _Common complications._--The process of union just described is healthy and normal. Diseased conditions may at any time supervene during the treatment and render the operation unsuccessful. In the case of compound fracture, the open wound communicating with the ends of the bones, a septic condition is liable to arise which may become so serious as to endanger the animal's life and bring about conditions which in human surgery would indicate amputation. Although that operation is not a general one in veterinary practice, there is no reason why it should not be attempted as a last resort, particularly if the animal is valuable or is one whose existence is necessary in order to perpetuate some valuable strain. Even in the simplest form of fracture, if the splints or bandages are improperly applied and the fractured bone left so loosely guarded that the broken ends move one upon another, the formation of the calluses previously described is liable to be interfered with, and in place of a strong, rigid, and healthy union a formation of elastic cartilage is the result. This false structure unites the broken ends of the bones in such way that they move one upon another, depriving the bone of its stability and usefulness. When once the healthy process of union is interrupted in the manner just described, it is again established with great difficulty. It no longer does any good to continue the restraining power; in fact, the change of the temporary cartilage into bone is more liable to be reestablished if the parts move violently upon each other for a short time so as to set up and renew the process of inflammation. Then if the restraint is again applied there is some chance of union. In order so far as possible to avoid this danger, care should be taken to see that the bandage fits closely and that it is kept on till there is no longer any danger but that a perfect union has taken place. It is impossible to say at just what time the splints or bandages can safely be removed. In a young and healthy animal of quiet temperament, if the parts have been firmly held in position throughout the whole time, from 30 to 40 days may be regarded as reasonably safe. Under more unfavorable conditions as to age, vitality, and restraint, the period would better be extended to 60 days, if the general condition of the animal is such as to permit of so long a continuance. After the appliance has been removed the animal should be allowed to stand quiet for a few days, then be given very gentle exercise, gradually increased for a week or 10 days, by which time the patient will be so far recovered as to be placed in pasture. It should, however, be alone for a time, so as not to take any chance of injury from fighting or other accidents that association with other animals might involve. SPECIAL FRACTURES. FRACTURE OF THE HORNS.--Of the special fractures liable to occur, that of the horn is perhaps the most common. It is always the result of violent mechanical means, such as blows, injury occurring while fighting, or from the animal getting its head locked in some manner while feeding from a rack. When it occurs there are two ways in which the injury may affect the animal. First and most common, the horny crust is liable to be stripped from the bony projection which it covers. Second, the crust and bone may both be broken or bent down, the fracture occurring in that case at the root of the horn and involving part of the bones of the head in the immediate vicinity. In the first case, if the horny covering is knocked off, little attention is necessary. The animal may be relieved from suffering if the stump is smeared with pine tar and wrapped in cloth. If the core is much lacerated, perhaps it would be better to amputate. The necessity for such operation must be determined by the condition of the injury, influenced to some extent by the owner's ideas on the subject. When the operation is performed, it should be done with a sharp, fine-toothed saw, and by sawing the horn off close enough to include a little of the skin and hair around its base. The practice of dehorning has grown popular in many parts of the country. It is a simple operation, and, although attended with some immediate suffering, does not produce serious constitutional disturbance. The advisability of performing the operation on all cattle is a question of expediency and must be justified by the expectation of benefit on the part of the feeder. If the horn should be broken so that the core and crust are bent out of shape without the detachment of one from the other, it may be restored to its normal position and retained there by means of a splint made to fit across the back of the head, so as to be laced to both horns, the sound horn serving to hold the broken one in position. Such a splint may be fastened on by means of either a wire or cord and allowed to remain six weeks or two months. If both the horn and core have been broken off, bleeding is usually severe and should be checked by astringents, such as alum, or by pressure. After the hemorrhage has ceased the exposed portion of the fracture should be covered with pine tar, with or without a bandage. An imperfect growth of horn will in due time cover the exposed bone. FRACTURES OF THE BONES OF THE FACE.--These occasionally occur, and when over the cavities of the nose produce depression, disfigurement, and impeded respiration, owing to the lessening of the caliber of the nasal passages. When such accident occurs, the depressed bone should be gently forced back to place by introducing the finger in the nostril, or if the fracture is too far up for this, a probe may be passed and the parts retained by placing immediately over it a plaster of thin leather or strong canvas smeared with tar, extending out to the sound surroundings, taking care to embed the hair over the fractured portion in the tar of the plaster, so that it will be firmly held and prevented from again becoming depressed. If only one nostril is involved, the depressed portion may be held in position by packing that nostril with absorbent cotton. This practice, however, has the objection of giving the animal great discomfort and in some cases a disposition to aggravate the injury. FRACTURE OF THE SKULL (CRANIUM).--Fractures of the bones forming the cavity in which the brain is situated are, owing to their strength, comparatively rare among cattle. Such an accident can only be the result of external violence, and it is hardly possible that it could occur without some fragment of the broken bone pressing upon the brain so as to cause coma or other severe nervous derangement, or even death. If the animal survives the first shock, the efforts should be directed toward relieving the pressure, which may be done by making an opening in the bone (trephining), and with a hook drawing the depressed part outward. Interference is not so liable to be attended with good results as to be warranted in all cases. The effects of a very severe shock which may not have produced a fracture, although the symptoms were alarming, will in many cases pass off, leaving the animal in a better condition than if an operation had been performed. FRACTURE OF THE LOWER JAW.--This occasionally occurs, and is more liable to result from the kick of a horse than from any other cause. The front part of the jaw may be split or shattered in any direction in which the force may have been applied. Bloody discharges from the mouth and failure to eat or ruminate are symptoms most likely to attract attention. The treatment is simple and consists in first removing detached pieces of bone, then drawing the parts together and retaining them by means of pieces of copper wire fastened around the teeth, and feeding the animal on sloppy feed until recovery takes place. The wound should be dressed once or twice a day with a 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, forced gently in with a syringe, so as to remove any feed which may have become impacted and interfere with the healing process. FRACTURE OF THE VERTEBRA (SPINAL COLUMN).--This is not so common among cattle as other animals. If the fracture should be through the body of the bone, there may be pressure on or laceration of the spinal cord, causing paralysis of all parts posterior to the seat of injury. Fractures of the prominences on a vertebra occasionally occur without interfering with the canal in which the spinal cord is situated. Such accidents are liable to pass unnoticed, for, although the animal may suffer considerable pain, it may not be manifested in such way as to attract attention, and the deep covering of muscles serves effectually to conceal the injury. When the fracture occurs in the upper part of the neck, paralysis of the muscles used in respiration must result, and death from asphyxia very shortly ensues. The more common accident is to the loins, and when a fracture of the body of a vertebra occurs in this region so as to produce pressure on the spinal cord, paralysis of the hind legs and quarters is the result. Diagnosis of such an accident is more difficult than in the case of any other fracture. The parts can not be moved one upon another so that crepitus is noticeable. The heavy coating of muscles conceals irregularities of shape, which otherwise may attract attention. About the only reliable symptom is paralysis or loss of use and sensation of the parts posterior to the injury. Careful examination may reveal the seat of the injury. If it was the result of a blow, there may be some abrasion of the skin. The diagnosis is only important as an aid in determining the proper course to pursue. If paralysis is present and a depression or irregularity of the spinal column is so apparent as to leave no doubt of the existence of a fracture, the only alternative is to destroy the animal, for of recovery there can be no hope. If, on the other hand, the paralysis is incomplete and there is no depression or irregularity of the spinal column or other evidence of fracture, the patient should be made as comfortable as possible by being placed in a well-bedded box stall and a few days permitted to elapse before the case is abandoned. The symptoms last described may possibly be the result of a severe strain of the muscles of the loins, in which case an improvement will soon be noticeable. FRACTURES OF THE PELVIS.--The pelvis, or bony framework which gives shape to the posterior part of the body, is liable to fracture in many ways. A common one is by a separation of the two bones which constitute the whole pelvis along the bottom and center line (symphysis pubis). In early life the two bones are separate and distinct. The union between them, which is at first cartilaginous, undergoes a change and is converted into bone, so that in adult life the whole pelvis is practically one bone. The point on which the two bones are united is weaker than the adjoining parts of the bone. When an animal slips violently, spreading the legs wide apart, the weaker materials give way and the bones are divided. If the accident is noticed when it occurs, it is likely to throw light on the nature of the injury. The animal will immediately go stiff behind, the legs being spread apart. Further examination may be made by introducing the hand, previously carefully oiled, into the rectum or vagina and pressing down along the central line, which will cause the patient to evince acute pain. In this case no appliance can be used to advantage. The animal should be tied in a stall until the parts become reunited and the lameness disappears. Fracture of the posterior parts of the bone (ischium), which forms the point of the buttocks occasionally occurs. The buttock on the injured side will be less prominent than the other. Careful manipulation will generally move the parts so that crepitus may be recognized. If the fracture is through the posterior part of the bone, it is unimportant and deserving of no more attention than placing the animal in such position as to insure it against subsequent injury until the bones are united. Some distortion may result, but not sufficient to warrant interference. Fracture through the body of the bone on a line with the hip joint (acetabulum) occasionally, though rarely, occurs, and is nearly always associated with dislocation of the hip joint and the forcing of the head of the upper bone of the leg (femur) upward, far out of its place. The violent contraction of the powerful muscles of the hip renders it impossible to reduce the dislocation, and even if it were possible the fractured pelvis could not be held in position, so that the case becomes at once hopeless. It may be recognized by the animal's standing on three legs, the leg on the injured side seeming shorter than its fellow and hanging pendulous, the muscles of the hip violently contracted and hard to the touch. The animal evinces great pain when the limb is moved. There is liable to be some apparent distortion in the relations between the point of the hip and the point of the buttock. This will be more readily noticed by comparing the injured side with the other. The parts may be moved so as to produce crepitus. The examination may be completed by introducing the oiled hand into the vagina or rectum, when the two sides of the pelvis will reveal well-marked differences. FRACTURE OF THE POINT OF THE HIP.--The anterior and external part of the pelvis (ilium), commonly known as the point of the hip, is liable to fracture, which stock owners describe as "hipping," or being "hipped," or having the hip "knocked down." This accident may be the result of crowding while passing through a narrow door, of falling violently on the point of the hip, or from a violent blow directed downward and forward against it. The lesion generally extends across the flat surface of the bone from its outer and posterior edge forward and inward. Distortion is liable to be the only noticeable symptom. The detached portion varies in size in different cases and with it the resulting deformity. The animal is noticed to be slightly lame, but this symptom soon disappears. The detached portion of the bone is drawn downward and away from the main part by the action of the muscles below, which are so powerful as to render return impossible. The bones therefore remain permanently separated, union taking place by fibrous callus. The animal suffers very little inconvenience, and for practical use may be as serviceable as before the accident, though the distorted appearance depreciates its value. FRACTURE OF THE RIBS.--Such an occurrence can take place only as the result of a direct injury, as from blows or crowding. The posterior ribs, being more exposed, are more liable to fracture. Pain in moving, slight swelling over the seat of injury, and difficult breathing are obvious symptoms. If the fracture is complete, crepitation may be occasionally noticed by placing the hand flat over the injured part, carefully observing the motion as the chest contracts and expands during respiration. This symptom is more noticeable when the animal coughs. Unless the point of the broken bone penetrates the cavity of the chest the fracture is usually unimportant and calls for no treatment other than quiet. If the breathing is very labored and attended with much pain, motion may be limited by applying a wide bandage firmly around the chest. The animal should be restricted in the amount of feed and water for a few days, the stomach being kept as nearly empty as possible. Sloppy feed should be given to encourage, as much as possible, free action of the diaphragm in breathing. FRACTURE OF BONES OF THE LIMBS.--On this subject much has been said in the preceding remarks on general fractures. As a rule, fracture through one of the large bones of the shoulder (scapula) or thigh (femur) is very difficult to manage. The powerful contraction of the muscles and the changing shape of the limb resulting from their action renders it impossible to retain the detached parts of the bone in proper position. Therefore, though the union should take place, there is almost sure to be considerable deformity and more or less lameness. Fracture of the arm (humerus) or leg (tibia) is likely to be attended with better results. The muscular covering is not so thick, the sheath in which they are held is more tense, and the change in the shape of the limb from muscular action not so noticeable, the muscular force not so great, all of which facilitate replacing the dislodged ends and retaining them. FRACTURE OF THE KNEE (CARPUS) AND HOCK (TARSUS).--This seldom occurs unless it is the result of a very violent injury, and is generally associated with other injury and serious complications. Displacement does not generally occur to any considerable extent. The treatment, of course, consists in holding the limb perfectly quiet in a natural position, which may be done by the application of long, wooden splints retained by bandages, or a plaster-of-Paris bandage. FRACTURES BELOW THE KNEE.--Fracture of the long bone below the knee (metacarpus) and hock (metatarsus) is more common. In young animals of quiet temperament the treatment of simple fractures here is likely to be attended with good results. On the other hand, a compound fracture in this region becomes a serious matter. The structures which surround the bones are so thin that a very small degree of sloughing will expose parts of the bones and be liable to lead to serious complications and probably fatal results. FRACTURES OF BONES BELOW THE FETLOCK.--These fractures are comparatively unimportant unless associated with other serious injury. The parts can generally be held in position without much difficulty, and union generally takes place quite rapidly. APPLIANCES.--Of the appliances used in the treatment of the fracture of limbs above the knee, splints made of wood or iron strips and bandages are likely to serve best. Below the knee plaster-of-Paris bandages are preferable. The writer is well aware that many of the standard authors deprecate the use of the latter, but an extensive experience leads me to believe that they have many advantages over any of the other appliances when used alone, and in many ways they may be used with advantage in combination with others. DISLOCATIONS. Luxation, or displacement without fracture of the bones forming a joint, is comparatively rare among cattle. It most frequently occurs in the stifle joint, where dislocation of the kneepan (patella) takes place. A glance at the skeleton (Pl. XXV) will show the relations better than they can be described. It will be observed that the small, irregularly shaped bone (patella) plays on the anterior rounded part of the lower edge of the thigh bone (femur) and between it and the upper end of the shank bone (tibia). The outer ridge on the lower end of the thigh bone is less prominent than the inner one, so that displacement, when it does take place, is by slipping outward. Such an accident may occur from direct injury or external force, as a blow, or from slipping. When it does occur the symptoms produced are somewhat alarming. The animal is unable to draw the leg forward, and either stands with it thrown back with the toe pointing downward, or, if it should succeed in getting its weight upon it, holds it firmly on the ground, fearing to move it. Examination of the outside of the joint will disclose the situation of the patella outside its proper place. If the operator is not familiar with the normal appearance of the joint, it is well to make a comparison between the injured and the sound one. If compelled to move, the animal does so with great difficulty, jerking the leg which it is unable to bring forward, hopping with the other, and partially dragging the injured one. [Illustration: PLATE XXV. SKELETON OF THE COW.] _Treatment._--The treatment is simple. A rope 20 feet long should be applied around the fetlock of the affected leg, passed forward between the front legs and up over the opposite side of the neck, back over the withers, and wrapped once behind the elbow around that portion of the rope which passes between the front legs. The leg is then drawn away from the body and forcibly pushed forward by an assistant, while another person tightens up the slack in the rope until the affected leg is off the ground in front of the supporting leg. The rope is then drawn taut and the assistant grasps the tail and pulls the cow toward the affected side. The animal makes a lurch to keep from falling, contracts the muscles, and the patella slips into place with a sharp click, and the animal walks off as if nothing had happened. If the animal resists this method of handling, it may suffice to manipulate the dislocated kneepan by shoving it inward and forward with the heel of the hand while the affected leg is drawn well forward. Unless some precaution is taken the accident is liable to recur, as the ligaments have been stretched by the dislocation till they no longer hold the bone with that firmness necessary to retain it. The animal should be tied and the foot fastened forward, so that the patient can just stand on it comfortably, by means of a rope or strap around the fetlock carried forward between the front legs, around the neck, and tied on the breast. Should this accident occur more than once it is a good practice to apply a blister around the joint, as in the formula recommended for sprain of shoulder, and observe the precautions as to restraint and subsequent treatment there recommended. With this one exception dislocations in the ox occurring independently of other complications are rare. Dislocation with fracture may occur in any of the joints, and if one is suspected or discovered, examination should always be made for the other before treatment is applied. When a fracture occurs near a joint the force sufficient to rend the bone is liable to be partly exerted on the immediate tissues, and when the bone gives way the structures of the joints may be seriously injured. It occasionally happens that the injury to the joint becomes the most important complication in the treatment of a fracture. In order clearly to understand the reason for this a few words are necessary in relation to the structure of joints. The different pieces constituting the skeleton of the animal body are united in such manner as to admit of more or less motion one upon another. In some of the more simple joints the bones fitting one into another are held together by the dense structures around them, admitting of very little or no movement at all, as the bones of the head. In other joints the bones are bound together by dense, cartilaginous structures, admitting of only limited motion, such as the union of the small bones at the back part of the knee and hock (metacarpal and metatarsal). In the more nearly perfect form of joint the power of motion becomes complete and the structures are more complex. The substance of the bone on its articular surface is not covered with periosteum, but is sheathed in a dense, thin layer of cartilage, shaped to fit the other surfaces with which it comes in contact (articular). This layer is thickest toward its center when covering bony eminences, and is elastic, of a pearly whiteness, and resisting, though soft enough to be easily cut. The bones forming an articulation are bound together by numerous ligaments attached to bony prominences. The whole joint is sealed in by a band or ribbonlike ligament (capsular ligament) extending around the joint and attached at the outer edge of the articular surface, uniting the bones and hermetically sealing the cavities of the articulation. This structure and the articular surface of the bone is covered by a thin, delicate membrane, known as the "synovial membrane," which secretes the joint oil (synovia). This fluid is viscid and colorless, or slightly yellow, and although it does not possess a large quantity of fat, its character somewhat resembles oil, and it serves the same purpose in lubricating the joints that oil does to the friction surface of an engine. Although the tissues of the joint when used in a natural way are able to withstand the effect of great exertion, when unnaturally used, as they are very delicate and complex, they are liable to inflammatory and other changes of a very serious nature. The synovial membrane, and in fact the whole structure of the joint, is susceptible to injury and serious inflammatory derangement, and the capsular ligament is liable to be distended from excessive secretion of synovia. The latter process may be almost noninflammatory, and attended with little inconvenience or importance other than a blemish to the animal, which in cattle is not serious. It may occur on the back part of the leg above the fetlock or on the inner and fore part of the hock, corresponding in its location to windgalls and bog spavin of the horse. Continuous support by bandages will generally force reabsorption, and as the limb is not subjected to violent action, as in the case of the horse, the affection is not so liable to recur. SPAVIN. Occasionally working oxen that are used in the lumber woods and made to pull heavily, with bad footing, are afflicted with this condition. When it occurs lameness is the first symptom. During the early stages of the disease the lameness is most severe in the morning, and disappears after the animal is exercised; it gradually becomes more severe as the disease advances, so that when the disease is well established the animal is lame continuously. Shortly after the lameness appears a bunch (exostosis) will be noticed on the inner and fore part of the affected joint. This bunch differs from bog spavin in that it is hard, while bog spavin is soft. It increases in size as the disease advances till the animal is too lame to be used for labor. As the disease is always attended with considerable pain there is more or less loss of flesh. In the most advanced stage the animal will step with difficulty, frequently holding the foot from the ground, or, if forced to take a few steps, stands with it elevated, twitching with pain. In the earlier stages of the disease only a small portion of the fore part of the lower, or second, articulation is involved, but the inflammatory process gradually extends over the whole surface of the lower joints of the hock. The structures of the joint are broken down and the bones are united (anchylosis). This process may include any or all of the three lower joints of the hock. The joint of motion which is situated on the lower end of the leg bone is seldom involved. _Treatment._--Treatment of spavin in the ox, as in the horse, is likely to be tedious, and not always resulting in perfect cure. Usually it is best to fatten the animal for slaughter. If, however, treatment is decided upon, it should consist of complete rest and counterirritation of the part either by sharp blisters or the firing iron. It is advisable to try the effect of blistering first, and for this purpose the following mixture is recommended: Powdered cantharides drams 2 Biniodid of mercury do 2 Vaseline ounces 1-1/2 Clip the hair off and apply over the inner and fore part of the joint, covering the surface an inch and a half in every direction from the enlargement, or over an area 3 to 4 inches across. Fasten the animal's head so that it can not reach the part to lick it; after the third day grease with lard every other day until the scabs come off. This blister may be repeated three or four times at intervals of three weeks. The lameness will generally begin to disappear about the third or fourth month if the above-described treatment proves beneficial. Should lameness persist, firing in points by a qualified veterinarian may effect the desired result and should be tried as a last resort. In a case of spavin the cure is not effected by restoring the diseased parts to their natural condition, but by uniting the bones and obliterating the joints. If this union extends over the whole articular surface of the joints affected and is sufficiently strong to prevent any motion of the bones, the animal will again go sound. The joints that are obliterated, not being those of motion, are not important, so that the animal suffers no inconvenience in their loss. RHEUMATISM. Rheumatism is a constitutional disease from a specific condition of the blood and characterized by inflammation of the fibrous structures of the body. It is usually accompanied with stiffness, lameness, and fever. The parts affected are usually swollen, but swelling may be lacking. The inflammation may be transitory; that is, it changes from place to place. The parts usually affected are the fibrous structures of the joints, tendons, ligaments, and muscles. The serous membranes and heart may also be affected. According to its location, rheumatism is specified as articular or muscular. According to its course, it is designated as acute or chronic. _Cause._--Among the factors which are actively causative of rheumatism may be mentioned exposure to dampness and cold, especially while the animal is perspiring or fatigued after severe physical exertion. Among other causes often mentioned are acidity of the blood, nervous derangement, microbes, and injuries. It occasionally follows another disease, such as pleurisy. The influence of age and heredity may be considered as secondary or predisposing causes. Sometimes the disease appears without any apparent cause. On the whole, it may be said that any of the above-mentioned factors may have more or less influence on the production of rheumatism, but the specific cause is as yet unknown. _Symptoms of articular rheumatism._--The symptoms appear suddenly and with varying degrees of severity. The animal presents a downcast appearance, with staring coat, horns and ears cold, and the mouth and muzzle hot and dry. Appetite and rumination may be impaired and followed later or be accompanied at the same time by constipation. Constipation may be followed by impaction of the stomach or bowels. Thirst is increased, but the amount of urine voided is scanty. Respiration and pulse are accelerated, and there is usually a fever, rising sometimes as high as 108° F. The animal prefers to lie down, and when forced to rise stands with its back arched. The movements are stiff and lame and cause great pain. The disease may attack one or more joints at the same time; in fact, it is often symmetrical. One joint may improve while another becomes affected, thus showing the shifting tendency of the inflammation. The affected joints, including their tendons, ligaments, and synovial membranes, may be swollen, hot, and distended with liquid. They are very tender, and, if treated carelessly or injured, may become infected, thus leading to suppuration. While rheumatism attacks perhaps more frequently the knees and fetlocks, it has no special affinity for any joint and may attack the stifle, hip, shoulder, or elbow joint. In mild cases of articular rheumatism, the animal may fully recover in a few days. In chronic articular rheumatism there is less tendency of the disease to shift about, but there is a greater liability of structural change in the affected joints. This change may consist of induration, exostosis, or even anchylosis. These structural changes about the joints may lead to permanent deformity, such as the bending of the neck. Fever is not so constant in the chronic form as in the acute, and the latter may lapse into the former. _Symptoms of muscular rheumatism._--This form of rheumatism may appear under the same general conditions as the articular form. The general appearance of the animal is the same in both forms. The cow usually assumes a recumbent position, and all the movements made are stiff and lame. The method of rising or of locomotion indicates pain in certain muscles or groups of muscles, as of the croup, shoulder, or neck. As in the case of articular rheumatism, the tendons, ligaments, and synovial membranes may become involved. The constitutional symptoms in both articular and muscular rheumatism are similar, so that it is often perplexing to differentiate between the two forms. _Prevention._--It is somewhat difficult to procure preventive treatment for cattle, especially when there are large numbers with little or no shelter. In general, it is advisable to protect the animals so far as possible from inclement weather conditions, such as cold rains, heavy dews, and frosts. This is more particularly necessary for animals in poor condition, or those which are perspiring or fatigued after long physical exertion. Careful feeding is also essential. _Treatment._--In attempting to treat cattle for rheumatism the first step is to procure proper shelter and environment. The animal should be quartered in a large, clean, dry stall, with plenty of light and fresh air, but protected from strong drafts. There should be an abundance of clean, dry bedding. The feed should be soft, easily digestible, and slightly laxative, and the animal should have access to clean, pure, cool water. For general or constitutional treatment of acute rheumatism, sodium salicylate is indicated. In order to gain the best results from this drug, it should be administered with the idea of rapidly saturating the system. To cattle it may be given in doses of one-half ounce every two hours for ten hours or until immediate relief is obtained. This drug should not be continued indefinitely, but may be given once a day after immediate relief has been obtained, and this single dose continued daily until permanent relief ensues, when it should be stopped. The use of sodium salicylate in chronic rheumatism is not advisable on account of the danger of depressing the heart, whose action is already somewhat impaired by the lesions which have attacked it. In this case one-half ounce doses of potassium nitrate or bicarbonate may be given three times a day. Besides the constitutional treatment, it may be necessary to give special attention to the bowels in order to relieve constipation. Cattle may be given saline laxatives at the outset, such as 1 pound of Epsom salt for an ordinary-sized cow, and the bowels kept regular by an occasional smaller dose. In chronic rheumatism the best course of treatment is to give tonics and local treatment. Local treatment may also be advisable in acute rheumatism in addition to the constitutional treatment already prescribed. External treatment depends solely on the local conditions and should be applied judiciously. Among the various remedies may be mentioned hot or cold moist packs, hot air and vapor baths, friction, etc. Anodynes are often applied locally with good results. Blisters are occasionally indicated. As anodynes may be mentioned liniments and ointments containing salicylic acid or sodium salicylate in combination with laudanum, aconite, or chloral hydrate. Camphorated spirit, soap liniment, and essential oils also afford some relief when applied locally. Of blisters, those containing cantharides are most effective. FOOTNOTES: [2] A Priessnitz bandage is a dressing which combines the three properties of keeping a part warm, moist, and subjecting it to uniform pressure. It consists of three layers of material. The inner layer is composed of absorbent cotton or some other material which is capable of holding moisture. This is soaked in water and wrapped around the part. The second layer consists of a substance which is impervious to moisture, as oiled silk or oiled paper, and is applied about the inner layer to prevent evaporation. The third or outside layer is composed of a flannel or woolen bandage to prevent the radiation of heat and thus keep the moist inner layer at the temperature of the body. SURGICAL OPERATIONS. By WILLIAM DICKSON and WILLIAM HERBERT LOWE, D. V. S. [Revised by B. T. Woodward, V. M. D.] Surgery is both a science and an art. The success of surgical operations depends on the judgment, skill, and dexterity, as well as upon the knowledge of the operator. The same fundamental principles underlie and govern animal and human surgery, although their applications have a wide range and are very different in many essential particulars. We must not lose sight of the fact that hygiene and sanitation are essential to the best results in veterinary as well as in human surgery. Asepsis is an ideal condition which, although not always possible in animal surgery, is highly important in connection with the mechanical details of all surgical operations in proportion to the nature and seriousness of the same. Aseptic surgery is considered to be the performance of operations with sterile instruments with the hands of the operator and the site of operation being rendered as nearly sterile as possible, and the wound treated during operation with sterile solutions and protected following the operation with sterile bandage material. In other words, it is the preservation of the highest degree of cleanliness in connection with operations. Local or general anesthesia should be resorted to in painful and serious surgical operations, as operations upon all living creatures should be humanely performed and all unnecessary pain and suffering avoided. Anesthesia is necessary where absolute immobility of the patient is essential and where entire muscular relaxation is indispensable. The anesthetic condition is also favorable for the adjustment of displaced organs. Large animals have to be cast and secured before an anesthetic is administered. For complete anesthesia inhalations of chloroform are generally employed; sometimes of both ether and chloroform. The quantity of chloroform required to produce insensibility to external impressions varies much in different cases and must be regulated, as well as the admixture of air, by a competent assistant. If the probability of the success of an operation is remote and the animal is in healthy physical condition, so that its flesh is good for human food, it is more advisable to butcher the animal than to attempt a surgical operation that offers little encouragement to the owner. The best judgment has to be exercised in determining a matter of this kind, for no animal suffering from inflammation or that is in a feverish condition is fit for human food. All cases of major operative surgery require the skill and dexterity of the experienced veterinary surgeon, and no one else should attempt such an operation, for unnecessary suffering must be prevented. Nevertheless, the more knowledge and understanding an owner of animals has of the principles of surgical operations and manipulations, the better for all concerned. In the first place, such an owner will appreciate more fully the skill of the qualified veterinarian, and, in the second place, he will be the better prepared and equipped to render assistance to his suffering dumb dependents where no practitioner is accessible and in cases of emergency. There are, moreover, some minor operations upon cattle, some of which can hardly be classed as surgical, that the stockman and farmer should be able to perform himself. In the performance of any operation upon an animal of the size and strength of the bull or cow, the first consideration is to secure the animal in such a manner as to preclude the possibility of its injuring either itself or those taking any part in the operation. The nature and time likely to be occupied by an operation must, of course, largely determine the method to be adopted. The majority of operations with which the present chapter is concerned are usually performed on the animal in a standing position. A bull should always be held by a staff attached to the ring in his nose. To secure the cow in a standing position, grasp the nose, the finger and thumb being introduced into the nostrils, and press against the cartilage which makes a division between them. If she has horns, grasp one of them with the disengaged hand. If this is insufficient the animal should be secured to a post, along the side of a fence, or put into a stanchion. An excellent method of restraint is to tie a long rope in a slip noose over the horns, pass it around the chest just behind the forelegs, taking a half hitch on itself, taking another half hitch in front of the hind limbs, passing the free end under the tail, bringing it forward and making it fast either to the head or one of the hitches. The head should be raised to the level of the back before the final knot is tied, so as to render it too serious and painful a matter for her to repeat the first attempt she makes to lower it. Should the nature or extent of the operation be likely to take up considerable time, it is invariably the best plan to throw the animal. In the case of the ox this is very easily done, either by use of horse hobbles, should they be at hand, or by the application of a simple rope. If the horse hobbles are used, they should be fastened on the leg just above the fetlocks (ankle joints), as in that position they are less liable to come off than if placed around the pastern. Of the many ways of applying the rope for this purpose we will describe only two, which we consider the best and simplest: First. Take a long, strong rope (one which has been used a few times is more flexible), double it, and at 2 or 3 feet from the doubled end, according to the size of the animal, make a knot and pass the collar thus formed over the animal's head, allowing it to rest on what would be the collar place in a horse. Now, pass the ends of the rope between the forelegs, carry one around each hind leg just above the fetlock joint, from outside in, under itself once, and bring the free ends forward, passing each through the collar loop on its own side and bringing the slack back toward and beyond the hind quarters. (Pl. XXVI, fig. 2.) Two or three men should then take hold of each rope and at a given signal pull. The animal's hind legs being drawn forward, the balance is lost, and if the animal does not fall or lie down he can be readily pushed over on his side and secured in the desired position. Second. The three half hitches. Take a rope 30 or more feet long, make a slip noose at the end and pass it over the animal's horns, leaving the knot in the loop between the horns; then pass the rope backward along the neck to the withers, just in front of which take a half hitch on it, passing it along the back, take one half hitch just behind the forelegs and a second in front of the hind limbs round the flank. (Pl. XXVI, fig. 1.) The free end of the rope is taken hold of by one or two assistants while another holds the animal's head. By pulling firmly on the rope, or inducing the animal to make a step or two forward while steady traction is made on the rope, the beast will lie down, when his feet can be secured in the way most convenient for the operator. There are numerous other methods, involving more or less complete restraint, which may be equally efficacious, but one or other of the ways indicated will doubtless be found to meet fully all ordinary cases. RINGING THE BULL. This is usually and ought always to be done before the calf has attained sufficient weight or strength to make his restraint a matter of serious difficulty. An ordinary halter is usually all that is required, the strap being secured to a tree or post. A jointed steel or copper ring is ordinarily used. Those made of the latter metal are preferable. The common method of punching a round piece out of the nasal septum for the introduction of the ring is, I think, open to objection, as portions of the fine nervous filaments are destroyed. The sensibility of the parts is thus lessened and the object of ringing to some extent defeated. The insertion of the ring by means of a trocar and cannula is preferable, as the method is not open to this objection. For some years we have used a little instrument, which can be made by any worker in metal, consisting of a steel point riveted into a short cannula made to fit on one end of the ring while open. (Pl. XXVII, fig. 11.) When attached to the ring it is easily and quickly passed through the septum, the half of the ring following as a matter of course. It can then be removed and the ends of the ring brought together and fastened by means of the screw for that purpose. DEHORNING. In the wild state the utility of the horns of cattle as weapons of offense and defense is apparent, but with domestication of cattle and their confinement the presence of horns constitutes a menace to the safety of their companions. Horned cattle frequently inflict with their horns painful and serious injuries to others. Deaths as a result of such injuries are not unusual. The operation of dehorning would therefore be indicated as a matter of general safety. On farms where breeding is conducted, the most desirable method is to prevent the horns from growing on the young calves. This action results in a more symmetrical appearance of the poll and eliminates the dangers which would result from the presence of horns on the young cattle prior to their operative removal at a later age. A calf should be treated not later than one week after it is born--preferably when it is from 3 to 5 days old. The agent to be used may be either caustic soda or potash in the form of sticks about the thickness of an ordinary lead pencil. These caustics must be handled with care, as they dissolve the cuticle and may make the hands or fingers sore. The preparation of the calf first consists in clipping the hair from the parts, washing clean with soap or warm water, and thoroughly drying with a cloth or towel. The stick of caustic should be wrapped in a piece of paper to protect the hands and fingers, leaving one end of the stick uncovered. Moisten the uncovered end slightly and rub it on the horn buttons or little points which may be felt on the calf's head--first on one, then on the other--two or three times, allowing the caustic to dry after each application. Be careful to apply the caustic to the horn button only, for if it is brought in contact with the surrounding skin it will cause pain. Too much moisture on the stick of caustic will allow the application to spread to the surrounding skin. After treatment keep the calf protected from rain, as water on the head after application of the caustic will cause it to run down over the face. Dehorning of adult animals is usually performed after the age of 2 years, as after that age there is less probability of the horns again growing. The horns should be severed from the head from a quarter to a half-inch below where the skin joins the base of the horn, cutting from the back toward the front if a saw is used. If the horn is not cut close enough to the head, an irregular, gnarly growth of horn is liable to follow. Before attempting to dehorn the animal, it should be securely controlled by ropes in a stanchion or by casting. Upon the range the cattle are usually controlled by casting or by placing them in a "squeezer" connected with a corral. A clean, sharp meat saw or a miter saw with a rigid back may be used. Various types of dehorning shears or clippers are in general use. One type of dehorner has a stationary knife edge with its cutting edge shaped like a very wide V, and opposing this, another knife of similar shape moving in a slide, so that the cutting edges act upon the horn from all four sides at once, all the edges passing the center at the same time. Another type has a movable knife, with one oblique or one curved edge, and the cutting is done in one direction only. The power for cutting with these instruments is supplied by pulling together two long handles which, in order to transmit a greater force, are generally so constructed that they act through the medium of a series of cogs. In dehorning with these instruments the cutting edges should be slipped down over the horn and the knives closed, so that their edges set firmly against the horn in such position that the cut will be made in the right place and in the right direction. The handles should then be drawn together with a quick, firm, strong pull so that the horn will be completely severed by the first act and without twisting. Dehorning should, when possible, be performed in cool weather when the flies are not plentiful. The loss of blood from the operation is not sufficient, as a rule, to be of consequence, and after care being taken to prevent substances from getting into the openings left after the removal of the horns it is not usual to apply any dressing. Pine tar or a mixture of pine tar and tannic acid may be applied, particularly if the weather is warm. SETONING. The ordinary use of a seton is to keep up constant drainage from a cavity containing matter or to act as a stimulant or counterirritant. To insert a seton, the place of entrance and exit having been decided on, with the finger and thumb make a small fold of the skin transversely to the direction the seton is to be inserted, and cut it through, either with a sharp knife or a pair of scissors (this should be done at both the entrance and exit); then with a steady pressure and slight lateral movement insert the seton by means of a seton needle. (Pl. XXVII, figs. 1 and 2.) The seton should consist of a piece of strong tape, varying in breadth according to circumstances, and should be kept in place either by a knot on each end or by tying the ends together. Setons should be gently moved once a day after suppuration is set up, and they should not be allowed to remain in over three weeks, or a month at the outside. TRACHEOTOMY. This operation consists in making an opening in the trachea, or windpipe. It is indicated whenever there is an obstruction from any cause in the upper part of the respiratory tract which threatens the death of the animal by asphyxia (suffocation). The mode of procedure is as follows: Have an assistant extend the animal's head as far as possible to make the trachea tense and prominent; make a longitudinal incision about 2 to 2-1/2 inches long through the skin and deeper tissues and trachea at the most prominent part of the trachea, which is about the middle or upper third, and then insert the tracheotomy tube. The latter should be removed once or twice daily and cleansed, and the wound dressed antiseptically. To ascertain when it is time to discontinue the use of the tube and to allow the wound to close, the hand should be held over the opening, which will require the animal to use its natural passages in breathing. Observe whether it is performed in a natural manner, and if so, remove the tube and allow the wound to close. Often the operation has to be performed in great haste without the proper instruments and under great disadvantages, the operator having to cut down quickly, open the trachea and spread the parts, using some instrument improvised by him at the time. This operation only gives the animal relief in breathing, and therefore the proper remedial treatment should be adopted at the onset of the attack and continued until the cause (the disease) has been overcome. RUMENOTOMY. The opening of the paunch, or rumen, in cattle and the removal of a part or the whole of the ingesta through said opening is termed rumenotomy. The operation should be performed in severe cases only, where the rumen is excessively overloaded and distended. The animal is placed with its right side against a wall and firmly held in position by strong assistants. The incision is made in the same place that the trocar is inserted for puncturing that organ in cases of hoven. The opening is increased in size until the operator's hand can be inserted into the rumen. Before any of the contents are removed from that organ a linen cloth should be placed from the outer wound into the rumen in order to prevent any of the ingesta from getting into the abdominal cavity. Some practitioners, after removing a portion of the contents of the rumen, introduce such medicine as may be indicated before closing the wound. Clean the wound and close the opening in the rumen with uninterrupted (Pl. XXVII, fig. 8) carbolized catgut sutures. Next close the external wound, consisting of the integument, muscle, and peritoneum, with stout, interrupted (Pl. XXVII, fig. 6) metallic sutures. No feed should be given for several hours after the operation, and then gruels only. (See "Distention of rumen or paunch with feed," p. 26.) TREATMENT OF ABSCESSES. An abscess may be detected, if situated externally, by heat, pain, redness, and swelling in the early stages, and, if further developed, by the fluctuation which is present. When any of these symptoms are absent, the suppuration should be encouraged by the means of hot fomentations and poultices. Care must be taken that the abscess is not opened too soon, or to some extent it may cause it to scatter, and the escape of pus will be lessened. The time to open an abscess is just before it is ready to break, and should be done with a sharp lance, a crucial incision sometimes being necessary. The cavity should be syringed out with an antiseptic solution. Care should be taken not to allow the wound to close too rapidly, to prevent which a tent of lint or oakum should be introduced. WOUNDS. For the purposes of the present work wounds may be divided into three classes: (1) Incised; (2) punctured; (3) lacerated or contused. In any wound all that the most suitable applications can accomplish is, in the first place, to prevent the access of those poisonous germs which exist in the animal's surroundings, such as the soil and the manure, and, in the second place, when the process of repair is for some reason temporarily inactive or altogether arrested, to incite that curative inflammation that is the invariable method by which the cure is effected. INCISED WOUND.--This is one with clean-cut edges, and may be either superficial or deep. In wounds of all descriptions there is necessarily more or less bleeding, and this is especially liable to be the case in incised wounds, particularly when they penetrate to a considerable depth, or when inflicted on a part where blood vessels of any considerable size approach the surface. To arrest the hemorrhage must therefore be the first consideration. If slight, a generous use of cold water is all that is necessary, but if one or more vessels of any size have been wounded or entirely severed, they should be taken up and ligated. If the blood flows continuously and is dark in color, it proceeds from a vein, but if bright-colored and jerky in its flow, it is arterial. The taking up of an artery simply means the tying up of the bleeding vessel, which should be accomplished as follows: To discover the bleeding artery take a piece of clean absorbent cotton, dip it in cold water, and by gentle pressure on the wound clear it of the accumulated blood. The jet of fresh blood reveals the end of the vessel, which is readily recognized by its whitish-yellow or buff color. It should be seized with a forceps or pincers and slightly drawn clear of the surrounding tissues. Now take the thread and place the middle of it under the artery, take up the ends, tie one simple knot tightly, pressing the thread down with the forefinger so as not to include the forceps, then a second one over it and cut off the ends. The bleeding being arrested, the operator can now carefully clean and inspect the wound, taking care to remove all blood and foreign matters and clip the hair around the edges before proceeding to stitch it up. If the wound is superficial, the lips may be brought together by a series of independent stitches (Pl. XXVII, fig. 6) about one-half of an inch to three-fourths of an inch apart. The stitches should not be drawn tightly; it is sufficient to bring the edges of the wound in apposition. If the wound is deep, the needle should be introduced perpendicularly at as great a distance from the lip of the wound as the depth it is to be inserted, so as to give the thread sufficient hold. All the stitches should be as nearly as possible at equal distances from the border of the wound, to prevent unequal strain, and the knots should be made at the side, not over the wound. (Pl. XXVII, fig. 6.) When the wound is large and deep, care should be taken to have an opening in the lowest part to allow for the escape of the discharges. In deep wounds which run crosswise of a limb or muscle it is often advisable to use what is technically known as the "quilled suture," which is most readily understood by reference to Plate XXVII, figure 7. To accomplish this method a curved needle with an eye in the point and a strong double thread should be used. The needle thus threaded is introduced perpendicularly at least an inch from the wound on one side, carried across below and brought out the same distance from the border of the cut on the opposite side, the thread being seized and held in position while the needle is withdrawn, leaving a loop of thread protruding on one side and two loose ends on the other side of each stitch. When enough stitches have been made, take a light piece of wood about the size of a lead pencil, corresponding in length to the size of the wound or slightly longer, and insert it through each of the loops, drawing up the free ends of the threads, which should in turn be tied securely on a similar piece of wood on that side. PUNCTURED WOUNDS.--Owing to the uncertainty of their depth and the structures they may involve, punctured wounds are by far the most dangerous and difficult to treat. Not only is the extent of the damage hidden from view, but the very character of the injury, as can be readily understood, implies at least the possibility of deep-seated inflammation and consequent discharge of pus (matter), which, when formed, is kept pent up until it has accumulated to such an extent that it burrows by simple gravity, as no other exit is possible. In this way foreign matters, such as a broken piece of the stake or snag, or whatever caused the wound, may be carried to an indefinite depth, or the cavity of a joint may be invaded and very serious, if not fatal, consequences occur. The danger is especially marked when the injury is inflicted on parts liable to frequent and extensive motion, but all cases of punctured wounds should receive unusual care, as no judgment can be accurately formed from the external appearance of the wound. While a probe can ascertain the depth, it throws but little light on the extent or exact nature of the internal injury. For this reason all punctured wounds should invariably be carefully searched by means of a probe or some substitute devised for the occasion, such as a piece of wire with a smooth blunt end, or a piece of hard wood shaped for the purpose. Stitching is not admissible in the case of punctured wounds. After thoroughly cleansing the opening of the wound and its surroundings, tincture of iodin should be injected directly into the wound. If a punctured wound is not very deep, and when the bruising and laceration are slight, it is possible for healing to take place by adhesion, and this should always be encouraged, as the process of repair by this method is far superior to that by granulation, which will be referred to later. With this object in view, the animal should be kept as quiet as possible. A dose of physic, such as a pound of Glauber's or Epsom salt, should be administered, and warm antiseptic fomentations or poultices, when this is practicable, applied frequently to the surface of the wound. In wounds of this description the process of repair may be complicated by the appearance of exuberant granulations, popularly known as "proud flesh," which is really an overgrowth of new tissue--granulation tissue; but these should not be interfered with unless they continue after the acute stage of inflammation has been subdued. If, after this, they persist, they may be treated with a 10 per cent solution of sulphate of copper (bluestone) or nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) in water. CONTUSED OR LACERATED WOUNDS.--These are usually caused by a blow with some blunt instrument or by falls. The seriousness depends largely on the depth of the injury, and treatment should be directed to allaying the inflammation and preventing the consequent tendency to sloughing. To this end soothing applications, such as antiseptic fomentations and poultices, are plainly indicated. METHODS OF HEALING.--Technically these may be divided into a number of distinct processes, but practically we may speak of them as two only, namely, by primary union, or adhesion, and by granulation. As suppuration is not so liable to occur in cattle as in horses, healing by the former and more speedy process is much more common in the first-named species, more particularly in clean-cut or incised wounds, provided they have been stitched within 12 hours from the time the injury which caused them was inflicted, that they have been kept antiseptically clean, and that the patient by some means has been kept fairly still. This latter stipulation is probably hardest to comply with. Quiet is an important factor in the process of repair among the lower animals. The second method of healing, namely, by granulation, which is, however, the manner in which most wounds in animals heal, takes much longer. In punctured wounds of any depth healing necessarily takes place in this way only, and the treatment should be directed largely to alleviating pain and moderating inflammation. AFTER-TREATMENT AND DRESSING OF WOUNDS.--The dressing of wounds is one of the most important branches of veterinary surgery, and one of the most constant difficulties that the practicing veterinarian has to contend with lies in the lack of cooperation on the part of owners in the care and attention in the after-treatment of wounds. In summarizing the treatment of wounds, the following recommendations should be observed: wounds must be cleansed and kept clean, using antiseptic solutions which do not produce irritation, and applying the solutions with a syringe or with clean pieces of absorbent cotton. Bleeding should be stopped before the closing of the wound by sutures or bandages. An opening at the bottom of all wounds except small superficial wounds should be provided as a drainage outlet for the escape of wound secretions or pus if it should form. The edges of wounds and the muscles involved in the wound should be kept as quiet as possible during the process of healing. Every wound should be protected by a sterile or antiseptic dressing whenever it is possible to retain a dressing in place. Dressings should be changed when it is apparent that they have become drenched with wound secretions or pus, or have become disarranged or too loose, permitting dirt to enter between them and the skin. If swelling appears beyond the edges of a bandage, it is an indication that it is too tight and it should then be removed and again applied. The hands of the operator and all instruments and dressings coming in contact with a wound at any time should be made as clean as possible by the use of antiseptics. BARBED-WIRE CUTS.--We have specified these simply because in some sections of the country there is a fixed idea that there is a specific poison in barbed wire, causing injuries which require treatment differing from that which is applicable to ordinary wounds. Barbed-wire cuts differ from ordinary wounds only in the parts being often lacerated and torn, and the treatment already indicated for wounds of that description is applicable to them. CASTRATION. Castration consists in the removal of the essential organs of generation, and is performed upon both the male and the female. In the male the organs removed are the testicles and in the female the ovaries. CASTRATION OF THE MALE. Castration in the male is performed for several different purposes. It may be necessary, as is the case in certain diseased conditions of the testicles and in strangulated hernia, but the usual object of the operation is to enhance the general value of the animal. For example, if the animal is intended for burden, the operation will better fit him for his work by so modifying his temperament and physical condition that he may easily be controlled by his master. Again, if he is merely to be used for beef purposes, the operation will improve the quality of the flesh and cause an added development of the most valuable portions of the dressed carcass. The operation upon the female may be performed on account of diseased conditions, but we may say that the chief object of the operation is to make the animal one of more profit to its owner by lessening the lacteal secretion and also improving the physical condition from the point of view of beef production. When the cow is spayed, it does away with all trouble attending estrum, or heat, gestation, and parturition with its accidents and ailments. The flesh of the spayed cow is more tender and juicy than that of the natural animal. The operation upon the male may be either the uncovered or the covered. In the former the incision is made down to the testicle proper, and in the latter the cut is made through the scrotum or the outside covering and through the dartos, or the next coat, care being taken to cut no deeper tissues or coats. The age at which the operation is performed varies, but usually it is performed between the second and third month. If done in early life, there is less danger of complications, the organs being in a latent condition and not fully developed. There are many different methods of operating, the principal ones of which we shall mention. In the uncovered operation a good free incision should be made, exposing the testicle completely. Now it may be removed by simply cutting it off. The only danger of doing this is that hemorrhage is liable to follow. To obviate this, before the division of the spermatic cord it should be twisted several times in the following manner: Take hold of the cord with the left hand, having it between the thumb and the index finger. Now twist the free portion several times with the right hand, all the time being careful to push with the left hand toward the body of the animal. In this way the danger of injury to the cord during the animal's struggles will be overcome. There will be no hemorrhage, or very little, if it has been done properly. This is the most simple manner of torsion. There are forceps and other instruments made to perform the operation in this manner. The actual cautery is an old method, but we shall not describe it, as we consider that we have better methods now. The next method with the clamps, although extensively used upon the horse, is not practiced to so great an extent upon the bovine at the present time. It is a very old method, and is considered very safe. Clamps are used in the covered and uncovered operations. More modern methods are by the use of special instruments known as the emasculator and the écraseur. The operation of "mulling" or crushing the spermatic cord is an unscientific and barbarous procedure, causing unnecessary pain and suffering. The methods described above apply only to the animal in a normal condition. Before operating everything should be examined to see that it is as it should be. If otherwise, a special operative procedure will be necessary. Whichever mode of operation is adopted from a practical standpoint, the principal precautions to be taken in order to attain success are as follows: First, thorough cleanliness under strict aseptic and antiseptic precautions; second, a free and boldly made incision; third, the avoidance of undue pulling or tension upon the spermatic cord; fourth, free drainage, which can be maintained, provided the original incision has been properly made. The operation of castration of the male is by no means a serious one, and when properly performed there is little danger from complications. Although the danger is trifling, the complications which may arise are sometimes of a serious nature. Hemorrhage, either primary or secondary, tetanus (or lockjaw), abscesses, hernia (or rupture), gangrene, and peritonitis are the most serious complications that follow castration. Whichever complication arises will require its own special treatment, which we will not go into here, as it will be fully dealt with under another heading. We would add, however, that, generally speaking, the animal, after being castrated, should either be regularly exercised or be allowed freedom so that it can exercise itself. Sudden changes of the temperature are dangerous. The animal should be fed moderately, but of a diet easily digestible. CASTRATION OF THE FEMALE. The operation of ovariotomy (spaying) should be performed when the heifer is in her prime and in moderate condition not too plethoric and not in heat or pregnant. This operation may be performed in one of two ways--namely, by the flank or by the vagina--each operation having its special advantages. In the flank operation the animal may be operated upon either while standing or while in the recumbent position. If standing, she should be placed against a wall or a partition and her head held by a strong assistant. The legs also must be secured to prevent the animal from kicking. A vertical incision should be made in the left flank, about the middle of the upper portion, care being taken not to make the opening too far down, in order to avoid the division of the circumflex artery which traverses that region. The operator should now make an opening through the peritoneum, which is best done with the fingers. Next the hand and arm should be introduced into the abdominal cavity and the hand directed backward toward the pelvis, searching for the horns of the uterus; if followed up the ovaries will easily be found. They should then be drawn outward and may be removed either by the écraseur or by torsion. Closing and suturing the wound will complete the operation. An adhesive plaster bandage can be beneficially applied. The operation by the vagina is more complicated and requires special and expensive instruments. The mode of procedure in brief is as follows: A speculum is introduced into the vagina, and an incision is made into the superior wall of that passage about 2 inches from the neck of the uterus, cutting from below upward and from before backward. An incision which should not exceed 3-1/2 inches in length should be made. The next step is to get possession of the ovaries. They are situated in a fold of the broad ligament and should be drawn carefully through the incision into the vagina. Now take the long-handled scissors, specially made for this purpose, with which the thick border of the broad ligament is divided. The torsion forceps are introduced and applied to the broad ligament above the ovary. The left hand is then introduced, and the thumb and the index finger grasp hold of the broad ligament above the forceps. With the right hand torsion is applied and the ovary removed. The other ovary may be removed in the same manner. What has been said with regard to complications and aftertreatment in the case of the male also applies to the female. OTHER SURGICAL OPERATIONS. Descriptions of other surgical operations not given in this chapter may be found in other parts of this work by reference to the index. * * * * * SURGICAL OPERATIONS. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Plate XXVI. Devices for casting cattle. (From Fleming.) Fig. 1. Reuff's method of throwing or casting the ox. Fig. 2. Miles's method of throwing or casting the ox. Plate XXVII. Surgical instruments and sutures. (After Reynders and Fleming.) Figs. 1 and 2. Seton needles. These may be either long or short, straight or curved, according to the locality in which a seton is to be inserted. Fig. 3. Various forms of surgical needles. Fig. 4. Suture forceps or needle holder, for passing needles through thick and dense tissues. Fig. 5. Knot properly tied. Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Various forms of sutures. Fig. 6, interrupted suture; 7, quilled suture; 8, uninterrupted suture; 9, twisted suture, made by passing suture pins through the parts to be held together and winding the thread about them so as to represent the figure 8; 10, single-pin suture. Fig. 11. Appliance for ringing the bull, one-fourth natural size. Fig. 12. Nose clamp, with spring and keeper. [Illustration: PLATE XXVI. DEVICES FOR CASTING CATTLE.] [Illustration: PLATE XXVII. SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND SUTURES.] * * * * * TUMORS AFFECTING CATTLE. By JOHN R. MOHLER, V. M. D., _Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry._ [_Synonyms:_ New growth, neoplasm, neoformation, pseudoplasm, swelling, and hyperplasia.] _Definition._--Tumors[3] are abnormal masses of tissue, noninflammatory and independent in character, arising, without obvious cause, from cells of preexistent tissue, possessing no physiologic function, and characteristically unrestrained in growth and structure. Tumors are abnormal masses of tissue. The application of the term "tumor" is directly connected with the fact that they produce local enlargement. They are noninflammatory; that is, the process of inflammation is not directly the cause or accompaniment of them. An inflammatory new growth tends to disappear upon the subsidence of the inflammatory process, while spontaneous disappearance of a tumor is comparatively rare. Tumors are independent. For instance, their nutrition bears no relation to the nutrition of the body. A lipoma, or fatty tumor, in the subcutaneous tissue, may go on increasing to huge bulk while the body is steadily emaciating. Again, the tissues of the aged gradually undergo atrophy, yet cancers arise at this time and grow rapidly. Tumors are unrestrained in growth and structure. In the development of an animal we know at what period of its existence the mass of tissue called liver will develop--what its site, structure, and size will be. We know that it will remain only in that locality, and not, as it were, colonize throughout the system. With tumors it is different; there are no laws by which we can forecast the time, place, nature, or size of development of them. There is no cartilage in the kidney or parotid gland, yet a chondroma, or cartilage tumor, may develop in either. Even when a new growth of tissue is started by an injury and consequent inflammation--as, for instance, proud flesh--there is a limitation of its size, but the controlling influences which govern the size of an organ or normal mass of tissue and limit the extent of an inflammatory overgrowth are all absent in the case of tumors. They are unrestrained, lawless. Metastasis expresses the lawlessness of tumors as regards being limited to the original site of development. Small particles of tumors enter the blood vessels or lymph streams and are carried to distant parts of the body, where they lodge and start new tumor formations. Expansion by colonization in this manner is a rule with many tumors, and, since they exercise no function of use to the organism, this dissemination of actively growing particles becomes a menace to the system by numerically increasing the body's burden, opening new channels of drain upon the system and adding new centers for the absorption of putrefactive materials when the secondary tumors shall have degenerated. It is this which makes metastasis such an important element in the malignancy of tumors. Tumors possess no physiological function. They are absolutely useless. Fibrous tumors bind no parts of the organism together; bony tumors add nothing to the supporting framework of the body; the tissue of fatty tumors never serves as a storehouse of feed and energy; the cells of an adenoma, or gland tumor, furnish no secretion; a tumor composed of muscle tissue produces no increase to the strength of the individual--its muscle cells are not contractile. Tumors arise from cells of preexistent tissue. Tumor tissue is not a new variety. Whatever the structure of a tumor, its counterpart is found among the tissues of the body, the lawlessness of the tumor, however, showing itself in more or less departure from the normal type. This departure is usually a reversion to a more elementary or embryonic stage, so that the tumor tissues may be said to be structurally immature. Tumors arise without obvious cause. Concerning the ultimate cause of tumor formation we are absolutely ignorant. Various theories have been advanced from time to time, but none of them have been applicable to more than a limited number of cases. The most important theories may be briefly mentioned. (1) _The theory of tumor diathesis._--Bilroth taught that tumors are caused by a peculiar predisposition consisting of a diseased state of the fluids of the body. This constitutional taint might be acquired, but, having been acquired, is also hereditary. This theory is known also as the heredity hypothesis, but, while it is true that heredity appears to play some role in the causation of certain neoplasms, its application is too limited to make it of value. (2) _The mechanical or irritant theory._--Virchow assumed that tumors arise as the result of previous irritation of the part. This has been noticed particularly in the case of certain cancers. They frequently develop on the edges of old ulcers, thus being dependent apparently on chronic irritation. Cancer of the lip in pipe smokers is a case in point. Cancerous tumors of the skin often develop on the arms of workers in paraffin, tar, or soot, the chemical irritation of these substances being the cause. On the contrary, the proportion of those thus affected among the exposed is very small and forces the conclusion that if the real cause were in the irritation vastly more cases would occur. (3) _The theory of nervous influence._--That is based upon (_a_) the observed fact that tumors occur more frequently in man and the higher animals than in those lower in the scale, among which the nervous system is less highly developed; (_b_) that certain formations seem to be directly connected with nerve distribution, while others have been associated with alternations in neighboring nerve trunks. (4) _The embryonal theory._--This is known also as Cohnheim's hypothesis. In early fetal life there occurs a production of cells in excess of those required for the construction of the various parts of the body, so that a certain number of them are left over in the fully developed tissue or become misplaced during the sorting of cells for future development of tissues and organs. These cells lie dormant until favorable conditions arise or until some sufficient stimulus is applied, when, released from their inactivity, they begin to reproduce and grow. Not being normally related to their site, they lack the controlling and limiting influences of the part, and, their embryonic character enduing them with a most potent proliferating power, they develop in a lawless and unrestrained manner. There are tumors whose existence can be explained only on these grounds. Still, this theory falls far short of answering the question as to the origin of tumors. (5) _The parasitic theory._--This is not only one of the latest, but, merely as a hypothesis, it is the most attractive and plausible of all. The serious objections to it, however, are the almost uniform failure that has met the attempts to transplant these tumors from one animal to another and the absence of any constant variety of organism in them. Several forms of parasites have been found in certain tumors, but nothing definite has been shown with reference to the relation they bear to the causation of the neoplasm. CLASSIFICATION OF TUMORS. In Senn's work on tumors occurs the following: "A uniform system of classification of tumors is one of the great wants of modern pathology, and all attempts in this direction have proved failures." It would be folly, therefore, to burden the pages of a work of this kind with one or several of the proposed systems which have, admittedly, at some important point, failed of their purpose. Since the value of this chapter depends chiefly upon its practical character, which in turn is measured by its aid in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment, the old but important clinical division is here adopted. Tumors are either malignant or benign. The essential difference between the two classes is that while _benign tumors depend for their ill effects entirely upon their situation, malignant neoplasms wherever located inevitably destroy life._ The clinical features of each group are in many cases sufficiently marked to distinguish them. MALIGNANT TUMORS. (1) These are invariably pernicious, and from the beginning tend to destroy life. (2) The cellular element predominates; therefore they grow rapidly. (3) Possessing no capsule, they infiltrate surrounding tissues. (4) They infect adjacent lymph glands. (5) They recur even after complete removal. (6) They give metastasis; that is, they become disseminated in different organs. (7) Their presence develops a progressive emaciation. BENIGN TUMORS. (1) These in and of themselves do not tend to produce death. (2) As the cellular element is not liable to predominate, they grow slowly. (3) They are encapsulated, and when diffuse do not infiltrate surrounding tissues. (4) They do not infect adjacent lymph glands. (5) They do not recur after complete removal. (6) They do not manifest metastasis. Benign tumors, though harmless, may, by the accident of their location, indirectly produce death. Mere pressure on the brain substance of an otherwise innocent tumor, compression of the blood supply for vital organs, growth in such manner as to cause obstruction in the alimentary tract or pressure upon nerves, may cause death, or, prior to death, so combine the effects of anemia (deficiency of blood), starvation, and pain, with its consequent restlessness, as to produce a veritable cachexia (condition of general ill health). On the other hand, a malignant tumor in its primary growth may so implicate a vital organ as to destroy life before metastasis can occur or even before cachexia can develop. Thus, to the untrained observer, environment may so operate as to cause these two classes of new growths to simulate each other. The boundary lines may seem to overlap. It is here that the microscope, as the court of last appeal, adjudicates positively in the diagnosis between these two clearly marked divisions. It may almost be asserted that a true classification of tumors can not be made until we know more about the cause of them. The arrangement here presented is offered to meet the practical needs of the veterinarian, student, and farmer rather than of the pathologist. We may roughly divide the tissues of the body into structural and lining tissues. The structural tissues are composed of the tissues of special function and simple connective tissues. The lining or covering tissues, both internal and external, are known as epithelium. Section A of the table below contains the true tumors or proper neoplasms. Section B includes the cysts, some of which are true tumors, while others are false ones, but the latter are added because of their gross resemblance to the true and the consequent necessity of considering them at the same time. TUMORS AND CYSTS. A.--Tumors. BENIGN. I.--_Tumors composed of tissues resembling those of special function._ 1. Type of muscle tissue Myoma. 2. Type of nerve tissue Neuroma. 3. Type of vascular tissue Angioma. 4. Type of gland tissue Adenoma. II.--_Tumors composed of fully developed connective tissue._ 1. Type of fibrous tissue Fibroma. 2. Type of adipose, or fat, tissue Lipoma. 3. Type of cartilage tissue Chondroma. 4. Type of osseous, or bone, tissue Osteoma. 5. Type of neuroglia, or nerve, sheath Glioma. 6. Type of mucoid, or mucous, tissue Myxoma. MALIGNANT. III.--_Tumors composed of embryonic or immature connective tissues._ 1. Type of immature connective tissue Sarcoma. 2. Type of endothelial tissue Endothelioma. IV.--_Tumors in which epithelial elements predominate._ 1. Type of various epithelial cells and associated tissues Carcinoma. B.--CYSTS. I.--_Cysts which develop in preexisting cavities._ 1 Retention cysts. 2 Proliferation cysts. II.--_Cysts which are of congenital origin and are true tumors._ 1 Dermoid cysts. III.--_Cysts which originate independently as the result of pathological changes and are nontumorous._ 1. Cysts formed by the softening and disintegration of lesions Softening cysts. 2. Cysts formed around parasites Parasitic cysts. 3. Cysts formed by an outpouring of blood and lymph into the tissue spaces with subsequent encapsulation of the fluid Extravasation cysts. TERMINOLOGY.--The principle of naming tumors is quite simple. The Greek word "oma" (plural "omata") means tumor. This word "oma" is added to the stem of the word ordinarily used to designate the kind of tissue of which the tumor is composed. Thus a tumor formed after the type of fibrous tissue is a fibroma. The only exception to this is in the naming of the two large classes of malignant neoplasms. There the names were formed from the fleshlike appearance of the one and the crablike proliferations of the other--namely, Sarcoma (sarks=flesh), carcinoma (karkinos=crab). DIAGNOSIS.--In the diagnosis of tumors note is taken of (1) clinical history and (2) examination of the tumor. (1) _Clinical history._--Circumstances connected with the origin of the tumor and its rapidity of growth may point to an inflammatory swelling rather than a tumor. The location of the tumor at its commencement is important, as, for instance, in diagnosing between lipoma and carcinoma, the former being more or less movable under the skin, while a carcinoma develops in the skin. While tenderness on pressure may be caused by compression of a sensitive nerve by a tumor or by tumors of the nerve or nerve sheaths, as a rule this symptom is indicative of inflammatory swelling rather than of the existence of a tumor. (2) _Direct examination of the tumor._--In the application of this diagnosis the trained observer will note color, size, shape, and surface structure, transmission of light, movableness, consistence, resistance, pulsation, and crepitation. Percussion, auscultation, and exploration are also available methods. Finally, microscopic examination of the growing portions of the tumor by a pathologist will be found most satisfactory. GENERAL TREATMENT OF TUMORS. For benign tumors treatment is required only when it damages the animal's value or when merely for sake of appearance. When it is possible, the removal of the tumor by an operation is indicated. If the tumor has a small, constricted base, remove by torsion, ligation, or with an écraseur. Ligation following the incision of the skin with a knife avoids the pain of pressing on the sensitive nerves of the skin and is suitable for tumors of broad base and small bodies. A firing iron, such as is used in line or feather firing, may also be used in removing tumors with small attachments. This not only stops the bleeding but forms a firm scab, under which healing may occur rapidly. Those tumors that can not be removed by the above methods may be treated with caustics or acids, such as sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, caustic potash, arsenic, silver nitrate, or chromic acid, but it is difficult to limit the action of these drugs. The injection, into the tumor, of such chemicals as anilin dyes, alcohol, acetic acid, citric acid, or ergotin, is of doubtful value, as is also the injection of the germs of erysipelas--thought by some to be a specific. Certain specific tumors, such as actinomycosis and botryomycosis, may be successfully treated by the internal administration of potassium iodid, together with the injection into the tumor or the painting of its surface with either Lugol's solution or the tincture of iodin. The most reliable means of treating tumors is by extirpation with cutting instruments. Dissect the tumor from the surrounding tissue, ligating all the larger blood vessels, and tearing the tissues with the fingers rather than cutting with a knife. The bleeding may be stopped with a hot iron. The after treatment is the same as for any ordinary wound of similar size. DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUAL TUMORS. Although a full list of the tumors that may be found in bovines has been given above, there are a number that warrant a detailed description, and the following mention will be made of the most important of them: MYOMA. These tumors are after the type of muscle. They are sharply circumscribed and, as a rule, are very hard, a condition owing usually to combination with fibroma and are then known as fibromyoma. In fact, the clinical differentiation between myoma and fibroma is almost impossible. Myomas are found in the uterus, vagina, stomach, intestines, gullet, and bladder of a bovine animal. They grow very large, but, as a rule, are benign. Treatment should consist of their removal. NEUROFIBROMA. A true neuroma built up of nerve fibers and nerve cells is infrequent, if it ever occurs, in cattle. False neuromas, or neurofibromas, are knotty, spreading tumors of the size of a large potato, which are developed within the nerve sheaths and composed of nerve fibers and connective tissue bands interlaced. The commingling of these varied fibers is often so intricate that separation is practically impossible. This tumor is most frequently found upon the shoulder of cattle. Treatment is surgical. ANGIOMA. The angiomas are tumors composed mainly of blood vessels or blood spaces and are observed on the skin of man, where they are called "birthmarks" or "mother marks." Cavernous angiomas are seen in cattle, affecting the liver and the mucous membrane of the nasal septum. In the liver they appear as smooth, flat, nonprojecting tumors of a dark-red or purple color and of about the size of a silver 10-cent piece. They are somewhat softer in consistency than the adjoining liver substance into which they are gradually fused. These tumors are frequently observed by meat inspectors in livers of slaughtered cattle. Treatment of angioma is unnecessary. ADENOMA. The structure of this tumor is after the type of gland tissue. It is rarely seen in cattle except in combination with cancer or sarcoma. A growth which occurs more frequently in bovines, especially calves, and which in some instances bears a striking resemblance to an adenoma is the so-called goiter. GOITER (STRUMA). This is a noninflammatory enlargement or a hyperplasia of the thyroid gland. While it can not be definitely classed among tumors, yet, owing to its resemblance to the latter, it will be discussed at this time. The cause of goiter has never been definitely ascertained. Among the most probable causes may be mentioned heredity, insufficient and improper diet, close confinement, unhygienic surroundings, and an unknown toxic substance which is supposed to obtain in those localities rich in magnesium and lime salts. Certain organisms found in goiter have been suspected of producing this trouble, but their relation to the disease has not been satisfactorily proved. A goiter may consist of (1) simple enlargement of the follicles which are filled with albuminous matter (follicular goiter); (2) an increase of connective tissues between the follicles, causing the swelling to be dense and resistant (fibrous goiter); (3) a great increase in size of one or more follicles, forming a cyst (cystic goiter); (4) great dilatation of the blood vessels in the gland accompanied with pulsation with each heart beat (vascular goiter). _Symptoms._--Goiter may be observed at the side of the throat, reaching the size of a fist or even larger, or it may hang down below the windpipe. In cattle the two thyroid glands are close together, and when the disease affects both there may be but one uniform swelling placed in front of the windpipe below the angle of the jaw. This swelling may be hard, soft, or doughy in consistence, and with each beat of the heart it may pulsate like an artery. It may cause labored breathing by pressure on the windpipe, and death may result from pressure on this structure, on the gullet, or on the adjoining large vessels. _Treatment._--In young animals the treatment is usually satisfactory, and consists in giving the animal a complete change of feed and plenty of exercise in the open air. If the condition appears enzootic in the district, remove the animal to another location when possible. Iodin, either in the form of ointment or the tincture, should be applied to the swelling. Injections of iodin solution, 5 grains of iodin in 1 dram of 25 per cent alcohol, may also be made into the substance of the gland. When the swelling which follows this injection has subsided it may be repeated. Potassium iodid should be given internally in 1-1/2 dram doses twice daily for a cow, or in 20-grain doses twice a day for a calf. Extirpation of all but a small section of the swelling may be successfully accomplished by a qualified veterinarian, but if it should be entirely removed, myxedema and death follow. FIBROMA. Fibromas are tumors made up chiefly of connective tissue and are usually confined to the skin and subcutaneous tissue. Indurative fibromas of the skin appear as tumors of gelatinous connective tissue or as firm, white vascular connective tissue growths, which are more or less sharply outlined, move readily over the underlying tissues in company with the skin, and owe their origin to mechanical injuries, perforating wounds, repeated abrasions, or the invasion of pus cocci or botryomyces into the tissues. These tumors in cattle are frequently found upon the dewlap as solid lumps, hard as stone to the touch, lying loosely between the layers of skin, and gradually losing themselves in the softer tissues of the neck above, or as smooth, hard tumors of glistening white substance with interlacing lines of softer tissue. They may also be found in the region of the knee or at the elbow. The skin over the growths, in accordance with the originating cause, will be found chafed, covered with scabs, or even ulcerated and accompanied with collateral edema. These connective tissue tumors grow slowly but reach enormous size. They sometimes follow injuries to the region of the throat and form there as hard, firm growth, even reaching the size of a child's head. A fibroma upon the larynx is not an infrequent occurrence in the ox. These tumors are always sharply outlined and have a roughened surface. They may be differentiated from actinomycotic tumors (see chapter on "Infectious diseases of cattle," p. 358) in the same location by their firm, fibrous structure and by the absence of pus from the interior. A tumor is sometimes seen upon the muzzle of cattle, which assumes a diameter equaling the width of the muzzle. It is a voluminous connective-tissue formation known by the name of "fibroma diffusum." Another form is sometimes observed upon the tongue. It grows upon a broad, spreading base, becoming very hard. It is almost lacking in blood vessels, although the few that are present are plainly in view, and in consequence is poorly supplied with fluids. It is of a smooth contour, white or whitish yellow in color, is sharply limited from the normal substance of the tongue, may be covered with mucous membrane, on which prominent papillæ are located, or only by a thin, delicate layer of epithelium, and is usually found in the middle part of the tongue, where it may reach the size of two fists. Pedunculate or stemmed fibrous tumors are frequently noticed growing upon or near the extremity of the tails of cows. They are apparently of traumatic origin, such as tying the tail fast while milking or shaving it too closely while trimming for show purposes, and usually contain bloody or gelatinous material within, or, again, they may be strongly edematous throughout. _Treatment._--The treatment of large fibromas is surgical and consists of the operative removal of the tumor, followed by suturing of the wound. Small external tumors may be painted with zinc chlorid, chromic acid, or a concentrated solution of bichlorid of mercury. PAPILLOMA (WART). When fibromas develop from the lining or covering tissues they frequently form papillary growths, more or less thickly covered with epithelium, and are then called papillomas, or warts. Papillomas consist of villouslike projections, resulting from a proliferation of the outer layer (epithelium) of the skin or mucous membrane. These growths are also called "angle berries," and may assume a variety of forms. Sometimes there is a preponderance of epidermis in the formation, and the tumor then appears as a hard, dense, insensitive, clublike growth, or wart. Again the swelling is chiefly in the derm, or true skin, and we have what is known as a flesh wart (verucca carnea). In other cases the growth of papillar bodies projects in great cauliflowerlike tumors with deeply furrowed and lobulated surface, over which a covering of epidermis may or may not be present. These are usually much softer and are well supplied with blood vessels. It is not uncommon for them to be pedunculate or stemmed, and in this case considerable rotary motion or twisting is possible. Their color is cloudy gray or grayish red, with white bands of connective tissue radiating from the center. Their consistence varies. Upon their surfaces and within their clefts and fissures they undergo retrogressive changes, softening, bleeding, or ulcerations. A favorite location for the papilloma in cattle is the udder and teats, where they may develop in such numbers as to cover the entire surface and make the animal troublesome to milk. The sides of the head, neck, and shoulders also afford satisfactory conditions for their growth, and are frequently seen to be affected by them. _Treatment._--Warts may be removed with the scissors, twisted off with the fingers, or ligatured by means of a rubber band or horsehair. The roots should then be cauterized with tincture of iron, glacial acetic acid, or lunar caustic. Acids should never be used in removing warts about the eyes or in the mouth. Papillomas of the eyelids sometimes change to cancers and should be removed by taking out a wedge-shaped section of the eyelid. Young cattle should be given arsenic internally in the form of Fowler's solution, 1 tablespoonful twice a day for a 6-months-old calf. POLYPS. Polyps are usually fibromas or myxomas, occurring on the mucous membrane of the nasal passages or genital tract. They grow upon a narrow stem, bleed readily when injured, and often contain a center of thin, limpid fluid. A bloody discharge is sometimes seen coming from the affected nostril, but this is not always easy of detection in cattle, owing to the pliancy of their tongues and to their habit of licking an irritated nostril. Usually these tumors grow downward and may project from the nostril, causing snoring sounds and uneasy breathing. They may occasionally force themselves backward into the throat, where they interfere seriously with respiration, the patient being obliged to breathe with an effort, and even forced to cough in order to dislodge temporarily the obstruction from the larynx. Such tumors, when near the nostril, may easily be removed by the use of forceps or a loop made of bailing wire. Serious bleeding is not liable to follow their removal, but an astringent wash, such as a solution of the perchlorid of iron, if applied to the cut surface, will be found very beneficial. In case the tumor is not within easy reach, the services of a qualified veterinarian should be obtained to perform the necessary operation. LIPOMA. This is a tumor consisting chiefly of fat cells. The growth is irregularly rounded and distinctly lobulated, very soft, and almost fluctuating. It is insensitive, grows slowly, and is always inclosed in a distinct fibrous capsule, from which it can be easily shelled out. It may become very large and often hangs pendulous from a long, elastic pedicle. In cattle this tumor may be found in the subcutaneous tissues, especially of the back and shoulders, uterus, and intestines, and in the latter position it may cause strangulation, or "gut tie," by winding around a loop of the intestine. _Treatment._--When found on the skin the tumor may be readily removed with a knife or by a ligature. Caustics and the cautery produce wounds that heal slowly and can not be recommended in the treatment of this tumor. CHONDROMA. This tumor formation is composed of cartilage cells. It is a rounded and very often unevenly nodular and sharply described tumor. It is very hard, dense, elastic, and painless and develops principally where we find normal cartilage cells. It is rare in cattle, but has been found in the subcutaneous tissues and nasal cavities. _Treatment._--Extirpation. OSTEOMA (BONY TUMOR). Bones may occasionally grow in such a profuse and irregular manner that the product, or osteophyte, assumes the character of a tumor. The bone tissue may possess either spongy or compact properties and grow either from the periphery of the bone or within its interior. These tumors most frequently appear about the head of the animal, either upon the jawbones, within the nasal passages, or in connection with the horns. They are usually of bony hardness, painless, benign, and sharply outlined. _Treatment._--The treatment consists in either removing them with a saw, chisel, or trephine, or preventing their further development by counterirritation with blisters or firing iron. MYXOMA. Characteristic myxomas are mucoid tumors which chiefly originate from the mucous membrane and are especially to be found within the nasal passages and uteri of cattle. They can reach a size of three fists, are smooth or velvetlike, or may be lobulated, broad at the base, and consist of a glassy-looking mass of connective tissue, which usually shows a distinctive yellowish color. Being homogeneous and elastic, the moist, jellylike tissue composing the tumor may be easily destroyed or crushed. When cut through, these tumors soon collapse from the loss of their fluids. They sometimes inclose elliptical cavities filled with slimy, gelatinous masses. _Treatment._--Extirpation. SARCOMA. This is a malignant tumor after the type of embryonal tissue, and consists of several varieties, such as the round cell, spindle cell, giant cell, alveolar, and melanosarcoma. They grow by preference in connective tissue and are quite vascular. Sarcomas appear either as single or multiple nodules, varying in size from a hempseed to a hazelnut, or else as a moderate number of tumors of the size of hen eggs. Their surface, at first smooth, later becomes lumpy and tuberous from internal degeneration. Secondary nodules may appear near the primary tumor. The outer skin is not involved so soon as in cancer, nor does ulceration follow so rapidly. Sarcoma is about the most frequent and dangerous tumor that is found in cattle. It occurs in young animals, and is found on the serous membranes, in the glandular organs, and on the outer skin, especially of the neck and shoulders--in fact, in nearly every tissue and in almost every part of the body. This tumor is often found in places exposed to traumatisms and at seats of scars, or of irritations from pressure and inflammation. _Treatment._--Treatment should consist in early and complete removal by the knife, including one-half or three-quarters of an inch of the sound tissue adjoining the tumor. If there is a possibility that sarcomatous tissue still remains, either cauterize the wound with a hot iron or powder the walls of the cavity with arsenious acid. CANCER (CARCINOMA). Cancers are tumors of epithelial tissues and are malignant. There are several varieties of cancers, such as hard, soft, and colloid, but only those growing on the surface will be mentioned here. These malignant tumors of the superficial organs develop primarily from the epidermis or from the glands of the skin. They appear secondarily as spreading infections from milk glands, thyroids, anal glands, or as embolisms. In such cases their sole character depends wholly upon the kind of cancer from which they have sprung. The infiltrating cancer begins as an elevation of the skin, which progresses until it becomes rough and nodular. The surface later becomes attacked, and an ulcer results whose edges are outlined by a hard, firm zone. The ulcerations may remain limited by cicatricial tissue, but it is more likely that the infiltration and destruction of tissue will spread out wider and deeper until a rodent ulcer (so called) is formed. One of the most frequent sites of cancer in cattle is in the eye, where they are called fungus hematodes, but they also occur on the skin, on the genitals, in the stomach, and within the organs. _Fungus hematodes._--This starts at the inner corner of the eye as a papillary elevation or as small nodules which become fused. They grow larger and become papillomatous, with superficial ulcerations and a tendency toward hemorrhage. In some cases the eye is displaced by the growing tumor or is attacked by the cancer cells and entirely destroyed. Cancerous growths upon the external genitals and the anus usually present a rough, irregular surface from which there is a constant sloughing of decomposed tissue accompanied with a penetrating disagreeable odor. The diagnosis of cancer may be made clinically by noting the simultaneous infection of the lymph glands which surround the primary lesion. Deeply burrowing and infiltrating forms which appear as lumps and ulcerations cause marked disfiguration of the affected part. The surface becomes a soft, greasy mass; later it cracks open and from the fissures blood-colored pus exudes, being continually formed by the moist degeneration of the tissues beneath. At first the general health of the animal does not appear affected, but later the cancer nodules spread to important organs and give rise to marasmus and progressive emaciation. Cancer is not a frequent tumor of cows. Fröhner states that of 75 cases of tumors in cattle which came under his observation 2, or 2.6 per cent, were found to be cancers, while 20, or 26.6 per cent, were sarcomas. _Treatment._--Treatment consists in the early and complete removal of the tumor, taking care to include a wide border of healthy tissue. This has been most successful in such superficial cancers as those of the eye, penis, anus, testicle, vulva, and sheath. If the disease has advanced too far, this treatment may not prove efficacious, owing to the great malignancy of the cancer and its tendency to recur. In such cases the animal may be slaughtered, but the flesh should be used for food only after inspection by a competent veterinarian. CYSTS. Cysts may be true or false tumors and consist of a capsule containing a fluid or semisolid content. Among the most important cysts, which have been briefly referred to in a previous table, the following are probably the most noteworthy, owing to the frequency with which they are found in bovines: SOFTENING CYSTS. Softening cysts, which result from the degenerative liquefaction of normal or diseased tissues, especially of tumors of different kinds, followed by the encapsulation of the fluid. PARASITIC CYSTS. Parasitic or foreign-body cysts, from the inflammatory reaction induced by such parasites as the echinococcus (hydatid cyst) or by the presence of various kinds of foreign bodies. EXTRAVASATION CYSTS. Extravasation cysts, caused by injuries which rupture blood vessels, followed by an increase of fibrous tissue which forms a capsule about the fluid. The hygromata in front of the knee in cattle, so-called tumor of the knee, and serous cysts belong to this variety. HYGROMATA, OR TUMORS OF THE KNEE.--These consist in the simplest form of a collection of serous fluid mixed with fibrin within a distended bursa. The walls surrounding the fluid become firm, smooth, and dense. Outwardly the tumor appears fluctuating, though tense, while the skin which covers it may be normal, denuded of hair, or covered with hard epidermal scales, possibly half an inch in thickness, forming a hard, horny plate. The cavity which contains the fluid may have the dimensions of a hen's egg, an apple, or a child's head. Its walls are formed by the diseased secreting membrane of the bursal sac, and are readily detachable from the subcutis of the skin. Their internal surfaces are often uneven or supplied with projections or tufted growths which support a fibrous network within the tumor. Tumors of the knee may also assume a granular type, as the result of chronic inflammation or following operative or spontaneous evacuation of pus from the part. They are either firmly connected with the skin or are detachable from it, and when laid open disclose a whitish-red, porklike tissue surrounding a central nucleus of pus, or a fistulous tract leading to the outer surface. They are caused by the chronic inflammation which follows the bruises received by cattle in lying down and in rising, or they may be due to falls on uneven, hard ground. _Treatment for hygromata._--When the swelling first appears cold water should be applied, followed later by bandaging with cloths wrung out of warm water. If the swelling is soft, it should be punctured at the lowest point, and afterwards the cavity should be syringed with Lugol's solution. If the tumor is hard and nonfluctuating, a mercurial blister may cause absorption and at the same time prevent further injury to the part by making it more painful, thus sparing it. SEROUS CYSTS.--These swellings are another variety of extravasation cysts, and are caused by such injuries as butting, running against hard objects, and shipping bruises, which are followed by an outpouring of blood and lymph into the tissue spaces. These cysts develop rapidly and may reach the size of a man's head or even larger. They are soft, edematous, and hot at first and contain a serous or blood-tinged fluid. Later, partially organized clots and shreds of a fibrinous nature and of a gelatinous consistence are formed within, and the temperature of the swelling is reduced. They appear on the surface of the body, especially on the belly and flank of cattle. _Treatment of serous cysts._--Treatment consists in opening the cyst at the most dependent point with a sharp knife. The cavity should be washed out twice daily with a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, and drainage encouraged by keeping the incision open. DERMOID CYSTS. These cysts have a wall which is almost an exact duplicate of the structure of the skin, and frequently contain epidermal structures, such as hair and teeth, which, in the development of the embryo, have been misplaced. Thus we may find in an ovary or testicle a dermoid cyst, containing a tooth or a ball of hair. Dental cysts are included in the class above. DENTAL CYSTS.--It happens occasionally that the teeth of cattle, instead of developing normally within strong supporting alveolæ, remain inclosed within a cystic membrane, which assumes a tumorlike character. One tooth may be included alone in the cyst or a number may be inclosed together. However this may be, the malformation progresses, especially if confined to the incisor teeth, until the remaining teeth that began to develop normally are crowded out of position and rendered useless. The tumor may reach the size of a man's fist. It appears to be fleshy and dents upon pressure, but it may also appear on closer examination as though it contained irregular sections of thin bone. The outer surface is always smooth, and no indication of purulence, softening, or scab formation is ever exhibited. Upon being laid open with the knife the tumor is seen to be surrounded by a firm, smooth membrane which limits it completely from the adjoining tissues. It is filled with material which possesses partly edematous, partly fleshy, and partly bony properties. It is supposed that this mass is composed of rudiments of the jawbone or of the alveolar walls which, becoming spongy, lose themselves in the soft, fleshy mass contained within the capsule of the tumor. It occasionally happens that the tumor is hollow and that the cavity extends back into the body of the lower jaw for a considerable distance. Tumors of this kind, being of congenital origin, are very naturally observed most frequently in young cattle, but they may continue to expand for a period of several months after the birth of the calf, even until they become troublesome and unsightly. _Treatment for dental cysts._--Treatment consists in the complete extirpation of the cyst and the destruction of the lining pouch by curetting. RETENTION CYSTS. Retention cysts arise from the retention of normal secretions, owing to obstruction of a duct leading from a gland. The mucous cysts found in the mouth, udder, and vestibule of cows are samples of this form. MUCOUS CYSTS.--Saclike dependent tumors, caused by retention of the secretions from the mucous glands, sometimes develop in the mouth, nose, pharynx, and vulva of cattle. They are called "mucous cysts." These are of sizes varying from peas to pigeon eggs, are roundish and translucent, and surrounded by a delicate, vascular membrane. They contain a siruplike substance more or less thick and transparent and whitish yellow in color. Treatment consists in the puncturing of the swelling, if accessible, and the destruction of the cyst walls by the injection of Lugol's solution. PROLIFERATION CYSTS. These are found especially in the ovaries of cows, called "cystic ovaries," and may produce nymphomania (chronic bulling). The treatment indicated in this case is the removal of the diseased ovaries. FOOTNOTES: [3] The term "tumor" literally means a swelling, and thus has been applied to the prominence caused by an overdistended bladder, to the enlargement of pregnancy, to the swelling produced by an abscess, to the overgrowth of tissue (hyperplasia) associated with injury and consequent inflammation, and to numerous other phases of tissue enlargement directly connected with recognized disease processes. For this reason it is becoming more common for scientists to apply the word "neoplasm" to the new growths described in this chapter. Because of the still popular use of the word "tumor," it is retained in this chapter for the designation of those new growths to which the sevenfold characterization of our descriptive definition applies. DISEASES OF THE SKIN. By M. R. TRUMBOWER, D. V. S. [Revised by John R. Mohler, V. M. D.] GENERAL DISCUSSION. The skin consists of two parts--a superficial layer, the epidermis, or cuticle, and the deep, or true, skin, the dermis, cutis vera, or corium. The epidermis, cuticle, or scarf skin, is an epithelial structure, forming a protective covering to the corium. It varies in thickness, is quite insensible and nonvascular, and consists of a sheet of cells. The epidermis is divided into a firm and transparent superficial and a deep, soft layer. The latter is the rete mucosum, whose cells contain the pigment which gives color to the skin. The deep surface of the epidermis is accurately molded on the papillary layer of the true skin, and, when removed by maceration, presents depressions which correspond to the elevations on the dermis. From the cuticle tubular prolongations pass into the sebaceous and sudorific glands; thus the entire surface of the body is inclosed by the cuticle. The dermis, or true skin, is vascular and highly sensitive, containing the tactile ends of the nerves of touch. It is covered by epidermis and attached to the underlying parts by a layer of areolar tissue, which usually contains fat. The cutis consists of a fibro-areolar tissue and vessels of supply. It is divided into two layers, the deep, or true, corium and the upper, or papillary. The corium consists of strong interlacing fibrous bands, chiefly white; its meshes are larger and more open toward the attached surface, giving lodgment to the sweat glands and fat. The papillary, or superficial, layer is formed of a series of small conical eminences or papillæ, which are highly sensitive, and consists of a homogenous, transparent tissue. The blood vessels form dense capillary plexuses in the corium, terminating by loops in the papillæ. The papillary nerves run in a waving manner, usually terminating in loops. Hair is an appendage of the skin and forms its external covering. It is a special modification of epidermis, having the same essential structure, and consists of a root, shaft, and point. The root has a bulbous extremity, is lighter and softer than the stem, and is lodged in a recess or hair follicle, which may either be in the corium or subcutaneous areolæ. The follicle is dilated at the bottom to correspond to the root bulb, and the ducts of one or more sebaceous glands open into it. At the bottom of each follicle is a conical, vascular papilla, similar in every respect to those on the surface of the dermis; this papilla fits into a corresponding depression in the root of the hair. The shaft consists of a center, or medulla, a surrounding fibrous portion, and an external coating, or cortex. The medulla consists of cells containing pigment or fat, is opaque, and deeply colored. All kinds of hair do not have this medulla. The fibrous portion occupies the bulk of the stem, and the cortex is merely a single layer of thin, flat, imbricated (shinglelike) scales. The sebaceous glands, lodged in the corium, are most abundant in parts exposed to friction. They generally open into the hair follicles, occasionally on the surface of the body. Each gland consists of a small duct which terminates in a lobulated recess. These lobules vary, and are, as is the duct, lined with epithelium. They are filled with sebaceous matter which, as it is secreted, is detached into the sacs. They are very plentiful between the claws of cattle. The sudorific glands, or sweat glands, are situated in the subcutaneous areolar tissue, surrounded by a quantity of fat. They are small, round, reddish bodies, each of which consists of one or more fine tubes coiled into a ball, the free end of the tube being continued up through the true skin and cuticle, and opening on the surface. Each sweat gland is supplied with a cluster of capillary blood vessels which vary in size, being very large when perspiration is excessive. The contents of the smaller ones are fluid, and of the larger, semifluid. The skin may be regarded as an organ supplementary in its action to the lungs and kidneys, since by its secretion it is capable of removing a considerable quantity of water from the blood; it also removes small quantities of carbon dioxid, salts, and in certain instances during suppression of the renal secretions a small quantity of urea. The skin is also the chief organ for the regulation of animal heat, by or through conduction, radiation, and evaporation of water, permitting of loss of heat, while it also, through other mechanisms, is able to regulate the heat lost. The hair furnishes protection against extreme and sudden variations of temperature by reason of the fact that hairs are poor conductors of heat, and inclose between them a still layer of air, itself a nonconductor. The hairs are also furnished with an apparatus by which the loss of heat may be regulated; thus, in cold weather, through the contraction of unstriped muscular fibers of the skin, the hairs become erect and the external coat becomes thicker. Cold, too, acts as a stimulus to the growth of hair, and we find, in consequence, a thicker coat in winter than in summer. The hairs also furnish protection against wet, as they are always more or less oily from the secretion of sebaceous glands, and thus shed water. Through their elasticity they furnish mechanical protection, and through the thickness of the coat, to a certain degree, resist the attacks of insects. Finally, the hairs assist the sense of touch. The sweat glands are constantly discharging a watery secretion in the form of insensible perspiration, and by their influence act as regulators of the temperature of the body; hence, in warm weather, the secretion of the skin is increased, which tends to prevent overheating. Sweating, in addition to regulating heat, is also an active agent in removing effete material from the blood; therefore this secretion can not be checked without danger. If the skin is covered with an impermeable coating of grease or tar, death results from blood poisoning, owing to the retention of materials destined to be excreted by the skin. All secretion poured out by the skin is not only modified by the condition of the atmosphere but also by the character and quantity of the food, by the amount of exercise, and especially by the quantity of fluid taken. The sebaceous secretion is intended to lubricate the skin and hairs. It consists of soft, fatty material suspended in water, and is characterized by an odor peculiar to the animal by which it is secreted. I will not attempt to classify the various diseases of the skin, for in a work of this kind it would serve only to confuse the reader. We shall first consider a class of diseases which are of an inflammatory type; next, those caused by faulty secretion and abnormal growth; then, diseases of parasitic origin; lastly, local injuries of the skin. PRURITIS (ITCHING). We shall consider pruritis first as a distinct subject. It is not a disease, only a sensation, and therefore a symptom. It is one of the symptoms accompanying the majority of the diseases which we will consider in this chapter. It is, then, a functional affection produced by slight irritation from without or by an internal cause acting upon the sensory nerves of the skin. Nothing characteristic is seen except the secondary lesions, produced mechanically by scratching or rubbing. There are various forms of itching, the result of specific skin diseases, where the pruritis is a secondary symptom. In such cases it should not be regarded as an independent affection. _Causes._--Many causes may induce the condition which we recognize here as pruritis. The most common one is dirt on the skin, resulting from insufficient care. If the ceiling of the stable is open, so that dust and straw may fall, the skin is irritated and pruritis results. It also occurs in some forms of indigestion. The parts of the body most exposed to this condition are the croup, the back, the top of the neck, and the root of the tail. Another cause is found in affections of the liver and of the kidneys, when an increase of effete material has to be thrown off by the skin. Morbid materials circulating in the blood may produce a tickling or smarting sensation of the skin in their passage from the blood to the free surface of the skin. Certain irritating substances when eaten may be excreted by the skin, and coming thus in direct contact with the sensory nerves produce itching, or may go further and cause distinct inflammation of the skin. In another class of cases the pruritis may be ascribable to an atrophy, contraction, or hardening of the skin, when the nerves become irritated by the pressure. These conditions may be so slightly marked in a thick skin like that of the ox that they can not be recognized. It is frequently noticed that cattle rub themselves as soon as they pass from the stable into the open air--changing from a warm to a cold atmosphere. Again, we may find one that does all its rubbing in the stall. We may look for lice, but fail to find them. These conditions are generally attributable to high feeding and to too close confinement. They may be associated with inflammatory irritation or not; certainly we fail to discover any morbid changes in the skin. There is to some extent a delightful sensation produced by rubbing, and it may partly become a habit of pleasure. _Treatment._--We must place our chief reliance upon a change of food, plenty of exercise, and in most cases the administration of an active cathartic--1 to 1-1/2 pounds of Epsom salt, a handful of common salt, a tablespoonful of ginger or pepper, mixed with 2 quarts of water, all of which is to be given at one dose. Afterwards half an ounce of hyposulphite of soda mixed with the feed may be given twice a day for a week. For an external application, when the skin is abraded or thickened from rubbing, a solution of borax, 4 ounces to the quart of water, may be used. Carbolic acid, 1/2 ounce to a quart of water, will give relief in some cases. INFLAMMATORY DISEASES OF THE SKIN. ERYTHEMA. This is the simplest form of inflammation of the skin. It consists of an increased redness, which may occur in patches or involve considerable surface. The red coloration disappears when pressed by the finger, but soon returns after the pressure is removed. There is seldom much swelling of the affected part, though often there is a glutinous discharge which dries and mats the hair or forms a thin scale upon the skin. In simple erythema the epidermis alone is affected; when it becomes chronic, fissures form and extend into the corium, or true skin. _Causes._--Simple erythema, consisting of an inflammatory irritation, is seen in very young calves, in which the navels leak. The discharge being urine, it causes an irritation of the surrounding skin. Chafing, which is another form of erythema, is occasionally seen on the udders of cows from rubbing by the legs; chafing between the legs is not uncommon among fat steers. Chronic erythema is found in the form of chapped teats of cows and chapped lips in sucking calves. It frequently occurs in cows when they are turned out in winter directly after milking, and in others from chafing by the sucking calf. Some cows are peculiarly subject to sore teats. The fissures when neglected in the early stage of formation become deep, very painful, often bleeding at the slightest touch, and when milked in that condition cause the animal to become a kicker. Occasionally the lower portions of the legs become irritated and chapped when cattle are fed in a muddy or wet yard in winter, or if they are compelled to wade through water in frosty weather. Another form of erythema occurs in young cattle highly fed and closely stabled for a long winter. The erythema appears in patches, and as it is most common near the end of the winter it is known as the "spring eruption" or "spring itch." _Treatment._--In ordinary cases of erythema the removal of the cause and the application of benzoated oxid of zinc ointment, carbolized cosmoline, or ichthyol ointment applied a few times, will restore the skin to a healthy condition. When there are fissures the zinc ointment is the best. If at the teats, a milk siphon (Pl. XXIV, fig. 4) should be used instead of milking by hand, and the calf, if one is suckled, should be taken away. The calf should be fed by hand if its mouth is affected. When the legs are irritated or chapped, dry stabling for a few days and the application of tar ointment will soon heal them. URTICARIA (NETTLE RASH, OR SURFEIT). This is a mild, inflammatory affection of the skin, characterized by sudden development of patches of various sizes, from that of a nickel to one as large as the hand. The patches of raised skin are marked by an abrupt border and are irregular in form. All the swelling may disappear in a few hours, or it may go away in one place and reappear on another part of the body. It is always accompanied with a great desire to rub the affected part. In its simplest type, as just described, it is never followed by any serous exudation or eruptions, unless the surface of the skin becomes abraded from scratching or rubbing. _Causes._--Digestive derangements caused by overloading the stomach when the animal is turned out to graze in the spring, certain feed constituents, high feeding of fattening stock, functional derangement of the kidneys, spinal and other nervous affections, are the most common sources of nettle rash. The disease consists in paralysis of the nerve ends that control the volume of the capillary vessels in certain areas of skin, thus permitting the vessels to expand, their contents in part to exude, and thus produce a soft, circumscribed swelling. _Treatment._--Administer a full dose of Epsom salt. Give soft, easily digested feed, and wash the affected parts with a solution of bicarbonate of soda (common baking soda), 8 ounces to the gallon of water twice a day, or diluted glycerin may be applied to the skin. If it assumes a persistent tendency, give a tablespoonful of the following powder in the feed three times a day: Cream of tartar, sulphur, and nitrate of potassium, equal parts by weight; mix. ECZEMA. Eczema is a noncontagious inflammation of the skin, characterized by any or all of the results of inflammation at once or in succession, such as erythema, vesicles, or pustules, accompanied with more or less infiltration and itching, terminating in a watery discharge, with the formation of crusts or in scaling off. The disease may run an acute course and then disappear, or it may become chronic; therefore two varieties are recognized, vesicular (or pustular) and chronic eczema. _Causes._--Eczema is not so common among cattle as in horses and in dogs, in which it is the most common of all skin diseases. Among cattle it is occasionally observed under systems of bad hygiene, filthiness, lousiness, overcrowding, overfeeding, excessively damp or too warm stables. It is found to develop now and then in cattle that are fed upon sour substances, distillery swill, house or garden garbage, etc. Localized eczema may be caused by irritant substances applied to the skin--turpentine, ammonia, the essential oils, mustard, Spanish-fly ointment, etc. Occasionally an eruption with vesiculation of the skin has been induced by the excessive use of mercurial preparations for the destruction of lice. It is evident that eczema may arise from local irritation to the skin or from an autointoxication. Cattle fed on the refuse from potato-starch factories develop a most obstinate and widespread eczema, beginning on the legs. _Symptoms._--In accordance with the variety of symptoms during the progress of the disease we may divide it into different stages or periods: (1) Swelling and increased heat of the skin; the formation of vesicles, which are circumscribed, rounded elevations of the epidermis, varying in size from a pinhead to a split pea, containing a clear, watery fluid; (2) exudation of a watery, glutinous fluid, formation of crusts, and sometimes suppuration, or the formation of vesicles containing pus (pustules); (3) scaling off (desquamation), with redness, and thickening of the skin. From the very beginning of the disease the animal commences to rub the affected parts; hence the various stages may not always be easily recognized, as the rubbing produces more or less abrasion, thus leaving the skin raw-- sometimes bleeding. Neither do these symptoms always occur in regular succession, for in some cases the exudation is most prominent, being very profuse, and serve to spread the disorder over a large surface. In other cases the formation of incrustations, or rawness of the skin, is the most striking feature. The disease may be limited to certain small areas, or it may be diffused over the greater part of the body; the vesicles, or pustules, may be scattered in small clusters, or a large number run together. The chronic form is really only a prolongation of the disease, successive crops of pustules appearing on various portions of the body, frequently invading fresh sections of the skin, while the older surfaces form scabs, or crusts, upon the raw, indurated skin. In old, standing cases the skin breaks, forming fissures, especially on portions of the body that bend--the neck and limbs. Thus the disease may be prolonged indefinitely. When eczema reaches its latest period, either acute or chronic, desquamation of the affected parts is the most prominent feature. The formation and shedding of these successive crops of scales constitute the character of the disease frequently denominated psoriasis. _Treatment._--The treatment of eczema is often anything but a pleasant task. There is no one method of treatment which always proves successful, no matter how early it is begun or how small an area is involved. We must endeavor to remove the cause by giving attention to the general health of the animal and to its environment. Feeding should be moderate in quantity and not too stimulating in character--green feed, bran mashes, ground oats, clean hay, plenty of salt. If the animal has been fed too high, give an active purgative--Epsom salt preferred--once a week, if necessary, and half an ounce of acetate or nitrate of potassium may be given in the feed twice a day. If the animal is in poor condition and debilitated, give a tablespoonful of the following mixture in feed twice a day: Powdered copperas, gentian, sulphur, and sassafras bark, equal parts by weight. If the animal is lousy, the parasite must be destroyed before the eczema can be cured. The external treatment must vary with the character of the lesions; no irritating application is to be made while the disease is in its acute vesicular, or pustular, stage, and, in the chronic stage, active stimulants must be used. Much washing is harmful, yet crusts and scales must be removed in order to obtain satisfactory results from the external applications. Both objects, however, can be attained by judiciously combining the curative agents with such substances as will at the same time cleanse the parts. In the vesicular stage, when the skin is feverish and the epidermis peeling off, thus exposing the exuding dermis, an application of boric-acid solution, 2 drams of the acid to 8 ounces of water, often relieves the smarting or itching, and also serves to check the exudation and dry the surface. If this fails to have the desired effect compound cresol, 1 ounce to 2 quarts of water, should be used as a wash. Either of these washes may be used several times a day until incrustation is well established. Then compound cresol, 1 ounce to 2 quarts of sweet oil, or the benzoated oxid of zinc ointment, giving the affected surfaces a thorough application once a day, will be efficacious. When the eczema is not the result of an external irritant, it takes usually from one to two weeks to heal. In chronic eczema, when there is a succession of scabs or scales, indolent sores or fissures, the white precipitate ointment, nitrate of mercury ointment, or blue ointment, mixed with equal parts of cosmoline or fresh lard, may be applied every second day, taking care to protect the parts so that the animal can not lick it off. The internal administration of arsenic often yields excellent results in chronic eczema. Dissolve 1 dram of arsenic and 1 dram of carbonate of potassium in 1 pint of boiling water, and give 1 ounce of this twice a day in water, after feeding. An alkali internally may be of service. As such, one may give 2 ounces of bicarbonate of soda twice daily. Sublimed sulphur may also be tried in ounce doses twice daily. PUSTULES (IMPETIGO). Impetigo is an inflammatory disease of the skin, characterized by the formation of distinct pustules, about the size of a pea or a bean, without itching. The pustules develop from the papular layer of the skin, and contain a yellowish-white pus. After reaching maturity they remain stationary for a few days, then they disappear by absorption and dry up into crusts, which later drop off, leaving upon the skin a red spot that soon disappears. Occasionally the crusts remain firmly adherent for a long time, or they may be raised and loosened by the formation of matter underneath. The dry crusts usually have a brown or black appearance. _Causes._--Impetigo affects sucking calves, in which the disease appears upon the lips, nostrils, and face. It is attributed to some irritant substance contained in the mother's milk. Impetigo is also witnessed among grazing animals, regardless of age, and it especially attacks animals with white hair and skin. The mouth, face, and limbs become covered with pustules, which may rupture in a few hours, followed by rapid and successive incrustations; the scabs frequently coalesce, covering a large surface; pus may form under them, and thus the whole thickness of the skin become involved in the morbid process. This form of the disease is attributed to the local irritant properties of such plants in the pasture as St. John's wort (_Hypericum perforatum_), smartweed (_Polygonum hydropiper_), vetches, honeydew, etc. Buckwheat, at the time the seeds become ripe, is said to have caused it; also bedding with buckwheat straw. _Treatment._--Sucking calves should be removed from the mother, and a purgative given to the latter to divert the poisonous substance secreted with the milk. When the more formidable disease among grazing cattle appears, the pasturage should be changed and the affected parts of the animal thoroughly anointed once a day with sweet oil containing 2 drams of carbolic acid to the pint. This should be continued until the crusts soften and begin to drop off, then the parts may be cleansed thoroughly with warm water and soap. Subsequently the white precipitate ointment or carbolized cosmoline should be applied daily until the parts are healed. PEMPHIGUS (WATER BLISTERS). This is an inflammatory disease of the skin, characterized by successive formations of rounded, irregularly shaped water blisters, varying in size from a pea to a hen's egg. _Causes._--Obscure. _Symptoms._--The formation of a blister is preceded by a congestion or swelling of the skin. Yellowish-colored water collects beneath the cuticle, which raises the latter from its bed in the form of a blister. The blisters appear in a succession of crops; as soon as one crop disappears another forms. They usually occur in clusters, each one being distinct, or they may coalesce. Each crop usually runs its course in a week. The disease is attended with itching or burning sensations which cause the animal to rub, thereby frequently producing excoriations and formation of crust on the affected region. _Treatment._--Give a tablespoonful of the following-described mixture in feed twice a day: Saltpeter, cream of tartar, and sulphur, equal parts by weight. The blisters should be opened as soon as formed, to allow the escape of the serum, followed by a wash composed of chlorid of zinc, 1 dram to 15 ounces of water. When there is any formation of crusts, carbolized cosmoline should be applied. FURUNCULUS (BOILS). This is an acute affection of the skin, usually involving its whole thickness, characterized by the formation of one or more abscesses, originating generally in a sebaceous gland, sweat gland, or hair follicle. They usually terminate by absorption, or by the formation of a central core, which sloughs out, leaving a deep, round cavity that soon heals. _Causes._--Impoverished state of blood, the result of kidney diseases or of local friction or contusions, with the entrance of pus cocci through the damaged skin or through a hair follicle or a sebaceous gland. _Symptoms._--Boils in cattle usually appear singly, not in clusters; they may attain the size of a hen's egg. The abscess begins as a small round nodule, painful on pressure, gradually increases in size until death of the central portion takes place, then the surface of the skin gives way to internal pressure and the core is released and expelled. Constitutional symptoms are generally absent, unless the boils occur in considerable numbers, or by their size involve a great deal of tissue. _Treatment._--Poulticing to ripen the abscess. If this can not be done, apply camphorated oil two or three times a day until the core is formed. As soon as the central or most prominent part becomes soft, the abscess should be opened to release the core. Then use carbolized cosmoline once a day until the healing is completed. If the animal is in poor condition, give tonics--copperas, gentian, ginger, and sulphur, equal parts by weight, 1 tablespoonful twice a day. If the animal manifests a feverish condition of the system, give half an ounce of saltpeter twice a day, continuing it several days or a week. FAULTY SECRETIONS AND ABNORMAL GROWTHS OF THE SKIN. PITYRIASIS (SEBORRHEA, DANDRUFF, OR SCURF). This is a condition characterized by an excessive secretion of sebaceous matter, forming upon the skin in small crusts or scales. _Causes._--It is ascribable to a functional derangement of the sebaceous glands, usually accompanied with dryness and loss of pliancy of the skin. The animal is hidebound, as it is commonly termed, thin in flesh, inclined to rub, and very frequently lousy. The condition is observed most often toward the spring of the year. Animals that are continually housed, and the skins of which receive no cleaning, generally present a coat filled with fine scales, composed of epithelium from the epidermis and dried sebaceous matter. This, however, is a physiological condition and compatible with perfect health. _Symptoms._--Pityriasis may affect the greater portion of the body, though usually only certain parts are affected--the ears, neck, rump, etc. The skin becomes scurfy, the hairy coat filled with branlike gray or whitish scales. _Treatment._--Nutritious feed, such as oil-cake meal, bran, ground oats, and clean hay. In the spring the disease generally disappears after the animal is turned out to pasture. When lice are present they should be destroyed. ELEPHANTIASIS (SCLERODERMA). This condition consists in a chronic thickening of the skin, which may affect one or more limbs or involve the whole integument. It is characterized by recurrent attacks of swelling of the skin and subcutaneous areolar tissue. After each attack the affected parts remain infiltrated to a larger extent than before, until finally the skin may attain a thickness of an inch, becoming wrinkled and fissured. In cattle this disease is confined to hot climates. The predisposing cause is unknown. EDEMA (ANASARCA OF THE SKIN). This is a dropsical condition of the skin and subcutaneous areolar tissue, characterized by pitting under pressure, the fingers leaving a dent which remains a short time. _Causes._--Edema generally results from a weakened state of the system arising from previous disease. It may also be dependent upon a functional derangement of the kidneys, upon weak circulation, or obstruction to the flow of blood through the lungs. In debilitated animals and in some animals highly infested with parasites there is swelling of the dewlap or of the fold of the skin between the jaws. _Symptoms._--Painless swelling of a limb, udder, lower surface of abdomen, or lower jaw becomes apparent. This may increase in dimensions for several days or may attain its maximum in less than 24 hours. Unless complicated with some acute disease of a specific character, there is not much, if any, constitutional disturbance. The deep layer of the skin is infiltrated with serum, which gives it the characteristic condition of pitting under pressure. _Treatment._--When the cause can be ascertained and removed we may expect to see the edema disappear. When no direct specific cause can be discovered and the animal is debilitated, give general tonic. If, on the contrary, it is in good flesh, give a purgative, followed by half an ounce of acetate of potassium twice a day. External applications are useless. Edema may be distinguished from erysipelas or anthrax by the absence of pain and fever. DERMOID AND SEBACEOUS CYSTS (WENS). A dermoid cyst is formed by an involution of the skin with a growth of hair on the inner wall of the sac. It may become embedded deeply in the subcutaneous tissues or may just penetrate the thickness of the skin, where it is movable and painless. They are generally found within the ear or at its base, although they may form on any part of the body. Usually they have a small opening, from which a thick, cheesy matter can be squeezed out. The rational treatment is to dissect them out. Sebaceous cysts appear not unlike the former. They are formed by a dilatation of the hair follicle and sebaceous duct within the skin, and contain a gray or yellowish sebaceous mass. The tumor may attain the size of a cherry stone or a walnut. Generally they are round, movable, and painless, soft or doughy in consistency, and covered with skin and hair. They develop slowly. The best treatment is to dissect out the sac with contents entire. VERRUCA (WARTS). Cattle are affected with two varieties of warts. One, the verruca vulgaris, is composed of a cluster of enlarged papillæ, covered with a thickened epidermis, the number of papillæ determining the breadth and their length its height. They are generally circular in figure, slightly roughened on the surface, and spring from the skin by a broad base. Occasionally large numbers of very thin, long, pedunculated warts grow from the skin of the ear, lips, about the eyes, and vulva. Another variety, the verruca acuminata, sometimes erroneously denominated epithelial cancers, are irregularly shaped elevations, tufted or club shaped, occasionally existing as thick, short, fleshy excrescences, giving the growth the appearance of granulation tissue. Their color is red or purplish, and oftentimes by friction they become raw and bleeding, emitting then a very offensive odor. They usually grow in clusters and their development is rapid. _Causes._--An abnormal nutrition of the skin, determined by increased energy of growth operating upon a healthy skin; at other times, upon a weak or impoverished skin. _Treatment._--When they are small and pedunculated, they may be snipped off with shears and the stump touched with nitrate of silver. When they are broad and flattened, they may be dissected out and the wound cauterized if necessary. If they are large and very vascular, they may be ligated, one by one, by taking a strong cord and tying it as firmly around the base as possible. They will then shrivel, die, and drop off. If there is a tendency to grow again, apply a red-hot iron or nitric acid with a glass rod. Very often warts quickly disappear if they are kept soft by daily applications of sweet or olive oil. KELIS. Kelis is an irregularly shaped flat tumor of the skin, resulting from hypertrophy--increased growth of the fibrous tissue of the corium, producing absorption of the papillary layer. _Causes._--It may arise spontaneously or follow a scar after an injury. _Symptoms._--Kelis generally appears below the knee or hock, and may occur singly or in numbers. There are no constitutional symptoms. Its growth is very slow and seldom causes any inconvenience. It appears as a flattened, irregular, or spreading growth within the substance of the skin, is hard to the touch, and is especially characterized by divergent branches or roots, resembling the claws of a crab; hence the name. Occasionally some part of it may soften and result in an abscess. It may grow several inches in length and encircle the whole limb. _Treatment._--So long as it causes the animal no inconvenience it is best not to meddle with it; when it does the animal ought to be fattened for beef, the meat being perfectly harmless to the consumer. PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN. RINGWORM (TINEA TONSURANS AND TINEA FAVOSA). Ringworm is an affection of the skin, caused by a vegetable parasite. The form known as tinea tonsurans is produced by the presence of a minute or microscopic fungus--the _Trichophyton tonsurans_, which affects the hair and the epidermic layer of the skin, and is highly contagious, being readily transmitted from one animal to another. This fungus consists of spores and filaments. The spores, being the most numerous, are round and seldom vary much in size. They are very abundant in the hair follicle. The filaments are articulated, waving, and contain granules. This disease is productive of changes in the root and shaft of the hair, rendering it brittle and easily broken off. This disease becomes manifest by the formation of circular patches on the skin, which soon becomes denuded of hair. The cuticular layer of the skin in slightly inflamed, and vesication with exudation occurs, followed by the formation of scaly, brittle crusts. The patches appear silvery gray when incrusted, and are mostly confined to the head and neck. It is a common disease among young cattle in the winter and spring. Very early in the development of the patches the hairs split, twist, and break off close to the skin. This disease is attended with more or less itching. It is communicable to man. Tinea favosa comes from another fungus, the _Achorion schönleinii._ This enters the hair follicle and involves the cuticle surrounding it, small crusts form which increase in diameter and thickness and then become elevated at their margin, forming a cup-shaped scab, the favus cup, which gives the disease its distinctive character. The number of these cups varies from a few to many hundreds. The hairs involved become brittle and broken, fall off with the crusts, leaving small bald patches. The crusts are of a pale or sulphur-yellow color at first; as they grow older they turn darker, or to a brown color. This form of ringworm has a peculiar odor, resembling that of mice or musty straw. It is occasionally communicated to cattle by man, mice, cats, etc., all being subject to it. _Treatment._--Remove all crusts by washing with soap and water, then apply acetic acid, sulphur ointment, tincture of iodin or nitrate of mercury ointment once a day. Cleanse the stable and whitewash it to destroy the spores scattered by the crusts. OTHER PARASITES AND PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN. For discussion of mange, itch, scab, lousiness, warbles (grub in the skin), buffalo gnats, hornfly (_Hoematobia serrata_), ticks, flies, etc., see the chapter on "The animal parasites of cattle," page 502. WOUNDS OF THE SKIN. SNAKE BITES AND VENOMOUS STINGS. [See discussion of these subjects in chapter on "Poisons and poisoning."] BURNS AND SCALDS. This is a rare accident among cattle, yet in cases of fire it may occur. The application of heat, whether dry or moist, unless sufficient instantly to destroy the life of a part, is always followed by the development of vesicles or blisters, which contain a thin, watery fluid. The blisters may be isolated and not very large, or one blister may cover a very large surface. When the burn is very severe the skin may be wholly devitalized, or the injury may extend into the deeper structures of the skin. Then sloughs will occur, followed by a contraction of the parts in healing; if on a limb, this may render the animal stiff. When the burn or scald has been a severe one, the resulting pain is great and the constitutional disturbance very marked. _Treatment._--For a superficial burn use a mixture of equal parts of limewater and linseed oil, or common white paint--white lead ground in oil--to exclude the atmosphere and protect the inflamed skin. If it is not convenient to get anything else, chimney soot, flour, or starch may be spread on the wound (dry), and covered with cotton batting and light bandage. The blisters should be opened to let the contained fluid escape, but do not pull off the thin cuticle which has been raised by the blister. When the burn is extensive and deep sloughing occurs, the parts should be treated, like other deep wounds, by poulticing, astringent washes, etc. When the system has sustained much shock, the animal may require internal stimulants, such as 2 drams of carbonate of ammonia every hour until it rallies. When the pain is very great, hypodermic injections of 6 grains of morphia may be administered every six hours. _Frostbite_ on any portion of the body may be treated as recommended in the article on diseases of the ears. EMPHYSEMA (AIR OR GAS UNDER THE SKIN). Emphysema of the skin is not a true disease of the skin, but it is mentioned as a pathological condition. It is characterized by a distention of the skin with air or gas contained in the subcutaneous areolar tissue. It may depend upon a septic condition of the blood, as in anthrax or blackleg, or air may be forced under the skin about the head, neck, and shoulders, as a result of rupture of the windpipe. It occurs in the region of the chest and shoulders from penetrating wounds of the chest and lung, and occasionally follows puncture of the rumen when the escaping gas is retained under the skin. _Symptoms._--The skin is enormously distended over a greater or less portion of the body; thus any region of the body may lose its natural contour and appear like a monstrosity. There is a peculiar crackling beneath the skin when the hand is passed over it, and on tapping it with the fingers a resonant, drumlike sound is elicited. _Treatment._--Puncture the distended skin with a clean, broad-bladed knife and press the air out. Further treatment must be directed with a view to the removal of the cause. DISEASES OF THE FOOT. By M. R. TRUMBOWER, D. V. S. [Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] LAMINITIS (FOUNDER). Laminitis denotes an active inflammation of the sensitive structures within the wall of the hoof, which in severe cases may result in suppuration and the loss of one or more claws. Owing to the simplicity of the structure of the foot of an ox compared with that of the horse, this disease is rarely seen in an acute form, but a mild form, commonly called "foot soreness," is not of infrequent occurrence. _Causes._--Laminitis in cattle may be caused by overfeeding, overheating, continued standing without exercise on a stone or cement floor without sufficient bedding, or by driving long distances over rough or stony soil. _Symptoms._--An unwillingness to maintain the standing position; the animal persists in lying down. The feet will be found unnaturally hot, and frequently some swelling may be noticed above the hoof. Pressure upon the hoof with blacksmith's hoof pincers causes pain and flinching. The general body temperature is increased and the breathing accelerated. Ordinarily the animal eats and drinks as usual. When it is made to move excessive tenderness of the feet becomes manifest, as is shown by reluctance to walk and by the very short, hesitating step. Founder affects the hind as well as the fore feet, although the front feet are more often exposed. _Treatment._--Cold packs to the feet, or if the animal can be made to stand in a stream of water, having a soft bottom, the inflammation is often relieved without the necessity of any additional treatment. It may be well, however, to give a full dose of Epsom salt, 1 to 1-1/2 pounds, followed by half-ounce doses of saltpeter two or three times a day. SORENESS (FOOT SORENESS). Cattle that have been stabled or pastured on soft ground and are driven over stony roads soon wear down the soles of their feet and become lame from foot soreness. Draft oxen, for this reason, require to be shod. When the soreness is excessive it may develop into an active inflammation of all the sensitive structures of the foot--laminitis, or into a local bruise commonly called a "corn." _Treatment._--Rest, poulticing the feet with moistened clay, followed by astringent washes--strong white-oak bark or alum water. If the pain and heat last several days, it is probable that pus has formed beneath the wall of the hoof. In this case it is necessary to cut through the wall, usually at the most prominent part of the sole, to allow the accumulation to drain out. The animal should then stand for several hours daily in a tub containing a 3 per cent solution of some good milky coal-tar disinfectant. When not in the disinfecting solution the foot should be dressed with pine tar and cotton and bandaged with bagging. LOSS OF HOOF. Cattle sometimes become fastened between planks or otherwise and pull off the wall of one or both claws in the effort to extricate themselves. The claws of one or more feet may be shed as the result of acute laminitis. _Treatment._--Wash the bleeding surface with an antiseptic and then with an astringent, such as a weak solution of alum, then apply a thick coating of pine tar; cover this with a layer of oakum or absorbent cotton; apply another coat of tar over this, and then bandage closely and firmly. This may remain without disturbance until the new growing wall becomes sufficiently strong to sustain the pressure and weight of the animal. If, however, at any time oozing or bad smell indicates that pus is forming under this dressing, the bandage should be removed and the suppurating surface freshly cleaned and dressed. This may have to be repeated every few days and should be continued so long as there is any pus formation. If the loss of hoof is owing to suppurative laminitis, the parts denuded of the horny covering must be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected with carbolic acid, lysol, or other antiseptic. Then apply a moderately thick layer of absorbent cotton and over this apply the tar and bandage. After this the antiseptic solution may be poured in daily at the top of the dressing. It will thus soak in and saturate the dressing and inflamed tissue. It may become necessary to remove all the dressing at daily or longer intervals to give the parts a fresh cleaning, and then to reapply it. FOUL IN FOOT (FOOT ROT). A variety of causes may produce inflammation of the foot between the claws or toes. It may be on account of overgrowth of the claws and inward pressure, as in ingrowing nail of man, or it may be caused by the irritation of stable filth by impaction and hardening of soil between the claws, or by other foreign substances becoming wedged in, causing inflammation and softening or ulceration of the skin in the interdigital space. Under some conditions several cattle in the same herd become affected, which has led some to think that the disease may be contagious. Occurrences have been reported in which foot rot of cattle has appeared within a short time among a large proportion of the cattle in a farming district. This disease is most frequently seen in the hind feet, though all four feet may become affected. _Symptoms._--The animal is observed to limp. On examination of the foot we discover heat and swelling above the hoof and of the soft parts between the claws which frequently spreads the claws apart to a considerable extent, or the inflammation may have advanced to softening and sloughing of the interdigital membrane. If the disease is neglected at this stage, deep abscesses may form and the pus burrow under the horny wall, or the joint within the hoof may become inflamed and the articular attachments destroyed, in which case the treatment will be difficult and recovery will be very tedious. _Treatment._--In the earlier stages of the disease, before pus burrows beneath the horn, a thorough cleansing and an application of a carbolic-acid solution--1 ounce to a pint of water--clean stabling, and laxative food will usually remedy the evil. Compound solution of cresol is an excellent remedy at this stage. It should be applied, in its pure or undiluted state, to the suppurating and putrefying tissue between the claws. It is best applied by means of a cotton swab on a thin stick. Care must be taken to keep it from contact with the skin about the coronary band or heels. If deep sloughing has taken place the carbolic solution should be used, and a wad of oakum or cotton smeared with pine tar should be secured firmly in the cleft. This can be done by taking a strip of strong cloth, 2 inches wide, passing the middle between the claws, then tying the ends after winding them in opposite directions above the hoof. Sometimes warm poulticing with flaxseed meal or bran is necessary to relieve excessive fever and pain. If the pus burrows under the horn, its channel must be followed by paring away the horn until the bottom is reached. The aftertreatment is the same as that already recommended. If the joint becomes diseased an amputation of that toe is the quickest and surest method to relieve the suffering of the animal, and offers the best chance for an early recovery. ULCERATION OF THE HEEL. Occasionally we find ulcers at the junction of the hair with the hoof at the heel, which present an elevated, raw, or ragged surface, and cause considerable lameness. This is generally caused by a bruise of the fibrous cushion of the back part of the foot. Subsequent sloughing or necrosis may occur, or pus may form deep within the wall and gain an exit at the margin of the heel. Sometimes, from no visible cause, large pieces of skin slough from the heel and pastern. This condition is caused by an infection with certain microorganisms (streptococci, necrosis bacilli) and may be contagious. _Treatment._--If there is a deep opening, inject carbolic solution once a day until it closes. If the ulcer is only superficial, wash with carbolic solution and apply a mixture of equal parts of blue vitriol and alum in dry powder. FISSURE OF THE WALL (SPLIT HOOF). This is rarely seen among cattle. It may occur in weak walls, in heavily bodied cattle, caused by stepping on an uneven surface, especially when the point of the toe is grown out long. One may find the point of the toe broken and the wall split almost up to the hair. _Treatment._--The divided sections may be brought into approximation and held in place by drilling a small hole from one side into and through the other, commencing half an inch back of the fissure on each side; then drive a light horseshoe nail through the hole and clinch it. Pare the injured claw as short as it will bear. INTERDIGITAL FIBROMA. Hard, nodular, fibrous tumors sometimes grow in the cleft of the foot, and cause inconvenience, lameness, absorption, or ulceration of the contiguous parts. _Treatment._--They should be dissected out and the wound dressed with carbolic-acid lotion and pine tar once a day until healing is completed. DEFORMITIES. Deformities in the feet of cattle usually consist in overgrowth of horn, generally from want of wear in animals which are stabled. The hoof may turn inward, outward, or upward, and may give rise to lameness, inability to walk, foul foot, etc. Bulls which are continually stabled and dairy cows very frequently have misshapen feet from want of an occasional trimming, and this deformity may eventually lead to permanent injury. _Treatment._--Cut the superabundant growth of horn down with saw, knife, or rasp, until the foot assumes its natural form. PRICKS AND WOUNDS. If an animal suffers with a penetrating wound from prick of fork or nail, the orifice of the wound should be enlarged to permit a free discharge of pus; then the foot should be soaked in a cresol compound solution (3 per cent) in a tub, or a flaxseed poultice applied, changing it three times a day until the fever has abated. The foot should be kept bandaged and dressed with pine tar and oakum; the animal must also be kept on a clean floor until the wound is closed and all or nearly all lameness has disappeared. If an animal is cut in the foot with barbed wire, piece of glass, or any other substance, the wound, after proper cleansing, should be dressed with carbolic-acid solution, 1 ounce of the acid to 20 of water. If any uneven edges of horn, skin, or lacerated flesh project, trim them off, and in all cases when it can be done a tarred bandage should be applied. This will serve to sustain the cut surfaces in their place, exclude dirt, and protect against flies, maggots, etc. When the wound has extended into a joint, surgical treatment, which will require the services of an educated veterinarian, may be necessary. Occasionally an animal gets caught by the foot in a crevice and sustains severe bruising, wrenching, or fracture of some part of the foot. In such cases cold-water packs to the injured member are of service until the fever and swelling disappear. Afterwards the animal should rest until the usefulness of the foot is restored. Sometimes such an accident, causing fracture, renders necessary plaster bandages or amputation. DISEASES OF THE EYE AND ITS APPENDAGES. By M. R. TRUMBOWER, D. V. S. [Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] DESCRIPTION. For the sake of gaining a clear comprehension of the diseases of the eye it becomes necessary to review the anatomy of this important organ. The essential organ of vision, or globe of the eye, will be first described, then its receptacle or orbital cavity, the muscles that move it, the protective membranes, or eyelids, the membrana nictitans, or accessory eyelids, and, lastly, the lacrimal apparatus. The globe or ball of the eye is almost spherical in form. On closer inspection, however, it appears to be made up of two combined portions from spheres of different sizes. The posterior portion, forming about five-sixths of the ball, is a sphere of comparatively large size with a small segment cut off it in front, and at this point there is applied to it the anterior portion, which, being a segment of a smaller sphere, projects at the front of the ball with a greater convexity than the posterior portion. The eyeball consists of concentrically arranged coats and of refracting media inclosed in them. The coats are three in number, namely, (1) an external protective tunic made up of the sclerotic and cornea; (2) a middle vascular and pigmentary tunic, the choroid; (3) an internal nervous layer, the retina. The sclerotic is the white, opaque part of the outer tunic, of which it forms about the posterior five-sixths, being coextensive with the larger sphere already mentioned. The cornea forms the remaining one-sixth of the outer tunic, being coextensive with the segment of the smaller sphere. It is distinguished from the sclerotic by being colorless and transparent. The choroid coat will be recognized as the black layer lying subjacent to the sclerotic. It does not line the cornea, but terminates behind the line of junction of that coat with the sclerotic by a thickened edge--the ciliary processes. At the line of junction of the sclerotic and cornea the iris passes across the interior of the eye. This (which may be viewed as a dependency of the choroid) is a muscular curtain perforated by an aperture termed the pupil. The retina will be recognized as a delicate, glassy layer, lining the greater part of the choroid. The refracting media of the eye are three in number, namely (1) the aqueous humor, a watery fluid inclosed in a chamber behind the cornea; (2) the crystalline lens and its capsule, a transparent, soft solid of a biconvex form, and placed behind the iris; (3) the vitreous humor, a transparent material with a consistence like thin jelly, and occupying as much of the interior of the eye as is subjacent to the choroid. The sclerotic is a strong, opaque, fibrous membrane, which, in a great measure, maintains the form of the eyeball and protects the more delicate structures within it. Its interior portion, which is covered by the ocular conjunctiva, is commonly known as the "white of the eye." In form it is bell-shaped, and the optic nerve pierces it behind like a handle, the perforation being a little to its inner side. In front, the rim of the bell becomes continuous with the cornea. The outer surface of the membrane receives the insertion of the muscles of the eyeball. The coat is thickest over the posterior part of the eyeball, and is thinnest a little behind its junction with the cornea. The cornea is the anterior transparent portion of the outer coat of the eyeball. It may be viewed as a part of the sclerotic specially modified to permit the passage of light into the interior of the eye. Its outline is elliptical, nearly circular, and its greatest diameter is transverse. At its periphery it joins the sclerotic by continuity of tissue, and as the edge of the cornea is slightly beveled and has the fibrous sclerotic carried for a little distance forward on its outward surface, the cornea is generally said to be fitted into the sclerotic like a watch glass into its rim. The venous canal of Schlemm runs circularly around the eyeball at the line of junction of the sclerotic and cornea. The anterior surface of the cornea is exquisitely smooth, and is kept moist by the lacrimal secretions. Its posterior surface forms the anterior boundary of the chamber in which the aqueous humor is contained. The cornea is of uniform thickness and is of a dense, almost horny, consistence. Save a few capillary loops of blood vessels at its margin the cornea is without vessels. Its structure is comprised of five distinct layers. The aqueous humor occupies a chamber which is bounded in front by the posterior surface of the cornea and behind by the capsule and suspensory ligament of the lens and by the ends of the ciliary processes. It is across this chamber that the iris extends. The aqueous humor is composed of water, with a small proportion of common salt in solution. The iris is a muscular, pigmented curtain extending across the interior of the eye and having about its center an aperture termed the pupil. By variations in the size of this aperture the amount of light transmitted to the retina is regulated. It varies somewhat in color, but is most frequently of a yellowish-brown tint. Its anterior face is bathed by the aqueous humor. The greater part of the posterior surface is in contact with the capsule of the lens and glides on it during the movements of the curtain. The circumferential border is attached within the junction of the sclerotic cornea. The inner border circumscribes the pupil, which varies in outline according to its size. When much contracted the pupil is a very elongated ellipse, the long axis of which is in the line joining the nasal and temporal angles of the eyelids. It contains muscular tissue, which, by contracting or relaxing, lessens or dilates the pupillary opening. The choroid coat is a bell-shaped, dark membrane which lines the sclerotic. Its outer surface has a shaggy appearance, caused by the tunica fusca, which unites the two coats. Between the two the ciliary vessels and nerves pass forward. Behind it is pierced by the optic nerve; in front it is continued as the ciliary processes, which form, as it were, the rim of the bell. The ciliary processes form a fringe around the slightly inverted rim of the choroid. The retina is the most delicate of the coats of the eyeball. It is formed by the expansion of the optic nerve on the inner surface of the choroid, and, like that coat, it is bell-shaped. Its inner surface is molded on the vitreous humor. The nervous structures of the retina terminate at a wavy line, the ora serrata, behind the ciliary processes. Ten distinct layers are described as composing the thickness of the retina. The lens is situated behind the pupil and is contained within a capsule of its own. The capsule is a close-fitting, firm, transparent membrane. The anterior surface forms the posterior boundary of the cavity containing the aqueous humor, and the iris in its movement glides on it. The posterior surface is in contact with the vitreous humor. The vitreous humor occupies four-fifths of the interior of the eyeball. It is globular in form, with a depression in front for the lodgment of the lens. It is colorless, transparent, and of a consistency like thin jelly. It is enveloped by a delicate capsule--the hyaloid membrane--which is connected in front with the suspensory ligament of the lens, and ends by joining the capsule behind the lens. The orbital cavity, at the side of the head, is circumscribed by a bony margin; posteriorly, however, there are no bony walls, and the cavity is often confounded with the depression above and behind the orbit--the temporal fossa. A fibrous membrane completes this cavity and keeps it distinct from the temporal fossa. This membrane--the ocular sheath or periorbita--is attached posteriorly around the opening in the back part of the orbital cavity (the orbital hiatus) and anteriorly to its inner face; then it becomes prolonged beyond the margin to form the fibrous membrane of the eyelids. When complete the orbital cavity has the form of a regular hollow cone, open at its base and closed at the apex. The opening of this cone is directed forward, downward, and outward. Independently of the globe of the eye, this cavity lodges the muscles that move it, the membrana nictitans, and the lacrimal gland. The muscles of the eye are seven in number--one retractor, four straight, and two oblique. The retractor oculi envelops the optic nerve between the brain and the ball of the eye and becomes attached upon the external face of the sclerotic tunic. When this muscle contracts, it draws the globe back into the orbit, away from the light. The superior, inferior, external, and internal recti or straight muscles are attached to the back part of the orbital sheath and spread forward in four bundles over the globe of the eye, where they are inserted by a fibrous expansion into the sclerotic at the margin of the cornea. When they act singly, they turn the globe either upward, downward, inward, or outward. The great oblique, by its action, pivots the eye inward and upward in the orbit. The small oblique turns the eye outward and downward. The eyelids are two movable curtains, superior and inferior, which cover and protect the eye in front. They are attached to the circumference of the orbit and have a convex external face formed by the skin and a concave internal face molded on the anterior surface of the eye and are lined by the conjunctiva, which is reflected above and below on the eyeball. The border of each lid is slightly beveled on the inner side and shows the openings of the Meibomian glands. These glands secrete an unctuous fluid, which is thrown out on the border of the lids, the function of which is to facilitate their movements and enable them to retain the tears in the ocular cavity. The eyelid is composed of a fibrous inner membrane ending in a stiff arch near the border, a muscle to close the lid, another to open it, the skin externally, and the conjunctival mucous membrane internally. The border of each lid is covered and protected by long hairs to prevent floating particles of matter in the atmosphere from gaining entrance to the eye. The membrana nictitans, which is also named the third eyelid, winking eyelid, haw, etc., is placed at the inner angle of the eye, whence it extends over the eyeball to relieve it from foreign bodies which may fall upon it. It has for its framework a fibro-cartilage, irregular in shape, thick, nearly prismatic at its base, and thin anteriorly where it is covered by the conjunctiva; behind, it is loosely attached to a fatty cushion. The lacrimal gland is situated between the orbital process and the upper part of the eyeball. It secretes the tears destined to lubricate the anterior surface of the eye. This fluid escapes upon the organ at the outer angle of the lids and is carried between them and the eyeball toward the inner angle. The caruncula lacrimalis is a small round body, frequently entirely or partially black, situated in the inner angle of the eye, and is designed to direct the tears toward the puncta lacrimalia. The puncta lacrimalia are two little openings, situated one in each eyelid, a short distance from the inner corner, which admit the tears into the lacrimal ducts leading to the lacrimal canal, whence they are emptied into the nasal passages. CONJUNCTIVITIS (SIMPLE OPHTHALMIA). This is an inflammation of the conjunctival mucous membrane of the eyeball and lids; in severe cases the deeper coats of the eye are involved, seriously complicating the attack. _Causes._--It may result from a bruise of the eyelid; from the introduction of foreign matters into the eye, as chaff, hayseed, dust, gnats, etc.; from exposure to cold; poisonous or irritating vapors arising from filthiness of stable. Dust, cinders, or sand blown into the eyes during transportation frequently cause conjunctivitis. _Symptoms._--A profuse flow of tears, closure of the eyelids from intolerance of light, retraction of the eyeball and corresponding protrusion of the haw, disinclination to move, diminution of milk secretion, etc. On parting the lids the lining membrane is found injected with an excess of blood, giving it a red and swollen appearance; the sclerotic, or white of the eye, is bloodshot and the cornea may be cloudy. If the disease advances, keratitis results, with its train of unfavorable symptoms. _Treatment._--Careful examination should be made to discover particles of chaff, etc., which may have lodged in the eye, and upon the discovery of such a cause prompt removal is indicated. This may be accomplished by flushing the eye with warm water by means of a syringe, or, if the foreign substance is adherent to the eyeball or lid, it may be scooped out with the handle of a teaspoon or some other blunt instrument. To relieve the congestion and local irritation, a wash composed of boracic acid in freshly boiled water, 20 grains to the ounce, or acetate of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of pure soft water, may be used, to which may be added 20 drops of laudanum. A few drops of this should be placed in the eye with a camel's-hair pencil or soft feather three or four times daily. The animal should be placed in a cool, darkened stable; then a cloth folded into several thicknesses should be fastened to the horns in such manner as to reach below the eyes. This should be kept wet with cold water during the day and removed at night. If there is much fever and constitutional disturbance, it becomes advisable to administer 1 pound of Epsom salt dissolved in 1 quart of water. INFECTIOUS CATARRHAL CONJUNCTIVITIS (SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA). This generally appears in an enzootic or epizootic form and affects a considerable number in the herd. It is distinctly a contagious disease and may be brought into a previously healthy herd by one infected animal. It may continue in a herd for a season or for several years, affecting all newly purchased animals. It is seldom seen in the winter months. It affects old and young animals alike. _Symptoms._--This form of catarrh conjunctivitis is characterized chiefly by a mucopurulent discharge from the eyes, an intense degree of inflammation of the mucous membrane, accompanied with swelling of the eyelids and an early opacity of the cornea. The flow of tears is mixed with pus, sometimes streaked with blood, and the skin of the face is kept moist and soiled. The eyes are kept continually closed. The implication of the cornea in the disease frequently blinds the animal for a time, and occasionally suppurative keratitis, ulcers of the cornea, or staphyloma supervene. The attack is marked from the onset by fever, partial loss of appetite, partial loss of milk, suspended rumination, and separation from the herd. _Treatment._--The animal should be housed in a cool, dark stable, supplied with plenty of fresh water to drink and soft, succulent feed. Administer 1 pound of Epsom salt--if a very large animal, use 1-1/2 pounds--dissolved in 2 or 3 pints of water. For an eyewash, take boracic acid, 1 dram, and pour 4 ounces of boiling water over it. Use this as often as is convenient, applying it directly to the eye. In the majority of cases improvement becomes manifest in a few days, and the eye becomes clear and free from inflammation in 10 days or 2 weeks. Where the disease develops ulceration of the cornea, or well-marked, deep-seated keratitis, the treatment recommended for those conditions should be adopted. _Prevention._--Whenever this affection appears in a herd all the unaffected animals should be moved to fields which possess a different character of soil and feed. The water should also be changed, especially if they have been obtaining it from a stagnant pond. KERATITIS (CORNEITIS). This is an inflammation of the cornea proper, although the sclerotic at the corneal border becomes involved to some extent. It may be divided into diffuse and suppurative. _Causes._--The cornea constitutes the most prominent portion of the eyeball, hence it is subject to a variety of injuries--scratches, pricks, contusions, lacerations, etc. Inflammation of the cornea may also be due to the extension of catarrhal conjunctivitis or intraocular disease, and it may occasionally occur without any perceptible cause. _Symptoms._--Diffuse keratitis is characterized by an exudation into and an opacity of the cornea. The swelling of the anterior part of the eyeball may be of an irregular form, in points resembling small bladders, or it may commence at the periphery of the cornea by an abrupt thickening, which gradually diminishes as it approaches the center. If the whole cornea is affected, it has a uniform gray or grayish-white appearance. The flow of tears is not so marked as in conjunctivitis, nor is the suffering so acute, though both conditions often exist together. Both eyes usually become affected, unless it is caused by an external injury. In favorable cases the exudate within the cornea begins to disappear within a week or 10 days, the eye becomes clearer and regains its transparency, until it eventually is fully restored. In unfavorable cases blood vessels form and are seen to traverse the affected part from periphery to center, vision becomes entirely lost, and permanent opacity (albugo or leucoma) remains. When it arises from constitutional causes recurrence is frequent, leaving the corneal membrane more cloudy after each attack, until the sight is permanently lost. Suppurative keratitis may be a sequel of diffuse keratitis; more commonly, however, it abruptly becomes manifest by a raised swelling on or near the center of the cornea that very soon assumes a yellow, turbid color, while the periphery of the swelling fades into an opaque ring. Suppurative keratitis is seldom noticed for the first day or two--not until distinct pus formation has occurred. When it is the result of diffuse keratitis, ulceration and the escape of the contained pus is inevitable; otherwise the pus may be absorbed. When the deeper membranes covering the anterior chamber of the eye become involved, the contents of this chamber may be evacuated and the sight permanently lost. _Treatment._--Place the animal in a darkened stable, give green or sloppy feed, and administer 4 ounces of Glauber's salt (sulphate of soda) dissolved in a quart of water once a day. If the animal is debilitated a tablespoonful of tonic powder should be mixed with the feed three times a day. This may be composed of equal parts by weight of powdered copperas (sulphate of iron), gentian, and ginger. As an application for the eye, nitrate of silver, 3 grains to the ounce of soft water, with the addition of 1 grain sulphate of morphia, may be used several times a day. If ulceration occurs, it is well to dust powdered calomel into the eye twice daily, or apply to the eyelids a salve of yellow oxid of mercury, 5 per cent in lanolin. Some of this may go on to the cornea and beneath the lids. Apply twice daily. (See "Ulcers of the cornea.") To remove opacity, after the inflammation has subsided, apply a few drops of the following solution twice a day: Iodid of potassium, 15 grains; tincture sanguinaria, 20 drops; distilled water, 2 ounces; mix. Sometimes keratitis exists in a herd as a transmissible disease, spreading like infectious conjunctivitis. Calomel, applied to the eye, is especially useful in such cases. ULCERS OF THE CORNEA. An ulcer comes from erosion or is the consequence of the bursting of a small abscess, which may have formed beneath the delicate layer of the conjunctiva, continued over the cornea; or, in the very substance of the cornea itself, after violent keratitis, or catarrhal conjunctivitis. At other times it is produced by bruises, scratches, or other direct injury of the cornea. _Symptoms._--The ulcer is generally at first of a pale gray color, with its edges high and irregular, discharges instead of pus an acrid, watery substance, and has a tendency to spread widely and deeply. If it spreads superficially upon the cornea, the transparency of this membrane is lost; if it proceeds deeply and penetrates the anterior chamber of the aqueous humor, this fluid escapes, the iris may prolapse, and the lens and the vitreous humor become expelled, thus producing destruction of the whole organ. _Treatment._--It is of the greatest importance, as soon as an ulcer appears upon the cornea, to prevent its growing larger. The corroding process must be converted into a healthy one. For this purpose nothing is more reliable than the use of solid nitrate of silver. A stick of this medicine should be scraped to a point; the animal's head should be firmly secured; an assistant should part the lids; if necessary, the haw must be secured within the corner of the eye and then all parts of the ulcer should be lightly touched with the silver. After waiting a few minutes the eye should be thoroughly washed out with a very weak solution of common salt. This operation generally has to be repeated at the end of three or four days. If healthy action succeeds, the ulcer assumes a delicate fleshy tint, and the former redness around the ulcer disappears in proportion as the ulcer heals. In superficial abrasions of the cornea, where there is no distinct excavation, this caustic treatment is not needed. The eye should be bathed several times a day with sulphate of zinc, 30 grains to half a pint of soft water, and protected against exposure to cold air and sunlight. Excessive ulceration sometimes assumes the form of fungous excrescence upon the cornea, appearing to derive its nourishment from loops of blood vessels of the conjunctiva. Under these circumstances the fungoid mass must be cut away and the wound cauterized with the nitrate of silver, or else the eye will soon be destroyed. When ulcers of the cornea appear indolent, with a tendency to slough, in addition to the treatment already prescribed, tonic powders of copperas, gentian, and ginger, equal parts by weight, should be given twice a day, mixed with the feed; dose, one tablespoonful. STAPHYLOMA. This is a disease of the eyeball, in which the cornea loses its transparency, rises above the level of the eye, and even projects beyond the eyelids in the form of an elongated, whitish, or pearl-colored tumor, which is sometimes smooth, at other times uneven. _Causes._--Inflammation is the only known cause, although it may not occur immediately; it frequently follows catarrhal conjunctivitis and keratitis as a sequela. _Treatment._--In a few cases restoration of sight may be effected by puncturing the projecting tumor and treating it afterwards with nitrate of silver in the same manner as prescribed for ulceration of the cornea. In some cases spontaneous rupture has occurred, and healing without any treatment at all. CATARACT. In cataract the crystalline lens becomes opaque and loses its transparency, the power of refraction is lost--the animal can not see. _Causes._--Cataract generally arises from a diminution (atrophy) or other change in the nutrition of the lens; it may occur as a result of inflammation of the deep structures of the eye. Cataract may be simple, or complicated with amaurosis, adhesions, etc. _Symptoms._--It is known by the whiteness or loss of transparency of the lens, although the pupil dilates and contracts. Sight may be totally lost; however, evidence is usually manifested that the animal distinguishes light when brought out of a darkened stable. For the most part the formation of cataract takes place slowly, the cases in which it originates very quickly being but few. _Treatment._--There is only one method for the treatment of cataract--a surgical operation for the removal of the lens; but this is not advisable, for the sight can not be perfectly restored, and objects would be seen imperfectly without the aid of glasses. AMAUROSIS. This is a paralysis of the nerve of sight or the expansion of the retina. _Causes._--This is the result of concussion from a blow upon the forehead, fracture of bone over the eye (causing downward pressure), rheumatic inflammation of the optic nerve, or from extension of deep inflammation of the eye involving the retina. It sometimes occurs as the result of excessive loss of blood or of great debility. _Symptoms._--In this disease observation is seldom made until the animal in its gait and by its action indicates blindness. Generally both eyes are affected. The eyeball remains clear, and the pupil is permanently dilated. No response to light is manifested. _Treatment._--If caused by debility, loss of blood, or associated with rheumatism, general blood tonics may be given in the feed, namely, powdered sulphate of iron, 1 dram; gentian, 2 drams; nux vomica, one-half dram; to be given twice a day. In cases of rheumatism, one-half ounce of saltpeter may be added. FILARIA OCULI (WORM IN THE EYE). _Filaria oculi_ (provisionally taken as the larva of _F. cervina_) is a small white worm, found swimming in the aqueous fluid in the anterior chamber. It may be apparently harmless for a long time, but will eventually induce keratitis with inflammatory exudations. _Treatment._--The cornea may be punctured at its upper and outer margin, and the worm squeezed out with the aqueous humor. The latter will be formed again. This operation results disastrously unless the greatest care and skill are employed. CORNEAL DERMATOMA (HAIRY TUMOR ON THE EYEBALL). In a few instances this has been seen as a congenital growth. The tumor arises from the cornea or the sclerotic, covered by its respective membrane, with a growth of hair upon its surface. These tumors may be quite prominent or flattened, and are dark in color; the hair may protrude between the eyelids, giving the animal the appearance of having a double eyelid. _Treatment._--A surgical operation becomes necessary for their removal-- one requiring a skilled operator. STRABISMUS (SQUINTING). This is a very rare affection among cattle. Strabismus may be either single or double--affecting one eye or both. It is caused by a paralysis, or a weakening of one of the straight muscles of the eyeball. Generally it is a congenital defect, and the squinting is toward the nose--strabismus convergens. It is best not to attempt to remedy the defect, as the risk in an operation is greater than the chances of success warrant. PTERYGIUM. This term is applied to a flesh-colored membrane, triangular in form, which most frequently grows from the inner angle of the eye and extends over the cornea, thus interfering with vision. It may grow from the outer angle, or even from either the superior or inferior hemisphere of the eyeball. The figure is invariably that of a triangle, with its base on the white of the eye and its apex more or less advanced over the cornea toward its center. The distinguishing characteristics are the constancy of the triangular form, and the facility with which the whole of it may be taken hold of with a pair of forceps and raised into a fold on the cornea. Every other kind of excrescence attached to this membrane continues firmly adherent to it, and can not be folded and raised from the surface of the cornea in any manner whatever. _Treatment._--Raise the fold and dissect it away from all points of attachment. TRICHIASIS (INVERSION OF THE EYELASHES). In the simplest form the eyelashes bend inwardly, touching the eyeball, causing irritation and simple conjunctivitis. It may be also associated with entropion. _Treatment._--The offending eyelashes should be cut off or pulled out. In case the natural growth of the eyelashes is directed inward, an operation similar to that for entropion becomes necessary. ENTROPION (INVERSION OF THE EYELID). In inversion of the eyelid the eyelashes soon irritate the anterior face of the cornea and produce more or less inflammation and opacity. The inversion may be due to the growth of a tumor within or without the lid, to abscess, laceration, or injury, causing the lid to lose its natural conformity to the eyeball, ulcerations, etc. Surgical interference in either case becomes necessary to restore the lid to its natural direction. ECTROPION (EVERSION OF THE EYELID). This serves to injure the eye by permitting dust or other foreign substances to enter the eye and interferes with the natural removal of them. _Treatment._--A delicate surgical operation--the removal of an elliptic section of the palpæbral conjunctiva--may remedy the defect. TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS. Occasionally tumors form upon or within the substance of the eyelid. They may be of a fibroid nature and arise from the follicles of the hair as sebaceous tumors or may be in the form of an abscess. In debilitating diseases the lids sometimes become swollen and puffy, a condition which may possibly be taken for the growth of a tumor. This generally disappears with the improvement of the health of the animal. Warts not uncommonly appear on or about the eyelids of cattle. _Treatment._--The removal of a tumor in the vicinity of so delicate an organ as the eye should not be attempted by anyone not qualified to perform the operation. LACERATION OF THE EYELID. This accident is not uncommon where cattle are fenced in by barbed wire; an animal may be caught under the eyelid by the horn of another, or the laceration may occur in the stable by means of a projecting nail or splinter of wood. _Treatment._--The edges of the wound should be brought together closely and correctly, by means of pins pushed through very nearly the whole thickness of the lid, extending through each lip of the torn part; then a waxed silk or linen thread must be wound over each end of the pin, crossing the torn line in the form of the figure 8 (Pl. XXVII, fig. 9); the pins should be placed about three-eighths of an inch apart. The projecting ends of the pins should be cut off close to the ligature, and the parts kept anointed with vaseline, to which 2 per cent of compound cresol has been added. In place of a pin suture, silver wire, catgut, or strong linen thread may be used in the way of an ordinary suture. FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EYE. Splinters of wood, hedge thorns, pieces of cornstalk or leaves, stems of hay or straw, twigs of trees, or weeds may penetrate into the eye, break off, and remain, causing inflammation, blindness, abscess, etc. These substances may penetrate the eyeball, but more frequently they glide off and enter between the eye and the ocular sheath. _Treatment._--Their removal becomes often a very difficult task, from the fact that the organ is so extremely sensitive, and the retracting power so strong as to necessitate casting the animal, or even the administration of sufficient chloroform to render it completely insensible. The removal, however, is of paramount importance, and the after treatment depends upon the extent and location of the injury--cold water compress over the injured eye, the application of mild astringent and cooling washes, such as acetate or sulphate of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of water. When there is extreme suffering from pain a solution of atropia or morphia, 5 grains to the ounce of water, may be dropped into the eye, alternating with the cooling wash several times a day. When abscesses form within the orbit a free opening must be maintained for the discharge of pus. In deep penetrating wounds of the eye there is a great tendency to the formation of a fungous growth, which often necessitates the enucleation of the whole eyeball. ORBITAL AND PERIORBITAL ABSCESS. Orbital abscess may form outside the globe and within the orbital sheath, as the result of a previous wound of the parts or from fracture of the bony orbit, etc. Periorbital abscess commences outside the ocular sheath, beneath the periosteal membrane covering the bone, and is usually the result of a disease or fractured bone which enters into the formation of the orbital cavity. _Symptoms._--Orbital abscess is manifested by a pushing forward of the eyeball (exophthalmos), a swelling of the conjunctiva and eyelids. The bulging out of the eye is in proportion to the size of the abscess; the movement of the eye is fixed, due to the painfulness of any voluntary movement of the eyeball. Periorbital abscess generally pushes the eye to one side; otherwise the symptoms are similar to the foregoing. The pain generally is very great; paralysis of the nerve of sight may occur, and death may be caused by the abscess extending to the brain. _Treatment._--The treatment for either orbital or periorbital abscess is the same as that for abscess occurring in any other part of the body--a free opening for the escape of imprisoned pus. This should be made as soon as the true nature of the disease is recognized. Afterwards antiseptic injections may be needed to stimulate healthy granulation and to prevent septic infection of the ocular membranes. For this purpose a saturated solution of boric acid or listerine 1 part to 10 of water may be used. When the fever runs high, Glauber's salt (sulphate of soda) may be given in 4-ounce doses once a day. The animal should be kept in a darkened stable, on soft or green feed. FRACTURE OF THE ORBIT. This accident occasionally occurs among belligerent animals, or as the result of blows delivered by brutal attendants. The orbital process above the eye may be entirely crushed in, pressing down upon the eyeball. In such an event the depressed bone should be elevated into its proper place, and if it fails to unite it may have to be removed with saw or chisel. The margin of the orbit may be crushed at any point and cause periorbital abscess, or necrosis may result from the presence of a splinter of bone or the excessive destruction of bone. In all cases of fracture the animal should be kept by itself until the injured part heals. NECROSIS OF THE BONY ORBIT. As the result of fracture of the margin of the orbit a part of the injured bone may become necrosed (dead), and periostitis and periorbital abscess will follow as a consequence. The discovery of this disease will at first resemble abscess, but on making an examination with a probe after the abscess is open we find the bone rough and brittle at the point of disease. The discharge has a peculiar fetid odor, and is often mixed with blood. _Treatment._--The affected bone must be laid bare and all diseased portions removed by scraping or, if necessary, with saw or chisel, disregarding the extent of the injury or the size of the wound necessary to be inflicted. A large portion of the bony orbit may be removed without serious danger to the eye, provided the eyeball itself has not been previously affected by the disease or involved in the original injury. TUMORS OF THE ORBIT. A fungous tumor of the eyeball or orbit occasionally appears, which is designated fungus hæmatodes. This may arise without any appreciable cause, or as the result of a wound. It frequently commences within the eyeball as a small, red mass, eventually bursts through, and pushes its way outside the orbit as a large, dark-red mass, bleeding at the slightest touch. It has a peculiar, fetid odor, and early in its appearance destroys sight, involving all the contents of the orbit, not infrequently the bony wall itself. Unless the tumor is totally removed in its early stage of growth, together with the eyeball, the disease will eventually cause emaciation and death of the animal. The enucleation of the eyeball should not be undertaken by anyone unacquainted with the anatomical structures involved in such an operation. When the operation is performed early enough the result is generally satisfactory. Bony tumors of the orbit, the result of bruises, fractures, etc., are occasionally present in cattle. They may encroach upon the contents of the orbit, causing paralysis of the optic nerve--the condition known as amaurosis--or by pressure upon the posterior surface of the eyeball force it forward, or produce atrophy (shrinking). They may displace the eye in any direction, with or without disturbing vision. Fibrous tumors growing within the orbit will produce symptoms similar to those of bony tumors. _Treatment._--When the outlines of the tumor, whether fungoid, bony, or fibrous, can be detected, an operation for its removal should be undertaken as soon as the sight of the eye is in any manner disturbed. DISLOCATION OF THE EYEBALL. The eyeball may be torn out of its socket by the horns of another animal, or it may be crowded out with the blunt end of a club, cane, or probe in the hands of a brutal attendant. _Treatment._--When the optic nerve is not lacerated and the retractor muscles at the back of the eye are intact, an attempt at reduction is advisable. This, however, must follow very soon after the injury--before swelling takes place. Divide the outer corner of the eyelid to enlarge the orifice, then by pressure with the fingers of both hands placed upon the sides of the eye the ball may be put into its place. Apply a firm compress over the injured eye and keep it constantly wet with cold water containing 1 dram of sugar of lead to each quart. If the attempt at reduction proves unsuccessful the artery at the back of the eye should be ligated, and then the whole mass cut off as deep within the orbit as possible. The orbital cavity, after washing it out with a 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid or compound cresol, should be packed daily with fresh absorbent cotton. INFLAMMATION AND ENLARGEMENT OF THE HAW. The haw, or membrana nictitans, is subject to inflammation and swelling from the extension of conjunctivitis, or direct injury by foreign substances. It presents a red, swollen appearance, accompanied with considerable pain and a profuse flow of tears. A slight scarification with a sharp knife and the application of a cooling lotion, such as is recommended for conjunctivitis, will soon reduce the swelling and restore it to its normal function. There is, however, a tendency for an inflammation of this membrane to take on a chronic character, which may eventually result in a permanent enlargement, resembling a tumor. When it attains sufficient size to protrude itself permanently over the eye, or project between the lids so as to obstruct the sight, its removal may become necessary. A threaded needle is passed through the body of the enlarged mass, by which the membrane is drawn out as far as possible, then with a blunt pair of scissors it may be dissected away from its attachments. The eye is afterwards treated with simple cooling lotions. DISEASES OF THE EAR. By M. R. TRUMBOWER, D. V. S. [Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] Diseases of the ears of cattle are not very common, for the reasons probably that they are not subjected to the brutality of drivers so much as horses and that the horns to a great extent protect them against external violence. OTITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE INTERNAL EAR). Inflammation of the deep part of the ear is often difficult to recognize in cattle. It may be caused by disease of bone in that region, from blows inflicted by drivers, or from injury by other cattle. Occasionally the ear becomes involved in actinomycosis (lumpy jaw), or the inflammation may be the result of a tuberculous affection. _Symptoms._--The animal will hold its head to one side, or shake it, while the ear itself is held immovable. The movement of the jaws in eating usually gives rise to a manifestation of pain; the base of the ear may be feverish and swollen, and very sensitive to the touch. If the inflammation has advanced to a suppurative stage, offensive matter will flow from the ear. _Treatment._--At first, hot fomentations to reduce pain and fever, followed by a sharp blister below the ear. Laudanum, 1 part to 10 of sweet oil, may be injected into the ear to relieve pain and to soften the secretions. If there is a discharge from the ear, it should be thoroughly washed out by injecting warm soapsuds until all the matter has been washed away; then inject the following mixture twice a day: Sulphate of morphia, 20 grains; water, 1 pint; glycerin, 4 ounces. ABSCESS. Abscesses, caused by contusions, sometimes form about the base of the ear, either inside or outside. A serous cyst is found occasionally between the cartilage and the skin on the base of the ear, which may be from a similar cause. _Treatment._--With the knife make a free incision into the most prominent part of the abscess or cyst, then, with a syringe, wash out the sac with carbolized water. If the abscess recurs, open it again, wash it out, and inject tincture of iodin, or fill it with iodoform. FUNGOID GROWTHS. As a result of laceration or wound of any kind, fungous growths, characterized by a raw, bleeding, granulating surface, with a tendency to become pendulous, may develop on the ear. _Treatment._--The whole tumor or diseased structure should be cut away, and the wound treated daily with a dressing of carbolized cosmoline or turpentine and sweet oil, 1 part of the former to 4 of the latter. FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EAR. Bugs have been known to gain entrance into the ears of animals. I once removed an acorn from the ear of a cow that had been roaming in the woods; also pieces of wood from a stanchion may be lodged accidentally in the ear. _Symptoms._--There is usually a continuous uneasiness or frequent shaking of the head, occasionally the manifestation of exceedingly great pain. The animal may rub the head and ear against trees or other objects in an endeavor to dislodge the offending body. _Treatment._--A careful examination reveals the cause, which may be removed with a pair of forceps or scraped out with a hairpin or piece of wire bent at one end. If much inflammation exists, the ear may be swollen so that the foreign substance is hidden from sight; then a probe may be inserted to feel for the object, which, when found, should be removed, even if it becomes necessary to split the ear at the base. Afterwards treat the ear with frequent warm water fomentations and the injection of soapy water or oil and water. SCURFY EARS. Cattle are subject to scurfy ears, which may be owing to a generally morbid condition of the skin, or may be confined to the ears alone. The affected animal shows an inclination to rub the ear; thick scales, which sometimes have the appearance of hard, dry, horny scales, of scurf collect on it. This condition is chiefly caused by a faulty secretion of the sebaceous glands of the ear. Thoroughly clean the ear with a stiff brush, then anoint it, so far as affected, with vaseline 4 parts to 1 part of white precipitate ointment. If the scurfy ears are only a part of a general scurfiness of the skin, the condition of the animal needs attention. (See "Pityriasis," p. 329.) FROSTBITE. It is not uncommon among young cattle which are poorly nourished and exposed outdoors to storms and extreme cold to suffer frostbite of the ear, which may constitute actual freezing of the part. _Symptoms._--Frostbite presents naturally every degree of severity from the mere chilling of the tip of the ear to positive freezing and death of a portion. In a day or two after the freezing has occurred the ear becomes swollen and very painful; the dead part remains cold and begins to shrivel; a line of separation then forms between the inflamed and the dead or dying portion, and finally the piece destroyed drops off, leaving a raw healing surface. When the ear is only slightly affected by the cold, an excoriation or peeling off of superficial skin takes place, accompanied with some pain and itching. _Treatment._--A good liniment for frozen ears is a mixture of turpentine, ammonia, and chloroform, of each 1 part, added to 6 parts of sweet oil. Rub this on the ear several times a day. It will relieve pain and stimulate the circulation, thus favoring a recovery of the injured structures. LACERATIONS OF THE EAR. Aggressive dogs are the most frequent cause of lacerated ear, generally leaving a torn, ragged edge and bruised cartilage. If the wound is extensive, a trimming of the ragged edges becomes necessary; then the edges should be fastened together with silver wire, catgut, or strong, thick, linen thread, taking a deep hold, and pine tar applied. DISEASE OF THE CARTILAGE AND NECROSIS. Occasionally the cartilages of the ear become affected, usually the result of a deep bruise; pus forms, burrows under the skin, and may find a discharge from any part of the ear more or less distant from the seat of the disease. When the cartilage has been extensively injured, pieces of it may become dead (necrosed) and dissolve, to be carried away with the pus, or it may lead to extensive sloughing and the formation of numerous running sores. In the disease of the cartilage there is seldom much swelling or great pain. The discharge is usually very offensive, and occasionally streaked with blood. Whenever there is a long-continued, persistent discharge from one or more openings in the ear, disease of the cartilage may be suspected. _Treatment._--The sinus formed by the passage of matter should be probed and searched to the bottom for the presence of a foreign substance or the evidence of decaying cartilage. When the probe touches necrosed cartilage it will feel like a piece of dry leather or partially softened wood. A counter opening must then be made at this place, and all diseased cartilage cut away with the knife. The subsequent treatment consists in keeping the artificial wound open for the discharge of pus, and the injection of chlorid of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of water, once or twice a day, until the wound is healed. ENCHONDROMA OF THE EAR. This is an excessive growth of cartilage, found at the base of the ear in the form of a hard, painless tumor, firmly attached to the movable ear. The only recourse for its removal is the knife in the hands of one acquainted with the anatomy of the part involved in the operation. INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. Revised by JOHN R. MOHLER, A. M., V. M. D., _Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry._ GENERAL INTRODUCTION. The importance, to the farmer and stock raiser, of a general knowledge of the nature of infectious diseases need not be insisted on, as it must be evident to all who have charge of farm animals. The growing facilities for intercourse between one section of a country and another, and between different countries, cause a wide distribution of the infectious diseases once restricted to a definite locality. Not only the animals themselves, but the cars, vessels, or other conveyances in which they are carried may become agents for the dissemination of disease. The growing tendency of specialization in agriculture, which leads to the maintenance of large herds of cattle, sheep, and hogs, makes infectious diseases more common and more dangerous. Fresh animals are being continually introduced which may be the carriers of disease from other herds, and when disease is once brought into a large herd the losses become very high, because it is difficult, if not impossible, to check it after it has once obtained a foothold. These considerations make it plain that only by the most careful supervision by intelligent men who understand the nature of infectious diseases and their causes in a general way can these be kept away. We must likewise consider how incomplete our knowledge concerning many diseases is, and probably will be for some time to come. The suggestions and recommendations offered by investigators, therefore, may not always be correct, and may require frequent modification as our information grows more comprehensive and exact. An infectious disease may be defined as any malady caused by the introduction, into the body, of minute organisms of a vegetable or animal nature which have the power of indefinite multiplication and of setting free certain peculiar poisons which are chiefly responsible for the morbid changes. This definition might include diseases caused by certain animal parasites, such as trichinæ, for example, which multiply in the digestive tract, but whose progeny is limited to a single generation. By common consent the term "infectious" is restricted to those diseases caused by the invasion and multiplication of certain very minute unicellular organisms included under the general classes of bacteria and protozoa. Nearly all the diseases of cattle for which a definite cause has been traced are from bacteria. Among these are tuberculosis, anthrax, blackleg, and tetanus (or lockjaw). Some diseases, such as Texas fever and nagana, are traceable to protozoa, while others, like actinomycosis and aspergillosis, are caused by fungi. Those diseases of which the cause is unknown or imperfectly worked out are pleuropneumonia, rinderpest, foot-and-mouth disease, rabies, cowpox, malignant catarrh, and dysentery. Bacteria may be defined as very minute, unicellular organisms of a plantlike character. Their form is very simple, as may be seen from an inspection of the various species depicted on Plate XXVIII. The description of these figures will be found on page 360. The magnification there given will furnish the reader some idea of their very minute size. They multiply in two ways. The bacterium elongates and then divides in the middle to form 2 daughter cells. These go through the same process at once, and thus 4 cells are produced. The division of these leads to 8, the division of 8 to 16, and so on indefinitely. The rapidity with which this multiplication takes place depends upon the nature of the bacterium. The bacillus of tuberculosis multiplies very slowly, while that of anthrax does so with great rapidity, provided both are in the most favorable condition. Another mode of reproduction, limited to certain classes of bacteria, consists in the formation of a spore within the body of the bacterium. Spore formation usually takes place when the conditions pertaining to the growth of the bacteria become unfavorable. The spores are much more resistant to destructive agents than the bacteria which produced them. The anthrax spore may live several years in a dried state, but the anthrax bacillus perishes in a few days under like conditions. This matter will be referred to again when we come to discuss the subject of disinfection. Of the protozoa which cause disease very little is at present known. One which produces Texas fever is pictured on Plate XLV, in figs. 4 and 5. These parasites have a more complex life history than bacteria; and as they can not be grown in artificial media, their thorough investigation is at present hampered with great difficulties. The differences in the symptoms and lesions of the various infectious diseases are due to differences in the respective organisms causing them. Similarly the great differences observed in the sources from which animals become infected and the manner in which infection takes place are due to differences in the life history of these minute organisms. Much discussion has taken place of late years concerning the precise meaning of the words "infection" and "contagion." * * * * * VARIOUS BACTERIA WHICH PRODUCE DISEASE IN CATTLE. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XXVIII. The bacteria on this plate are partly from tissues, partly from cultures, and stained artificially with aniline colors (fuchsin or methylene blue). Figs 6 and 7 are copied from Fränkel and Pfeiffer's atlas. All but fig. 7 are magnified 1,000 times; fig. 7, 500 times. Fig. 1. Bacteria from pneumonia in cattle. These are also the cause of hemorrhagic septicemia and are closely related to swine-plague bacteria. These bacteria were drawn from a piece of spleen pulp (rabbit). Fig. 2. Micrococci (streptococcus) which produce inflammation of the lining membranes of the abdomen, thorax, heart, brain, and joints. Frequently associated with the preceding bacteria in abscesses. Fig. 3. Micrococci (staphylococcus) which produce inflammation and suppuration; also pyemia. Fig. 4. Bacilli of blackleg. The pale oval bodies as well as the light spots in one end of the bacilli represent spores. Fig. 5. Bacilli which produce tetanus or lockjaw. The light spot in the enlarged end of each rod represents a spore. Fig. 6. Bacilli of tuberculosis. Microscopic sections of a pearly nodule from the lining membrane of the chest cavity. The bacilli are stained red and appear as small straight rods within the cells of the nodule or tubercle. Fig. 7. Bacilli of anthrax. Bacilli from the spleen of a mouse inoculated with a culture. The bacilli were obtained from the blood of a cow which died of anthrax in Mississippi. The bacilli appear as rods stained blue. The round bodies are blood corpuscles, also stained artificially. [Illustration: PLATE XXVIII. Haines del. ZEESE-WILKINSON CO., INC., N.Y. VARIOUS BACTERIA WHICH PRODUCE DISEASE IN CATTLE.] * * * * * These words, however, are now wholly inadequate to express the complex processes of infection, and it may be said that each species of bacterium or protozoon has its own peculiar way of invading the animal body, differing more or less from all the rest. There are, however, a few broad distinctions which may be expressed with the help of these old terms. Infection, as laid down above, refers at present in a comprehensive way to all microorganisms capable of setting up disease in the body. Some microorganisms are transmitted directly from one animal to another, and the diseases produced may be called contagious. Among these are included pleuropneumonia, rinderpest, foot-and-mouth disease, rabies, cowpox, and tuberculosis. Again, certain organisms are perhaps never transmitted from one animal to another, but may come from the soil. Among these are tetanus, blackleg, anthrax to a large extent, and perhaps actinomycosis in part. These diseases, according to some authorities, may be called miasmatic. There is a third class of infectious diseases, the specific bacteria of which are transmitted from one animal to another, as with the contagious diseases, but the bacteria may, under certain favorable conditions, find food enough in the soil and in the surroundings of animals to multiply to some extent after they have left the sick animal and before they gain entrance into a healthy one. This general classification is subject to change if we take other characteristics into consideration. Thus tuberculosis, because of its insidious beginning and slow course, would not by many be considered contagious in the sense that foot-and-mouth disease is; yet, in either case, the bacillus must come from preexisting disease. The disease of rabies, or hydrophobia, is not contagious in the sense that rinderpest is, because the virus of rabies must be inoculated into a wound before it can take effect; yet, in both cases, the virus passes without modification from one animal to another, though in different ways. Again, all the diseases under the second group, which seem to come from the soil and from pastures, are in one sense contagious in that the virus may be taken from a sick animal and inoculated directly, with positive results, into a healthy animal. Other illustrations may be cited which show that these old terms are not in themselves satisfactory. There are so many conditions which enter into the process of infection that no single classification will give a sufficiently correct or comprehensive idea of it. These statements will be easily understood if the different infectious diseases in the following pages are studied with reference to the way or ways in which each disease may be contracted. Enough has been said, therefore, to show that if we wish to make ourselves acquainted with the dangers of any given disease, we must study it and not rely upon any single work to tell the whole story. Infectious diseases have, as a general rule, a period of incubation, which comprises the time elapsing between the exposure to the infection and the actual appearance of the disease. This period varies with the malady. The most common symptom of this class of diseases is fever. The severity of the fever is measured by the temperature of the animal; this is readily and accurately ascertainable by the clinical thermometer. (See Pl. III, fig. 1.) The other symptoms are variable and depend upon the particular organ or organs most implicated. Loss of appetite, cessation of rumination and milk secretion, and general dullness are symptoms quite invariably present in most infectious diseases. During the course of infectious diseases secondary diseases or complications may arise which are largely caused by bacteria other than those producing the original malady. These complications are often so severe as to become fatal. In general it may be stated that they are due to filthy surroundings, and hence cleanliness may become an important aid to recovery. The treatment of infectious diseases is given under each malady so far as this is allowable or advisable. These diseases are not, as a rule, amenable to treatment. When the symptoms have once appeared the disease is liable to run its course in spite of treatment, and if it is one from which animals usually recover, all that can be done is to put them into the most favorable surroundings. Many infectious diseases lead sooner or later to death, treatment is useless so far as the sick are concerned, and it may be worse than useless for those not yet infected. All animals suffering with infectious diseases are more or less directly a menace to all others. They represent for the time being manufactories of disease germs, and they are giving them off more or less abundantly during the period of disease. They may infect others directly or they may scatter the virus about, and the surroundings may become a future source of infection for healthy animals. This leads us to the subject of prevention as the most important of all which claim our attention. In this place only a few general remarks will suffice to bring the subject before the reader. The most important thing is to keep disease away from a herd or farm. To do this all sick or suspicious animals should be avoided. A grave form of disease may be introduced by apparently mild or trivial cases brought in from without. It is generally conceded that continual change and movement of animals are the most potent means by which infectious diseases are disseminated. With some cattle diseases, such as anthrax, rinderpest, and pleuropneumonia, preventive inoculation is resorted to in some countries. This may be desirable when certain diseases have become established in any locality so that eradication is impossible. It should not be practiced in territories where a given disease may still be extirpated by ordinary precautions. Preventive inoculation is applicable to only a few maladies, and therefore its aid in the control of diseases is limited. When an infectious disease has gained foothold in a herd the course to be pursued will depend upon the nature of the malady. A good rule is to kill diseased animals, especially when the disease is liable to run a chronic course, as in tuberculosis. The next important step is to separate the well from the sick by placing the former on fresh ground. This is rarely possible; hence the destruction or removal of the sick, with thorough disinfection of the infected locality, is the next thing to be done. As to the disinfectants to be used, special directions are given under the various diseases, to which the reader is referred. Here we will simply call attention briefly to the general subject. DISINFECTION AND DISINFECTANTS. Disinfection consists in the use of certain substances which possess the power to destroy bacteria or their spores, or both. Those which are cheapest and most available for animal diseases are ordinary freshly slaked lime or unslaked in powder, chlorid of lime, crude carbolic acid, corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde gas, formalin, and compound cresol solution. (1) Slaked lime is perhaps the most easily procured, but its disinfecting power is limited. While it is capable of destroying all bacteria in their vegetative state, it is unable to destroy such spores as those of anthrax and blackleg. It is probable, however, that in incrusting spores it may destroy their vitality sooner or later. It is regarded as safe practice to use only spore-destroying substances for the virus of those diseases of which we have no definite knowledge. Nevertheless, in the absence of other disinfectants, lime is very useful. It may be employed as a whitewash on wood and stone and sprinkled as a dilute wash or in powder over yards, manure heaps, and over carcasses before they are buried, and over the ground on which they have lain to prevent other animals from carrying the infection away. (2) Chlorid of lime is more efficient than simple slaked or unslaked lime, as it destroys spores. It is the ordinary bleaching powder of commerce and is quite unstable, hence old preparations, unless sealed, are of little value. A 5 per cent solution is sufficiently strong for all spore-bearing bacteria (3 ounces in 2 quarts of water). It may be efficiently applied to the walls and floor of an infected stable by mixing with limewash in the proportion of 6 ounces of the lime to each gallon of limewash. The ceilings and those portions of the walls which can not be reached should be disinfected by means of chlorin gas liberated from the chlorid of lime by crude carbolic acid. This is accomplished by making a cone of 5 or 6 pounds of chlorid of lime, in the top of which a deep crater is made for the placement of from 1 to 2 pints of crude acid. The edge of the crater is thereupon pushed into the fluid, when a lively reaction follows. The fumes of chlorin are strongly irritating to the respiratory tract and therefore all live stock should be removed before the work is started. Owing to the heat generated, it is advisable to place the lime in an iron crucible and to have nothing inflammable within a radius of 2 feet. The number and location of these cones of chlorid of lime depend on the size and structure of the building to be disinfected. As a rule, it may be stated that chlorin gas liberated from the above-sized cone will be sufficient for disinfecting 5,200 cubic feet of air space. (3) Crude carbolic acid. The ordinary purified carbolic acid is too expensive to be used on a large scale, and the crude produce is a very good substitute. This is made more powerful by mixing with it an equal volume of commercial sulphuric acid. While the sulphuric acid is being added to the crude carbolic acid much heat is evolved, and if the glass jar in which the two are mixed is placed in cold water the resulting product is said to have a higher disinfecting power. The mixture is added to water enough to make a 5 per cent solution (about 7 ounces to 4 quarts of water). This is strong enough for all purposes. It may be kept in wood or glass, but not in metal, owing to the corroding action of the acid. It should be used freely on woodwork and on infected floors, and a force pump of the kind used by orchardists is very convenient as a means of applying the disinfectant. If the solution is warm when applied, it will penetrate the woodwork better than when cold, especially if the spraying is done during cold weather. The addition of air-slaked lime in any quantity that will dissolve in water to the above solution (say 1-1/2 pounds of lime to 7 ounces of crude carbolic acid to each gallon of water) is preferred by many, as it makes any neglected places at once visible and leaves cleaner and better air within the buildings. In most cases in which its application becomes desirable--and this rule should apply to all disinfections--the disinfected stables, stalls, etc., should remain vacant as long as possible before cattle are again stabled therein. (4) Mercuric chlorid, or corrosive sublimate, is a powerful disinfectant, but it is likewise very poisonous; hence its uses are limited. Cattle are especially susceptible to its action and caution must be used in its application. A solution of one-tenth of 1 per cent is usually sufficient (1 ounce to 8 gallons of water). It should not be placed in wooden pails, which would form the tannate of mercury, a weak antiseptic; nor, owing to its corrosive action, should expensive metal pails be used. Agate vessels or tin pails are to be preferred. All solutions should be labeled "poison," and to avoid accidents none should be kept on hand. (5) Formalin and formaldehyde gas have been found very efficacious as sanitary agents. Formalin is the commercial name for the 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde gas in water, and is one of the most powerful antiseptic and disinfectants that we possess. Solutions of this strength are manufactured by different commercial houses and sold by the drug trade under the name of "formalose" and "formal." In this connection it should be mentioned that while the 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde gas and formalin are exactly the same thing, the former can be purchased at 33-1/3 to 64 per cent less than the latter. Formalin, diluted with water in the proportion of 1 pint to 30 parts of water, or 4 ounces to each gallon of water, may be applied, and it may thus be used as a wash or as a spray on all paints, metals, and woodwork, as well as on clothing and other fabrics, without injuring them. It may also be applied to floors, walls, and woodwork in whitewash by mixing 1 part to 30 parts of limewash, or 4 ounces to each gallon of limewash. Formalin has the appearance of water and in the strong solution is poisonous, but when diluted as recommended above it is not dangerous. The fumes given off by it, however, are very disagreeable and irritating to the eyes and nasal mucous membranes. One and one-half ounces of formalin added to 1 gallon of water is a valuable agent for the disinfection of the skin or septic wounds, but is somewhat painful and irritating to raw surfaces. Formaldehyde is a gas which is soluble in 2-1/2 parts of water (40 parts of formaldehyde gas to 100 parts of water); this solution constitutes the formalin of commerce. The use of formaldehyde gas is in most cases impracticable for stable disinfection. In case the stable is not too large and can be made almost air-tight the generation of formaldehyde gas, after removing all the animals, will be found very serviceable. It penetrates all parts of the stable--the walls, crevices, floors, ceiling--and is probably the best fumigating disinfectant that we have. Probably one of the most simple and practical methods of liberating this gas is by means of the chemical reaction which takes place when formalin is poured upon permanganate of potassium. For each 1,000 cubic feet of air space, 16-2/3 ounces of crystallized or powdered permanganate of potassium is placed in a wide-surfaced pan; 20 ounces of formalin is then poured upon it, and the stable immediately closed for a period of 12 hours or longer. This method is efficient only when it is possible to seal tightly the place to be disinfected, and should be used only by experienced persons. (6) Some coal-tar products are cheap, effective, and easily applied disinfectants, their action being due to the carbolic acid and creosote in their composition. They may be used in 3 to 5 per cent solution. As a rule they form a milky solution in water. (7) Compound solution of cresol (liquor cresolis compositus), now recognized as an official preparation, is composed of equal parts of cresol and linseed-oil-potash soap. The mixture is a thick, dark, amber-colored fluid which mixes readily with water in all proportions to form a clear, soap solution. It is an efficient disinfectant in a 3 or 4 per cent solution, and in this strength it may be applied in the same manner as a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. When it is desired to apply one of these above-mentioned agents to the stable or barnyard, a preliminary cleaning up of all débris and litter is advisable, together with the scraping of the floor, mangers, and walls of the stable with hoes; also the removal of all dust and filth. This should be followed by the burning of all such accumulations, inasmuch as this material likewise contains the infectious principle and is best destroyed by heat. Heat may be applied to the surface of the affected pen, byre, or barnyard by means of a cyclone burner, which consists of a tank, pump, hose, and cyclone nozzle for spraying with paraffin (gas oil). The latter is ejected in the form of spray, which when ignited gives a very hot and effective flame to be applied to the infected ground. Where such burning is impracticable the surface soil of the yard and surroundings should be removed to a depth of 5 or 6 inches and then placed in a heap and thoroughly mixed with air-slaked lime. The fresh surface of the soil thus exposed may then be sprinkled with the disinfectant. In addition to these artificial substances there are several natural sanitary agents of great importance as destroyers of virus. These are cleanliness, ventilation, drying, and sunshine. All virus, excepting such as may live in the soil, is killed sooner or later by drying and sunshine, and the importance of these factors in the daily life of animals need not be insisted on here. Finally, all sanitary measures which contribute to the healthfulness of animal surroundings are directly or indirectly inimical to disease germs, and all carelessness in the keeping of animals may be regarded as an ally of these destructive organisms. CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA. [Pls. XXIX-XXXII.] _Definition and history._--This disease has been eradicated from the United States, and it is not probable that it will ever be seen in this country again. As, however, much interest was manifested in regard to it for a number of years, and as our cattle are still prohibited from some foreign markets on account of its previous existence here, the subject is treated at greater length than would otherwise be necessary. The contagious pleuropneumonia of cattle is a specific, epizootic disease which affects bovine animals, and from which other species are exempt. It is characterized, when the disease results from exposure in the usual manner, by an inflammation of the lungs and pleuræ, which is generally extensive, and which has a tendency to invade portions of these organs not primarily affected and to cause death of the diseased portion of the lung. This disease is frequently called the lung plague, which corresponds to its German name of Lungenseuche. In French it is spoken of as the péripneumonie contagieuse. The history of the contagious pleuropneumonia of cattle can not be traced with any certainty to a period earlier than the beginning of the eighteenth century. No doubt it existed and ravaged the herds of Europe for many years and perhaps centuries before that time, but veterinary knowledge was so limited that the descriptions of the symptoms and post-mortem appearance are too vague and too limited to admit of the identification of the maladies to which they refer. It has been supposed by some writers that certain passages in the writings of Aristotle, Livy, and Virgil show the existence of pleuropneumonia at the time that their works were composed, but their references are too indefinite to be seriously accepted as indicating this rather than some other disease. It seems quite plain that as early as 1713 and 1714 pleuropneumonia existed in Swabia and several Cantons of Switzerland. There are even clearer accounts of its prevalence in Switzerland in 1732, 1743, and 1765. In 1769 a disease called murie was investigated in Franche-Comté by Bourgelat which undoubtedly was identical with the pleuropneumonia of to-day. From that period we have frequent and well-authenticated accounts of its existence in various parts of Europe. During the period from 1790 to 1812 it was spread throughout a large portion of the Continent of Europe by the cattle driven for the subsistence of the armies, which marched and countermarched in all directions. It was generally prevalent in Italy in 1800. It appears to have been unknown, however, in the Department of the Nord, France, until 1826, but during the years from 1820 to 1840 it penetrated into most parts of that country. During the same period it was introduced into and allowed to spread over Belgium and Holland. This contagion is said to have been carried to Ireland from Holland in 1839, and is reported as existing in England in 1842. The disease was brought to the United States at several different times. Probably its first introduction was with a diseased cow sold in Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1843. It came to New Jersey by importing affected animals in 1847. Massachusetts was infected in the same way in 1859. South Africa was infected by a bull brought from Holland in 1854, and Australia likewise received the contagion with an English cow in 1858. It is also reported as existing in various parts of the Continent of Asia, but the time of its first appearance and the extent of its distribution are very uncertain. Some countries, such as Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, which had been infected for only a short time, have succeeded in eradicating the disease without much difficulty by slaughtering all affected and exposed animals. Other countries long infected and in which the contagion was thoroughly established, like Australia, South Africa, Italy, France, Belgium, and parts of Germany, have labored long, in some cases making no progress and in others being only partially successful. Holland was one of the first of the thoroughly infected countries to free itself from the contagion. In the United States, Massachusetts eradicated pleuropneumonia during the period from 1860 to 1866. New York and New Jersey made an attempt to eradicate it in 1879, but were not successful. Late in 1883 the contagion was carried to Ohio, probably by Jersey cattle purchased in the vicinity of Baltimore, Md., to which place it had extended before 1868. From the herd then infected it was spread by the sale of cattle during 1884 to a limited number of herds in Illinois, to one herd in Missouri, and to two in Kentucky. The alarm caused among the stock owners of the United States by this widespread dissemination of a disease so much dreaded led to the adoption of active measures for its control and eradication. By cooperation between the United States Department of Agriculture and the authorities of the affected States it was found possible to prevent the further spread of the contagion and to eradicate it after a few months' delay. In 1886 pleuropneumonia was discovered in some of the large distillery stables of Chicago and among cows on neighboring lots. This led to renewed efforts for the complete extirpation of this disease from the country. Congress in 1887 enlarged the appropriation available for this purpose and gave more extended authority. During the same year the disease was stamped out of Chicago, and has not since appeared in any district west of the Allegheny Mountains. The work of eradication was at the same time commenced in all the infected States. Before the end of the year 1889 Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, the District of Columbia, and Virginia had been freed from the disease. More difficulties, however, were encountered in the States of New York and New Jersey, on account of the larger territory infected and the density of the population. The long struggle was successful, however, and the last animal in which the disease appeared in the State of New York was slaughtered early in 1891, and the last one affected in New Jersey met the same fate early in the spring of 1892. [Illustration: PLATE XXIX. Haines del. ZEESE-WILKINSON CO., INC., N.Y. UPPER OR DORSAL SURFACE OF THE LUNGS OF THE OX. (ONE-TWELFTH NATURAL SIZE.)] [Illustration: PLATE XXX. Haines del. ZEESE-WILKINSON CO., INC., N.Y. BRONCHOPNEUMONIA.] [Illustration: Plate XXXI. Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Haines del. ZEESE-WILKINSON CO., INC., N.Y. CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA.] [Illustration: PLATE XXXII. Haines del. ZEESE-WILKINSON CO., INC., N.Y. CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA.] During these same years a supreme effort had been made to stamp out this lung plague from Great Britain. From the official reports it appears that the number of infected districts and of diseased animals had rapidly diminished, but it was not until 1898 that the infection was finally eradicated. The other infected European countries, though they maintain a veterinary sanitary service, are not making satisfactory progress in eradicating the disease. This is owing partly to delays in carrying out the provisions of the laws and partly to mistaken ideas as to the measures which are necessary to accomplish the object. The United States was the last of the countries having old infected districts which undertook to stamp out this contagion, and, except Holland, it was the first to reach success. _The cause (etiology) of pleuropneumonia._--This is a contagious disease, and arises only by contagion from a previously affected animal; consequently it can never be seen here except as the result of importing affected animals from the Old World. When thoroughly stamped out it does not reappear; and if imported animals continue to be properly inspected and quarantined, we have every reason to believe that pleuropneumonia will never again be seen in this country. The exact nature of the virus or contagion of lung plague has never been determined. Various investigators have from time to time claimed the discovery of the specific organism of the disease, but it was not until 1898 that Nocard and Roux, by an ingenious method of cultivation, succeeded in obtaining a very feeble growth of an exceedingly minute microorganism. With these cultures the disease was produced in cattle. Some investigators and writers are of the opinion that the disease can be contracted only by an animal coming near enough to a living diseased one to receive the contagion directly from it. They hold that the contagion is expired with the air from the affected lungs, and that it must be almost immediately inspired by another animal in order to produce the disease. Some experimental attempts to infect animals by placing them in stables where diseased animals have been, and by placing the diseased lungs of slaughtered animals in their feeding troughs have failed, and, consequently, apparently confirm this view. * * * * * CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE XXIX. Upper or dorsal surface of the lungs of the ox, reduced to one-twelfth of the natural size: _a_, _a'_, the right and left principal lobes. These are the largest and are situated posteriorly, resting upon the diaphragm; _b_, _b'_, the ventral lobes, situated between the principal lobes; and _c_, _c'_, _c''_ the most anterior, or cephalic, lobes. The right anterior is divided into two lobes (_c_, _c'_), the left is single (_c''_); _d_, trachea, or windpipe. In the majority of the lungs examined in the laboratory of the bureau which were affected with contagious pleuropneumonia the principal lobes (_a_, _a'_) were primarily affected. PLATE XXX. Bronchopneumonia. The ventral or middle lobe of the right lung affected with collapse and beginning bronchopneumonia. The light yellowish portions represent healthy lung tissue; the red represents the disease. It will be noticed that the lines between the lobules are quite faint, indicating little or no inflammation of the connective tissue between the lobules. The healthy lung tissue is seen to be raised above the level of the diseased portion. In contagious pleuropneumonia the exact reverse is the case, the diseased portions being very much larger than the healthy. PLATE XXXI. Contagious pleuropneumonia. Appearance of a cow's lung affected with contagious pleuropneumonia when sections or slices are made of it and cut surfaces examined. Fig. 1. Transverse section through the right principal lobe in a case of acute pleuropneumonia. The area drawn includes the air tubes, veins, and arteries, and illustrates the great thickening of the interlobular connective tissue into broad whitish bands and of the walls of the air tubes, veins, and arteries: _a_, air tube cut obliquely; _a'_, air tube cut directly across; _b_, arteries cut across; _c_, large vein completely occluded by a thrombus or plug formed during life. The great thickening of the walls of the artery and vein in this disease is especially brought out by stating that in the healthy lung they are so thin as to be easily overlooked. Fig. 2. Transverse section of the principal lobe in a case of acute pleuropneumonia, illustrating the different kinds of hepatization or consolidation of the lung. These are indicated by the different colors from dark red to reddish yellow. This variation of color is regarded by some as the real marbling characteristic of pleuropneumonia, while the whitish bands penetrating the lung tissue in all directions constitute the true marbling according to other observers. PLATE XXXII. Contagious pleuropneumonia. This illustrates what are called infarctions. The right half of the figure shows nearly normal lung tissue. The left represents a blackish mass, in which the lung tissue is filled with blood and solidified. This is caused by the plugging of the vein carrying away the blood from this portion. The heart forces the blood through the artery into the tissue at considerable pressure, but owing to the fact that its return is prevented, the minute blood vessels rupture and the air vesicles become distended with blood, which coagulates and causes the firmness of the tissue. * * * * * On the other hand, it is known that the serum from affected lungs retains its virulence and may be used successfully for inoculation weeks or months after the death of the animal from which it was taken. This is particularly the case when this liquid is hermetically sealed in glass tubes. Other investigators state that they have successfully infected cattle by placing, in the nostrils, sponges or pledgets of cotton saturated with such serum. Cattle have also, according to the best evidence obtainable, been infected from the clothing of attendants, from horns used in drenching, and from smelling about wagons which have been used to transport affected carcasses. In the work of eradicating pleuropneumonia from the United States many stables were found in which the disease would appear and reappear after the slaughter of affected herds, and in spite of any precautions which were adopted. These were always old stables, with woodwork in a decaying condition and with floors underlaid with filth which could not be thoroughly removed or disinfected. In every one of these cases the destruction of the stable, the burning of the lumber of which it was constructed, the removal of the accumulations beneath the floors, and thorough disinfection, prevented the recurrence of the plague in new stables built upon the same premises. This experience conclusively shows that under certain conditions, at least, stables may retain the infection for a considerable time, and that when restocked the disease may break out again from such infection. As a rule, however, the disease is acquired by a healthy animal being near an affected one and receiving the contagion direct. Affected animals may give off the contagion in the early stages of the disease before the symptoms are apparent to the observer; also, they may retain this infectious character, if they survive the attack, for six months and probably for a year after all symptoms of the disease have disappeared. _Incubation._--The time which elapses between exposure to the contagion of pleuropneumonia and the first appearance of the symptoms of this disease varies greatly with different individuals and with different outbreaks of the disease. Ordinarily the symptoms of disease make their appearance within three to six weeks after exposure; they may be observed, however, within two weeks or they may not become apparent until nearly or quite three months. It is this long period of incubation and the great length of time that an animal may disseminate the contagion after apparent recovery which give the plague that insidious character so often spoken of, and which greatly increase the difficulties of eradication. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are such as would be expected with inflammation of the lungs and pleuræ, but they vary considerably, according to the type which the disease manifests. If the attack is an acute one, as is frequently seen in hot weather, the symptoms appear suddenly; the breathing becomes rapid and difficult, the animal grunts or moans with each expiration, the shoulders stand out from the chest, the head is extended on the neck, the back is arched, the temperature is 104° to 107° F., the milk secretion is suspended, there is no appetite, rumination is stopped, the animal may bloat and later be affected with a severe diarrhea. Such cases are generally fatal in 7 to 20 days. Very often the attack comes on slowly and the symptoms are much less clear. In the mildest cases there is a cough for a week or two, but no appreciable loss of appetite or elevation of temperature. The lungs are but slightly affected and recovery soon follows. Such animals may disseminate the contagion for a long time without being suspected, and for that reason are the most dangerous of all. A more severe type of the plague is the most frequently seen. In these cases the cough is frequent, more or less painful, the back somewhat arched, and the milk secretion diminished. The prominence of these symptoms increases, the appetite is affected, the animal loses flesh, the breathing becomes more rapid, the cough more painful, pressure of the fingers between the ribs shows tenderness, the hair loses its gloss and stands erect, the skin becomes adherent, little, if any, milk is secreted, and the temperature rises, varying in different animals from 103° to 107° F. Animals thus affected may continue to grow worse and die in from three to eight weeks, or they may after a time begin to improve and make an apparent recovery. The inflammation of the lung does not, as a rule, subside and the organ return to its normal condition, as is the case in ordinary pneumonia, but with this disease the life of the affected portion of the lung is destroyed, the tissue dies, and a fibrous wall is formed around it to shut it away from the living parts. The tissue, thus encysted, gradually softens, becomes disintegrated, and breaks down into pus. The recovery, therefore, is not complete; it is only apparent and partial. To those accustomed to examining the lungs of cattle, other and extremely important symptoms may be apparent during the course of the disease. By applying the ear over the walls of the chest an area of a certain extent may be found in which the natural breathing sound is diminished or entirely lost. This represents the diseased portion of the lungs. In other cases a loud blowing sound may be heard, quite different from any sound produced when the lung is in a healthy condition. In some cases crepitation is heard near the border line of the diseased area and friction sounds produced by the roughened pleura; these can be appreciated, however, only by those whose ears have been trained to distinguish between the different sounds which reach the ear when applied to the chest wall. By percussion--that is, by pressing the fingers of the left hand firmly against the wall of the chest and tapping upon the middle finger with the ends of the fingers of the right hand--an area of dullness may be discovered corresponding to the portion from which the respiratory murmur has disappeared. This loss of respiration detected by auscultation, and the dullness brought out by percussion, are the most important evidences of an inflamed or consolidated lung. Seriously affected animals remain standing if they have sufficient strength, but those which lie down always lie on the affected side. The proportion of animals which become affected after being exposed varies according to the virulence of the outbreak, the susceptibility of the animals, and the length of time during which exposure is continued. Sometimes not more than 15, 20, or 30 per cent will contract the disease when a large herd is exposed; on the other hand, however, 80 or 90 per cent may be affected. The proportion of cases in which the disease proves fatal also varies greatly--it may not exceed 10 and it may reach 50 per cent. In general, it may be said that about 40 per cent of the exposed animals will contract the disease and about one-half of these cases will prove fatal. _Post-mortem appearances._--Owing to the complexity of the structure of the lung tissue, its ramifications of bronchial tubes and blood vessels, and its abundant supply of lymphatics, the pathological changes in pleuropneumonia are interpreted with great difficulty. Furthermore, there are certain kinds of pneumonia which present some resemblances to pleuropneumonia and which may therefore be confused with it in some of its phases. If we kill an animal affected with acute pleuropneumonia and examine the cavity of the chest and lungs, the following appearances will be noted: The thorax may contain more or less serum, which may be clear or clouded. There may be firm adhesions of different parts of the lungs to the chest wall, the extent of which depends on the stage and severity of the disease. The diseased lobes are unusually large and exceedingly firm to the touch. The weight of a single large lobe may reach 40 pounds. Usually only one side is affected, often but a single lobe, and this most commonly the large or principal lobe. The pleura may be covered with one or more layers of a firm, elastic, grayish membrane, which varies in thickness and which sometimes may be pulled away entirely. Sometimes it is absent. The pleura, however, is opaque and apparently very much thickened. This is owing to the diseased condition of the connective tissue beneath the pleura, as will be explained later. When an affected lobe is cut through at right angles to its long diameter, the cut surface presents a variety of interesting changes. In the first place the spaces between the small subdivisions of the lung (the lobules), which in the healthy lung are barely visible, are distended with a yellowish-white, usually quite firm, substance, which is coagulated fibrin. The cut surface thus appears divided into small fields by yellowish-white bands of varying thickness running in various directions through the lung tissue and beneath the pleura. (Pl. XXXI.) These bands may appear honeycombed and the spaces filled with yellowish fluid (serum) or they may be uniformly solid. It will also be noticed that the space immediately outside of and around the artery, vein, and air tube is similarly broadened by fibrinous deposits. Some authorities look upon these bands as constituting the so-called "marbling" of pleuropneumonia. In addition to these changes which have taken place in the connective tissue between the lobules, the lung tissue itself may be markedly altered. Certain areas of the cut surface may be very firm in texture and of a brownish-red color. The cut surface is granular or roughened, not smooth to the eye. Other areas equally firm may be more grayish yellow and still others may be blackish. (Pl. XXXII.) Besides these areas which represent solidified (hepatized) lung tissue there may be others which approach the normal lung tissue in color, are soft, and float in water. From these a milky, purulent fluid may often be expressed. These different shades are represented in Plate XXXI, fig. 2, within a small compass. Some authorities are inclined to consider these variations in color on the same cut surface as the so-called marbling of pleuropneumonia. It matters not whether we regard the bands between the lobules or the varying shades of the lobules themselves as the marbling, provided either or both are peculiar to contagious pleuropneumonia. If we examine the blood vessels appearing on such cut surface they will usually be found plugged within the firmly hepatized regions. The artery contains a dark, soft, removable clot, the vein a grayish-pink, granular, fragile plug (thrombus), which adheres firmly to the wall of the vein, and if this is slit open, indications of a diseased condition of the inner coat will be readily detected. When large regions of the lung tissues are hepatized, the main air tube and its branches are usually filled with grayish, cylindrical branched masses of fibrin that are easily removed, as they do not adhere to the mucous membrane. The views of pathologists differ as to the nature of the earliest changes in pleuropneumonia, and it is not within the scope of this work to present controverted or imperfectly developed theories. In the foregoing description we have taken as a type the acute pleuropneumonia in its fully developed phase, which can scarcely be mistaken for any other disease. We have seen that there is an inflammatory condition of the connective tissue between the lobules, resulting in the exudation of coagulable lymph. This inflammation is equally marked around the blood vessels and air tubes. It leads to inflammatory changes in the inner wall of the veins, and these cause the deposition of thrombi or plugs in the vessels, which prevent the return of the blood. The blood pumped into the lung tissue through the artery, but unable to get out by way of the vein, leaves the mesh-work of capillaries around the air vesicles, enters the latter, and produces the firm, hepatized condition so characteristic of this disease. If we bear in mind that the veins in different parts of the lung tissue are plugged at different times, and that, therefore, the affected regions are in different stages of disease, it will be easily understood how the different shades of color from dark red to grayish or yellowish red are produced. The complete plugging of the veins may lead to the death of circumscribed masses of lung tissue. A line of separation forms between the living and the dead tissue and a thick cyst wall of fibrous tissue forms around the latter. The dead tissue for a time preserves the appearance of lung tissue, then undergoes disintegration and liquefaction. The softened mass is finally absorbed, and the walls of the cyst, or capsule around it, gradually collapse and form a cicatrix. This favorable termination takes place only when the dead mass is not too large. It may, however, involve over half of one of the large lobes. Under such circumstances recovery is improbable. A more favorable termination is the abundant growth of fibrous tissue around and into the hepatized masses. The formation of fibrous tissue may extend to the pleura, or lung covering, and cause firm adhesion of the lungs to the chest wall and to the pericardium, or heart case. The same peculiar, inflammatory changes which take place between the lobules of the lung and around the bronchi and vessels may invade the pleural cavity, cause extensive membranous and spongy deposits on the pleura and firm deposits around the heart and large arteries, the gullet, and windpipe. These are the main features of the lung disease caused by contagious pleuropneumonia. In the typical, acute cases there are a sufficient number of peculiarities to enable us to make a positive diagnosis. There are, however, many cases in which the disease is restricted to small areas, or to the interlobular tissue, or in which the changes are still imperfectly developed, or else so far advanced that doubts may arise as to the true nature of the affection. In such cases all obtainable facts, including the history of the case, the symptoms during life, and the pathological changes observed on post-mortem examination must be taken into consideration. Only one who has made a careful study of the disease is fitted to decide in such cases. Other kinds of lung disease, because of certain features common to most lung diseases of cattle, may be confounded with pleuropneumonia. The inflammation of the connective tissue between the lobules is not infrequently observed in so-called interstitial pneumonia and may lead to the formation of whitish bands intersecting the lung tissues in various directions. On the cut surface these bands may give rise to a decidedly marbled appearance. Again, in traumatic pneumonia, caused, as its name implies, by the entrance of foreign bodies into the lung tissue, generally from the paunch, the connective tissue around the place of disease becomes inflamed and thickened, and the disease itself may simulate pleuropneumonia in its retrogressive stages when it is confined to a small portion of lung tissue. The filling up of the interlobular spaces with fibrin and connective tissue of inflammatory origin is not thus limited to pleuropneumonia, but may appear in a marked degree in other lung diseases. It must not be inferred from this statement that these interlobular changes are necessarily the same as those in pleuropneumonia, although to the naked eye they may appear the same. We simply note their presence without discussing their nature. In general, the distinction between pleuropneumonia and bronchopneumonia is not difficult to make. In the latter disease the pneumonia generally invades certain lobes. The disease attacks the smaller lobes in their lowest portions first and gradually extends upward, i. e., toward the root of the lung or the back of the animal and backward into the large principal lobes. Again, both lungs in advanced cases are often symmetrically affected. In contagious pleuropneumonia the large principal lobe of one side is most frequently affected, and a symmetrical disease of both lungs is very rare, if, in fact, it has ever been observed. The lung tissue in bronchopneumonia is not enlarged, but rather more contracted than the normal tissue around it. This is well illustrated in Plate XXX. Normal, air-containing lobules may be scattered among and around the hepatized portion in an irregular manner. In pleuropneumonia the diseased and healthy portions are either sharply divided off, one from the other, or else they shade into each other by intermediate stages. The hepatized lung tissue in bronchopneumonia when the cut surface is examined is visually of a more or less dark flesh color with paler grayish-yellow dots regularly interspersed, giving it a peculiar, mottled appearance. In the more advanced stages it becomes more firm, and may contain nodular and firmer masses disseminated through it. The air tubes usually contain more or less soft, creamy, or cheesy pus or a turbid fluid quite different from the loose, fibrinous casts of acute pleuropneumonia. The interlobular tissue may or may not be affected. It sometimes contains loose, fibrinous plugs, or it may be greatly distended with air, especially in the still normal portions of the lung. The pleura is seldom seriously diseased. If we contrast with these features the firm dark-red hepatizations, the plugging of the veins, the extensive interlobular deposits, and the well-marked pleuritis in pleuropneumonia, there is little chance for confusion between well-developed cases of these two lung diseases. It should not be forgotten, however, that the lesions of the disease known as contagious pleuropneumonia may be confined to the serous membranes of the thorax, or they may be confined to the parenchyma of the lungs; they may affect a whole lobe, or only a small portion of it; they may or may not cause the so-called marbled appearance. In the same way bronchopneumonia may vary as to the parts of the lung affected, the extent of the lesions, the degree and kind of pathological changes in the interlobular tissue, the color of the lung on cross section and the amount of hepatization. In individual cases, therefore, it is often necessary to take into account the history of the animal, the course of the disease, and the communicability of the affection before a diagnosis can be made between the two diseases. _Prevention and treatment._--The prevention of pleuropneumonia, as of other contagious diseases, consists in keeping animals so that they will not be exposed to the contagion. As the disease arises only by contagion, there is no possibility of an animal becoming affected with it unless it has been exposed. If, therefore, pleuropneumonia exists in a locality the owner of healthy cattle should make every effort to keep his animals from coming near affected ones or which have been exposed. He should be equally particular not to allow persons who have been on the infected premises to visit his own pastures, stables, or cattle. If pleuropneumonia breaks out in a herd, every animal in it should be slaughtered, the stables thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, and no other cattle allowed on the premises until a period of 90 days has elapsed. Medical treatment of affected animals is unavailing and should not be attempted. No matter how valuable the diseased animals may have been before they contracted the disease, they should at once be destroyed and the contagion eradicated. This is the best policy for the individual as well as for the community. The eradication of this disease by local or National Governments can be successful only when the same principles are adopted and carried out as here recommended for individual stables. It is then a difficult undertaking, simply because the contagion is generally widely disseminated before any measures are adopted, and because a great majority of cattle owners will never report the existence of the disease. Regulations must therefore be enforced which will insure the prompt discovery of every herd in which the disease appears, as well as the destruction of all diseased and exposed animals and the thorough disinfection of the premises. To discover pleuropneumonia sufficiently early for this purpose, the district supposed to be infected should be clearly defined and inspectors should be constantly employed to inspect every herd in it at least once in two weeks, or, better, once a week. No bovine animal should be allowed to go out of the defined district alive, and all which enter it should be carefully inspected to insure their freedom from disease. As an assistance to the discovery of diseased herds, every animal which, from any cause, dies in the infected district and every animal which is slaughtered, even if apparently in good health, should be the subject of a careful post-mortem examination. Many affected herds will be found in this way. In addition to these measures it is also necessary to guard against the removal of animals from one stable to another and the mixing of herds upon common pastures or in the public highways. The object must be to isolate every individual's cattle as completely as possible, or otherwise a single affected animal may infect a dozen or more herds. To prevent surreptitious sale or trading of cattle, each animal must in some way be numbered and recorded in the books kept by the official in charge of the district. In the work of the United States Department of Agriculture a numbered metal tag was fastened to each animal's ear and index books were so arranged that with a number given the owner could be at once ascertained, or from the owner's name the cattle for which he was responsible could be at once learned. In this way, if an animal was missing from a stable, the fact became apparent at once, or if one too many was found in a stable the number in its ear would indicate where it came from. When pleuropneumonia is discovered by these means, the entire herd should be slaughtered as soon as the formalities of appraisement can be arranged. In country districts the carcasses should be buried, as it is generally impracticable to dispose of them in any other way. In city districts the animals may be taken to a slaughterhouse, with such precautions as are possible to prevent dissemination of the contagion. The animals should be slaughtered under the supervision of an inspector. The healthy carcasses may be utilized for food, but the blood, entrails, and all diseased carcasses should be heated to a temperature equal to that of boiling water or above, and then used for the manufacture of fertilizers. The disinfection of premises should be thorough and should be carried out by a trained corps of men employed for the purpose. The floors of stables should be removed, the accumulations removed from beneath them, the contents of haylofts should be destroyed, and the woodwork and soil beneath the stables should be thoroughly drenched with a solution of bichlorid of mercury, 1 part to 2,000 of water. After the flooring is replaced the woodwork should be coated with limewash, containing one-fourth pound of chlorid of lime to the gallon of mixture. Usually in these cases the owners are dependent upon their herd of cows for a living, and consequently it is difficult or impossible to hold the stables vacant for any considerable period. In a majority of instances cattle may be admitted at once to stables so disinfected, without the reappearance of the disease. Occasionally, however, it will reappear without apparent cause. For this reason the inspection and other measures must be maintained in the infected district for six months or a year after the last case of disease has been disposed of. Many people have objected to the slaughter of diseased and exposed animals as an unscientific and expensive method of eradicating the disease. To these it may be answered that it is the only method which has ever proved successful, and that in the end it is much more economical than temporizing measures. Inoculation has been adopted in many countries, and has undoubtedly lessened the death rate, but where this practice is allowed the disease is kept up and spreads. For this reason it should be prohibited wherever there is a possibility and disposition to eradicate the contagion. RINDERPEST. Rinderpest, also known as cattle plague, is an acute, infectious disease of cattle, in which the digestive organs are mainly involved. Though unknown in this country, the importance of having near at hand a few definite facts concerning this disease, should it ever reach our shores, will be at once appreciated. A knowledge of such facts may aid in an early recognition of the disease. It must not be forgotten, on the other hand, that a superficial knowledge of diseases, such as the layman may gain through reading, not infrequently leads to confounding comparatively harmless, noninfectious maladies with such as are truly dangerous (foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest, etc), and causes temporary panics among stock owners. According to some authorities, rinderpest has its home in the territory around the Black Sea and the Volga River in Russia; according to others, in Central Asia. Thence it has been conveyed at various times by cattle to nearly every country of Europe and Asia, where it has proved to be a veritable bovine scourge. It probably visited Europe as early as the beginning of the Christian era, and since then the migrations of the people from the Far East have from time to time introduced the disease. Especially during the eighteenth century it was more or less prevalent in Europe, owing to the frequent wars, during which herds of cattle were brought from eastern Europe and Asia to supply the demands of the armies. It prevailed in Europe during the Franco-Prussian War. At present it exists in eastern Europe and in portions of Asia and Africa. The virus is conveyed from one country to another chiefly by means of infected cattle, although infected hides, wool, and feed may play an important part in its dissemination. The railroad facilities of the present, which furnish the means of such rapid communication, are particularly liable to aid in the spread of the disease. In the past rinderpest has been supposed to be identical with various human diseases, among them smallpox and typhoid fever. These suppositions are unfounded, and the view of authorities to-day is that it is a disease of a peculiar kind, not identical with any other known infectious disease. _The contagion of rinderpest._--The cause of rinderpest must be looked for among microorganisms--most likely bacteria. The investigations made thus far for this causal factor have been fruitless. However, certain recent experiments would indicate that the unseen microbe is of such dimensions that it is withheld by the dense bacterial filters, but passes through the more porous ones. Formerly it was supposed by various authorities that rinderpest virus appeared spontaneously under the influence of deteriorated feed and long and exhausting drives; also during unusual meteorological conditions. This view, however, is no longer maintained. It is probable that in its home in Asia the disease is perpetuated by continual infection of fresh animals, and some authorities go even so far as to believe that the disease would be entirely stamped out, even in its native haunts, by a destruction of all sick and infected herds. However this may be, the success of such an undertaking would largely depend on the nature of the cause. If a strictly parasitic organism, like the contagion of pleuropneumonia, it might be completely extirpated in this way. If, however, the germs or bacteria may live and multiply outside of the bovine body, in the soil, water, or in some other animal, extirpation would be impossible. The virus may be transmitted in a variety of ways, both direct and indirect, from sick to healthy animals. It is said to be present in the various excreta, such as the discharges from the nose, and the saliva, the urine, and the manure, of the diseased. For months it retains its vitality in a moist state outside the body, and the disease is reported to have developed after feeding hay a year after it had lain in an infected stable; hence manure and the fodder and bedding soiled with discharges may convey it. Persons may carry the virus on their shoes, clothing, or implements. Even small animals, such as cats and rats, which frequent barns and stables, have been looked upon as carriers of the virus. Cattle are very susceptible to the disease, and in its virulent type all those exposed are said to become infected. Buffaloes, sheep, and goats are likewise susceptible, but in a less degree. It is also claimed that animals after having passed through one attack successfully resist future attacks. Inoculation with virus is said to produce immunity, but in many cases the process of inoculation itself is followed by death. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of rinderpest are not very characteristic, and hence the diagnosis of a suspected case in the beginning of an invasion is attended with difficulties. Certain appearances which are characteristic of one epizootic may be absent in another. Different observers are not quite agreed as to the most constant and important. The period of incubation, i. e., the time between the exposure to infection and the earliest outward symptoms, varies from three to nine days. The first sign is a very high fever, which may reach 107° F. The heat of the skin varies in different parts of the body, and may be felt at the base of the ears and horns. Repeated chills are frequently observed. The pulse reaches 50 to 60 beats a minute, and in very severe attacks may rise to 90 or 100. The animal manifests great debility. The head droops and rests on some object of support. One or both ears may droop. The coat is staring and the muzzle dry. The secretion of milk diminishes very rapidly. Within twelve to twenty hours the usual quantity may have become reduced one-half or two-thirds. The back is arched, and the four limbs are brought together under the body. As the disease progresses, symptoms with reference to the digestive and respiratory organs become prominent. The mucous membrane of the mouth and the nose, as well as that of the rectum and vagina, becomes reddened, either in patches or diffusely, and assumes a scarlet hue. The discharges, at first firm, become softer, and soon diarrhea sets in. This is said to be one of the most constant symptoms. The rectum may become everted and paralyzed, and the bowels move spontaneously. The discharges become fetid, viscid, and streaked with blood. Coughing is a common symptom, and by some is considered characteristic. It is associated with discharges from the nose and vagina and dribbling of saliva from the mouth. The eyes also are affected. There is an increased formation of a viscid secretion which flows down the face. Another series of changes prominent in some epizootics and mild or absent in others are the ulcers, or so-called "erosions," in the mouth. These begin as red patches and streaks. The mucous membrane in such localities is converted into a grayish-white slough, which, when shed, leaves a small erosion, or ulcer. At the same time similar changes may go on in the skin of the thighs, the udder, or the scrotum, or about the vagina, which lead to small sloughs. In severe cases, which are the most common in the susceptible cattle of western Europe, death ensues four to seven days after the first appearance of the disease, and is preceded by great emaciation and debility, fetid, purulent discharges from the nose and mouth, and the relaxed rectum and vagina. After death, if the animal is opened and the organs carefully examined, the chief changes are found in the digestive organs. The lining membrane of the mouth and pharynx is covered with mucus, is reddened in spots, and shows superficial, yellowish-gray, cheesy patches, which represent dead tissue, and when removed expose ulcerated depressions. The same reddening in spots and the yellowish-gray, cheesy deposits or patches are found in the fourth stomach, the small intestines, and more rarely in the cecum, while the third stomach, or manyplies, is more or less impacted with dry, hard feed. Similar changes may be found on the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, the uterus, vagina, and rectum. The lungs may be injected, edematous, or pneumonic. The heart muscle is pale and flabby, and frequently hemorrhages are observed in its internal membrane. The liver may be pale or injected with blood, and at times shows hemorrhages beneath its capsule. The bile is thin and watery in consistence. The kidneys may be inflamed or contain small hemorrhages within their substance or under the capsule. The lymphatic glands may be swollen and injected or even hemorrhagic. _Treatment._--On account of the danger of spreading the infection, neither medicinal treatment nor inoculation is permitted in European countries, with the exception of Russia, where the disease is more generally diffused. The most effective method of exterminating rinderpest in those districts in which the disease is not indigenous has been found to be the slaughter of all affected and exposed animals. Where the disease is general, successful efforts adopted for its control have followed the immunization by inoculation of the exposed animals and a strict application of appropriate sanitary measures. This protective inoculation has been practiced with very gratifying results in Russia, South Africa, and in the Philippine Islands. An active immunity is thus induced in susceptible animals which lasts until the danger from exposure to the disease is over. This immunity may be attained (1) by the inoculation of pure bile from an animal which recently died of rinderpest, (2) by the inoculation of glycerinated bile, followed by pure bile or virulent blood, or (3) by the simultaneous inoculation of strong standardized serum and virulent blood. The latter method has been adopted by the United States Government in its endeavor to exterminate the disease in the Philippines, and to protect the cattle and carabaos against rinderpest after their importation into those islands. Owing to the existence of this and other infectious diseases in the Philippine Islands, an order has been issued by the Department of Agriculture prohibiting the landing of any live stock or animals of any kind from the Philippines at any of the ports of the United States or the dependencies thereof. This prohibition removes the greatest source of danger to which the United States is exposed as the result of its intercourse with the islands. The introduction of rinderpest from those countries from which we import animals is rendered extremely improbable, especially in live animals, owing to its short period of incubation and to the 90-day quarantine for cattle (counting from date of shipment) and 15-day (counting from date of landing) quarantine for sheep and other ruminants and swine which are at present enforced in the United States at all ports of entry. FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. [Pl. XXXIII.] Foot-and-mouth disease, also known as aphthous fever, epizootic aphtha, and eczema contagiosa, is an acute, highly communicable disease chiefly confined to cloven-footed animals and characterized by an eruption of vesicles or blisters on the mucous membrane of the mouth and on the skin between the toes and above the hoofs. The vesicles rupture, forming erosions and ulcerations; there are also salivation, tenderness of the affected parts, loss of appetite, lameness, emaciation, and diminution in the quantity of milk secreted. The tremendous ravages of the disease are seen in the number and variety of the species attacked. While it may be regarded as essentially a disease of cattle, hogs would seem to be as easy a prey. Almost in the same grade of receptivity are sheep and goats. Next in order of susceptibility come the buffalo, American bison, camel, chamois, llama, giraffe, and antelope. Horses, dogs, cats, and even poultry may occasionally become infected with the disease, the last three being particularly dangerous as carriers of the contagion. Man himself is not immune, and the frequency of his infection by coming in contact with diseased animals is established by numerous observations. As with other communicable diseases, the source and origin of foot-and-mouth disease have given rise to much speculation. The disease had been known in Europe for centuries, but it was not until comparatively recent years that the erroneous conceptions of its spontaneous origin as a result of climatic and meteorological conditions, exhausting journeys, etc., were abandoned. It is now conceded that foot-and-mouth disease is propagated by a specific virus and that every outbreak starts from some preexisting outbreak. So far investigators have been unable to identify or isolate the specific organism causing the disease, although numerous attempts have been made to cultivate and stain it by laboratory methods. Experiments have shown that the virus will pass through standard germ-proof filters, thus indicating its minute size and the reason it has not been detected by the staining methods. The contagion may be found in the serum of the vesicles on the mouth, feet, and udder; in the saliva, milk, and various secretions and excretions; also in the blood during the rise of temperature. A wide distribution of the virus and a rapid infection of a herd is the result. Animals may be infected directly, as by licking, and in calves by sucking, or indirectly by such things as infected manure, hay, utensils, drinking troughs, railway cars, animal markets, barnyards, and pastures. Human beings may carry the virus on their shoes and clothing and transmit it on their hands when milking, since the udder is occasionally the seat of the eruption. It may also be carried by dogs, cats, rats, chickens, pigeons, etc. Milk in a raw state may also transmit the disease to animals fed with it. The observations made by some veterinarians would lead us to suppose that the virus is quite readily destroyed. It is claimed that stables thoroughly cleaned become safe after drying for a short time; hence, litter of all kinds, such as manure or soiled hay and straw, may remain infective for a longer time because they do not dry out. Other authorities maintain that the virus is quite tenacious and may live in stables even so long as a year. They also state that animals which have passed through the disease may be a source of infection for several months after recovery. Unlike most other infectious diseases, foot-and-mouth disease may repeatedly attack the same animals. The immunity conferred by an attack is of limited duration. The period of incubation (that is, the time between the exposure of an animal to infection and the development of the disease) is variable, usually from three to six days. The disease may appear in 24 hours, or, in exceptional cases, not for 18 days or even longer. _Losses._--The highly contagious character of foot-and-mouth disease and its rapid spread to practically all exposed susceptible animals lead to heavy losses. Since the mortality is comparatively low, ranging from only 3 per cent or less in mild forms to 30 or 40 per cent in malignant cases, the havoc caused by the pestilence is sometimes underestimated. But there are other sources of loss which are much more important than the actual mortality. The fever and the difficulty of eating cause a rapid and extreme loss in flesh and a lessening or cessation of the milk secretion. The udders often become inflamed and ruined by the formation of abscesses, and cows affected in this way are sometimes rendered permanently valueless for milk production. The inflammation of the feet may cause the horn to drop from the toes, producing great lameness and lasting injury. Abortion is frequent, and typical lesions have been observed in the newly born at birth. Altogether these losses may amount to 20 or 30 per cent of the value of the affected animals. In addition there are indirect losses of a commercial nature. Dairy farmers are put out of business for a time. Necessary quarantine restrictions greatly interfere with the movement of live stock and such commodities as hay, straw, hides, and farm produce. The business of the stockyards and slaughtering centers is greatly interfered with. Sometimes it is necessary to close stockyards for disinfection. The whole business of marketing, transporting, feeding, and slaughtering is interrupted and deranged. Losses of this character may reach enormous proportions. [Illustration: PLATE XXXIII. FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE.] _The disease in other countries._--Foot-and-mouth disease has prevailed in Europe for a great many years and has occasioned tremendous economic losses there. In Italy, France, Switzerland, Germany, and Russia the plague has existed so long and has gained such a foothold that it is economically impossible to fight it with the American methods of slaughter and disinfection, for to do so would kill a large percentage of the live stock of those countries. In consequence, little or no progress toward eradication has been made by the authorities, though the severity of the disease in France appears to have abated somewhat in recent months. The outbreak which appeared in Germany in 1888 increased steadily until 1892, when it diminished gradually for a few years, but the disease again reached great proportions in 1899. Thereafter it continued to exist to a greater or less extent until in 1911 it attained a virulence unequaled before. In that year 3,366,369 cattle, 1,602,927 sheep, 2,555,371 hogs, and 53,674 goats were affected. At that time the total number of cattle, sheep, swine, and goats in Germany was only 51,319,000, while there were in the United States 172,572,000, or between three and four times as many. It can readily be imagined, therefore, what it would mean to the United States if the disease were to gain the foothold here that it had in Germany, where, as these figures show, approximately one out of seven of the animals susceptible to the disease was affected. The German Government, of course, has not left the disease to itself. It attempted to control some outbreaks by the method of slaughter, but the pestilence had gained too much headway and was too firmly established in too many portions of the country for this method to succeed, and the slaughter of the infected herds had to be abandoned. It now appears that there is no hope of getting rid of it until the virus has worn itself out. As soon as the animals' period of acquired immunity is over and favorable conditions present themselves, the contagion breaks out with renewed virulence. It has been impossible to control it by means of quarantines. One scientist has asserted that unless all the infected farms were absolutely isolated and the movement, not only of live stock but of persons, absolutely prohibited, the disease could not be stamped out. Such a quarantine is, of course, utterly impossible to enforce. In portions of Germany the farmers, realizing that the disease is inevitable, make haste to be done with it by exposing their stock deliberately to mild cases in the hope that this will result in an immediate, mild attack and immunity for several years thereafter. Such immunity, however, is very uncertain. Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, on account of their comparatively isolated positions, have been more successful in keeping out the disease. The outbreaks in those countries have been more sporadic, and by resorting to immediate slaughter the authorities have been able to stamp them out. Great Britain has applied both quarantine and slaughter for many years, and in an outbreak near Dublin in 1912 measures were adopted which were even more stringent than any that have been used in the United States. A British official (Cope) asserted in 1899 that after his country's experience with this disease it was "more dreaded by the farmers and stock raisers of Great Britain than cattle plague or pleuropneumonia, and they are now willing and ready to put up with any restrictions, of however drastic a character, considered necessary by the central department to stamp it out." The British authorities have succeeded in suppressing each outbreak, but reinfection often occurs from the neighboring continent. At the present time (April, 1922) Great Britain is having a siege of the disease, but is applying vigorous measures for its suppression. In November, 1906, the disease reached Belgium from France, where it was quite prevalent, and by the end of the year every Province in Belgium was affected, and the Netherlands as well. Efforts to eradicate it from Belgium were unavailing. The Netherlands apparently succeeded in stamping it out for about six months, but it reappeared there. The disease is also more or less prevalent in Central Europe, Spain, and in the Balkan countries. Australia and New Zealand have remained free from it. We have less accurate information regarding Asia and Africa, but the disease is known to prevail in Japan and China and in the Philippine Islands, and it is doubtful whether any considerable part of the Orient is free from it. In South America it is reported as common in Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay, and it probably exists in other countries. Canada and Mexico are fortunately free from the disease. _Outbreaks in the United States._--Foot-and-mouth disease has appeared in the United States on six different occasions--1870, 1880, 1884, 1902, 1908, and 1914. An extensive outbreak in 1870 was introduced by way of Canada, where the infection was brought by an importation of cattle from Scotland. It spread into the New England States and New York and appears to have been arrested within a few months. Its failure to spread more extensively and its early disappearance have been ascribed to favorable conditions, such as the movement of live stock from west to east, the limited trading at that period as compared with the present time, the restriction of traffic by winter weather, and the infrequency of travel which obtained at that time among people. About 1880 two or three lots of animals affected by this disease were brought to the United States, but there was no extension from the animals originally affected. In 1884, at Portland, Me., there was a small outbreak caused by imported cattle, and the disease spread to a few herds outside the quarantine station. Owing to the small number of animals affected and the limited area of territory covered by the disease, it was easily controlled by the ordinary measures of quarantine and disinfection. It will be observed that in all these early outbreaks the contagion was introduced with imported animals. Since the development of a stringent system of inspection and quarantine of imported live stock, no instance of that kind has occurred. On subsequent occasions the infection has evidently been brought in with contaminated products or materials and not by means of live animals. In November, 1902, the disease was discovered in Massachusetts and Rhode Island. The earliest cases were traced to Chelsea, Mass., near the docks, and it was suspected for a time that the infection was brought in with foreign shipping, by some such means as hay, straw, halters, ropes, hides, hair, wool, etc. Later developments, however, and especially investigations into the cause of the 1908 outbreak, led to the belief that a more probable source of the infection was cowpox vaccine virus imported from a country (probably Japan) where foot-and-mouth disease existed, the vaccine virus being contaminated with the virus of foot-and-mouth disease. A Federal quarantine was declared by the Secretary of Agriculture on November 27, 1902, as soon as the nature of the disease was established, and steps for eradication were at once taken by the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture in cooperation with authorities of the affected States. The methods followed consisted of inspection to trace and detect the disease, quarantine of infected premises and territory, slaughter and burial or burning of diseased and exposed animals, and disinfection of premises. This outbreak involved Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island, and was eradicated in about six months. Two hundred and forty-four herds, including 4,712 cattle, were found infected. Of these, 205 herds with 3,872 cattle, as well as 360 hogs and 220 sheep and goats, were slaughtered. The cattle infected but not slaughtered were those that either died or completely recovered before slaughtering could be carried out. The animals slaughtered were valued at $184,155.10, and the Federal Government reimbursed owners to the extent of 70 per cent, or $128,908.57. It is understood that the States paid the remainder. The total cost to the Department of Agriculture of stamping out the disease was about $300,000. The next appearance of the foot-and-mouth disease was early in November, 1908, when it was observed in cattle near Danville, Pa. A Federal quarantine was issued November 12. The infection was traced back to the stockyards at East Buffalo, N. Y., and to Detroit, Mich. The disease appeared in the States of Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. A careful and thorough investigation made by Mohler of the Bureau of Animal Industry and Rosenau of the Public Health Service demonstrated that the outbreak started from calves used to propagate vaccine virus at an establishment near Detroit, and that the source of the infection was contaminated Japanese vaccine virus. Vigorous measures of eradication similar to those employed in 1902-3 were at once put into effect and the disease was stamped out in about five months at an expense of about $300,000 to the Department of Agriculture, and of about $113,000 to the States. The inspectors made 108,683 visits to farms, stockyards, etc., and inspected more than 1,500,000 animals (including reinspections). One hundred and fifty-seven premises were found infected, and 3,636 animals (2,025 cattle, 1,329 hogs, and 282 sheep and goats), valued at $90,033.18, were slaughtered. Owners were reimbursed for the value of their animals and property destroyed, one-third being paid by the States and two-thirds by the Federal Government. The latest invasion was discovered in the vicinity of Niles, Mich., in October, 1914, after it had evidently been under way since August of the same year. This is the most serious and extensive outbreak ever known in this country. The disease extended to 22 States and the District of Columbia, at places ranging from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts. The work of eradication was not completed for more than a year. The affected States were Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Illinois had the largest infected area and the largest number of animals affected. The Union Stock Yards at Chicago became infected and were a source of dissemination of the contagion north, east, south, and west. These and other yards found infected were closed temporarily and disinfected. The first Federal quarantine was issued October 19, 1914. A campaign to check the spread of the disease and to stamp it out was immediately begun by the United States Department of Agriculture in cooperation with the State authorities. Quarantines against the movement of animals and certain materials from the infected areas were declared, shipments were traced, rumors investigated, and thorough inspections made in an effort to discover all infected stock. As measures of eradication, diseased herds were slaughtered and buried and the premises disinfected. The owners of live stock and other property destroyed on account of the disease were reimbursed to the extent of the appraised value, half of which is paid by the Federal Government and half by the State. There were slaughtered 172,720 animals (76,575 cattle, 86,492 swine, 9,511 sheep, 133 goats, and 9 deer), in 3,482 herds. The total appraised value of these animals was more than $5,800,000. The expense to the Federal Government of eradicating this outbreak was about $4,540,000. _Symptoms._--In three to six days, or even longer, after the exposure of the animal to the infection the disease makes its appearance. It is usually first indicated by the animal suffering from a chill, quickly followed by an invasion of fever, which may cause the temperature to rise as high as 106° F. These symptoms are not always present, or may be in so slight a form as to escape notice. Following this in one or two days it will be noticed that small vesicles or blisters about the size of hempseeds or peas are making their appearance upon the mucous membranes of the mouth at the border and upper surface of the tongue near the tip, the inside of the cheeks, on the gums and the inner surface of the lips, or on the margin of the dental pad. These little blisters contain a yellowish, watery fluid and gradually become more extensive as the disease advances. Soon after the eruptions have appeared in the mouth of the animal considerable swelling, redness, and tenderness will be noticed about the feet, at the coronet, and between the digits of each foot. A day or two later eruptions similar to those within the mouth make their appearance upon these swollen regions of the foot, and at this stage it is usual to find that like lesions have made their appearance upon the perineum of the victim. In the case of milk cows the udder, and more particularly the teats, show the same vesicular eruption, but the latter as the result of milking soon become covered with reddened spots deprived of the superficial layer of skin and may develop deep, obstinate fissures. As soon as the disease has become well established the patient evinces pain when attempting to eat; in fact, the appetite is often so seriously affected that all feed is refused, and the animal uneasily opens and shuts its mouth with a characteristic smacking sound, while strings of cohesive, ropy saliva hang suspended from the lips. With the advance of the disease the vesicles widen and extend until they may reach a diameter ranging from that of a dime to that of a silver dollar. These rupture soon after their appearance, sometimes on the first day, more rarely on the second or third day. After they have ruptured, the grayish-white membrane forming the blister may remain attached for a day or more, or disappear speedily and leave deeply reddened, sensitive spots or erosions, both within the mouth and upon the coronet and between the claws of the feet. Similar erosions, which quickly form scabs, as a rule, may be noticed in cases in which the teats of milk cows have become affected, and instances are reported in which sloughing of the tegument immediately around the lesions upon the udder has occurred. Owing to the tough, fibrous nature of the bovine skin, it is exceedingly rare for sloughing to occur upon any part of the body other than those mentioned. The attack upon the feet of an animal is frequently manifested in all four feet at once, but one or more of the feet may entirely escape and remain unaffected throughout the course of the disease. The ulceration of the interdigital tissue may extend to the ligaments of the fetlock or produce disease of the joint or bone. As the feet become sensitive and sore the animal persistently lies down, and it has been found that bedsores develop with amazing rapidity in all such cases and wholly baffle all attempts at treatment until after the patient has regained its feet. The disease may attack some of the internal organs before it appears upon any of the external tissues. These cases are very liable to prove quickly fatal. The animal dies from paralysis of the heart, due to the formation of poisonous principles within the system; it may suffocate by reason of the action of these same poisons upon the tissues of the lungs, or it may choke to death as a result of paralysis of the throat. In cases of serious affection of the udder the erosions will often be found within the passages of the teats, resulting in a "caked" udder, and the same toxic poisoning which is the cause of death in the apoplectiform types just mentioned may arise from this source. In any event the milk from such cases is dangerous for use, causing fatal diarrhea in sucking calves or young pigs and serious illness in human consumers. The milk obtained from cows suffering with foot-and-mouth disease is not readily converted into either butter or cheese, but remains thick, slimy, and inert in spite of churning and attempts at curdling. Pregnant animals may abort. In pigs, sheep, and goats the lesions in the foot are most common, but both forms may be observed or only the mouth lesions. When the disease has become fully established it will be found that the duration of the attack will vary greatly with different animals. From 10 to 20 days are usually required for the recovery of the normal appetite and spirits in mild outbreaks, while the return to a full flow of milk, in the case of milk cows, seldom occurs before the arrival of the following season. In the malignant type of the disease it requires from three months to a year for an animal to recover. The mortality, as already stated, is usually low. The disease is more fatal in young animals that have been fed on infected milk, and produces death in from 60 to 80 per cent of these cases as a result of gastroenteritis. In the 1914 outbreak numerous new centers of infection started among hogs and calves which were fed on unpasteurized, infected milk from creameries. _Diagnosis._--The recognition of this affection should not, as a rule, be difficult, especially when the disease is known to be in the vicinity; in fact, the group of symptoms form a clinical picture too decided to be doubted. The combination of high fever, vesicular inflammation of the mouth, and hot, painful, swollen condition of the feet, followed 24 to 48 hours later by the appearance of numerous blisters varying in size from that of a pea to that of a walnut on the udder and feet and in the mouth should prevent any serious or long-continued error in the diagnosis; however, in the inoculation of calves we have a certain and final test. In 24 to 96 hours after inoculation the calves present the characteristic blisters. Such inoculation should be practiced, however, only by officials properly authorized to deal with contagious diseases. _Differential diagnosis._--The lesions of no other disease of cattle closely simulate the vesicular eruption of foot-and-mouth disease on the lining membrane of the mouth. When the blisters have ruptured, however, and the resulting lesions have become contaminated by numerous secondary forms of microorganisms, the correct recognition of the disease may be involved in considerable difficulty. Cowpox or horsepox may be accidentally transmitted by inoculation. But the eruption of the "pox" goes on to the development of a pustule, while in foot-and-mouth disease the eruption is never more than a vesicle, even though the contained fluid may become turbid. The inoculation test in the case of cowpox does not respond with fever and eruption for at least 10 days, and often longer. Necrotic stomatitis (sore mouth due to a germ) may be distinguished from foot-and-mouth disease by the fact that in the latter there is a rapid infection of the entire herd, including the adult cattle, as well as the infection of hogs and sheep. The characteristic lesion of foot-and-mouth disease is the appearance of blisters containing a serous fluid upon the mucous membrane of the mouth and upon the udder, teats, and feet of the affected animals. In necrotic stomatitis blisters are never formed, destruction of the tissues occurring from the beginning and being followed by the formation of yellowish, cheesy patches, principally found involving the lining membrane of the mouth, especially the tongue and cheeks. In mycotic stomatitis (sore mouth due to a fungus or mold), portions of the lining membrane become inflamed and in a few days it changes to a croupous membrane which peels off, leaving a raw surface, while the thin skin between the toes may also be inflamed. The previous history of the case; the failure of the blisters, if any appear, to spread extensively; the absence of vesicular eruptions on other portions of the body, notably the udder and teats, and, characteristically, the hoof, together with the absence of rapid spread to practically all cattle in the herd and the complete negative character of inoculation of calves, distinguish between the local disease named and foot-and-mouth disease. Mycotic stomatitis occurs in only from 10 to 50 per cent of the animals in a herd, usually in the late summer or early fall after a dry spell, and it does not run a regular course. The lesion, resulting from ergotism may be distinguished from those of foot-and-mouth disease by the lack of eruptions in the mouth and by the location of the disease at the tips of the ears, end of the tail, or upon the lower part of the legs, usually below the knees or hocks. The lesion of ergotism does not take the form of pustules or blisters, but manifests itself first as a swelling about the ankle, which later may slough and circumscribe the limb, forming a deep crack, extending entirely around the limb and forming a distinct line of demarcation between the healthy skin above and the diseased below. The absence of ulcerous sores on the coronet and between the claws, together with the healthy condition of the membranes of the mouth and the knowledge that the lesion upon the limb in question extends uninterruptedly around it, should point conclusively to a diagnosis of ergotism and to the exclusion of all fears of foot-and-mouth disease. In foul foot or ground itch of cattle, the inflammation of the skin and toes is general and not in certain spots, as in foot-and-mouth disease. The mouth remains unaffected, and the presence of the disease may be traced to filth and poor drainage. The severer forms of the disease might be confounded with certain general diseases. If gastrointestinal symptoms predominate, acute gastric catarrh or inflammation of the intestines might be thought of. Involvement of the lungs may lead to a diagnosis of acute congestion of the lungs or pneumonia. The distinction is apparent in these diseases by the lack of vesicular eruption on the mucous membrane or skin, and also by lack of evidences of infection in the herd or neighboring animals. _Prevention and eradication._--The measures to be adopted to prevent the spread of the affection must take into consideration the highly infectious nature of the disease, its ease of dissemination, and the liability of the virus to live for long periods outside the body of an animal. Great care should therefore be observed in keeping healthy animals unexposed to the contagion. When an outbreak occurs in a community the owner should make every effort to keep other animals from coming in contact with his diseased cattle. This especially applies to dogs, cats, goats, and poultry, which usually have access to the stables and barnyards and in this way furnish excellent means for disseminating the infectious principle. He should be equally particular in prohibiting any person from coming onto his premises, especially an attendant or owner or other person in any way connected with cattle. Such a herd may be placed under quarantine, with an inspector appointed to keep the premises under constant surveillance. This method of quarantine alone, while very satisfactory in many instances, is rather tardy in obtaining the desired result. The experience of European Governments already mentioned shows that eradication by this method alone, when the disease has obtained a foothold, is practically impossible. For this reason, when the disease breaks out in a country like the United States, where the contagion is likely to spread rapidly by means of infected cars, manure, hay, and other feed, and where the results of its obtaining a firm foothold would be so disastrous, it seems that this method of temporizing is rather tedious, and more radical steps are required in order to suppress and eradicate completely the infection in the quickest and most thorough manner possible. It would therefore appear better, after judicious appraisement, to concentrate the expense incident to the extermination of foot-and-mouth disease by purchasing and slaughtering all affected and exposed cattle. The carcasses of these animals should be totally destroyed, preferably by cremation, or otherwise by burying them in a hole 6 feet deep and covering them with air-slaked lime. The infected stable should be disinfected by thoroughly cleaning it, scrubbing the floor with hot water, brushing down all loose dust from the walls, and tearing off all woodwork which is partly decayed. Then the whole interior of the stable should be disinfected with one of the following substances: A 5 per cent solution of pure carbolic acid. Chlorid of lime, U. S. P. strength (30 per cent available chlorin), 1 pound to 3 gallons of water. Formaldehyde, 1 quart 40 per cent solution to 5 gallons of water. A 3 per cent solution of cresol compound, U. S. P., or accepted substitute therefor, containing at least 50 per cent cresylic acid. All stable utensils should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected by the application of a solution of one of the above-named disinfectants. The manure should be burned or disinfected and spread over ground (other than meadow land) that is to be turned under. No other cattle should be purchased for at least sixty days after the complete disinfection of the premises. The success in eradicating the disease by combined quarantine, slaughter, and disinfection, as practiced in the United States, Denmark, Great Britain, and a few other countries, demonstrates in a striking manner the efficacy of slaughtering and the futility of relying upon quarantine alone to stamp out the disease. Inoculation has been adopted in some countries in order to have the disease spread quickly through the herds, and while this practice has undoubted value where the disease is indigenous, it is not desirable in this country and should not be adopted. As a rule medicinal treatment with a view of curing affected animals is not to be recommended under conditions prevailing in the United States, where the disease has not become established, and the first object is to stamp it out as quickly as possible. Even though most animals would recover, with or without treatment, it would be practically impossible, while they were being held for recovery, to prevent the spread of the infection to others. The disease would be liable to spread faster than it could be cured. As already pointed out, it has been found impossible to prevent absolutely the spread of the contagion by the strictest quarantine alone, under the usual farm conditions. In addition, the affected animals that have passed through the disease may become a source of further infection as virus carriers for weeks and months after they have apparently recovered, and are susceptible of reinfection, as one attack does not confer permanent immunity. _Foot-and-mouth disease in man._--Foot-and-mouth disease is primarily and principally a disease of cattle; secondarily and casually, a disease of man. It is transmissible to man through the eating or drinking of raw milk, buttermilk, butter, cheese, and whey from animals suffering from foot-and-mouth disease. It is also transmitted directly, though more rarely, from the salivary secretions or other infected material which may gain entrance through the mucous membrane of the mouth. It is doubtful whether the disease can be transmitted to man by cutaneous or subcutaneous inoculation, though it is probable that the infection may be communicated if the virus directly enters the blood through wounds of any kind. Children are not infrequently infected by drinking unboiled milk during the periods in which the disease is prevalent in the neighborhood, while persons in charge of diseased animals may become infected through contact with the diseased parts or by milking, slaughtering, or caring for the animals. The symptoms in man resemble those observed in animals. There is fever, sometimes vomiting, painful swallowing, heat and dryness of the mouth, followed by an eruption of vesicles on the mucous membrane of the mouth, and very rarely by similar ones on the fingers. The vesicles appear on the lips, gums, cheek, and edge of the tongue, and are about the size of a pea. The vesicles soon rupture, leaving a small erosion which is soon covered by a thin crust under which the new formation of epithelium proceeds rapidly. The skin eruption mostly appears on the hands, tips of the fingers, base of the nails, and more seldom on the toes and other parts of the body. Besides these local changes, during the course of the disease headache, pain in the limbs, vertigo, abdominal cramps, vomiting, diarrhea, and weakness are occasionally observed. The disease is seldom fatal, usually appearing in a very mild form except in weakened children, in whom an accompanying intestinal catarrh may lead to a fatal termination. Veterinarians who have had considerable experience with the disease among animals regard the human affection as by no means uncommon in countries where foot-and-mouth disease prevails, but the disturbance of health is usually too slight to come to the notice of the family physician. But few outbreaks of the disease in man have occurred in the United States, and therefore cases of its transmission to man in this country are rather rare. Dr. James Law reports having observed the disease in man from drinking infected milk during the epizootic of 1870 in the Eastern States, but the outbreaks of 1880 and 1884 affected such a small number of animals and were so quickly suppressed that no instance of its transmission to man was recorded. A few cases have been reported by Brush accompanying the New England outbreak of 1902. Similar reports have been likewise received concerning the appearance of vesicular eruptions in the mouths of children during the 1908 and 1914 outbreaks, and the history of these cases incriminates the milk supply. Experiments by Loeffler and Froesch, as well as recent experiments which have been made in Denmark and Germany, indicate that the infection is comparatively easy to destroy by heat or the usual antiseptics. Milk pasteurized at a temperature of 60° C. for 20 minutes is safe so far as infection by foot-and-mouth disease is concerned. SEPTICEMIA AND PYEMIA. These two names are applied to diseased conditions which are so nearly alike in their symptoms that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the one from the other. Indeed, the name pyosepticemia, or septicopyemia, is often applied when it is impossible to make a distinction between septicemia and pyemia or where each is equally responsible for the diseased condition. The name septicemia is derived from two Greek words meaning "poison" and "blood," and signifies that the germ lives in the blood, hence the use of the term "blood poisoning" for this disease. Pyemia is likewise derived from two Greek words, meaning "pus" and "blood," and is that form of septicemia caused by pus-producing organisms and characterized by secondary abscesses. _Causes._--Neither of these diseases is brought about, strictly speaking, by any specific organism; hence neither can be looked upon as a specific disease. The organisms most frequently found in cases of septicemia are, on the whole, the same as those of pyemia, and may be pus cocci, the bacillus coli, or other pus-producing organisms. These organisms are often found as secondary invaders in other diseases, such as advanced cases of tuberculosis, in which cases they are responsible for the formation of pus. Aside from the causative organism, or, in other words, the active cause, there are many secondary causes. The most important of these in pyemia is a break in continuity of the protective covering, as a wound, which affords an entrance into the tissues for the organisms. Among the different varieties of wounds may be mentioned cuts, bruises, punctures, burns, chemical or frozen wounds, and compound fractures of bones. Injuries received during parturition, stoppage of the milk ducts, and infection of the umbilicus in the newly born are also frequent causes of pyemia. Septicemia usually follows surgical wounds, local suppuration, enteritis, bronchitis--in fact, wherever there is a local lesion of any kind permitting germs to enter the blood. Septicemia was formerly applied to designate the condition in which the organisms were localized, but in which their toxins were diffused in the blood. Pyemia was made to represent that condition when the organisms were localized, but in which the pus was transported by the blood. These terms now are applied to conditions in which both the organisms and their toxins, or the pus, are present in the blood. The term septicemia is indicated when intoxication is the more pronounced symptom and pyemia if pus formation and metastatic or secondary abscess formation are observed. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of both diseases include primarily a high fever (104° to 107° F.). Coupled with this there is disinclination to move, the animal is depressed and not cognizant of its surroundings. The pulse is rapid, small, and feeble, respiration increased, mucous membrane injected, swollen, and of a yellowish tinge. Appetite is lost and death follows in the case of septicemia in from two to four days. In pyemia the symptoms come on more slowly and are not so intense as in septicemia, while the course of the disease is longer, lasting from six days to four weeks. The mortality is not so great as in septicemia, but the period of convalescence is always long. _Lesions._--Septicemia is characterized by the destructive changes in the blood, which is chocolate colored, noncoagulable, and swarms with bacteria. The lining membranes of the heart are studded with red spots, often running together to form a large hemorrhagic area. The lungs, liver, and kidneys may also show these hemorrhages. The spleen is enlarged and full of black blood. The cadaver decomposes very rapidly and in some cases forms great quantities of fetid gas. In pyemia, in addition to these lesions, abscesses are formed in the various organs throughout the body. If the disease develops slowly a post-mortem examination shows the abscesses to be the chief alterations. The pus content is usually greenish, stained with blood, and contains strings of fibrous tissue and necrosed matter. _Treatment._--Treatment is almost futile in advanced cases of either disease. Septicemia is usually fatal and pyemia frequently so. Prevention and the immediate treatment of local infections are the surest means of combating them. For local treatment of wounds the usual antiseptics are indicated, such as 3 per cent compound cresol or carbolic acid, or one one-thousandth bichlorid-of-mercury solution. For pyemia, where the abscesses are near the skin, they should be opened and treated antiseptically by injecting any of the previously mentioned germicides. General and heart stimulants are indicated, such as a drench containing digitalis 2 drams and alcohol 2 ounces. Quinin and calomel in repeated small doses of one-half dram each three times a day are sometimes beneficial. Camphor in the form of oil of camphor (camphor dissolved in 10 parts of sweet oil) is a good stimulant and has some antiseptic properties, which make it a valuable drug in combating these diseases when it is given in doses of 2 drams three times daily. HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA. Hemorrhagic septicemia is a name applied to a highly fatal, infectious disease existing in various species of domestic and wild animals, from a microorganism having definite biological characters and possessing the properties of producing clearly defined and characteristic lesions. This causal agent, _Bacterium bovisepticum_, belongs to the same group of cocco-bacilli as those causing chicken cholera, swine plague, and rabbit septicemia, and may be described as an ovoid, nonmotile, polar-staining bacterium with rounded ends, 1/38000 of an inch wide by 1/20000 of an inch long, sometimes seen in pairs and sometimes in chains. Various names have been applied to this disease, and though the causative agent and the distinctive lesions are well known, it is more than likely that the affection is seldom recognized. It was described by Bollinger in 1878, and named Wild und Rinderseuche, from its having affected deer, wild boars, cattle, and horses in an epizootic which swept over Germany at that time. Before this, however, several epizootics of what was evidently the same disease had been well described, notably that which occurred in England in 1854. Since then it has occurred in epizootic and enzootic forms in many sections of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. In this country the disease has been observed in Texas, Tennessee, New York, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, District of Columbia, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. Other names given to it are game and cattle disease, buffalo disease, barbone, pasteurellosis bovina, ghotwa, and infectious pneumoenteritis. In earlier times it was evidently confounded with gloss anthrax, and even now it is probably mistaken in a great many instances for anthrax, blackleg, cornstalk disease, and cerebrospinal meningitis. The disease is essentially a septicemia, or blood poisoning, and the microbic invasion occurs from inoculation probably either through abrasions of the skin or by injury to the mucous membranes from coarse fodder, etc. Moore and Smith have found in the mouths and nasal cavities of healthy animals, including cattle, bacteria belonging to this group; but these organisms proved to be nonpathogenic. As is well known, however, many pathogenic germs at times exist in a saprophytic state, and it is not hard to conceive how a microbe may cease such existence and assume parasitic or pathogenic properties when the surroundings are eminently favorable. This may be a connecting link in the etiology of sporadic outbreaks of the disease in which all other hypotheses as to its genesis seem untenable. The disease seems to occur most frequently in swampy or mucky localities or in pastures receiving the overflow from infected fields. It is said to occur usually in the spring of the year, when the melting snows and rains bring to the surface the subterranean waters from rich soils containing nitrogenous materials in which the bacteria have been existing. In a great many instances there does not seem to be any plausible explanation for an outbreak of the disease and one can only surmise as to its origin. _Symptoms._--Three forms of the disease are recognized, based upon the distribution of the lesions--the superficial, or cutaneous, the pectoral, or thoracic, and the intestinal form. The last is a usual accompaniment of the other two and may be mild or severe. Naturally the symptoms vary according to the violence of the attack and to the particular form of disease with which the animal is affected. In the superficial, or cutaneous, form the presence of a swollen tongue, throat, and dewlap, or even of the lower portion of the legs, gives us a clew to the trouble. An entire loss of appetite occurs, and in milk cows there is a diminution of the milk secretion. The temperature may be only slightly elevated, but it is usually very high. Salivation is set up by the inflammation of the mouth and pharynx. Unsuccessful efforts at eating and swallowing are made. There may be difficulty in breathing, depending on the amount of involvement of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, or lungs. There may be a blood-stained discharge from the nostrils, and the mucous membrane thereof will often show punctiform hemorrhages. The pulmonary form shows the same symptoms as croupous pneumonia, with a frequent suffocative cough and oppressed breathing, or dyspnea. When the intestines are involved the patient strains to defecate, and passes shreds of intestinal mucus along with blood-stained feces. The urine also may be tinged with blood. Finally a severe diarrhea takes place, the animal becomes correspondingly weak, and death takes place in 24 to 36 hours. Cases may die in as short a period as six to eight hours, while in the pectoral form of the disease the animal may linger six or eight days. Cases have been reported which became chronic and in which death did not take place for a month or more. In some of the cases running an acute course, symptoms of toxemia are present; there is a lack of sensation of the skin, staggering gait, trembling, eyes fixed, neck at times bent to one side, and the eyes showing a wild expression. At times the animals appear as if in pain and look around at the flanks. In the pectoral form they may stand with the forelegs wide apart in evident effort to breathe more freely. Sometimes there is a champing of the jaws and a very free flow of glairy saliva dropping from the mouth. The prognosis is decidedly unfavorable and 80 to 90 per cent of the cases result fatally. _Lesions._--The characteristic lesions of hemorrhagic septicemia consist of hemorrhagic areas in the subcutaneous, subserous, and muscular tissues, the lymph glands, and the viscera; in fact, they are distributed more or less widely throughout the body and vary in size from a mere speck to the diameter of a half dollar or even larger. The superficial form presents itself first as a doughy tumefaction of the skin about the region of the throat, neck, dewlap, or legs, which pits on pressure. This tumefaction consists essentially of a cerogelatinous exudate into the subcutaneous and intermuscular tissues. Bloody extravasations may take place in subcutaneous tissues in various places, but they are usually seen about the lower portion of the neck. The mucous membranes and submucous tissues of the mouth, tongue, pharynx, and larynx become involved in the process and are greatly thickened, inflamed, and infiltrated with serum. The mucous membrane becomes reddish purple, and that of the nostrils may in addition show hemorrhagic spots on its surface. The lymphatic glands in this region are also swollen and infiltrated with bloody serum. The salivary glands are pale and dry. The pectoral type, though at times existing alone, may coexist with the cutaneous form. The inflammatory edema of the mouth extends to the mucous membrane of the trachea and bronchi, producing an extensive thickening and a yellowish infiltration. The lung shows interstitial thickening from the outpouring of serum into its meshes. It may become pneumonic. The diaphragm, heart sac, and heart walls show numerous hemorrhagic points and larger bloody extravasations. Sometimes there is a serous pleurisy, with more or less fibrinous exudate. In the intestinal form the submucous and subperitoneal tissues show alterations from a few hemorrhagic spots to large bloody suffusions, or even gelatinous infiltrations. This latter is seen about the region of the pancreas and in the folds of the mesentery. There is a severe hemorrhagic inflammation of the intestines and a staining of the intestinal contents with blood. The muscular system throughout shows hemorrhagic areas. The abdominal viscera, liver, spleen, and kidneys often present hemorrhagic lesions. _Differential diagnosis._--Anthrax, which presents superficial swellings, like hemorrhagic septicemia, may be distinguished from that affection on post-mortem examination by the enlargement and engorgement of the spleen, the contents of which are soft and tarry. The blood of anthrax animals is very dark, and does not become light red on exposure to air, nor does it coagulate, while in hemorrhagic septicemia the blood is normal in appearance and coagulates. The detection of the anthrax bacillus in the blood would be final. In blackleg the animals affected are usually under 2 years of age. The swellings are quite evident, and usually occur on the legs, above the knees or hocks, and are distended with gas, which crackles, or crepitates, when pressed upon. If one of these tumors is opened, a bloody serum will exude, and the gas gives off the odor of rancid butter. The internal hemorrhages are not general, although they may occur. A microscopic examination of the juices from the tumefaction will show the blackleg bacillus. In cerebrospinal meningitis the causative agent is unknown, but probably exists in the feed. It may occur in any locality and at any season of the year. There are no local swellings, and cattle are not frequently affected. Cornstalk disease may be differentiated from this affection from the fact that it always occurs after the cattle are turned into a cornstalk field, by its sudden onset, the absence of any characteristic symptoms or post-mortem lesions, and the failure to find the causative agent in the blood. In making a post-mortem examination of animals affected with hemorrhagic septicemia, it would be well to examine the articular surfaces of the long bones, as it has been reported that they are frequently ulcerated. This should apply especially to those cases that have shown lameness. _Treatment._--Treatment is absolutely useless, so far as we know at present, and for all practical purposes prophylaxis alone should be relied upon. The same sanitary precautions, such as isolation, disinfection, and burial or burning of all dead carcasses, should be observed as for anthrax and other highly infectious diseases. All the premises, barns, stalls, litter, and stable utensils should be thoroughly disinfected. Separate the apparently well animals from the sick by placing them in a separate lot. Experiments by the Bureau of Animal Industry toward protective inoculation of the exposed cattle on infected premises have been made and the results have been so satisfactory that several commercial houses handling biological products are manufacturing a vaccine for hemorrhagic septicemia in accordance with the Government's experiments on this subject. The method of preparing the vaccine is similar to that recommended by Lignières. It consists in growing the cultures of the organism of the disease at 42 to 43° C. and preparing from them growing at this temperature two different strengths of vaccine. The weaker vaccine, which is used for the first injection, is grown for five days at this temperature, whereas the stronger vaccine, for the second injection, is grown for only two days. These vaccines are used with an interval of 10 days between the injections, the dose being 1 cubic centimeter at each injection. The effect of this vaccine in abating outbreaks already in progress has been highly satisfactory and it is plain that the general introduction of preventive vaccination for hemorrhagic septicemia must be of material benefit to the cattle raisers in the infected districts. VESICULAR ERUPTION OF THE GENITAL ORGANS. This contagious disease is called coital exanthema or vesicular exanthema, and is more or less prevalent on the Continent. It has also been observed in the breeding districts of the United States. It is the subject of legislation in Germany, and governmental statistics are published annually concerning its distribution in the Empire. According to the reports from Hungary 492 head of cattle were attacked during 1898, 587 in 1899, and 207 in 1900. A similar or perhaps identical disease of horses has the same distribution and is transmissible from horses to cattle and vice versa. The disease may be defined as a highly contagious eruption situated upon the external genital organs of both sexes and accompanied with little or no general disturbance of health. The contagion, the nature of which remains still unknown, is transmitted mainly during copulation. The bull may have the disease and convey it to all the cows with which he comes in contact, or he may become infected by one cow, and, although not showing the disease, he may, during copulation, transmit it for several days after to all other cows. Simple contact between one cow and another may convey the disease, or the sponges used in cleaning the diseased may carry the virus to the healthy. It has also been conveyed to healthy cows by these animals lying with their hind quarters against infected wooden troughs. _Symptoms._--The period between the infection and the appearance of symptoms is somewhat variable. It is usually given as three to six days. It may be briefer or much longer. In cows the mucous membrane of the vagina and the vulva become swollen, inflamed, very tender, and covered with dark-red spots. The secretion is very abundant and consists at first largely of serum and mucus resembling the white of an egg. Small vesicles then appear, which rapidly burst and are converted into excoriations or deeper ulcerations. The secretion becomes more purulent and is apt to dry in crusts about the root of the tail. The eruption is accompanied with much itching and difficulty in urinating. The walk may be stiff and awkward. In bulls the eruption is situated on the prepuce and the end of the penis, and consists of pimples, vesicles, and ulcers, as in cows. It is accompanied with a little purulent discharge from the prepuce, itching, and difficulty in urinating. In severe cases the inflammation and swelling may extend backward to the scrotum and forward upon the abdomen. The disease lasts from one to four weeks and always terminates in recovery. The acute stage lasts only four or five days, while the complete healing of the inflammation is slow. The eruption is usually accompanied with very little general disturbance. If the pain and irritation are severe, there may be some light loss of appetite and diminished milk secretion in cows. The disease rarely causes abortion. Chronic catarrh of the vagina and permanent sterility frequently follow as sequelæ. _Treatment_ need not be resorted to excepting in severe cases. The secretion and exudation should be washed off and a mild antiseptic applied, such as a 1 per cent solution of carbolic acid (1 ounce to 3 quarts of water) or 2 per cent solution of cresol compound in water. Care must be taken not to carry the disease from the sick to the well by sponges, etc., which have come in contact with the affected organs. These should be destroyed. To prevent the spread of the disease the infected animals should be kept isolated until they have recovered. RABIES OF CATTLE. Rabies is a disease preeminently affecting the canine race, although all warm-blooded animals, including man, are susceptible to the malady, which is always communicated through bites from a preceding case. It has required many years of patient, scientific research to lead the ablest investigators to a clear comprehension of the cause, nature, and characteristics of this affection. It was known and described several centuries prior to the beginning of the Christian era, and from the earliest dawn of history it has been feared and dreaded. Its terrible manifestations have always been surrounded with an atmosphere of awe and mystery, and it is not surprising that myths, fallacies, and misconceptions in regard to it have been common and widely accepted. As the investigations by which we have come to a tolerably clear understanding of the facts concerning rabies have been comparatively recent, and for the most part, have appeared in scientific periodicals, fallacies in regard to the disease continue to have a strong hold upon the public mind. For instance, it is still a widely prevalent belief that if persons or animals are bitten by a dog they are liable to become rabid if the dog should contract the disease at any future time. There is no foundation for this impression, and it would be a great comfort to many people who are now and then bitten by animals if the fallacy of this idea were known. All experience, both scientific and practical, goes to show that rabies is transmitted only by animals that are actually diseased at the time the bite is inflicted. Rabies is an infectious disease involving the nervous system and characterized by extreme excitability and other nervous disorders and always terminating in death. The contagion of this disease has never been isolated, but the fact that it is caused by a specific organism principally found in the nervous system is indisputable. For instance, if an emulsion of the brain of a rabid animal is filtered through a germ-proof filter, the filtrate will be harmless. This fact indicates that the infectious principle is not in solution, but is an organism withheld from the filtrate by the filter. This contagion can be propagated only in the body of an animal. It is transmitted naturally from one animal to another solely by bites, and the old idea of spontaneous appearance of the disease is absolutely fallacious. It may be produced artificially by inoculating susceptible animals with an emulsion of the brain or spinal cord, as well as the saliva, milk, and other secretions of the affected animal. The blood, on the contrary, seems to be free from the infectious principle. The saliva contains the virus, which, under natural conditions, is introduced into or under the skin on the tooth of the rabid animal. The disease is widespread, being found in many countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and in certain sections of the United States. Owing to the rigid quarantine regulations enforced against dogs imported into Australia, that country remains absolutely free from the disease. Following the canine race, cattle seem to be the most frequently affected, probably because rabid dogs, next to their morbid desire to attack other members of their own race, have a better opportunity to bite grazing cattle than any other species of animal. The relative frequency of rabies in these two species of animals is indicated by the carefully compiled statistics of the German Empire, which shows that 904 dogs and 223 cows died of rabies in 1898, while in 1899 there were 911 cases in dogs and 171 in cattle. The latter receive bites most frequently on the hind legs and in the hips and about the lower jaw. These places are most accessible to dogs, owing to the habit of cattle to drive their tormentors away by lowering their heads and using their horns. Every animal bitten does not necessarily develop the disease, but the per cent of fatalities has been variously estimated, and averages from 25 to 30. This, however, depends on the location and size of the wound as well as the amount of hemorrhage produced, and various other conditions. In general, the nearer the bite is located to the central nervous system and the deeper the wound inflicted, the greater the danger of a fatal result. In cases in which the hemorrhage resulting from the bite is profuse, there is a possibility that the virus will be washed out of the wound and thus obviate the danger of subsequent appearance of the disease. The virus after being deposited in the wound remains latent for an extremely variable period of time, which also depends on the size and depth of the wound as well as its location and the amount of the virulent saliva introduced. Experiments have proved that the virus follows the course of the nerves to the spinal cord and along the latter to the brain before the symptoms appear. Gerlach, having collected the statistics from 133 cases, has found this time, known as the period of incubation, to vary from 14 to 285 days. The great majority of cases, however, contract the disease in one to three months after the bite has been inflicted. _Symptoms._--As in dogs, both furious and dumb rabies are met with, the former being more common in cattle. A sharp line of distinction, however, can not be drawn between these two forms of the disease, as the furious form usually merges into the dumb, from the paralysis which appears prior to death. The typical cases of dumb rabies are those in which the paralysis appears at the beginning of the attack and remains until death. The disease first manifests itself by a loss of appetite and rumination, stopping of the secretion of milk, great restlessness, anxiety, manifestation of fear, and change in the disposition of the animal. This preliminary stage is followed in a day or two by the stage of excitation, or madness, which is indicated by increasing restlessness, loud roaring at times with a peculiar change in the sound of the voice, violent butting with the horns and pawing the ground with the feet, with an insane tendency to attack other animals, although the desire to bite is not so marked in cattle as in the canine race. A constant symptom is the increased secretion of saliva with a consequent frothing at the mouth, or the secretion may hang from the lips in long strings. Constipation is marked, and there is manifested a continual, although unsuccessful, desire to defecate. Spasms of the muscles in different parts of the body are also seen at intervals. About the fourth day the animal usually becomes quieter and the walk is stiff, unsteady, and swaying, showing that the final paralysis is coming on. This is called the paralytic stage. The loss of flesh is extremely rapid, and even during the short course of the disease the animal becomes exceedingly emaciated. The temperature is never elevated, it usually remaining about normal or even subnormal. Finally, there is complete paralysis of the hind quarters, the animal being unable to rise, and but for irregular convulsive movements lies in a comatose condition and dies usually from the fourth to the sixth day after the appearance of the first symptom. _Anatomy._--If animals which have succumbed to rabies are examined post mortem, very slight evidence of disease will be found in any of the organs, and, indeed, the absence of any specific lesions may be considered as characteristic. The blood is dark and imperfectly coagulated. The throat is frequently reddened, and there may be small spots of extravasated blood in the intestines. The stomachs are usually empty. In the spleen there may be hemorrhagic enlargements (infarcts). The cadavers rapidly undergo decomposition. _Differential diagnosis._--It is not an easy matter to decide definitely that a given animal has rabies, since the symptoms given above belong in part to a variety of other diseases, among which may be mentioned the excitement seen in young animals following close confinement, certain vegetable and mineral poisons, acute enteritis, and alterations of the central nervous system in cattle, the most common of which is tuberculosis of the brain and its covering membranes. The post-mortem lesions, however, should assist in making a correct diagnosis. Tetanus may readily be differentiated from rabies by the persistence of muscular cramps, especially of the face and abdomen, which cause these muscles to become set and as hard as wood. In tetanus there is also an absence of a depraved appetite or of a willful propensity to hurt other animals or to damage the surroundings. The cow remains quiet and the general muscular contraction gives her a rigid appearance. There is an absence of paralysis which marks the advanced stage of rabies. The form of dumb rabies in dogs is characterized by the paralysis and pendency of the lower jaw, while in tetanus the jaws are locked. This locking of the jaws in cattle renders the animal incapable of bellowing, as in rabies. Finally, tetanus may be distinguished from rabies by the fact that the central nervous system does not contain the infectious principle, while in rabies the inoculation of test rabbits with the brain or cord of a rabid animal will produce the disease with characteristic symptoms after an interval of 15 to 20 days. This period of incubation is much longer than in tetanus, since the inoculation of rabbits with tetanus cultures invariably results in death after a short period and usually within three days. The positive evidence that a rabid dog has been near cattle would greatly assist in making a decision in doubtful cases. The disease in dogs is pretty well recognized by most people, but in case a suspected dog is killed it is desirable to open the animal and examine the contents of the stomach. While feed is absent, a variety of odd things may be present which the abnormally changed appetite of the rabid dog has induced it to swallow. Among such things may be straws, sticks, glass, rags, earth, pieces of leather, and whatever the animal may have encountered small enough to be swallowed. This miscellaneous collection in the stomach of dogs, together with absence of feed, is regarded by authorities as a very valuable sign, and in case of doubt may be made use of by laymen. In important cases, however, the head of the dog, cow, or other suspected animal should be removed and sent to the nearest biological laboratory, where a positive diagnosis can be made within 36 hours by the histological examination of the plexiform nerve ganglia, and within two or three weeks by the intracerebral inoculation of rabbits with an emulsion of the brain of the suspected animal. _Treatment._--This is useless after the first appearance of symptoms. When, however, a wound inflicted by a rabid animal can be discovered, it should be immediately cauterized or even completely extirpated, care being taken to cut entirely around the wound in the healthy tissues. For cauterizing the wound, fuming nitric acid, the hot iron, and 10 per cent solution of zinc chlorid are the most efficacious. To afford an absolute protection, this should be done within a few moments after the bite has been inflicted, although even as late as a few hours it has been known to thwart the development of the disease. Pasteur originated and perfected a system of preventive inoculation against this disease which has greatly reduced the mortality in human subjects. Its application to animals, however, is difficult and requires considerable time and expense. A method of vaccination applicable to animals, consisting of a single injection of a suspension of "fixed" rabies virus, is now being quite extensively employed by veterinarians. Sanitary regulations which seek to control effectively the disease by exterminating it among dogs are most likely to prove successful. The measures which are adopted to this end can not be discussed in this place, but it is a striking fact that where the muzzling of all dogs has been rigidly enforced, as in England and in certain German districts, the disease has been practically stamped out. TUBERCULOSIS. [Pls. XXXIV-XXXVIII.] Tuberculosis is an infectious and communicable disease characterized in its early stages by the formation, in various organs of the body, of minute nodules or tubercles, which contain _Mycobacterium tuberculosis_, the cause of the disease. The disease, in its various manifestations, has been known for many centuries, and legislative enactments having reference to the destruction of affected animals and forbidding the use of the flesh date far back into the Middle Ages. The opinions entertained regarding the nature and the cause of the malady varied much in different periods and very markedly influenced the laws and regulations in vogue. Thus, in the sixteenth century, the disease was considered identical with syphilis in man. In consequence of this belief very stringent laws were enacted, which made the destruction of tuberculous cattle compulsory. In the eighteenth century this erroneous conception of the nature of the disease was abandoned and all restrictions against the use of meat were removed. Since that time, however, its communicable nature has been established by many investigators, and the tide of opinion has again turned in favor of repressing the disease and prohibiting the sale of contaminated products. _Occurrence._--The statistics concerning tuberculosis show that it is a disease prevalent in all civilized countries. In some countries, such as the northern part of Norway and Sweden, on the steppes of eastern Europe and Russia, in Sicily and Iceland, and in Algiers, it is said to be quite rare. The returns from testing British cattle with tuberculin, supplied by the Royal Veterinary College, as stated in March, 1900, showed that among 15,392 animals tested 4,105, or 26 per cent, reacted. During the slaughter of cattle for pleuropneumonia careful examinations of the carcasses were made for tuberculosis. Of 300 head killed near Edinburgh 120, or 40 per cent, were tuberculous. Of 4,160 killed in England 20 per cent were tuberculous. Of one of these lots of cattle (451 animals) the president of the Lancashire Farmers' Association testified that they were fairly representative cattle--cows, heifers, and growing stock--a thoroughly mixed lot; 20 per cent of them had tuberculosis. Of 398 bovine animals taken haphazard in the city of Manchester, 120, or 30 per cent, were tuberculous. Among them were 168 cows, 69, or 41 per cent, being tuberculous, and 2 having diseased udders. The result of testing the Queen's herd at Windsor was that 36 out of 40, or 90 per cent, were found tuberculous. The investigations made by the British Dairy Farmers' Association deserve particular attention, coming as they do directly from a cattle owners' organization. The council of this association "resolved to submit the general consideration of the question to a committee, with a view to some more definite understanding as to the possible extent to which tuberculosis exists in dairy cattle." The secretary was instructed to write to a number of dairy farmers being members of the association, asking their cooperation and the use of their herds for the application of the tests. Of the herds offered, 9 were selected, containing 461 cows and 12 bulls, and 188 of these animals reacted, being 40.8 per cent. There were among these cattle 335 Shorthorns, of which 119, or 35 per cent, reacted; 67 crossbreds, of which 28, or 42 per cent, reacted; 47 Ayrshires, of which 37, or 80 per cent, reacted. Another experiment of much interest is that of the Cheshire County Council. The technical instruction committee set aside £250 to be used by a joint committee from the agricultural and horticultural schools and Worleson Dairy Institute for applying the tuberculin test to their herds. The tests were made February 15, 1899. The results were: Worleson herd of 54 animals, 16 diseased, or 29.6 per cent; agricultural school herd of 17 animals, 4 diseased, or 23.5 per cent. The Worleson herd consisted of Shorthorn cows. In each herd the purebred Shorthorn bull was tuberculous. The results of the tuberculin test were confirmed by the slaughter of the animals and examination of the carcasses. Sir T. D. G. Carmichael, member of Parliament for Midlothian, gave evidence before the royal commission that his Polled Angus herd was tested in the spring of 1895. "The results of the test were fearfully unexpected and alarming." Of 30 tested 13 showed decided reaction--43 per cent. Again, he speaks of having 41 animals tested the same spring and 16 reacted--39.5 per cent. Of 80 Shorthorn cattle intended for export which were tested 34 reacted, or 42 per cent. Of a herd of 25 British Shorthorns recently tested in quarantine 40 per cent were found tuberculous. The addition of these animals above referred to gives 20,930 head examined and 5,441, or 26 per cent, pronounced tuberculous. And these herds were not selected because they were supposed to be tuberculous, but represent the general cattle stock of the country. These animals included at least 470 head of Shorthorns, of which 170, or 34 per cent, were tuberculous. To these facts may be added the evidence of Prof. Bang that in the first half of the nineteenth century tuberculosis was brought to Denmark by cattle from Switzerland, Schleswig, and England, and that the same thing is now going on in Sweden and Norway, particularly through English cattle. Also the evidence of M. Sivori, chief of section at the ministry of agriculture, Argentina, who has investigated tuberculosis in that country and who says that "30 or 40 years ago tuberculosis was unknown in Argentine cattle, and it is still unknown among the native (criollo) cattle. Its appearance dates from the introduction of pure breeding animals. Statistics prove that tuberculosis is observed among the grades--above all among those of the Durham and less among the Hereford." Moreover, the reports of the royal commission of Victoria, Australia, and of the New Zealand department of agriculture show a large proportion of tuberculous cattle in those colonies, where the disease was almost certainly carried by British cattle. In the same manner that tuberculosis has been carried from Great Britain to Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Argentina, and Australia, it has also been taken to Canada. In one herd of imported cattle slaughtered in the Canadian quarantine station, 13 of the 14 animals were found tuberculous. One of the largest Shorthorn herds in Canada was some time ago tested because an animal from it was condemned when offered for shipment to the United States. This herd was found to be very badly affected, and an effort is being made to eradicate the disease by the Bang method. A Canadian official publication says of another Shorthorn herd, which at one time had a very high reputation, that when an investigation in regard to tuberculosis was recently made the disease was found among ordinary cattle wherever animals from this herd had been introduced, and that this herd, which had been looked upon as one of the greatest benefits to the farming community, was really a danger, because it disseminated tuberculosis among the farmers' herds. Still another well-known herd recently attracted attention because four animals from it offered for export to the United States were all tuberculous. From December 23, 1900, to February 19, 1901, the period that the department inspector tested all Canadian cattle intended for shipment to the United States, 140 purebred Shorthorns and 3 Shorthorn grades were tested, and of the total number 26, or 18 per cent, reacted. During the first month that this inspection was enforced, and when it may be assumed that the condition of the cattle most nearly represented what it had previously been, 74 cattle were offered for importation, and 18, or 24.3 per cent, were found tuberculous. In justice to Shorthorn cattle it should be said in this connection that they are probably no more susceptible to tuberculosis than are other breeds, but the disease has been allowed to spread in certain herds and families to such an extent as to give a wrong impression concerning the breed as a whole. The slaughterhouse statistics of Prussia show 14.6 per cent of the cattle and 2.14 per cent of the hogs to be tuberculous. In Saxony the percentage is 29.13 with cattle and 3.10 with hogs. In the city of Leipzig the figures are 36.4 for cattle and 2.17 for hogs. (Siedamgrotzky.) Of 20,850 animals in Belgium tested with tuberculin in 1896, 48.88 per cent reacted. (Stubbe.) Of 25,439 tested in Denmark from 1893 to 1895, 49.3 per cent reacted; and of 67,263 tested from 1896 to 1898, 32.8 per cent reacted. (Bang.) Figures available in the United States allow us to make a reliable estimate of the extent of tuberculosis of cattle. The following summary is presented: _Statistics of tests for tuberculosis in the United States, 1917 to March 1, 1922._ -----------------------+---------+------------+------------- State. | Number | Number | Per cent | tested. |tuberculous.|tuberculous. -----------------------+---------+------------+------------- Alabama | 68,772 | 1,071 | 1.6 Arkansas | 5,917 | 98 | 1.7 Colorado | 1,959 | 76 | 3.9 Connecticut | 29,286 | 4,695 | 16.0 Delaware | 19,003 | 2,132 | 11.2 Florida | 56,533 | 1,438 | 2.5 Georgia | 46,522 | 998 | 2.1 Idaho | 57,731 | 1,052 | 1.8 Illinois | 92,781 | 6,112 | 6.6 Indiana | 142,833 | 3,991 | 2.8 Iowa | 158,514 | 9,958 | 6.3 Kansas | 64,341 | 1,796 | 2.8 Kentucky | 66,839 | 1,492 | 2.2 Louisiana | 36,391 | 981 | 2.7 Maine | 67,406 | 1,792 | 2.7 Maryland | 65,888 | 5,491 | 8.3 Massachusetts | 26,297 | 2,371 | 9.0 Michigan | 163,323 | 5,361 | 3.3 Minnesota | 240,888 | 7,555 | 3.1 Mississippi | 99,245 | 503 | .5 Missouri | 196,208 | 2,587 | 1.3 Montana | 165,640 | 3,346 | 2.0 Nebraska | 125,162 | 3,947 | 3.2 Nevada | 29,541 | 1,042 | 3.5 New Hampshire | 16,623 | 1,697 | 10.2 New Jersey | 32,184 | 2,542 | 7.9 New Mexico | 3,897 | 39 | 1.0 New York | 167,852 | 23,071 | 13.7 North Carolina | 64,008 | 1,098 | 1.7 North Dakota | 139,501 | 4,142 | 3.0 Ohio | 97,612 | 4,470 | 4.6 Oklahoma | 67,522 | 2,453 | 3.6 Oregon | 123,792 | 2,581 | 2.1 Pennsylvania | 102,465 | 6,322 | 6.2 Rhode Island | 3,458 | 338 | 9.8 South Carolina | 41,868 | 740 | 1.8 South Dakota | 43,433 | 2,353 | 5.4 Tennessee | 63,631 | 956 | 1.5 Texas | 61,956 | 1,256 | 2.0 Utah | 59,711 | 586 | 1.0 Vermont | 160,361 | 11,486 | 7.2 Virginia | 135,677 | 3,881 | 2.9 Washington | 154,292 | 3,864 | 2.5 West Virginia | 36,603 | 798 | 2.2 Wisconsin | 285,269 | 8,166 | 2.9 Wyoming | 22,811 | 322 | 1.4 -----------------------+---------+------------+------------- Reports of tuberculin tests made on 400,000 cattle in the United States during the years 1893 to 1908 by Federal, State, and other officers with tuberculin prepared by the Bureau of Animal Industry show 37,008 reactions, or 9.25 per cent. These were mostly dairy cattle, and in some cases herds were suspected of being diseased. Later reports of tuberculin tests made in the United States from July 1, 1917, to March 1, 1922, on 3,911,546 cattle by State, county, and Federal officers engaged in cooperative tuberculosis eradication work showed 153,046 reactions, or 3.9 per cent. All cattle in the District of Columbia, numbering 1,701, were tested with tuberculin in 1909-10, and 18.87 per cent reacted. In 1909-11 herds in Maryland and Virginia supplying milk to the District of Columbia were tested, with 19.03 and 15.38 per cent of reactions, respectively, among 4,501 cattle. All cattle in the District of Columbia were tuberculin tested in 1920-21, numbering 1,313, and 5 animals reacted, or 0.4 per cent, demonstrating that tuberculosis may be eradicated from all the herds in a circumscribed area. The beef cattle of the United States show a much smaller proportion of the disease than dairy cattle, though the percentage of cattle found tuberculous in the Government meat-inspection service has increased considerably in recent years. This increase is due partly, but not wholly, to more stringent inspection. Of 7,781,030 adult cattle slaughtered under Federal inspection during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1911, 76,448 were found tuberculous, a percentage of 0.98. From the statistics above referred to, and other data, it appears that in the more densely populated areas of Europe and America from 5 to 50 per cent of the dairy cattle are more or less affected with tuberculosis, while the proportion of beef cattle affected is distinctly less, ranging from 0.14 to 30 per cent. This difference is due to a number of causes. Beef cattle average younger when slaughtered. They are not so frequently stabled, and are for that reason less liable to infection, and as the males constitute a large proportion of this class of animals the effect of milk secretion in lowering the vital forces is not so apparent. In the United States it has been estimated that about 10 per cent of the dairy cattle are tuberculous, while only about 2 per cent of the beef cattle are so infected. _Cause and nature of the disease._--The cause of tuberculosis is the tubercle bacillus, which gains entrance to the body, lodges somewhere in the tissues, and begins to grow and multiply at that point. As this bacillus vegetates and increases in numbers it excretes substances which act as irritants and poisons and which lead to the formation of a small nodule, called a tubercle, at the point of irritation. As the bacilli are disseminated through the animal body they affect many parts and cause the formation of an enormous number of tubercles. By the union of such tubercles, masses of tubercular material are formed, which in some cases are of great size. The disease is called tuberculosis because it is characterized by the formation of these peculiar nodules, and the bacillus which causes the disease is for the same reason known technically as the _Mycobacterium tuberculosis._ There are undoubtedly predisposing conditions which contribute toward the development of the disease; some of these are found in the animal body and others in the environment. An enfeebled condition caused by insufficient feed, exposure to great extremes of atmospheric temperature and insanitary surroundings, or the drain occasioned by heavy production of milk, appear to aid the development of the bacillus, and there is also a special individual susceptibility in some cases which may be otherwise described as an inability of the animal tissues to resist and destroy the bacilli when they have penetrated to the inner recesses of the body. Among the conditions of environment which aid the development of tuberculosis may be mentioned stabling with lack of ventilation, damp buildings, the keeping of many animals together, drafts of air which cause colds and catarrhs, and, in general, everything which prevents the animals from developing and maintaining the highest condition of health. None of these conditions of body or environment are sufficient to cause the disease, however, unless the animals are exposed to the _Mycobacterium tuberculosis_ and it penetrates the tissues of their bodies. The ways in which the tubercle bacilli find their way into the body may be considered under four heads: (1) By inhalation into the lungs; (2) by taking into the digestive tract in the milk of tuberculous cows or with other contaminated feed; (3) during coition when the sexual organs are tuberculous; (4) from the tuberculous mother to the fetus in the uterus. The bacilli can reach the lungs by inhalation only when the bacilli are thoroughly dried and pulverized and in condition to be carried by currents of air. It is well known that the bacilli withstand drying for months before they lose their power of producing disease. They leave the bodies of diseased animals in several ways. There may be a little discharge occasionally coughed up as a spray from the diseased lungs, or this material may be swallowed and the bacilli carried off with the excrement, or milk may be spilt, or there may be a discharge from the vagina when the genital organs are tuberculous. There may also be ulcers of the intestines, from which many bacilli escape with the feces. The bacilli from these sources may become dried and pulverized and carried in the air of the stable and into the lungs of still healthy cattle, where the disease then develops. The disease of the stomach, intestines, and mesenteric glands is very probably the result of feed infection. Tubercle bacilli may have been scattered upon the feed by diseased animals, but the most common source of such infection is the milk of tuberculous cows. Calves may become infected in this way. The disease may remain latent until the animal becomes older. The not-infrequent occurrence of tuberculosis of the uterus and ovaries makes it probable that the disease may be transmitted by a diseased bull or carried by a healthy one from a diseased cow to a number of healthy cows. The source of infection is always some previous case of the disease, for the disease can never rise spontaneously; hence, in those stables in which there is frequent change of cattle the introduction of tuberculosis by cattle coming from other infected stables is the most frequent source of infection. Since the bacilli when dried can be carried by the air, it is not necessary that healthy animals come in direct contact with cases of disease to become infected. In general, the greatest number of cases occur in the immediate environment of cities, where there are not only abundant opportunities for infection, owing to the frequent introduction of new animals into herds, but where the sanitary conditions may be regarded as the poorest. The bacillus of tuberculosis was discovered by Robert Koch in 1882. It is a slender, rodlike body (see Pl. XXVIII, fig. 6) from one-third to two-thirds the diameter of a red blood corpuscle in length. As already explained, when the bacillus has become lodged in any organ or tissue it begins to multiply, and thereby causes an irritation in the tissue around it, which leads to the formation of the so-called tubercle. The tubercle, when it has reached its full growth, is a little nodule about the size of a millet seed. It is composed of several kinds of tissue cells. Soon a change takes place within the tubercle. Disintegration begins, and a soft, cheesy substance is formed in the center, which may contain particles of lime salts. When these tubercles continue to form in large numbers they run together, forming masses of various sizes. The disintegration which attacks them leads to the formation of large cheesy masses of a yellowish color, containing more or less of lime salts in the form of gritty particles. These large tuberculous masses are surrounded by or embedded in layers of fibrous tissue which in some cases becomes very dense and thick. The disease is thus a development of these tubercles in one or more organs of the body. The distribution and number of the tubercles determine the course of the disease. In a large number of cases the changes are limited to the lungs and the serous membranes[4] of the thorax and abdomen. Pathologists have been in the habit of calling the lung disease tuberculosis and the disease of the serous membranes "pearly disease." Statistics have shown that in about one-half of the cases both lungs and serous membranes are diseased, in one-third only the lungs, and in one-fifth only the serous membranes. At the same time the lymphatic glands near the diseased organs are usually involved. Other organs, such as the liver, not infrequently contain tubercles. Though the disease may remain restricted to a single organ, it now and then is found generalized, affecting all organs of the body. In the lungs (Pl. XXXIV) the changes observed vary according to the age and intensity of the disease process. They usually begin with the appearance of very minute tubercles. These may appear in large numbers on the surface of the lungs or within the lung tissue. Later the contents become cheesy and partly calcified. When these tubercles are sufficiently numerous to become confluent, large masses may be formed, which undergo the same retrogressive changes of caseation and calcification. In addition to the formation of tubercles in the lung tissue, certain other changes take place. There is usually bronchitis with abundant catarrhal secretion; this plugs up the smaller air tubes, and the lung tissue supplied with air by the tubes collapses. Subsequently it becomes filled with yellowish, cheesy matter, which greatly distends the small air tubes and air vesicles (bronchopneumonia). The connective tissue between the lung lobules, around the tubercles, and around the air tubes becomes thickened and indurated. In the larynx and the bronchi tubercles may vegetate upon the mucous membrane, and ulcers may result from their breaking down. The inflammatory irritation which the growth of the tubercles on the surface of the lungs arouses gives rise to adhesion of the lungs to the ribs and diaphragm. This adhesion is sometimes so firm and extensive that the lungs appear grown to the chest wall. When, therefore, the lungs in advanced stages of the disease are cut open we observe large yellowish masses, from one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, of a cheesy texture, in which calcified, gritty particles are embedded and which are surrounded by very firm connective tissue. The neighboring lung tissue, when collapsed and involved in bronchopneumonia, has the color and consistency of pale-red flesh. The air tubes, large and small, stand out prominently on the cut surface. They are distended with a pasty, yellowish, cheesy mass, surrounded and enveloped in thick mucus, and their walls greatly thickened. The larger bronchi may be sacculated, owing to the distention produced by the cheesy contents. The disease usually attacks the bronchial glands, which are situated on the trachea and bronchial tubes at the bifurcation. The changes in the glands are the same as those going on in the lung tissue, and they frequently reach an enormous size. The tubercle formation on the serous membranes covering the lungs and chest wall (Pl. XXXVII, fig. 2), which may go on at the same time with the lung disease or independent of it, has been called "pearly disease," on account of the peculiar appearance of the tubercles. These begin as very minute, grayish nodules, which give the originally smooth, lustrous membrane a roughened appearance. These minute tubercles enlarge, become confluent, and project above the surface of the membrane as wartlike masses, attaining the size of peas. In this stage their attachment to the membrane is by means of delicate fibers. The attachment is loose, so that the tubercle hangs by a short pedicle or neck and may be moved slightly to and fro. Large masses are frequently formed by a coalescence of many tubercles and the secondary formation of the same. These may be found on the lungs, the ribs, and the diaphragm. These tubercles likewise undergo degenerative changes. The center partly softens and partly calcifies into a grayish mortarlike mass, and is gritty. Associated with the formation of tubercles on the pleura, those glands situated back of the center of the lungs between the two main lobes (posterior mediastinal) become greatly enlarged and the center cheesy. (Pl. XXXVI, fig. 1.) They may compress the esophagus and interfere with swallowing. The size attained by these tumors and new growths is well illustrated by the fact that, taken together, they not infrequently weigh from 60 to 80 pounds. The bronchial glands, which in the healthy state are not so large as horse-chestnuts, have been found to attain a weight of more than 10 pounds. In the abdominal cavity tubercles may be found, both in the organs and on the serous membranes covering them. They are situated usually on the omentum, or caul (see Pl. XXXVI, fig. 2), the diaphragm, and the walls of the abdomen. In the liver large and small tubercular masses are occasionally encountered. (See Pl. XXXV.) The mesenteric glands are occasionally enlarged and tuberculous; likewise the glands near the liver. Tubercles may also develop in the spleen, the kidneys, the uterus and ovaries, and the testicles. Tubercular affection of the intestines seems to be quite rare, although ulcers of the large intestines have been observed. Nodules may also form under the serous covering of the intestines. The brain and spinal cord are occasionally found tuberculous. Of 40 cases, Semmer found tuberculosis of the brain in 4. It is not improbable that, owing to the infrequency of exposing the brain and spinal cord, tuberculosis may have escaped the attention of pathologists, and it may be that it is not so uncommon as is generally supposed. The tubercles occur on the membranes of the brain as well as in the substance of the brain itself. They project into the ventricles as masses, varying in size from a pinhead to a hen's egg. They finally lead to various inflammatory changes. Jöhne has observed numerous small tubercles on the membranes of the spinal cord. Very rarely tuberculous lesions have been observed in the bones and muscles of the body. Not so rare, however, is the affection of the lymphatic glands embedded in the muscular tissue, and those which can be felt beneath the skin. These are situated at the joints, under the jaw, and along the neck. Of late tubercular disease of the udder in cows (Pl. XXXVIII) has received considerable attention from sanitarians, owing to the infection of the milk with the virus of tuberculosis. According to those who have given this subject special attention, the udder becomes swollen uniformly and quite firm. This swelling, which is painless, frequently attacks but one quarter, more rarely two, these being usually the hind quarters. The larger milk ducts contain yellowish, cheesy particles, in which are many tubercle bacilli. Later larger nodules can be felt within the udder, which undergo the various changes to which tubercles are subject. The udder may grow very hard to the touch and become very large, weighing in some cases up to 40 pounds. The milk, at first normal, becomes thin and watery after a month or so, and is mixed with flakes and tubercle bacilli. As regards the frequency of the tuberculous processes in the different organs, the following carefully compiled statistics of the disease in Bavaria and Baden may serve as a guide: Bavaria: Per cent. Tuberculosis of lungs and serous membranes 41 Tuberculosis of lungs alone 33 Tuberculosis of serous membranes alone (pearly disease) 17 Tuberculosis of other organs 8 Baden: Tuberculosis of lungs alone 21 Tuberculosis of serous membranes alone 28 Both combined 39 Generalized tuberculosis 9 Tuberculosis of the sexual organs alone 3 _Symptoms._--The beginning of the disease usually passes unnoticed, inasmuch as it is very slow and insidious and rarely accompanied with fever. When the lungs are involved a dull, short cough is noticed, which may later on become prolonged, convulsive, and very troublesome to the animal. The cough is more frequent in the morning after movement and drinking. The breathing varies. Only when much of the lung tissue is diseased is it labored and accompanied with active movements of the chest and nostrils. Discharge from the nose is rare or absent. At times, however, when the tubercles have broken down and cavities containing cheesy masses have formed in the lung tissue, or when the air tubes have become filled with cheesy and mucous masses, coughing will dislodge them and cause their discharge. In advanced stages the breath may have a disagreeable odor. Pressure on the chest wall may give rise to pain. The general effect on the body is at first slight. In fact, animals may remain in good flesh for a considerable time. Invariably as the disease progresses loss of flesh and appetite and paleness of the mucous membranes become manifest. These symptoms are accompanied with a gradual diminution of the milk secretion. The debilitated condition of the animal is also manifested by a staring coat and a tough, dry, harsh skin (hidebound). Digestive disturbances are indicated by tympanites, or distention of the rumen by gas, colic, and diarrhea, alternating with constipation. The animal generally dies from exhaustion after a period of sickness which may last months or even years. [Illustration: PLATE XXXIV. TUBERCULOSIS OF THE LUNGS OF CATTLE.] [Illustration: PLATE XXXV. TUBERCULOSIS OF THE LIVER.] [Illustration: PLATE XXXVI. TUBERCULOSIS OF LYMPH GLAND AND OF OMENTUM (CAUL).] [Illustration: PLATE XXXVII. FIG. 1.--TUBERCULOSIS OF SIRLOIN AND PORTERHOUSE CUTS OF BEEF. FIG. 2.--TUBERCULOSIS OF PLEURA OF A COW, SO-CALLED "PEARLY DISEASE."] [Illustration: PLATE XXXVIII. TUBERCULOSIS OF COW'S UDDER.] * * * * * TUBERCULOSIS. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE XXXIV. Tuberculosis of the lungs of cattle. The upper figure represents a large cheesy mass, surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue, the whole embedded in healthy lung tissue. The lower figure illustrates in section a mass of tubercles which have undergone cheesy degeneration, and some of which are surrounded by dense connective tissue. PLATE XXXV. Tuberculosis of the liver. A large portion of the lobe represented in the plate has undergone tuberculous changes. Numerous nodules are shown in various stages of the disease, the majority of which, however, contain the yellowish, partly cheesy, partly gritty areas characteristic of advanced tuberculous degeneration. This large mass involves the surface of the liver, and also extends into the liver substance. PLATE XXXVI. Tuberculosis of lymph gland and of omentum (caul). Fig. 1. A lymph gland from the region of the thorax behind or above the esophagus, or gullet (posterior, or dorsal, mediastinum). The gland is shown cut through and laid open. It is very much enlarged, and the yellowish cheesy masses which represent tissue undergoing tuberculous changes are well shown on the cut surface. Fig. 2. Omentum, or caul, resting upon the paunch. The reddish nodules with which the membrane is beset are tubercles, the product of the disease. PLATE XXXVII. Fig. 1. Tuberculosis of the sirloin and porterhouse cuts of beef. The grapelike tuberculous growths are mainly restricted to the lining membrane of the abdomen. Fig. 2. Tuberculosis of the pleura of a cow, so-called "pearly disease." Notice the grapelike clusters of tubercular nodules scattered over the lining membrane of the chest (pleura). PLATE XXXVIII. Tuberculosis of cow's udder. The udder was uniformly swollen and quite firm. Small cheesy foci and yellowish lines of tuberculous material follow the course of the milk ducts. The mucous membrane of the milk cistern (_a_) is ulcerated and covered with yellowish cheesy particles. The supramammary lymphatic gland (_b_) is greatly enlarged and contains many miliary tubercular foci. * * * * * Tuberculosis in the abdominal organs is often signalized by abortion and by abnormal sexual manifestations. When the brain is involved, the disease may cause convulsions, unconsciousness, paralysis, as well as peculiar movements in a circle, oblique position of the head, etc. Lydtin quotes the following description of the disease as taken from a Swiss sanitary order: A dry, short, interrupted, hoarse cough, which the sick animals manifest, especially in the morning at feeding time, still more after somewhat violent exertion. At first these animals may be full blooded and lay on a considerable amount of fat when well fed. As the disease progresses they grow thin and show more and more those appearances which indicate diseased nutrition, such as a staring, lusterless, disheveled coat; dirty, tense skin, which appears very pale in those regions free from hair. The temperature of the skin is below normal. The loss of fat causes sinking of the eyes in their sockets. They appear swimming in water, and their expression is weak. The cough is more frequent, but never or very rarely accompanied with discharge. The body continues to emaciate, even with plenty of food and a good appetite, so that the quantity of milk is small. At times in the early stages of the disease, still more in the later stages, the diseased animals manifest considerable tenderness when pressure is applied to the front or the sides of the chest by coughing, moaning, etc. Often symptoms are wanting in spite of the existence of the disease. Lydtin also quotes at length a description of the abnormal sexual desire occasionally observed among cows when affected with this disease. _Diagnosis._--A disease so varied in its attack upon the different organs of the body and in the extent of the disease process must necessarily lead to mistakes when diagnosis is attempted by ordinary means of examination. It has been confounded with the later stages of pleuropneumonia, with parasitic diseases of the brain, the lungs, the intestines, and with actinomycosis. A careful examination of the lungs by auscultation and percussion enables the expert to locate large tuberculous masses, owing to dullness, loss of respiratory murmur, and abnormal sounds, such as blowing, whistling, and creaking. The majority of cases of tuberculosis in cattle, however, including many in which the lungs are quite seriously involved, can not be detected in this manner. THE TUBERCULIN TEST. The tuberculin test, which is marvelously accurate in its indications, has been almost universally adopted for the detection of tuberculosis. Tuberculin is a drug prepared by sterilizing, filtering, and concentrating the liquids in which the tubercle bacillus has been allowed to vegetate. It contains the cooked products of the growth of these bacilli, but no living bacilli; consequently, when this substance is injected under the skin of an animal it is absolutely unable to produce the disease, cause abortion, or otherwise injure the animal. In case the injected animal is normal there is no more effect upon the system than would be expected from the injection of sterile water; however, if the animal is tuberculous, a decided rise of temperature will follow the use of tuberculin by the subcutaneous method. This substance, discovered by Koch, has the effect, when injected into the tissues of a tuberculous animal, of causing a decided rise of temperature or other manifestations while it has no such effect upon animals free from the disease. The value of tuberculin for this purpose was tested during the years 1890 and 1891 by Guttman, Roeckl and Schütz, Bang and Salomonsen, Lydtin, Jöhne and Siedamgrotzky, Nocard, and many others. It was at once recognized as a most remarkable and accurate method of detecting tuberculosis even in the early stages and when the disease had yet made but little progress. It is now quite generally employed. The tuberculin test came into existence through the most careful and thorough scientific experimentation. As a result of its use an accurate diagnosis may be established in more than 90 per cent of the cases tested. The relatively few failures in diagnoses are included among two classes of cattle. The first class contains those that are tuberculous, but which do not react either because of the slight effect of an ordinary-sized dose of tuberculin on an advanced case of the disease with so much natural tuberculin already in the system, or on account of a recent previous test with tuberculin which produces a tolerance to this material, lasting for about six weeks. The second class includes those that are not tuberculous, but which show indications of a reaction as a result of (_a_) advanced pregnancy, (_b_) the excitement of [oe]strum, (_c_) concurrent diseases, as inflammation of the lungs, intestines, uterus, udder, or other parts, abortion, retention of afterbirth, indigestion, etc., (_d_) inclosure in a hot, stuffy stable, especially in summer, or exposure to cold drafts or rains, (_e_) any change in the method of feeding, watering, or stabling of the animal during the test. Notwithstanding all these possibilities of error, the results of thousands of tests show that in less than 3 per cent of the cases tested do these failures actually occur. In the first class the chances of error are decidedly reduced by the skilled veterinarian by making careful physical examination and diagnosing clinically these advanced cases, and by the injection of double or triple doses into all recently tested cattle, with the taking of the after-temperature, beginning two hours following the injection and continuing hourly for 20 hours. It is therefore apparent that tuberculin should be applied only by or under the direction of a competent veterinarian, capable not only of injecting the tuberculin but also of interpreting the results, and particularly of picking out all clinical cases by physical examination. The latter observation is extremely important and should always be made on every animal tested. In the second class, where the temperature test is used, errors are avoided by eliminating from the test those cases that are nearing parturition or are in heat or show evidence of the previously mentioned diseases or exhibit temperatures sufficiently high to make them unreliable for use as normal. Where other methods of test are used these conditions do not have an important bearing on the results. In addition, a satisfactory tuberculin must be used; also an accurate thermometer and a reliable syringe, in order that a sufficient dose of tuberculin may be given. Finally, the number of apparent errors of the tuberculin test will be greatly diminished if a careful post-mortem examination is made, giving especial attention to the lymph glands. This low percentage of failures being the case, cattle owners should welcome the tuberculin test, not only for their own interest but for the welfare of the public as well. Where this method of diagnosing the disease has been adopted tuberculosis is gradually being eradicated. Without its use the disease can not be controlled and the owner is confronted with serious and continuous losses; with its use the disease can be eradicated from the herd, a clean herd established in a few years without very serious loss or hardship, and the danger of its spread to man removed. Tuberculin may therefore be considered a most beneficial discovery for the stock raiser. Law has clearly stated the question when he says-- Many stock owners still entertain an ignorant and unwarranted dread of the tuberculin test. It is true that when recklessly used by ignorant and careless people it may be made a root of evil, yet as employed by the intelligent and careful expert it is not only perfectly safe, but it is the only known means of ascertaining approximately the actual number affected in a given herd. In most infected herds living under what are in other respects good hygienic conditions two-thirds or three-fourths are not to be detected without its aid, so that in clearing a herd from tuberculosis and placing both herd and products above suspicion the test becomes essential. * * * In skilled hands the tuberculin test will show at least nine-tenths of all cases of tuberculosis when other methods of diagnosis will not detect one-tenth. Probably the most popular objection to tuberculin is that it is too searching, since it discovers cases in which the lesions are small and obscure. While this fact is admitted, it should also be remembered that such a small lesion to-day may break down and become widely disseminated in a relatively short period. Therefore any cow affected with tuberculosis, even to a slight degree, must be considered as dangerous not only to the other animals in the herd but also to the consumer of her products. In 1898 Bang, of Copenhagen, one of the highest European authorities, in his paper presented to the Congress for the Study of Human and Animal Tuberculosis, at Paris, said: Numerous tests made in almost every civilized country have demonstrated that in the majority of cases tuberculin is an excellent means for diagnosing the existence or nonexistence of the disease, but giving us no positive information as to the extent to which the disease has progressed. When tuberculin produces a typical reaction we may be almost sure that there exists in the body of the animal a tubercular process. The cases in which a careful examiner has not succeeded in finding it are very rare, and I am led to believe that when, notwithstanding all the pains taken, it has escaped discovery, the reason is that it is located in a portion of the body that is particularly inaccessible. Nevertheless, it is not to be denied that a fever, entirely accidental and of short duration, may in some rare cases have simulated a reaction. However this may be, the error committed in wrongly condemning an occasional animal for tuberculosis is of no practical consequence. A worse aspect of the case is that there are some diseased animals in which tuberculin fails to discover the existence of tuberculosis. In most of these, no doubt, the deposits are old, insignificant, and generally calcified, or they are cases where the disease is arrested and perhaps in process of recovery, and which are possibly incapable of disseminating the contagion. But it is known that there are cases, not altogether rare, where tuberculin fails to cause a reaction in a highly tuberculous animal, and consequently one in which the disease exists in an extremely contagious form. For this reason a clinical examination should always be made of an animal which does not give a reaction but which shows symptoms indicating that, notwithstanding the test, it may suffer from tuberculosis. Nocard, of Paris, wrote also in 1898 as follows: The degree of certainty of the indications furnished may be stated in precise terms. _The observation of a clear reaction to tuberculin is unequivocal; the animal is tuberculous._ The pretended errors imputed to the method are explained by the extreme sensitiveness of the reagent, which is capable of detecting the smallest lesion. It often requires prolonged and minute researches in the depths of all the tissues to discover the few miliary centers, the presence of which has been revealed. The reaction is absolutely specific. In those cases where it is observed with animals which show lesions of another disease (actinomycosis, hydatid disease, verminous bronchitis, distomatosis), it may be affirmed that there exists, in addition to these conspicuous changes, a tuberculous center which alone has provoked the reaction. _The failure to react does not necessarily imply absence of tuberculosis._ Such failures of tuberculin are very exceptional. They are seen most frequently with animals affected with tuberculosis in a very advanced stage and made evident by plain external signs. Sometimes, also, there are found at the post-mortem examination of animals which have not reacted small fibrous or calcified lesions in such a condition that one is tempted to believe them cured. Whether sterile or not, these lesions have no tendency to increase, and they are not very dangerous from the point of view of contagion. These opinions of two eminent authorities, living in different countries, after long experience of their own and after studying the results of the many tests made in different parts of the world, should have great weight. They are essentially the same throughout. In 1897 Voges compiled statistics of tuberculin tests, the accuracy of which had been determined by post-mortem examination. Of 7,327 animals tested, it appeared that errors had been made with 204, or 2.78 per cent. In the work of the Pennsylvania Live Stock Sanitary Board post-mortem examinations were made on about 4,400 reacting cattle and the disease was found in all but 8 of those which had given characteristic reactions. The results of a much larger number of tests might be compiled at this time, but they would not materially change the average of those already mentioned. It is plain that tuberculin is a remarkably accurate test of tuberculosis, that the animals which react may be safely considered as tuberculous, and that when a careful clinical examination is practiced in addition to the test there are few animals in a dangerous condition which escape detection. The first questions asked by those who oppose the adoption of the tuberculin tests are: Is this test infallible? and, if it is not infallible, why should it be forced upon the cattle owners of the country? In answer to these questions it may be said that tuberculin is not absolutely infallible, and yet it is by far the best method of diagnosing tuberculosis that has been discovered. It is much better than any test known for pleuropneumonia when that disease was eradicated. Practically all the animals that react are affected with tuberculosis and should be separated from the herd, not only in the interest of the public, but in the interest of the owner of the herd. The best authorities admit, after studying many thousands of tests, that there are few, if any, mistakes made in condemning cattle which show a typical tuberculin reaction. The errors are principally in the other direction--that is, some tuberculous animals are not discovered by the tuberculin test, but as the most dangerous of these may be picked out by ordinary clinical examination this fault of tuberculin is not so serious as it at first sight appears. This being the case, it should not be necessary to force the tuberculin test upon owners. They should be anxious to adopt it in their own interests and for the protection of their patrons. There is to-day no greater danger to the cattle and hog industries than that which confronts them in the form of tuberculosis, a disease already widespread and rapidly extending. Furthermore, in view of the results revealed by numerous tests covering vast numbers of animals, tuberculin must be considered as harmless for healthy animals. It has also been clearly demonstrated that tuberculin interferes in no way with the milking function in healthy cattle; neither in the quantity of milk nor in butter-fat value has any variation been detected. The conclusions of some of the best authorities on the subject of its harmlessness to healthy animals are given below. Nocard and Leclainche state: Direct experiments and observations collected by thousands show that the tuberculin injections have no unfavorable effect. With healthy animals the system is indifferent to the inoculation; with tuberculous animals it causes slight changes which are not at all serious. Bang has written as follows on this question: We will now consider the following question, a very important one, in the application of tuberculin, viz: Can the reaction produce a worse condition in tuberculous animals than before existed? Hess emphatically states that it can, and on this account he earnestly warns against its application. My attention has been directed to this question from the beginning. In my first publication on tuberculin injection I reported two cases in which acute miliary tuberculosis was proved in two high-grade tuberculous cows several weeks after the tuberculin injection. I then stated my suspicion that perhaps the tuberculin injection had some connection with this, just as is often supposed to be the case in human practice. With my present very large amount of material for observation at hand I may express the following opinion: Such an acute development of tuberculosis as a result of tuberculin injection is to be feared only exceptionally, and then in cases of advanced tuberculosis. _It must not be forgotten that acute miliary tuberculosis by no means rarely accompanies an advanced tuberculosis of long standing._ It is therefore impossible to offer strict proof of the causal connection with the injection, and only oft-repeated observation could make this probable. In support of my view I offer the following: In the course of the last three years I have made careful post-mortem examinations of 83 tuberculous animals, which have been removed from my experiment farm, Thurebylille. Among these were 18 (or, strictly speaking, 23) high-grade tuberculous animals. I have been able to prove miliary tuberculosis in only 4 of these. Among the others, which showed less developed tuberculosis, I have never found miliary tuberculosis, and with very many I have never found any sign of a more rapid development of the process. On the contrary, it has been proved that the disease was restricted locally, often for years, in spite of yearly repeated injections. Dissections were made at very different periods after the injections--in 17 cases from 4 to 12 days after the last test. In all of these cases earlier tests had been made months or years before. In 28 cases the injection took place from 19 days to 2 months before the butchering; in 3 of these cases earlier injections had been made. In 38 cases from two and one-half months to one year intervened between the last injection and the dissection. Dissection gives the best explanation of this question, but a clinical observation, continued for years, of a herd tested with tuberculin can render very essential aid. If Hess's opinion is correct, it is to be assumed that tuberculosis must take an unusually vicious course in such herds, but this I have been unable to prove. At Thurebylille there has existed for three years a reacting division, consisting originally of 131 head and now 69. Although these animals are yearly tested, and although most of them react every year, the division certainly appears to be made up of healthy animals, and the farm inspector has expressed the decided opinion that the tuberculosis in this division is no more developed than at the beginning of the experiment. The testimony of many owners of large herds of cattle which have long ago been injected is to the same effect. I will adduce statements from several. A farm tenant whose cattle were injected 20 months previously, when 82 per cent of the grown animals reacted, wrote me recently as follows: "Only 2 cows from the division of 100 head had been sold as decidedly tuberculous. The majority appeared afterwards, just as before, entirely healthy. The fat animals which had been slaughtered had been pronounced healthy by the butchers." Another farm tenant with a herd injected in 1894 had not been obliged to remove a single animal from the tuberculosis division, numbering 70 head. A large farm owner in Jutland stated in September that he had traced no undesirable result from the injection. His herd of 350 had been injected in February and about 75 per cent reacted. Similar answers have been given by other owners and veterinarians. A veterinarian who had injected 600 animals, among them a herd of a large farm, 18 months previously, expressed the belief that the injection had produced in no single case an unusually rapid or vicious course of tuberculosis. In spite of a demand made months ago, I have received thus far no report from any veterinarian of an undesirable result. On a large farm, on which before the injection tuberculosis had appeared in a vicious form, the owner had the impression that the severe cases had afterwards become more numerous. He had, however, not suffered severe losses, and 8 months later the large reacting division by no means made a bad impression. Finally, it is to be noticed that tuberculin has been employed on a large scale in Denmark for years, and still the demand from farmers constantly increases. This could certainly not be the case if the injections were generally followed by bad results. Paige said, after the tests of the herd of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, that "its use is not followed by any ill effects of a serious or permanent nature." Lamson, of the New Hampshire College Agricultural Experiment Station, said: "There is abundant testimony that its use is not in any way injurious to a healthy animal." Conn, who made a special study of the present attitude of European science toward tuberculosis in cattle, reached the following conclusions: It has been, from the first, thought by some that the use of tuberculin produces a direct injury upon the inoculated animals. This, however, is undoubtedly a mistake, and there is no longer any belief anywhere on the part of scientists that the injury thus produced is worthy of note. In the first place, the idea that it may produce the disease in a perfectly healthy animal by the inoculation is absolutely fallacious. The tuberculin does not contain the tubercle bacillus, and it is absolutely certain that it is impossible to produce a case of tuberculosis in an animal unless the tubercle bacilli are present. The use of tuberculin, therefore, certainly can never produce the disease in the inoculated animal. It has been more widely believed, however, that the inoculation of an animal with this material has a tendency to stimulate an incipient case of tuberculosis. It has been thought that an animal with a very slight case of the disease may, after inoculation, show a very rapid extension of this disease and be speedily brought to a condition where it is beyond any use. The reasons given for this have been the apparent activity of the tuberculosis infection in animals that have been slaughtered shortly after inoculation. This has been claimed, not only by agriculturists who have not understood the subject well, but also by veterinarians and bacteriologists. But here, too, we must recognize that the claim has been disproved, and that there is now a practical unanimity of opinion on the part of all who are best calculated to judge that such an injurious effect does not occur. Even those who have been most pronounced in the claim that there is injury thus resulting from tuberculin have, little by little, modified their claim, until at the present time they say either that the injury which they formerly claimed does not occur or that the stimulus of the disease is so slight that it should be absolutely neglected in view of the great value which may arise from the use of tuberculin. Apart from two or three who hold this very moderate opinion, all bacteriologists and veterinarians unite in agreeing that there is no evidence for believing that any injury results. In Denmark, especially, many hundreds of thousands of animals have been inoculated, and the veterinarians say there is absolutely no reason in all their experience for believing that the tuberculin inoculation is followed by any injurious results. In 1898 tuberculosis was found in the large Shorthorn herd belonging to W. C. Edwards, of Canada, who with commendable promptness and public spirit had his animals tested, and at once proceeded to separate the diseased from the healthy animals. They were all finely bred animals, and of the very class which we have been told are most susceptible to the injurious effects of tuberculin. After using this test regularly for two years, Mr. Edwards wrote as follows: I have seen nothing to lead me to believe that the tuberculin test had any injurious influence on the course of the disease. It is by no means our opinion that the disease has been stimulated or aggravated by the application of the tuberculin test. All animals that we have tested two or three times continue as hale and hearty as they were previously, and not one animal in our herds has broken down or failed in any way since we began testing. Mr. Edwards, in December, 1901, verbally stated that his views as to the harmlessness of tuberculin remained unchanged, and that he had not seen the least ill effect in any of his cattle from its use. Those who have had most experience with tuberculin have failed to observe any injurious effects following its use upon healthy cattle. With tuberculous cattle it produces a fever of short duration, and in the great majority of cases all derangement of the system which it causes disappears within 48 hours after the tuberculin is administered. There appear to have been a very few cases in which the disease was aggravated, and a greater number in which it was benefited by the injection of tuberculin. The cases of abortion following the tuberculin test have not been numerous, even when cows were tested within a few weeks of the normal time of calving. The few cases of this kind which have occurred may be explained by the fact that abortion in cattle is a very common occurrence, and that it would inevitably happen sometimes after the tuberculin test as a mere coincidence and without any relation between the test and the loss of the calf. The cases of abortion which have been cited appear to be no more numerous than might be expected to have occurred among the same number of cattle within the same period if the test had not been applied. At the present time there is ample evidence to show that tuberculin is the most reliable means of detecting tuberculosis in the living animal and that its use is not attended by any harmful aftereffects. An act of Congress was approved July 24, 1919, for the purpose of controlling and eradicating tuberculosis of animals. The official means of detecting tuberculosis in the living animal is the tuberculin test, which may be applied by three different methods--the subcutaneous, the intradermic, and the ophthalmic. It is not necessary to discuss here the details of these three methods, which are made use of in the work of eradication of tuberculosis. The plan adopted by the State and Federal authorities in eradication of the disease is known as "The Accredited-Herd Plan." Under this plan herds are tested under State and Federal supervision, the diseased animals are appraised, removed, and slaughtered under Federal inspection. Retests are then made after definite periods of time until two successive tests show all the animals to be free from the disease. At this time the herd owner is given a certificate of an accredited herd. Details concerning the accredited-herd plan may be obtained by applying to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. THE TUBERCULIN TESTS. Testing animals with tuberculin is the process of introducing tuberculin into the animal and interpreting results according to well-known standards. From the investigations and observations that have been mentioned, it may be safely concluded-- 1. That the tuberculin test is a wonderfully accurate method of determining whether an animal is affected with tuberculosis. 2. That by its use the animals diseased with tuberculosis may be detected and removed from the herd, thereby eradicating the disease. 3. That it has no injurious effect upon healthy cattle. 4. That the comparatively small number of cattle which have aborted, suffered in health, or fallen off in condition after the test were either diseased before it was made or were affected by some cause other than the tuberculin. THE SUBCUTANEOUS TEST (UNDER THE SKIN). The most frequently used method of testing is the subcutaneous test, which consists in injecting the proper quantity of tuberculin underneath the skin into the subcutaneous tissue. If an animal is tuberculous, the action of the tuberculin causes a fever, which is indicated by a rise in temperature. This rise, under ordinary conditions, may occur any time between the eighth and twentieth hours after the tuberculin is injected, but in some cases it is desirable to measure the temperature before the eighth hour and continue to the twenty-fourth hour or longer. The temperatures are measured at least 3 times in advance of the injection, at 2-hour intervals, to learn whether the animal is in proper condition to receive the test. The temperatures after injection are taken every 2 hours until the test is completed. The proper interpretation of the temperatures is made by the person applying the test, and a careful observance of any clinical changes is always important in determining the result. It can not be set forth too strongly that the test, including the two following methods, should be attempted only by those who are properly qualified to do the work. THE INTRADERMIC TEST (INTO THE SKIN). The intradermic test for detecting tuberculosis is used to a considerable extent, especially in area work and on range cattle not easily controlled. When made by those who have become skilled in its application, it is very accurate. In this test the tuberculin is injected between the layers of the skin, only a few drops being used, and it is usually applied in the region at the base of the tail, where the skin is soft and nearly hairless. The intradermic test is satisfactory also for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in swine and, when so used, the tuberculin is applied into the skin of the ear near its base. The reaction from the intradermic test consists of a swelling at the point of injection and is observed from 72 to 150 hours after the injection. The character of the swelling varies, and a proper diagnosis of tuberculosis by this test can be made only by an experienced person. THE OPHTHALMIC TEST (INTO THE EYE). Still another method, known as the ophthalmic test, is used quite frequently and has been found to be of considerable value in what is known as "check" testing; that is, it is used in connection with either of the previously described methods. Sometimes a tuberculous animal that fails to react to those tests shows evidence of the disease upon the application of the ophthalmic test. The ophthalmic tuberculin is placed in one eye and the other eye is used as a check. A reaction is indicated by a characteristic discharge from the eye receiving the treatment, which may occur in from 3 to 10 hours after the application or even later. Some swelling and inflammation of the eye and lids are often noted. TREATMENT OF TUBERCULOSIS. Treatment of the disease is not seriously considered by any authorities at the present time. The measures to be adopted to prevent the spreading of the disease must take into consideration not only the tubercle bacillus, but likewise all those circumstances that make cattle more susceptible to the disease, and which have already been dwelt upon. It would be useless to repeat here all that has been said above on the transmission of tubercle bacilli from one animal to another, and on the dangers of certain debilitating influences. A careful study of these influences will show how tuberculosis may, at least in some cases, be prevented. Great care should be bestowed upon the breeding, the surroundings, and the feed of the animal, so that the latter may be put into a condition to resist infection even when exposed to it. A tuberculin test should be applied to all strange cattle before they are introduced into the herd, and those which show a reaction should be refused. A rigid exclusion of tuberculous animals is all that is necessary to prevent the appearance of the disease, provided cattle are not infected by consumptive persons and animals. The transmission of the disease from man to cattle is probably not frequent, but is regarded as a possible source of infection. Tuberculosis in cattle must also be considered as bearing upon tuberculosis of other domesticated animals, particularly hogs. In Europe and the United States this disease is not uncommon among hogs, and appears to be on the increase. The reason for its existence may be looked for in the feeding of pigs with skim milk, buttermilk, and whey from creameries, with the offal of the abattoirs, with the household refuse generally, and behind tuberculous cattle. If tuberculosis is common among cattle, it is likely to be transmitted to hogs kept in this way. The carcasses of animals which have died of tuberculosis should be buried deeply so that they can not be eaten by other animals. This is likewise true of all organs or tissues of slaughtered animals containing tubercles. These should never be fed to other animals, such as hogs, dogs, and cats, and should either be destroyed by fire or deeply buried. When any of the animals in a herd of cattle show evident symptoms of tuberculosis, or when the tuberculin test proves that they are affected with this disease, the best method of procedure in most cases is to have the affected animals slaughtered and the stables disinfected. A large proportion of the animals which are slightly affected yield carcasses which are perfectly wholesome and fit for human food, but in all such cases there should be an inspection by an expert at the time of slaughter to determine which carcasses may be used and which should be destroyed. The disinfection of stables may be accomplished by thoroughly cleaning them, scrubbing the floors with hot water, brushing down all loose dust from the walls, and tearing off all woodwork which is partly decayed. Then the whole interior of the stable should be covered with a good coat of limewash containing 1 part of formalin (which is a 40 per cent watery solution of formaldehyde) to 30 parts of the lime wash, or 4 ounces of formalin to each gallon of lime wash. Similar precautions should be observed in removing the manure of the infected herd from the barnyard and other places accessible to cattle, since it is known that tuberculous cattle frequently eliminate large numbers of tubercle bacilli through the feces. The ground under the manure pile should then be disinfected, either by the above-mentioned formalin solution or by unslaked lime thickly sprinkled over the soil. If all the animals which react are destroyed and the stables disinfected in this manner, the herd should remain free from the disease unless other affected animals are added to it. The introduction of the disease in this manner may be avoided by requiring a tuberculin test of all new animals admitted on the premises. Unfortunately it is a fact that tuberculous animals which have been tested several times may become so accustomed to tuberculin that they will no longer react; consequently it is always advisable to purchase cattle from some one who is known to be reliable, as otherwise animals of this kind may be treated with tuberculin for the purpose of hiding the disease. In the case of very valuable purebred animals and under exceptional circumstances it may be more advantageous to retain the reacting animals which are in good condition in order to breed from them and in that manner avoid the excessive loss which would follow from their immediate slaughter. This may be done if proper precautions are adopted. The disposal of reactors depends upon the State laws and live-stock regulations of the State in which the herd belongs. If this policy is followed it should be attempted only after careful study of the plan known as the Bang method of controlling tuberculosis. The live-stock officials of the State should be frequently consulted and their advice followed; otherwise failure will surely ensue. The plan necessitates considerable trouble and is not recommended except under the circumstances mentioned. BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS AND THE PUBLIC HEALTH. The increasing amount of evidence pointing to the identity of human and animal tuberculosis, combined with the extraordinary mortality of human beings from this disease, often amounting to 10 to 14 per cent, has raised the question in all civilized countries as to how far animal, and especially bovine, tuberculosis is to blame for this high mortality. The medical and veterinary professions have approached this problem with equal zeal, and much has come to light within recent years which enables us to come to some conclusion. If this disease is transmitted from animals to man, how does the transmission take place? As comparatively few people come in direct contact with tuberculous cattle, it must be either through the meat, the milk, the butter, the cheese, or through all these products that the virus enters the human body. The question has thus narrowed itself down to the food products furnished by cattle. It has become a very urgent question, especially in the poorer countries of Europe, whether all flesh from tuberculous animals is unfit for human food. It is argued there that if it can be shown that in the majority of cases of tuberculosis the bones and the muscular system are free from infection, there is no reason why the meat should not be put on sale under certain restrictions. The question may be resolved into two divisions: (1) How frequently does the disease invade those parts of the body which are used as food? (2) When the disease process is manifestly restricted to the internal organs, do tubercle bacilli circulate in the blood and lymph and can they be detected in the muscular tissue? (1) Disease of the bones is not unknown, although very rare. According to Walley, it appears chiefly in the spongy bones of the head and backbone and in the long bones of the limbs. Occasionally the ends of the bones, where they are covered by the synovial membrane of the joints, are dotted with tubercles. The muscular system itself is very rarely the seat of tuberculous deposits, although the lymphatic glands lying near and among the muscles may be not infrequently diseased. (2) Whether tubercle bacilli are found in muscle juice independent of any tuberculous deposits is a question which must be approached experimentally. There is on record a great variety of opinions on this matter, some authorities considering all flesh from tuberculous animals unfit for food, while others hold a contrary view. Experiments have shown that in rare cases the flesh of tuberculous cattle contains a small number of tubercle bacilli. In Germany the flesh of animals in which the disease is just beginning, or in which it is restricted to one or more related organs, is not rejected. When, however, the disease has affected the muscles or bones, or lymphatic glands situated on or between them, the flesh is condemned as unfit and dangerous. Animals are also rejected in which it is evident, from the general distribution of tubercles throughout the various organs, that the bacilli have been distributed by the blood and may have been carried into the muscular system (generalized tuberculosis). Concerning the infectious nature of milk secreted by tuberculous cows, authorities have universally agreed that when the udder itself is in the slightest degree involved the milk possesses infectious properties, and is therefore dangerous. Tubercle bacilli in large numbers have been found in the milk and the udder under such circumstances. Unlike other affections of the udder, tuberculosis of this organ does not at once change the appearance and the quality of the milk secreted. Bang states that for at least a month after the disease has appeared the milk is normal in appearance and may be consumed and sold without arousing the suspicion of the owner. Considerable danger is, therefore, involved in this disease, and the necessity for the careful inspection of dairy cows seems more urgent than ever. Authorities are, however, not fully agreed as to whether the milk from tuberculous cows in which the udder is apparently not invaded by the disease should be considered dangerous or not. Some incline to the belief that the milk secreted by healthy udders is never infectious, even when the lungs or other organs are affected; that, in other words, the tubercle bacilli are rarely, if ever, separated from the lesions which they produce, and that the udder itself must be diseased before tubercle bacilli can appear in the milk. Experiments made with the milk of tuberculous cows in which there were no indications of udder disease do not bear out this theory, since tubercle bacilli have been found in their milk. Some authorities still believe that the udder is diseased when the milk is infected, but that the disease escapes observation. However this may be, the fact that the udder may be diseased and the disease not recognizable simply casts suspicion upon all milk from tuberculous animals. We know that the milk of tuberculous cattle may or may not contain tubercle bacilli when the udder is apparently free from disease, but we have no rapid method of determining whether in any given case the milk contains tubercle bacilli or not. Moreover, the bacilli may be absent at one time and present at another in milk from the same cow. When we consider, therefore, the extent of tuberculosis and the hidden character of the disease, a certain degree of suspicion rests upon all milk from untested cattle. Fortunately, tubercle bacilli are readily destroyed by the temperature of boiling water, and hence both meat and milk are made safe, the former by the various processes of cooking, the latter by boiling for a few moments. It is incumbent upon all communities to have dairy cows examined and tested with tuberculin. If disease is detected, the affected animal should be killed at once or else all opportunity for the sale of such milk removed by appropriate measures. Where milk or cream is sold to the trade in large towns or cities pasteurization should be required as an additional safeguard. Recently there has been much discussion of the question as to whether human and animal tuberculosis are identical diseases and as to the possibility of the tuberculosis of animals being transmitted to man or that of man being transmitted to animals. The fact that tuberculous material from human subjects often failed to produce serious disease in cattle was observed by a number of the earlier investigators who experimented with such virus. It was the experiments and comparative studies of Theobald Smith, however, which attracted special attention to the difference in virulence shown by tubercle bacilli from human and bovine sources when inoculated upon cattle. Smith mentioned also certain morphological and cultural differences in bacilli from these two sources, and in the location and histology of the lesions in cattle produced by such bacilli. He did not conclude, however, that bovine bacilli could not produce disease in the human subject, but said: It seems to me that, accepting the clinical evidence on hand, bovine tuberculosis may be transmitted to children when the body is overpowered by large numbers of bacilli, as in udder tuberculosis, or when certain unknown favorable conditions exist. Koch, however, in his address at the British Congress on Tuberculosis, went far beyond this and maintained that "human tuberculosis differs from bovine and can not be transmitted to cattle." As to the susceptibility of man to bovine tuberculosis, he said it was not yet absolutely decided, but one was "nevertheless already at liberty to say that, if such a susceptibility really exists, the infection of human beings is but a very rare occurrence." He emphasizes this view in the following language: I should estimate the extent of infection by the milk and flesh of tubercular cattle and the butter made of their milk as hardly greater than that of hereditary transmission, and I therefore do not deem it advisable to take any measures against it. This conclusion was so radically different from the views of most experimenters and so out of harmony with facts which had apparently been demonstrated by others that it at once aroused opposition in the congress, followed by the adoption of dissenting resolutions, and led to numerous investigations in various countries. Koch's conclusions were based upon his failure to produce tuberculosis in cattle and other animals by inoculating them with tuberculous material of human origin and his success in causing progressive and fatal tuberculosis in the same kinds of animals when inoculated with tuberculous material of bovine origin. With such positiveness did he hold to the constant and specific difference between the human and bovine bacillus that he promulgated an experimental method of discriminating between them. Speaking of the etiology of intestinal tuberculosis in man, he said: Hitherto nobody could decide with certainty in such a case whether the tuberculosis of the intestine was of human or of animal origin. Now we can diagnose them. All that is necessary is to cultivate in pure culture the tubercle bacilli found in the tubercular material, and to ascertain whether they belong to bovine tuberculosis by inoculating cattle with them. For this purpose I recommend subcutaneous injection, which yields quite specially characteristic and convincing results. These important and comprehensive conclusions followed from a comparatively few experiments upon animals, and apparently no effort had been made to learn to what extent human tubercle bacilli may differ in their virulence for cattle or what grades of virulence there might be among bacilli of bovine origin. Vagedes had already shown that bacilli were sometimes present in human lesions which were as virulent as bovine bacilli, but his work was wholly ignored by Koch. A considerable number of investigators, including Chauveau, Vagedes, Ravenel, De Schweinitz, Mohler, De Jong, Delépine, Orth, Stenström, Fibiger and Jensen, Max Wolff, Nocard, Arloing, Behring, Dean and Todd, Hamilton and Young, the German Tuberculosis Commission, and Theobald Smith, have found tubercle bacilli in the bodies of human beings who died of tuberculosis which proved to have about the same virulence for cattle as had the bacilli from bovine animals affected by the disease. Kossel, in a preliminary report, stated that the German commission had tested 7 cultures of tuberculosis from cattle and hogs--4 from cattle and 3 from hogs. Two proved acutely fatal in cattle after eight to nine weeks; 4 likewise produced a generalized tuberculosis, but which certainly had a more chronic course, while 1 of the cultures caused only an infiltration at the point of inoculation, with some caseous foci in the adjoining prescapular gland and in one of the mediastinal glands, and there was lacking the spreading of the tuberculosis over the entire body which they were accustomed to see after the injection of cultures of bovine tuberculosis. "Hence," says Kossel, "among bovine tuberculosis bacilli there can also occur differences with regard to the virulence." The German commission also tested 39 different freshly made cultures from tuberculous disease in man. Nineteen did not produce the slightest symptoms in cattle; with 9 others the cattle exhibited after four months very minute foci in the prescapular glands, which were mostly encapsuled and showed no inclination to progress; with 7 other cases there was somewhat more marked disease of the prescapular glands, but it did not go so far as a material spreading of the process to the adjoining glands. There were 4 cultures, however, which were more virulent and caused generalized tuberculosis in the cattle inoculated with them. It would appear, therefore, that hereafter everyone must admit that it is impossible always to tell the source of a culture of the tubercle bacillus by its effect when it is inoculated upon cattle. One of the bovine cultures failed to produce generalized tuberculosis in cattle, and some of the human cultures did produce it in such animals. Moreover, while some of the human cultures caused no disease at all, others led to the development of minute foci in the prescapular glands, and still others to somewhat more marked disease of the glands. There were, consequently, four degrees of virulence noted in these 39 cultures of bacilli from human sources and three degrees of virulence in the 7 cultures from animal. Now, if we accept the views of Koch as to the specific difference between human and bovine tubercle bacilli, and that the human bacilli produce only localized lesions in cattle, while bovine bacilli produce generalized lesions in them, must we not conclude that the one non-virulent bovine culture was in reality of human origin, and that the animal from which it was obtained had been infected from man? This is a logical deduction, but reverses the dictum laid down at London that human tuberculosis is not transmissible to cattle. Again, how are we to explain the human cultures of medium virulence? Are they human bacilli which, for some unknown reason, are increasing in virulence and approaching the activity of the bovine bacillus, or are they really bovine bacilli which have multiplied in the human body until their virulence has become attenuated? In whatever manner these questions are decided it would seem that the findings of the German commission, instead of supporting Koch's views that we can decide with certainty by the inoculation of cattle as to the source of any given bacillus, really show that this method of diagnosis is extremely uncertain in the present condition of our knowledge. It is definitely admitted that 4 of the human cultures caused generalized tuberculosis in cattle; Kossel suggest, however, that it may be possible that the bacilli in cases of human tuberculosis under certain circumstances can likewise attain a very high pathogenic activity for cattle without being for that reason bovine bacilli. Undoubtedly the German commission is confronting the two horns of a dilemma, either one of which is fatal to the views of Koch as stated with such positiveness at London. If we accept this suggestion thrown out by Kossel, we must conclude that Koch was wrong in his claim that human tuberculosis can not be transmitted to cattle, and thus with one blow we destroy the entire experimental support which he had for his argument before the British Congress on Tuberculosis. If, on the other hand, we accept the conclusion which follows from the principle laid down by Koch for the discrimination between human and bovine bacilli, and which appears to be favored by Kossel, we must admit that bovine tuberculosis is an extremely important factor in the etiology of human tuberculosis. Of the 39 cases of human tuberculosis tested, 4, or more than 10 per cent, were virulent for cattle and would be classified as of bovine origin; however, these 4 cases, were all found among the 16 cases of tuberculosis in children which the commission investigated; hence it is plain that 25 per cent of the cases tested of tuberculosis in children would by Koch's method be classified as of bovine origin. In the Bureau of Animal Industry two distinct lines of experiments have been carried on, in order that one might serve as a check against the other. There has been, however, no discrepancy in the results. De Schweinitz, in the Biochemic Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, isolated 9 cultures from human tuberculosis. Two were derived from human sputum, 3 from cases of generalized tuberculosis in adults, and 4 from cases of generalized tuberculosis in children. By comparing these cultures with a newly isolated virulent culture of bovine tuberculosis, there were found among them 2 cultures from children which were identical in their cultural and morphological characters with the bovine bacillus. These cultures also killed rabbits and guinea pigs in as short a time as did the bovine bacillus. Hogs which were inoculated subcutaneously with these 2 cultures from children died of generalized tuberculosis. Two calves weighing more than 300 pounds each were inoculated subcutaneously with these virulent human cultures, and as a result developed generalized tuberculosis. A yearling heifer inoculated with 1 of the cultures showed generalized tuberculosis when killed three months after inoculation. Both the cattle and the hogs had been tested with tuberculin and found to be free from tuberculosis before the inoculations were made. It is important to observe in this connection that 2 out of 4, or 50 per cent, of the cultures obtained from cases of generalized tuberculosis in children proved virulent for cattle. Mohler, working in the Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, obtained 3 very virulent cultures of tubercle bacilli from the human subject. A goat inoculated subcutaneously with 1 of these cultures died in 37 days with miliary tuberculosis of the lungs involving the axillary and prescapular glands. This bacillus was obtained from the mesenteric gland of a boy. Of still greater interest is a bacillus isolated by Mohler from human sputum. A goat inoculated subcutaneously with a culture of this germ died in 95 days of pulmonary tuberculosis. A cat inoculated in the same manner died in 23 days of generalized tuberculosis. A rabbit similarly inoculated died in 59 days of pulmonary tuberculosis. Another rabbit inoculated with a bovine culture for comparison lived 10 days longer than the one inoculated with this sputum germ. Mohler also inoculated subcutaneously a 1-year-old heifer with a culture derived from the tuberculosis mesenteric gland of a boy 4 years of age. This culture was always refractory in its growth under artificial conditions, and the bacilli were short, stubby rods, corresponding in appearance to the bovine type. At the autopsy, held 127 days after the inoculation, the general condition was seen to be poor and unthrifty, and large, hard tumors were found at the points of inoculation. On the right side the swelling measured 3-1/2 by 5 inches, and the corresponding lymph gland was 2-3/4 inches long by 1-3/4 inches in diameter. This gland contained numerous calcareous foci; one at the apex was an inch in diameter. The lesions on the left shoulder of the animal were very similar to those found on the right side, but the dimensions of the tumor were slightly less. The lungs presented an irregular mass of tuberculous nodules, and 7 or 8 grapelike nodules were seen on the parietal pleura. Bronchial and mediastinal lymph glands contained numerous tuberculous foci, and the pericardium, peritoneum, spleen, and liver also were affected. In order to throw some light, if possible, upon the morphological constancy of the different types of tubercle bacilli, Mohler made comparative studies of bacilli from various sources, and which had been passed through various species of animals, by making the cultures upon dog serum after the method described by Theobald Smith. Some important results have been obtained. One culture of human bacilli which had morphological and cultural peculiarities similar to those of the bovine bacillus, and which produced only local lesions in cattle, was passed through a series of five cats. It was then found to be completely changed in its morphological characters, the rods being elongated, slender, more or less beaded, and entirely of the human type. Far from decreasing in virulence, however, as might be expected from its morphological appearance, this bacillus had so increased in its pathogenic activity that it produced generalized tuberculosis in a cow. This cow was inoculated subcutaneously in front of each shoulder with 2 cubic centimeters of a salt-solution emulsion of the tuberculous omentum of the last cat of the series. The cow rapidly lost flesh, had a temperature of 104° F., with the point of inoculation and adjacent glands greatly swollen. The autopsy revealed generalized tuberculosis, involving the lungs, mediastinal glands, spleen, liver, and kidneys. Tubercle bacilli of the bovine type obtained from the mesenteric glands of a sheep, hog, and cow were similarly transformed in their morphological appearance after being passed through a series of cats and recovered on dog serum. These bacilli also increased in virulence, as the last cat in the series invariably succumbed in a shorter time than the first of the series. These experiments and observations indicate that the types of tubercle bacilli are very inconstant, and that under suitable conditions they readily change both in morphology and in virulence. A similar conclusion was reached by other investigators in working with the avian and porcine types of tubercle bacilli several years ago, and was reasonably to have been expected with the human and bovine types. Later investigations made by Park and Krumweide, of the Research Laboratory of New York City, Novick, Richard M. Smith, Ravenel, Rosenau, Chung Yik Wang, and others tend to show the incidence of bovine infection in the human family. Chung Yik Wang stated in 1917 that studies of 281 cases of various clinical forms of tuberculosis in Edinburgh, Scotland, resulted in the isolation of the bovine tubercle bacilli in 78.4 per cent of cases under the age of 5 years, in 70.3 per cent between the ages of 5 and 16, and in 7.8 per cent over the age of 16. This investigator states that from the prophylactic point of view any measure resorted to in combating the disease should be directed not only against the human spread of infection, but also, more particularly in children's cases, against the bovine source of infection. Ravenel, in summarizing the work of Drs. Park and Krumweide, as well as others throughout the world, gives the following results: Of 63 children dying of tuberculosis at the babies' hospital 59 cases proved to be human infection and 4 bovine, a percentage of 6-1/3. Of 9 children dying of tuberculosis at the foundling hospital 4 proved to have derived their infection from human sources and 5 from bovine, a percentage of 55. Of a total of 88 children under 5 years of age who died of tuberculosis 77 proved to have derived their infection from human sources and 11 from bovine, a percentage of 12-1/2. Combining the cases studied in New York with those of other observers in different parts of this country and Europe, the following results are obtained: Adults, 787 cases--777 human and 10 bovine infection. Children, 5 to 16 years, 153 cases--117 human and 36 bovine infection. Children under 5 years, 280 cases--215 human and 65 bovine infection. The figures of the foundling hospital show the real danger of unprotected cows' milk. The conclusion from these studies is inevitable, namely, that in children, in addition to the large number of deaths which occur from bovine infection, there are many cases of infection resulting in deformities, necessitating operations more or less severe in character and which frequently leave the patient disfigured permanently. It must be plain to all, from these recent developments, that too much has been made of the slight differences in cultural characteristics, in morphology, and in virulence which have been observed in some cases in comparing the human and the bovine bacilli. The observations were interesting, and it was important that they be followed up until their significance was made entirely clear, but it was an almost unpardonable error, from a sanitary point of view, to promulgate sweeping generalizations calculated to arrest and abolish important measures for preventing human tuberculosis before the soundness of these generalizations had been established by a thorough course of experimentation. When Koch said in the British Congress on Tuberculosis that he should estimate the extent of infection by the milk and flesh of tuberculous cattle and the butter made of their milk as hardly greater than that of hereditary transmission, and that he therefore did not deem it advisable to take any measures against it, he went far beyond what was justified by any experiments or observations which he reported, and he did a great deal of harm, which will be manifested for years to come, to those who endeavor to guard the human race from the dangers of animal tuberculosis. The researches which have been alluded to make these dangers more definite and certain than they have appeared before, and sanitarians should therefore most earnestly endeavor to counteract the erroneous and harmful impression which was made by Koch's address at London and his subsequent address at the International Conference on Tuberculosis at Berlin. VACCINIA OR COWPOX. Variola of cattle, more correctly vaccinia, is a contagious disease of cattle which manifests its presence through an elevation of temperature, a shrinkage in milk production, and by the appearance of characteristic, pustular eruptions, especially upon the teats and udders of dairy cows. Although this is a contagious disease, strictly speaking, it is so universally harmless and benign in its course that it is robbed of the terrors which usually accompany all spreading diseases, and is allowed to enter a herd of cattle, run its course, and disappear without exciting any particular notice. The contagion of cowpox does not travel through the air from animal to animal, but is transfused only by actual contact of the contagious principle with the skin of some susceptible animal. It may be carried in this manner, not alone from cattle to cattle, but horses, sheep, goats, and man may readily contract the disease whenever suitable conditions attend their inoculation. An identical disease frequently appears upon horses, attacking their heels, and thence extending upward along the leg, producing, as it progresses, inflammation and swelling of the skin, followed later by pustules, which soon rupture, discharging a sticky, disagreeable secretion. Other parts of the body are frequently affected in like manner, especially in the region of the head, where the eruptions may appear upon lips and nostrils, or upon the mucous surfaces of the nasal cavities, mouth, or eyes. Variola of the horse is readily transmitted to cattle, if both are cared for by the same attendant, and, conversely, variola of cattle may be carried from the cow to the horse on the hands of a person who has been milking a cow affected with the disease. The method of vaccination with material derived from the eruptions of cowpox as a safeguard against the ravages of smallpox in members of the human family is well known. The immunity which such vaccination confers upon the human subject has led many writers to assert that cowpox is simply a modified form of smallpox, whose harmless attack upon the human system is owing to a certain attenuation derived during its passages through the system of the cow or horse. The results of numerous experiments which have been carried out for the purpose of determining the relationship existing between variola of the human and bovine families seem to show, however, that although possessing many similar characteristics, they are nevertheless distinct, and that in spite of repeated inoculations from cattle to man, and vice versa, no transformation in the real character of the disease ever takes place. _Symptoms._--The disease appears in four to seven days after natural infection, or may evince itself in two or three days as the result of artificial inoculation. Young milch cows are most susceptible to an attack, but older cows, bulls, or young cattle are by no means immune. The attack causes a slight rise in temperature, which is soon followed by the appearance of reddened, inflamed areas, principally upon the teats and udder, and at times on the abdominal skin or the skin of the inner surface of the thighs. In a few cases the skin of the throat and jaws has been found similarly involved. If the affected parts are examined on the second day after the establishment of the inflammation numerous pale-red nodules will be found, which gradually expand until, within a few days, they reach a diameter of one-half inch or even larger. At this period the tops of the nodules become transformed into vesicles which are depressed in the center and contain a pale, serous fluid. They usually reach their maturity by the tenth day of the course of the disease and are then the size of a bean. From this time the contents of the vesicles become purulent, which requires about three days, when the typical pox pustule is present, consisting of a swelling with broad, reddened base, within which is an elevated, conical abscess varying from the size of a pea to that of a hazelnut. The course of the disease after the full maturity of the pustule is rapid if outside interference has not caused a premature rupture of the small abscess at the apex of the swelling. The pustules gradually become darker colored and drier until nothing remains but a thick scab, which at last falls off, leaving only a slight, whitish scar behind. The total duration of the disease covers some 20 days in each animal, and owing to the slow spread of the infection from animal to animal, many weeks may elapse before a stable can be fully freed from it. The fallen scabs and crusts may retain their contagious properties for several days when mixed with litter and bedding upon the floor of the stable, and at any time during this period they are capable of producing new outbreaks should fresh cattle be brought into the stalls and thus come into actual contact with them. Again, the pustules may appear, one after another, on a single animal, in which case the duration of the disease is materially lengthened. _Treatment._--In herds of cattle that regularly receive careful handling, no special treatment will be found necessary beyond the application of softening and disinfecting agents to such vesicles upon the teats as may have become ruptured by the hands of the milker. Carbolized vaseline or iodoform ointment will be found well suited to this work. In more persistent cases it may be found desirable to use a milking tube in order to prevent the repeated opening of the pustules during the operation of milking. Washing the sores twice daily with a weak solution of zinc chlorid (2-1/2 per cent solution) has been found to assist in checking the inflammation and to cleanse and heal the parts by its germicidal action. When the udder is hard, swollen, and painful, support it by a bandage and foment frequently with hot water. If calves are allowed to suckle the cows the pustules become confluent, and the ulcerations may extend up into the teat, causing garget and ruining the whole quarter of the udder. As young cows are most susceptible to variola, the milker must exercise constant patience with these affected animals so long as their teats or udders are sore and tender, else the patient may contract vicious habits while resisting painful handling. The flow of milk is usually lessened as soon as the fever becomes established, but is again normal with the return of perfect health. The practice of thorough cleanliness in handling or milking affected cattle may, in many instances, prevent the dissemination of the trouble among the healthy portion of the herd, but even the greatest care may prove insufficient to check the spread until it has attacked each animal of the herd in turn. ACTINOMYCOSIS (LUMPY JAW) [Pls. XXXIX-XLI.] Actinomycosis, also known as lumpy jaw, big jaw, wooden tongue, etc., is a chronic infectious disease characterized by the formation of peculiar tumors in various regions of the body, more particularly the head, and is due to the specific action of a certain fungus-like germ (actinomyces). This fungus is an organism which occurs in the tissues in the form of rosettes, and it has therefore been termed the "ray fungus." The disease is not directly transmitted from one animal to another, but it seems apparent that the fungus is conveyed into the tissues by various feedstuffs through slight wounds of the mucous membrane of the mouth, decayed teeth, or during the shedding of milk teeth. The ray fungus is found in nature vegetated on grasses, on the awns of barley, the spears of oats, and on other grains. Quantities of the fungi have been found between the vegetable fibers of barley which had penetrated the gums of cattle and on the awns of grain embedded in the tongues of cows. Although actinomycotic tumors on cattle had been the object of study for many years, it was not until 1877 that the constant presence of actinomyces was pointed out by Bollinger, of Munich, and since that time considered the cause. This fungus was observed in these tumors as early as 1860 by Rivolta, and by others subsequently, without having been suspected as causing them. Since Bollinger's publication much work has been done, many observations made, and many hitherto obscure disease processes brought into relation with this fungus. Furthermore, a similar disease in man was first definitely shown to be associated with the same fungus in 1878 by Israel, and in the following year Ponfick pointed out that the disease described by Bollinger in animals and that found by Israel in man were due to the same cause; that is, that the fungi described by these observers were one and the same. The tumors and abscesses wherever they may be are all found to be the same in origin by the presence of the actinomyces fungus. When they are incised, a very close scrutiny with the naked eye, or, at most, a hand lens, will reveal the presence of minute grains which vary from a pale-yellow to a sulphur-yellow color. They may be very abundant or so few as to be overlooked. They are embedded in the soft tissue composing the tumor or in the pus of the abscess. With a needle they are easily lifted out from the tissue, and then they appear as roundish masses about one-half millimeter (1/50 inch) in diameter. To anyone familiar with the use of a microscope the recognition of these grains or particles without any previous preparation is a comparatively easy task. When examined in the fresh condition under a microscope magnifying up to 250 diameters the general structure is made out without much difficulty. These grains consist of collections of minute, roundish masses. Their outer surface is made up of club-shaped bodies all radiating from the center of the mass (see Pl. XXXIX, fig. 2), somewhat like a rosette. If the fungus is crushed, the interior is found made up of bundles of very fine filaments, which are probably continuous into the club-shaped bodies. The addition of a dilute solution of caustic soda or potash greatly aids the examination, as it removes the layer of cells adhering to the fungus, which obscures the structure. Now and then these grains are found to be in a calcified condition. The exterior is incrusted in lime salts, which are dissolved by adding some weak dilute acid, like acetic acid. Only by this procedure can the fungus be definitely recognized when in a mummified condition. These are the bodies whose presence causes sufficient irritation in the tissues into which they find their way to set up inflammatory growths. These growths increase as the fungus continues to multiply until they reach enormous dimensions, if the affected animal is permitted to live long enough. The true nature of this parasite is not yet definitely settled, although many excellent observers have occupied themselves with it. According to earlier observers, it is a true fungus. Later ones are inclined to place it among the higher bacteria. Present knowledge concerning the actinomyces growth indicates that it should be classified with the higher bacteria or trichomycetes. Whatever the situation of the disease caused by actinomyces may be, its nature is fundamentally the same and peculiar to the fungus. The pathological details which make this statement clear can not be entered upon in this place, nor would they be of any practical value to the farmer. We will simply dwell upon a few obvious characters. The consistency of the tumor varies in different situations according to the quantity of fibrous or connective tissue present. When very little of this is present the tumor is of a very soft consistency. As the quantity of connective tissue is increased the tumor is firmer and of a more honeycombed appearance. The individual actinomyces colonies are lodged in the spaces or interstices formed by the meshwork of the connective tissue. There they are surrounded by a mantle of cellular elements which fill up the spaces. By scraping the cut surface of such a tumor these cell masses inclosing the fungi come away, and the latter may be seen as pale-yellow or sulphur-yellow specks, as described above. _Location of the disease._--In cattle the disease process may be located both externally, where it is readily detected, and in internal organs. Its preferred seat is on the bones of the lower and upper jaws, in the parotid salivary gland in the angle of the jaw, and in the region of the throat. It may also appear under the skin in different parts of the body. Internally it may attack the tongue and appear in the form of a tumor in the mouth, pharynx, or larynx. It may cause extensive disease of the lungs, more rarely of the digestive tract. It appears, furthermore, that in certain districts or countries the disease seems by preference to attack certain parts. Thus in England actinomycosis of the tongue is most prevalent. In Denmark the soft parts of the head are most prone to disease, while in Russia the lips are the usual seat. In certain parts of Germany actinomycotic tumors are most frequently encountered in the throat region and in the jawbones. A description of actinomycosis of the jaw (lumpy jaw) and of the tongue has already been given in a previous chapter, and hence they will be dealt with here only very briefly. When the disease attacks the soft parts of the head a rather firm swelling appears, in which are formed one or more smaller projecting tumors, varying from the size of a nut to that of an egg. These push their way outward and finally break through the skin as small, reddish, funguslike bodies covered with thin sloughs. Or the original swelling, in place of enlarging in the manner described, may become transformed into an abscess which finally bursts to discharge creamy pus. The abscess cavity, however, does not disappear, but is soon filled with fungus-like growths, which force their way outward through the opening. When the tumors are situated within the cavity of the pharynx they have broken through from some gland, perhaps beneath the mucous membrane, where the disease first appeared, and hang or project into the cavity of the pharynx, either as pendulous masses with slender stems or as tumors with broad bases. Their position may be such as to interfere with swallowing and with breathing. In either case serious symptoms will soon appear. The invasion of the bones of the jaws by actinomycosis must be regarded as one of the most serious forms of the disease. (Pls. XXXIX, XL.) It may start in the marrow of the bone and by a slow extension gradually undermine the entire thickness of the bone itself. The growth may continue outward, and after working its way through muscle and skin finally break through and appear externally as stinking fungoid growths. The growth may at the same time work its way inward and appear in the mouth. The disease may also begin in the periosteum, or covering of the bone, and destroy the bone from without inward. Actinomycosis of the lungs is occasionally observed, and it is not improbable that at times it has been mistaken for tuberculosis. The actinomyces grains are, however, easily observed if the diseased tissue is carefully examined. The changes in the lungs as they appear to the naked eye vary considerably from case to case. Thus in one animal the lungs were affected as in ordinary bronchopneumonia as to the location, extent, and appearance of the disease process. The affected lobes had a dark-red flesh appearance, with yellowish areas sprinkled in here and there. (See Pl. XLI, figs. 1, 2.) These latter areas were the seat of multiplication of the actinomyces fungus. In another case, of which only a small portion of the lungs was sent to the laboratory, they were completely transformed into a uniformly grayish mass, very soft and pulpy to the touch, and appearing like very soft and moist dough. (Pl. XLI, fig. 3.) The actinomyces grains were exceedingly abundant in this tissue, and appeared when the tissue was incised as minute sulphur-yellow grains, densely sprinkled through the tissue, which readily came away and adhered to the knife blade. In still another case a portion of the lung tissue was converted into large, soft masses from 1 to 3 inches in diameter, each partly inclosed in very dense connective tissue. These soft, grayish-yellow masses likewise resembled moist dough in their consistency, and the actinomyces grains, though neither very distinct nor at all abundant, were easily fished out and identified as such. A portion of this growth, which was as large as a child's head, was converted into an abscess filled with creamy semiliquid pus. This case differed from the preceding in that all appearance of lung tissue had disappeared from the diseased mass. Only on the exterior the lung tissue could be recognized, although even there it had been largely converted into very dense, whitish connective tissue inclosing the fungoid growth. In the other case the external form of the lung and the shape and outline of the lobules were preserved, but the lung tissue itself was not recognizable as such. In the case first mentioned the changes were still less marked, and actinomycosis would not have been suspected by a simple inspection. These few illustrations suffice to show that actinomycosis of the lungs may appear under quite different forms, and that the nature of the disease can be accurately determined only by finding the fungus itself. Rarely actinomycosis attacks the body externally in places other than the head and neck. Crookshank describes the case of a bull in which the flank was attacked and subsequently the scrotum became diseased. A large portion of the skin of the flank was destroyed and covered with a leathery crust. When this was pulled away the pus beneath it showed the actinomyces grains to the naked eye. Actinomycosis may also involve the udder, the spermatic cord of castrated animals, the vagina, and, when it becomes generalized, the brain, liver, spleen, and muscular tissue. Actinomycosis may in some cases be confounded with tuberculosis. The diagnosis does not offer any difficulties, since the presence of the actinomyces fungus at once removes any existing doubts. As has already been intimated, these grains, simulating sulphur balls, are visible to the naked eye, and their nature is readily determined with the aid of a microscope. The course of the disease is quite slow. As the tumors grow they may interfere with the natural functions of the body. According to their situation, mastication, rumination, or breathing may be interfered with, and in this way the animal may become emaciated. Actinomycosis of the jawbones leads to destruction of the teeth and impedes the movements necessary to chewing the feed. Similarly, when the disease attacks the soft parts of the head obstructions may arise in the mouth by an inward growth of the tumor. If tumors exist in the pharynx they may partially obstruct the movements necessary to breathing, or close the air passages and cause partial suffocation. Actinomycosis of the tongue, in interfering with the many and varied movements of this important organ, is also a serious matter. There is no reason to suppose that the localized disease interferes with the general health in any other way than indirectly until internal organs, such as the lungs, become involved. A very small proportion of the cases may recover spontaneously, the tumors being encysted or undergoing calcification. In most cases the disease yields readily to proper treatment, and about 75 per cent of the affected animals may be cured. _Prevention._--The question as to how and where animals take this disease is one concerning which we are still in the stage of conjecture, because so far we possess very little information concerning the life history of the actinomyces itself. The quite unanimous view of all observers is that animals become infected from the feed. The fungus is lodged upon the plants and in some way enters the tissues of the head, the lungs, and the digestive tract, where it sets up its peculiar activity. It is likewise generally believed that the fungus is, as it were, inoculated into the affected part. This inoculation is performed by the sharp and pointed parts of plants which penetrate the mucous membrane and carry the fungus with them. The disease is therefore inoculable rather than contagious. The mere presence of the diseased animal will not give rise to disease in healthy animals unless the actinomyces grains pass directly from the diseased into some wound or abrasion of the healthy or else drop upon the feed which is consumed by the healthy. Not only are these views deducible from clinical observation, but they have been proved by the positive inoculation of calves and smaller animals with actinomyces. The danger therefore of the presence of actinomyces for healthy animals is a limited one. Nevertheless an animal affected with this disease should not be allowed to go at large or run with other animals. If the fungus is being scattered by discharging growths we certainly can not state at this stage of our knowledge that other animals may not be infected by such distribution, and we must assume, until more positive information is at hand, that this actually occurs. It is, however, the opinion of the majority of authorities that when actinomycosis appears among a large number of animals they all contract it in the same way from the feed. Much speculation has therefore arisen whether any particular plant or group of plants is the source of the infection and whether any special condition of the soil favors it. Very little positive information is at hand on these questions. It would be very desirable for those who live in localities where this disease is prevalent to make statistical and other observations on the occurrence of the disease with reference to the season of the year, the kind of feed, the nature of the soil (whether swampy or dry, recently reclaimed, or cultivated for a long time) upon which the animals are pastured or upon which the feed is grown. It is highly probable that such investigations will lead to an understanding of the source of the fungus and the means for checking the spread of the disease itself. Veterinarian Jensen, of Denmark, made some observations upon an extensive outbreak of actinomycosis a number of years ago which led him to infer that the animals were inoculated by eating barley straw harvested from pieces of ground just reclaimed from the sea. While the animals remained unaffected so long as they pastured on this ground or ate the hay obtained from it, they became diseased after eating the straw of cereals from the same territory. Others have found that cattle grazing upon low pastures along the banks of streams and subject to inundations are more prone to the disease. It has also been observed that feed gathered from such grounds, even after prolonged drying, may give rise to the disease. Actinomycosis is not infrequent in cattle in the Southwest and is generally supposed to be the result of eating the prickly fruit of the cactus plant, causing wounds of the mucous membrane and subsequent infection with the parasite. Much additional information of a similar kind must be forthcoming before the source and manner of infection in this disease and its dependence upon external conditions will be known. It is not at all improbable that they may vary considerably from place to place. _Treatment._--Until recently this has been almost entirely surgical. When the tumors are external and attached to soft parts only, an early removal may lead to recovery. This, of course, can be undertaken only by a trained veterinarian, especially as the various parts of the head and neck contain important vessels, nerves, and ducts which should be injured as little as possible in any operation. Unless the tumor is completely removed it will reappear. Disease of the jawbones is at best a very serious matter and treatment is liable to be of no avail. In March, 1892, an important contribution to our knowledge of this subject was made by Nocard, of the Alfort Veterinary School, in a communication to the French Central Society of Veterinary Medicine. He showed clearly that the actinomycosis of the tongue, a disease which appears to be quite common in Germany, and is there known as "wooden tongue," could be quickly and permanently cured by the administration of iodid of potassium. Nocard calls attention to the success of Thomassen, of Utrecht, who recommended this treatment so long ago as 1885, and who has since treated more than 80 cases, all of which have been cured. A French veterinarian, Godbille, has used the same remedy in a number of cases of actinomycosis in the tongue, all of which have been cured. Nocard also gives details of a case which was cured by himself. All the cases referred to were of actinomycosis of the tongue, and no one appears to have attempted the cure of actinomycosis of the jaw until it was undertaken by Nörgaard, of the Bureau of Animal Industry. In April, 1892, he selected a young steer in fair condition which had a tumor on the jaw measuring 15-1/2 inches in circumference and from which a discharge had already been established. This animal was treated with iodid of potassium, and the result was a complete cure. The iodid of potassium is given in doses of 1-1/2 and 2-1/2 drams once a day, dissolved in water, and administered as a drench. The dose should vary somewhat with the size of the animal and with the effects that are produced. If the dose is sufficiently large signs of iodism appear in the course of a week or 10 days. The skin becomes scurfy, there is weeping from the eyes, catarrh of the nose, and loss of appetite. When these symptoms appear the medicine may be suspended for a few days and afterward resumed in the same dose. The cure requires from three to six weeks' treatment. Some animals, generally the ones which show no signs of iodism, do not improve under treatment with iodid of potassium. If there is no sign of improvement after the animals have been treated four or five weeks, and the medicine has been given in as large doses as appear desirable, it is an indication that the particular animal is not susceptible to the curative effects of the drug, and the treatment may therefore be abandoned. It is not, however, advisable to administer iodid of potassium to milch cows, as it will considerably reduce the milk secretion or stop it altogether. Furthermore, a great part of the drug is excreted through the milk, making the milk unfit for use. It should not be given to animals in advanced pregnancy, as there is danger of producing abortion. The best results are obtained by pushing the drug until its effect is seen. The many tests to which this treatment has been subjected have proved, with few exceptions, its specific curative value. In addition to this the tumor should be painted externally with either the tincture of iodin or Lugol's solution, or the drug should be injected subcutaneously into the tumor. Godbille has given as much as 4 drams of potassium iodid in one day to a steer, decreasing the dose one-fourth dram each day until the dose was 1-1/4 drams, which was maintained until the twelfth day of treatment, when the animal appeared to be entirely cured. Nocard gave the first day 1-1/2 drams in one dose to a cow; the second and succeeding days a dose of 1 dram in the morning and evening, in each case before feeding. This treatment was continued for 10 days, when the animal was cured. _Actinomycosis and the public health._--The interest which is shown concerning this cattle disease is largely due to the fact that the same disease attacks human beings. Its slow progress, its tendency to remain restricted to certain localities, and the absence of any directly contagious properties have thus far not aroused any anxiety in other countries as to its influence on the cattle industry, not even to the point of placing it among the infectious diseases of which statistics are annually published. Its possible bearing on public health has, however, given the disease a place in the public mind which it hardly deserves. It has already been stated that the actinomyces fungus found in human disease is considered by authorities the same as that occurring in bovine affections. It is therefore of interest to conclude this article with a brief discussion of the disease in man and its relation to actinomycosis in cattle. In man the location of the disease process corresponds fairly well to that in cattle. The majority of cases which have been reported in different parts of the world--and they are now rather numerous--indicate disease of the face. The skin, tongue, or the jawbones may become affected, and by a very slow process it may extend downward upon the neck and even into the cavity of the chest. In many cases the teeth have been found in a state of more or less advanced decay and ulceration. In a few cases disease of the lungs was observed without coexisting disease of the bones or soft parts of the head. In such cases the fungus must have been inhaled. The disease of the lungs after a time extends upon the chest wall, where it may corrode the ribs and work its way through the muscles and the skin. An abscess is thus formed discharging pus containing actinomyces grains. Disease of the digestive organs caused by this fungus has also been observed in a few instances. Granting the identity of the disease in man and cattle, the question has been raised whether cattle are responsible for its occurrence in man. Any transmission of the infectious agent may be conceived of as taking place during the life of the animal and from the meat after slaughter. That human beings have contracted actinomycosis by coming in contact with diseased cattle is not shown by the cases that have been reported, for the occupations of most of the patients did not bring them into any relation whatever with cattle. While the possibility of such direct transmission is not denied, nevertheless it must be considered as extremely remote. Practically the same position is maintained at present by most authorities as regards the transmission of the disease to man by eating meat. Israel, who has studied this question carefully, found the disease in Jews who never ate pork,[5] and who likewise were protected from bovine actinomycosis by the rigorous meat inspection practiced by that race. Furthermore, it must be borne in mind that actinomycosis is a local disease, causing great destruction of tissue where the fungus multiplies, but which very rarely becomes generally disseminated over the body from the original disease focus. The fungus is found only in places where the disease process is manifest to the eye or becomes so in a very short time after the lodgment of the fungus. Only the greatest negligence would allow the actually diseased parts to be sold and consumed. Finally, this parasite, like all others, would be destroyed in the process of cooking. Most authorities thus do not believe that actinomycosis in man is directly traceable to the disease in animals, but are of the opinion that both man and animals are infected from a third source, which has already been discussed above. How far these views may be modified by further and more telling investigations of the parasite fungus itself no one can predict. There are still wide gaps in our knowledge, and the presentation above simply summarizes the prevailing views, from which there are dissenters, of course. An attempt to give the views of both sides on this question would necessitate the summarizing and impartial discussion of all the experiments thus far made--a task entirely beyond the scope of the present work. Whether an animal affected with actinomycosis should be used for human food after all diseased organs and tissues have been thoroughly removed is a question the answer to which depends on a variety of circumstances. Among these may be mentioned the thoroughness of the meat inspection itself, the extent of the disease, and the general condition of the animal affected. The Federal meat-inspection regulations require that carcasses of animals showing generalized actinomycosis shall be condemned. If carcasses are in a well-nourished condition, showing uncomplicated localized lesions of actinomycosis, they may be passed after the infected organs or parts have been removed and condemned. When the disease of the jaw is slight, strictly localized, and without pus formation, fistulous tracts, or lymph-gland involvement, the tongue, if free from disease, may be passed. The heads affected with actinomycosis (lumpy jaw), including the tongue, shall be condemned, except that when the lesions in the jaw are strictly localized and slight in extent, the tongue may be passed, if free from disease. ANTHRAX. Anthrax or charbon may be defined as an infectious disease which is caused by specific bacteria, known as anthrax bacilli, and which is more or less restricted by conditions of soil and moisture to definite geographical localities. While it is chiefly limited to cattle and sheep, it may be transmitted to goats, horses, cats, and certain kinds of game. Smaller animals, such as mice, rabbits, and guinea pigs, speedily succumb to inoculation. Dogs and hogs are slightly susceptible, while fowls are practically immune. The variety of domesticated animals which it may attack renders it one of the most dreaded scourges of animal life. It may even attack man. Of this more will be stated further on. * * * * * ACTINOMYCOSIS (LUMPY JAW). DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE XXXIX. Actinomycosis. (From Jöhne's Encyklopädie d. gesammt. Thierheilkunde.) Fig. 1. Actinomycosis of the jaw. The lower jawbone has been extensively eaten away by the disease. Fig. 2. Actinomyces fungus from a tumor of the jawbone in cattle, magnified 550 times. PLATE XL. Actinomycosis of the jaw. (Reduced one-half. From Jöhne's Encyklopädie d. gesammt. Thierheilkunde.) The lower jaw is sawed through transversely, i.e., from right to left, and shows the disease within the jawbone itself; _a_, within the mouth, showing the papillæ on the mucous membrane of the cheek; _b_, front view of a molar tooth; _c_, the skin covering the lower surface of the jawbone; _d_, the jawbone hollowed out and enlarged by the formation of cavities within it, which are filled with the soft growth of the actinomycotic tumor. The section makes it appear as if the bone were broken into fragments and these forced apart; _e_, a portion of the tumor which has broken through the bone and the skin and appears as a tumor on the cheek. The little roundish masses represent the granulomata (minute tumors) in which the fungus vegetates. PLATE XLI. Actinomycosis of the lungs. Fig. 1. Transverse section of the ventral lobe of the right lung, from a case studied in the laboratory. The yellowish dots represent the places where the actinomyces fungus is lodged. The larger yellowish patches are produced by the confluence of a number of isolated centers. The entire lobe is of a dark flesh-red color, due to collapse and bronchopneumonia. Fig. 2. The cut surface of a portion of the principal lobe of the same lung, showing the recent invasion of antinomycosis from the other lobe: _a_, large air tube; _b_, artery; _c_, a pneumatic lobule; _d_, lobule containing minute yellowish dots. In these the actinomyces fungus is lodged. Fig. 3. Cut surface of a small portion of another lung, showing a few lobules, _a._ The fungus is sprinkled throughout the lung tissue in the form of yellowish grains, as shown in the illustration. The pleural covering of the lung tissue is shown in profile above. [Illustration: PLATE XXXIX. Fig. 1 Fig. 2 ACTINOMYCOSIS.] [Illustration: PLATE XL. ACTINOMYCOSIS OF THE JAW.] [Illustration: PLATE XLI. Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 ACTINOMYCOSIS OF THE LUNGS.] * * * * * _Cause._--The cause of anthrax is a microscopic organism known as the anthrax bacillus. (See Pl. XXVIII, fig. 7.) In form it is cylindrical or rodlike, measuring 1/5000 to 1/2500 inch in length and 1/25000 inch in diameter. Like all bacteria, these rodlike bodies have the power of indefinite multiplication, and in the bodies of infected animals they produce death by rapidly increasing in numbers and producing substances which poison the body. In the blood they multiply in number by becoming elongated and then dividing into two, each new organism continuing the same process indefinitely. Outside the body, however, they multiply in a different way when under conditions unfavorable to growth. Oval bodies, which are called spores, appear within the rods, and remain alive and capable of germination after years of drying. They also resist heat to a remarkable degree, so that boiling water is necessary to destroy them. The bacilli themselves, on the other hand, show only very little resistance to heat and drying. It has long been known that the anthrax virus thrives best under certain conditions of the soil and on territories subject to floods and inundations. The particular kinds of soil upon which the disease is observed are black, loose, warm, humous soils; also those containing lime, marl, and clay, finally peaty, swampy soils resting upon strata which hold the water, or, in other words, are impervious. Hence fields containing stagnant pools may be the source of infection. The infection may be limited to certain farms, or even to restricted areas on such farms. Even in the Alps, more than 3,000 feet above sea level, where such conditions prevail in secluded valleys, anthrax persists among herds. Aside from these limitations to specific conditions of the soil, anthrax is a disease of world-wide distribution. It exists in most countries of Europe, in Asia, Africa, Australia, and in our own country in the lower Mississippi Valley, the Gulf States, and in some of the Eastern and Western States. It seems to be gradually spreading in this country and every year occurs in new districts. Meteorological conditions also have an important share in determining the severity of the disease. On those tracts subject to inundations in spring a very hot, dry summer is liable to cause a severe outbreak. The relation which the bacillus bears to these conditions is not positively known. It may be that during and immediately after inundations or in stagnant water the bacilli find nourishment enough in the water here and there to multiply and produce an abundant crop of spores, which are subsequently carried, in a dry condition, by the winds during the period of drought and disseminated over the vegetation. Animals feeding upon this vegetation may contract the disease if the spores germinate in the body. Another source of the virus, and one regarded by many authorities as perhaps the most important, is the body of an animal which has died of anthrax. It will be remembered that in such bodies the anthrax bacilli are present in great numbers, and wherever blood or other body fluids are exposed to the air on the surface of the carcass there the formation of spores will go on with great rapidity in the warm season of the year. It will thus be readily understood how this disease may become stationary in a given locality and appear year after year and even grow in severity if the carcasses of animals which have succumbed to it are not properly disposed of. These carcasses should be buried deeply, so that spore formation may be prevented and no animal have access to them. By exercising this precaution the disease will not be disseminated by flies and other insect pests. We have thus two agents at work in maintaining the disease in any locality--the soil and meteorological conditions, and the carcasses of animals that have died of the disease. Besides these dangers, which are of immediate consequence to cattle on pastures, the virus may be carried from place to place in hides, hair, wool, hoofs, and horns, and it may be stored in the hay or other fodder from the infected fields and cause an outbreak among stabled animals feeding upon it in winter. In this manner the affection has been introduced into far-distant localities. _How cattle are infected._--We have seen above that the spores of the anthrax bacilli, which in their functions correspond to the seeds of higher plants and which are the elements that longest resist the unfavorable conditions in the soil, air, and water, are the chief agents of infection. They may be taken into the body with the feed and produce disease which begins in the intestinal tract, or they may come in contact with scratches, bites, or other wounds of the skin, mouth, and tongue, and produce in these situations swellings or carbuncles. From such swellings the bacilli penetrate into the blood and produce a general disease. It has likewise been asserted that the disease may be transmitted by various kinds of insects which carry the bacilli from the sick and inoculate the healthy as they pierce the skin. When infection of the blood takes place from the intestines the carbuncles may be absent. It has already been stated that since anthrax spores live for several years, the disease may be contracted in winter from feed gathered on permanently infected fields. The disease may appear sporadically, i. e., only one or several animals may be infected while the rest of the herd remain well, or it may appear as an epizootic attacking a large number at about the same time. _Symptoms._--The symptoms in cattle vary considerably, according as the disease begins in the skin, in the lungs, or in the intestines. They depend also on the severity of the attack. Thus we may have what is called anthrax peracutus or apoplectiform, when the animal dies very suddenly as if from apoplexy. Such cases usually occur in the beginning of an outbreak. The animal, without having shown any signs of disease, suddenly drops in the pasture and dies in convulsions, or one apparently well at night is found dead in the morning. The second type (anthrax acutis), without any external swellings, is the one most commonly observed in cattle. The disease begins with a high fever. The temperature may reach 106° to 107° F. The pulse beats from 80 to 100 a minute. Feeding and rumination are suspended. Chills and muscular tremors may appear and the skin show uneven temperature. The ears and base of the horns are cold, the coat staring. The animals are dull and stupid and manifest great weakness. To these symptoms others are added in the course of the disease. The dullness may give way to great uneasiness, champing of the jaws, spasms of the limbs, kicking and pawing the ground. The breathing may become labored. The nostrils then dilate, the mouth is open, the head raised, and all muscles of the chest are strained during breathing, while the visible mucous membranes (nose, mouth, rectum, and vagina) become bluish. If the disease has started in the bowels, there is much pain, as shown by the moaning of the animal; the discharges, at first firm, become softer and covered with serum, mucus, and blood. As the disease approaches the fatal termination the weakness of the animal increases. It leans against supports or lies down. Blood vessels may rupture and give rise to spots of blood on the various mucous membranes and bloody discharges from nose, mouth, rectum, and vagina. The urine not infrequently contains blood (red water), and death ensues within one or two days. A third type of the disease (anthrax subacutus), which is rarely observed, includes those cases in which the disease is more prolonged. It may last from three to seven days and terminate fatally or end in recovery. In this type, the symptoms are practically as described in the acute form, only less marked. In connection with these types of intestinal anthrax, swellings may appear in different parts of the body under the skin, or the disease may start from such a swelling, caused by the inoculation of anthrax spores in one of the several different ways already described. If the disease begins in the skin, it agrees in general with the subacute form in prolonged duration, and it may occasionally terminate in recovery if the swellings are thoroughly incised and treated. _Lesions._--These swellings appear as edemas and carbuncles. The former are doughy tumors of a more or less flattish form passing gradually into the surrounding healthy tissue. As a rule, they are situated beneath the skin in the fatty layer, and the skin itself is at first of healthy appearance, so that they are often overlooked, especially when covered with a good coat of hair. When they are cut open they are found to consist of a peculiar, jellylike mass of a yellowish color and more or less stained with blood. The carbuncles are firm, hot, tender swellings, which later become cool and painless and undergo mortification. The edemas and carbuncles may also appear in the mouth, pharynx, larynx, in the tongue, and in the rectum. The bodies of cattle which have died of anthrax soon lose their rigidity and become bloated, because decomposition sets in very rapidly. From the mouth, nose, and anus bloodstained fluid flows in small quantities. When such carcasses are opened and examined it is found that nearly all organs are sprinkled with spots of blood or extravasations of various sizes. The spleen is enlarged from two to five times, the pulp blackish and soft and occasionally disintegrated. The blood is of tarry consistency, not firmly coagulated, and blackish in color. In the abdomen, the thoracic cavity, and in the pericardium, or bag surrounding the heart, more or less blood-stained fluid is present. In addition to these characteristic signs, the carbuncles and swellings under the skin, already described, will aid in determining the true nature of the disease. The most reliable method of diagnosis is the examination of the blood and tissues for anthrax bacilli, which requires a trained bacteriologist. The cases of fatal anthrax number from 70 to 90 per cent, and are usually more numerous at the first outbreak of the disease. _Differential diagnosis._--The diagnosis from blackleg may be made by noting the subcutaneous swellings which appear upon the patient. Those of blackleg are found to crackle under pressure with the finger, owing to the presence of gas within the tissues, while the tumors of anthrax, being caused by the pressure of serum, are entirely free from this quality and have a somewhat doughy consistence. The tumors of blackleg are usually on the shoulder or thigh and are not found so frequently about the neck and side of the body as are the swellings of anthrax. The blood of animals dead of blackleg is normal, and the spleen does not appear swollen or darkened, as in those affected with anthrax. The chief differences between anthrax and Texas fever are that the course of the former is more acute and the blood of the animal is dark and of a tarlike consistence, while in the latter it is thinner than normal. The presence of Texas-fever ticks on the cattle would also lead one to suspect that disease in regions where cattle are not immune from it. _Treatment._--In cases which originate from external wounds, the swellings should be opened freely by long incisions with a sharp knife and washed several times daily with carbolic-acid solution (1 ounce to a quart of water). Care should be taken to disinfect thoroughly any fluid discharge that may follow the incision. When suppuration has set in the treatment recommended in the chapter on wounds should be carried out. In the treatment of animals showing symptoms of anthrax, the serum recommended under the next heading of "Prevention" should be administered in large doses. Animals showing only a high temperature with no other symptoms of the disease should be given from 30 to 50 cubic centimeters of the serum, but if the gravity of the disease is pronounced 100 cubic centimeters should be administered. In most instances a drop in temperature may be observed and a diminishing of the severity of the symptoms. At times, however, a relapse occurs about the second or third day following the serum injection, when it becomes necessary to administer another dose of serum. It has been proved that animals affected with anthrax may recover after injections of potent serum. _Prevention._--In this disease prevention is the most important subject demanding consideration. The various means to be suggested may be brought under two heads: (1) The surroundings of the animal, and (2) preventive inoculation. (1) Surroundings.--What has already been stated of those conditions of the pastures which are favorable to anthrax, after a little thought, will suggest to most minds some of the preventive measures which may be of service in reducing losses in anthrax localities. All that conduces to a better state of the soil should be attempted. The State or Nation, by appropriate engineering, should do its share in preventing frequent inundations. If pools of stagnant water exist in the pastures, or if any particular portions are known by experience to give rise to anthrax, they should be fenced off. Efforts should likewise be made toward the proper draining of swamp lands frequented by cattle. Sometimes it has been found desirable to abandon for a season any infected or dangerous pastures. This remedy can not be carried out by most farmers, and it is liable to extend the infected territory. In some instances withdrawal of cattle from pastures entirely and feeding them in stables is said to have reduced the losses. It is of the utmost importance that carcasses of animals which have died of anthrax be properly disposed of, as every portion of such animal contains the bacilli, ready to form spores when exposed to the air. Perhaps the simplest means is to bury the carcasses deep, where they can not be exposed by dogs or wild animals. It may be necessary to bury them on the pasture, but it is better to remove them to places not frequented by susceptible animals and to a point where drainage from the graves can not infect any water supply. If they are moved some distance it must be borne in mind that the ground and all objects which have come in contact with the carcass should be disinfected. This is best accomplished with chlorid of lime. For washing utensils, etc., a 5 per cent solution may be prepared by adding 3 ounces to 2 quarts of water. This should be prepared fresh from the powder, and it is but little trouble to have a small tin measure of known capacity to dip out the powder, to be added to the water whenever necessary. The carcass and the ground should be sprinkled with powdered chlorid, or, if this is not at hand, an abundance of ordinary, unslaked lime should be used in its place. The removal of carcasses to rendering establishments is always fraught with danger, unless those who handle them are thoroughly aware of the danger of scattering the virus by careless handling in wagons that are not tight. As a rule, the persons in charge of such transfer have no training for this important work, so that deep burial is to be preferred. Burning large carcasses is not always feasible; it is, however, the most certain means of destroying infectious material of any kind, and should be resorted to whenever practicable and economical. All carcasses, whether buried, rendered, or burned, should be disposed of unopened. When stables have become infected they should be thoroughly cleaned out, and the solution of chlorid of lime freely applied on floors and woodwork. The feed should be carefully protected from contamination with the manure or other discharges from the sick. (2) Preventive inoculation.--One of the most important discoveries in connection with the disease was made by Louis Pasteur in 1881, and consisted in the new principle of producing immunity by the inoculation of weakened cultures of the bacillus causing the disease. This method has been quite extensively adopted in France, and to some extent in other European countries, and in the United States. The fluid used for inoculation consists of bouillon in which modified anthrax bacilli have multiplied and are present in large numbers. The bacilli have been modified by heat so that to a certain degree they have lost their original virulence. Two vaccines are prepared. The first or weaker, for the first inoculation, is obtained by subjecting the bacilli to the attenuating effects of heat for a longer period of time than in the case of the second, or stronger vaccine, for a second inoculation some 12 days later. There are several difficulties inherent in the practical application of Pasteur's vaccine. Among them may be mentioned the variable degree of attenuation of different tubes of the vaccine and the varying susceptibility of the animals to be inoculated. The use of this vaccine is increasing, nevertheless, and has reduced the mortality in the affected districts from an average of 10 per cent in the case of sheep, to less than 1 per cent, and from 5 per cent with cattle, to less than one-half of 1 per cent. It is very important to call attention to the possibility of distributing anthrax by this method of protective inoculation, as the bacilli themselves are present in the culture liquid. It is true that they have been modified and weakened by the process adopted by Pasteur, but it is not impossible for such modified virus to regain its original virulence after it has been scattered broadcast by the inoculation of large herds. It is obviously unsafe to have such vaccine injected by a layman; instead, it should be handled only by a competent veterinarian. There are other disadvantages in this method of vaccination, and they all must be given due consideration. The unstable keeping quality of the Pasteur vaccine is a very important factor to be considered. Experience in this line has proved that Pasteur vaccine may deteriorate within a very short time after its preparation, and in repeated instances it has proved inert within three months of its preparation. When exposed to warm temperature and light, it deteriorates very rapidly; and when it is considered that the products of manufacturers may be stored under unfavorable conditions in branch houses and on the shelves of rural drug stores, the loss of potency can be readily explained. These deficiencies have been recognized by many investigators, and because of the superior keeping qualities particular attention has been directed toward the preparation of a spore vaccine by Zenkowsky of Russia, Detre of Hungary, and Nitta of Japan. For the purpose of producing a spore vaccine it is desirable to use a peptone-free agar medium, and after inoculation with an attenuated culture of the anthrax bacillus, it is allowed to grow at a temperature of 37° C. for 4 to 7 days. By this time an abundance of spores will have formed. The growth is then collected in sterile flasks and heated to a temperature of 60° C. for one-half hour to destroy the vegetative forms of the organism. If it is desired to use for vaccination one million spores, it is advisable to dilute the vaccine to a quantity of which 1 cubic centimeter would contain this number. Of such a vaccine 1 cubic centimeter would constitute the dose for cattle and horses. In all forms of vaccination against anthrax in sheep the greatest care must be exercised, as these animals are very susceptible to the disease, and at times vaccines which have no ill effects on cattle will prove fatal to sheep. Therefore the dose of the spore vaccine for sheep should not be more than one-fourth of that given to cattle. Sclavo, Sobernheim, and others have established that injections of increasing quantities of virulent cultures into immune animals produced a serum which has great protective value against anthrax. Such protective serum may be produced in the various susceptible animals. For immunization purposes it is advisable to use the simultaneous method; that is, both the spore vaccine and the anthrax serum should be injected. It is desirable to divide the herd to be treated into groups of ten or twelve and inject, first, each animal of the group with the serum, following this with the injection of the spore vaccine. The serum should be injected on one side, either on the neck or back of the shoulder, and the spore vaccine on the other side, injections being made subcutaneously. In herds in which the disease has already made its appearance it is necessary to take the temperatures of all the animals and to subject to the simultaneous vaccination only those that show no rise in temperature. All others should be given the serum-alone treatment in doses varying in accordance with the severity of the symptoms manifested by the individual animals. If the examination reveals a considerable number of infections, it is advisable to use the serum alone for all the animals, and in three or four weeks to revaccinate by the simultaneous method. The dosage should depend on the potency of the serum, serum of a high potency naturally being most desirable. Thus serum in 10 cubic centimeter doses for large animals, and 3 to 5 cubic centimeter doses for smaller ones, has been found to be effective in producing a temporary immunity. As anthrax is entirely different from blackleg, vaccine for the latter does not act as a preventive against the former. ANTHRAX IN MAN (MALIGNANT PUSTULE, OR CARBUNCLE). Anthrax may be transmitted to man in handling the carcasses and hides of animals which have succumbed to the disease. The infection usually takes place through some abrasion or slight wound of the skin into which the anthrax spores, or bacilli, find their way. The point of inoculation appears at first as a dark point or patch, compared by some writers to the sting of a flea. After a few hours this is changed into a reddened pimple, which bears on its summit, usually around a hair, a yellowish blister, or vesicle, which later on becomes red or bluish in color. The burning sensation in this stage is very great. Later this pimple enlarges, its center becomes dry, gangrenous, and is surrounded by an elevated, discolored swelling. The center becomes drier and more leatherlike, and sinks in as the whole increases in size. The skin around this swelling or carbuncle is stained yellow or bluish, and is not infrequently swollen and doughy to the touch. The carbuncle itself rarely grows larger than a pea or a small nut, and is but slightly painful. Anthrax swellings or edemas, already described as occurring in cattle, may also be found in man, and they are at times so extensive as to produce distortion in the appearance of the part of the body on which they are found. The color of the skin over these swellings varies according to the situation and thickness of the skin and the stage of the disease, and may be white, red, bluish, or blackish. As sooner or later these carbuncles and swellings may lead to an infection of the entire body, and thus be fatal, surgical assistance should at once be called if there is well-grounded suspicion that any swellings resembling those described above have been caused by inoculation with anthrax virus. Inasmuch as physicians differ as to medicinal treatment of such accidents in man, it would be out of place to make any suggestions in this connection. Extensive data are available, however, on the effectiveness of anthrax serum for the treatment of the disease in man. It is recommended that from 30 to 40 cubic centimeters of serum be injected in three or four different places. Should no improvement follow in 24 hours additional injections of 20 to 30 cubic centimeters should be administered. In most instances the results are favorable, and this treatment is acknowledged to be superior to any other mode of treatment known for the disease. To show that the transmission of anthrax to man is not so very uncommon, we take the following figures from the 1890 report of the German Government: The attention of the authorities was brought to 111 cases, of which 11 terminated fatally. The largest number of inoculations were caused by the slaughtering, opening, and skinning of animals affected with anthrax; hence, the butchers suffered most extensively. Of the 111 thus affected, 36 belonged to this craft. Infected shaving brushes also are very dangerous. In addition to anthrax of the skin (known as malignant pustule), human beings are subject, though very rarely, to the disease of the lungs and the digestive organs. In the former case the spores are inhaled by workmen in establishments in which wool, hides, and rags are worked over, and it is therefore known as woolsorter's disease. In the latter case the disease is contracted by eating the flesh of diseased animals which has not been thoroughly cooked. These forms of the disease are more fatal than those in which the disease starts from the skin. BLACKLEG. [Pl. XLII.] Blackleg, black quarter, quarter ill, symptomatic anthrax, charbon symptomatique of the French, Rauschbrand of the Germans, is a rapidly fatal, infectious disease of young cattle, associated with external swellings which emit a crackling sound when handled. This disease was formerly regarded identical with anthrax, but investigations by various scientists in recent times have definitely proved the entire dissimilarity of the two affections, both from a clinical and a causal standpoint. The disease is produced by a specific bacillus, readily distinguishable from that causing anthrax. (Pl. XXVIII, fig. 4.) Cattle between 6 months and 2 years of age are the most susceptible. Sucking calves under 6 months are rarely attacked, nor are they so susceptible to inoculation as older animals. Cattle more than 2 years of age may become affected, but such cases are infrequent. Sheep and goats may also contract the disease, but man, horses, hogs, dogs, cats, and fowls appear to be immune. Like anthrax, blackleg is more or less restricted to definite localities. There are certain pastures upon which the disease regularly appears in the summer and fall of the year. As to any peculiarities of the soil nothing is definitely known. Some authors are inclined to regard moist, undrained, and swampy pastures favorable to this disease, but these theories will hardly hold, as it is found in all kinds of soil, in all altitudes, at all seasons of the year, and under various climatic conditions. It occurs in this country from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Mexico to Canada, but it is more prevalent in the Western and Southwestern States. In Europe it exists in France, various parts of Germany, in Belgium, Norway, Denmark, Italy, and in the Alps of Switzerland. In Africa it occurs in Algeria and to some extent in Natal and bordering countries. In South America it prevails quite extensively throughout Argentina. Cattle in Cuba and Australia also suffer. _Cause._--The cause of the disease is a bacillus resembling in some minor respects the anthrax bacillus and differing but little from it in size. It also possesses the power of forming within itself a spore. In Plate XXVIII, figure 4, this is represented as an uncolored spot located in one end of the rod, which is enlarged so that the rod itself appears more or less club-shaped. What has already been stated concerning the significance of the spore of the anthrax bacillus applies equally well to these bodies. They resist destructive agents for a considerable time, and may still produce disease when inoculated after several years of drying. This fact may account for the occasional appearance of blackleg in stables. In order to meet the requirements for the development of the spores, which takes place only in the absence of the atmosphere, it is necessary that the wound be very small and deep enough to penetrate the subcutaneous tissue. Several observers have found this organism in the mud of swamps. By placing a little of the mud under the skin, the disease has been produced. Since the disease may be produced by placing under the skin material containing the specific bacilli and spores, it has been assumed that cattle contract the disease through wounds, principally of the skin, or very rarely of the mouth, tongue, and throat. Slight wounds into which the virus may find access may be caused by barbed wire, stubbles, thorns, briers, grass burs, and sharp or pointed parts of feed. Infection by way of digestive tract is also probable. _Symptoms and lesions._--The symptoms of blackleg may be either of a general or of a local nature, though more frequently of the latter. The general symptoms are very much like those belonging to other acute infectious or bacterial diseases. They begin, from one to three days after the infection has taken place, with loss of appetite and of rumination, with dullness and debility, and a high fever. The temperature may rise to 107° F. To these may be added lameness or stiffness of one or more limbs, due to the tumor or swelling quite invariably accompanying the disease. After a period of disease lasting from one to three days the affected animal almost always succumbs. Death is preceded by increasing weakness, difficult breathing, and occasional attacks of violent convulsions. The most important characteristic of this disease is the appearance of a tumor or swelling under the skin a few hours after the setting in of the constitutional symptoms described above. In some cases it may appear first. This tumor may be on the thighs (hence "blackleg," "black quarter"), the neck, the shoulder, the breast, the flanks, or the rump; never below the carpal (or knee) and the hock joint. It more rarely appears in the throat and at the base of the tongue. The tumor, at first small and painful, spreads very rapidly both in depth and extent. When it is stroked or handled a peculiar crackling sound is heard under the skin; this is due to a collection of gas formed by the bacilli as they multiply. At this stage the skin becomes dry, parchment-like, and cool to the touch in the center of the tumor. If the swelling is cut into, a frothy, dark-red, rather disagreeable-smelling fluid is discharged. The animal manifests little or no pain during the operation. As it is frequently desirable to know whether the disease is anthrax or blackleg, a few of the most obvious post-mortem changes may here be cited. The characteristic tumor with its crackling sound when stroked has already been described. If after the death of the animal it is more thoroughly examined, it will be noted that the tissues under the skin are infiltrated with blood and yellowish, jellylike material and gas bubbles. The muscular tissue beneath the swelling may be brownish or black, shading into dark red. (Pl. XLII.) It is soft, easily torn and broken up. The muscle tissue is distended with numerous smaller or larger gas-filled cavities, often to such extent as to produce a resemblance to lung tissue. Upon incision it does not collapse perceptibly, as the gas cavities are not connected with one another. In the abdomen and the thorax bloodstained fluid is not infrequently found, together with bloodstaining of the lining membrane of these cavities. Blood spots (or ecchymoses) are also found on the heart and lungs. The liver is congested, but the spleen is always normal in appearance. _Differential diagnosis._--Among the features of this disease which distinguish it from anthrax may be mentioned the unchanged spleen and the ready clotting of the blood. It will be remembered that in anthrax the spleen (milt) is very much enlarged, the blood tarry, coagulating feebly. The anthrax carbuncles and swellings differ from the blackleg swellings in not containing gas, in being hard and solid, and in causing death less rapidly. It is difficult to distinguish between the swellings of blackleg and malignant edema, as they resemble each other very closely and both are distended with gas. Malignant edema, however, generally starts from a wound of considerable size; it usually follows surgical operations, and seldom results from the small abrasions and pricks to which animals are subjected in pastures. Inoculation experiments on guinea pigs, rabbits, and chickens will generally disclose the differences between the three diseases above, as all these species are killed by the germ of malignant edema, only the first two species by the anthrax bacillus, while the guinea pigs alone will succumb to the blackleg infection. Hemorrhagic septicemia may be differentiated from blackleg by its affecting cattle of all ages, by the location of the swelling usually about the region of the throat, neck, and dewlap, by the soft, doughy character of the swellings without the presence of gas bubbles, and finally by the characteristic hemorrhages widely distributed throughout the body. Other means of diagnosis, which have reference to the specific bacilli, to the inoculable character of the virus upon small animals, and which are of decisive and final importance, can be utilized only by the trained bacteriologist and veterinarian. _Treatment._--In this disease remedies have thus far proved unavailing. Some writers recommend the use of certain drugs, which seem to have been beneficial in a few cases, but a thorough trial has shown them to be valueless. Others advise that the swelling be opened by deep and long incisions and a strong disinfectant, such as a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, applied to the exposed parts; but this procedure can not be too strongly condemned. As nearly all those attacked die, in spite of every kind of treatment, and in view of the fact that when these tumors are opened the germs of the disease are scattered over the stables or pastures, thus becoming a source of danger to other cattle, it is obvious that such measures do more harm than good and should be put aside as dangerous. Bleeding, nerving, roweling, or setoning have likewise some adherents, but the evidence indicates that they have neither curative nor preventive value and therefore should be discarded for the method of vaccination which has been thoroughly tried and proved to be efficacious. _Prevention._--The various means suggested under "Anthrax" to prevent the spread or recurrence of this disease are equally applicable to blackleg, and hence do not need to be repeated here in full. They consist in the removal of well animals from the infected pasture to a noninfected field, the draining of the swampy ground, the burial or burning of the carcasses to prevent the dissemination of the germs over vast areas through the agency of dogs, wolves, buzzards, or crows, the disinfection of the stables and the ground where the animals lay at the time of death, and, if possible, the destruction of the germs on the infected pastures. One of the most effective methods for freeing an infected pasture from blackleg is to allow the grass to grow high, and when sufficiently dry to burn it off. One burning off is not sufficient to redeem an infected pasture, but the process should be repeated several years in succession. This method, however, is in many instances impracticable, as few cattle owners can afford to do it, and the only means left for the protection of the animals is vaccination. _Immunization by vaccination._--Three French veterinarians, Arloing, Cornevin, and Thomas, were the first to discover that cattle may be protected against blackleg by inoculation with virulent material obtained from animals which have died of this disease. Later they devised a method of inoculation with the attenuated or weakened blackleg spores which produced immunity from natural or artificial inoculation of virulent blackleg germs. Their method has undergone various modifications both in regard to the manufacture of the vaccine and in the mode of its application. Kitt, a German scientist, modified the method so that but one inoculation of the vaccine was required instead of two, as was the case with that made by the French investigators. The vaccine formerly prepared and distributed by the Bureau of Animal Industry combined the principle of Arloing, Cornevin, and Thomas, and the modification of Kitt. By vaccination we understand the injection of a minute amount of attenuated--that is, artificially weakened--blackleg virus into the system. This virus is obtained from animals which have died from blackleg, by securing the affected muscles, cutting them into strips, and drying them in the air. When they are perfectly dry they are pulverized and mixed with water to form a paste, smeared in a thin layer on flat dishes, placed in an oven, and heated for six hours at a temperature close to that of boiling water. The paste is then transformed into a hard crust, which is pulverized and sifted and distributed in packages containing either 10 or 25 doses. This constitutes the vaccine, the strength of which is thoroughly tested on experiment animals before it is distributed among the cattle owners. This vaccine, which is in the form of a brownish, dry powder, is mixed with definite quantities of sterile water, filtered, and by means of a hypodermic syringe the filtrate injected under the skin in front of the shoulder of the animal. The inoculation is usually followed by insignificant symptoms. In a few cases there is a slight rise of temperature, and by close observation a minute swelling may be noted at the point of inoculation. The immunity conferred in this way may last for 18 months, but animals vaccinated before they are 6 months old and those in badly infected districts should be revaccinated before the following blackleg season. The effect of the vaccine prepared by this bureau in preventing outbreaks of the disease and in immediately abating outbreaks already in progress was highly satisfactory, and it is not to be doubted that thousands of young cattle were saved to the stock owners during the 25 years in which the vaccine was distributed.[6] More than 47,000,000 doses were sent out during this period, and from reports received it is safe to conclude that more than 40,000,000 were actually injected, whereby the percentage of loss from blackleg has been reduced from 10 per cent, which annually occurred before using, to less than one-half of 1 per cent per annum. With these figures before us it is plain that the general introduction of preventive vaccination must be of material benefit to the cattle raisers in the infected districts. Moreover, there is every reason to believe that with the continued use of blackleg vaccine in all districts where the disease is known to occur, and an earnest effort on the part of the stock owners to prevent the reinfection of their pastures by following the directions given, blackleg may be kept in check and gradually eradicated. Immunization against blackleg is now frequently accomplished by the use of the so-called blackleg aggressin and blackleg filtrates. NECROTIC STOMATITIS (CALF DIPHTHERIA). [Pl. XLIII.] Necrotic stomatitis is an acute, specific, highly contagious inflammation of the mouth occurring in young cattle, and characterized locally by the formation of ulcers and caseo-necrotic patches and by constitutional symptoms, chiefly toxic. This disease has also been termed calf diphtheria, gangrenous stomatitis, ulcerative stomatitis, malignant stomatitis, tubercular stomatitis, and diphtheritic patches of the oral mucous membrane. _History._--During the last few years farmers and cattlemen in this country, especially in Colorado, Texas, and South Dakota, have increasingly noted the occurrence of enzootics of "sore mouth" among the young animals of their herds. Instead of healing, like the usual forms, of themselves, these cases, if untreated, die. Careful study of some of them has resulted in their identification with cases reported in 1877 by Dammann, from the shore of the Baltic; in 1878 by Blazekowic, in Slavonia; in 1879 by Vollers, in Holstein; in 1880 by Lenglen, in France; in 1881 by Macgillivray, in England; and in 1884 by Löffler, who isolated and described the microorganism which produces the disease. Bang obtained this organism from the diphtheritic lesions of calves in 1890, and Kitt likewise recovered the bacillus from similar lesions of the larynx and pharynx of calves and pigs in 1893. [Illustration: PLATE XLII. SECTION OF MUSCLE FROM A BLACKLEG SWELLING. a. GAS BUBBLES. b. CAVITIES DUE TO GAS FORMATION.] [Illustration: PLATE XLIII. NECROTIC STOMATITIS (CALF DIPTHERIA).] _Etiology._--The cause of necrotic stomatitis, as demonstrated by Löffler and since confirmed by other investigators, is _Bacillus necrophorus_, often spoken of as the bacillus of necrosis. This organism varies in form from a coccoid rod to long, wavy filaments, which may reach a length of 100µ; the width varies from 0.75µ to 1µ. Hence it is described as polymorphic. It does not stain by Gram, but takes the ordinary anilin dyes, often presenting, especially the longer forms, a beaded appearance. A characteristic of the organism, of great moment when we come to treatment, is that it grows only in the absence of oxygen, from which fact it is described as an obligate anærobe. Very few organisms exhibit a wider range of pathogenesis. According to clinical observation to the present time, _Bacillus necrophorus_ is pathogenic for cattle, horses, hogs, sheep, reindeer, kangaroos, antelope, and rabbits. Experimentally it has been proved pathogenic for rabbits and white mice. The dog, cat, guinea pig, pigeon, and chicken appear to be absolutely immune. It is not pathogenic for man. The importance of this bacillus is far beyond even its relation to necrotic stomatitis. Besides this disease it has been demonstrated as the causative factor in foot rot, multiple liver abscesses, disseminated liver necrosis, embolic necrosis of the lungs, necrosis of the heart, in cattle; gangrenous pox of the teats, diphtheria of the uterus and vagina, in cows; diphtheritic inflammation of the small intestine of calves. Among horses it is the agent in the production of necrotic malanders, quittor, and diphtheritic inflammation of the large intestine. In hogs it has caused necrotic or diphtheritic processes in the mucous membrane of the mouth, necrosis of the anterior wall of the nasal septum, and pulmonary and intestinal necrosis, accompanying hog cholera. Abscesses of the liver, gangrenous processes of the lips and nose, and gangrenous affections of the hoof have all been caused in sheep by this organism. _Pathology._--The principal lesions in necrotic stomatitis occur in the mucous membrane of the mouth and pharynx. The alterations may extend to the nasal cavities, the larynx, the trachea, the lung, the esophagus, the intestines, and to the hoof. The oral surfaces affected are, in the order of frequency, tongue, cheeks, hard palate, gums, lips, and pharynx. In the majority of cases the primary infection seems to occur in the tongue. (Pl. XLIII.) Infection takes place by inoculation. Some abrasion or break in the continuity of the mucous membrane of the mouth occurs. Very likely the origin may be connected with the eruption of the first teeth after birth, or, in animals somewhat older, the entrance of a sharp-pointed particle of feed. Gaining an entrance at this point, the bacilli begin to multiply. During their development they elaborate a toxin, or poisonous substance, which causes the death, or necrosis, of the epithelial, or superficial, layer of the mucous membrane and also of the white blood cells which have sallied forth through the vessel walls to the defense of the tissues against the bacillary attack. This destruction of the surface epithelium seems to be the essential factor in the production of the caseous patch, often called the false membrane. From the connective-tissue framework below is poured forth an inflammatory exudate highly albuminous or rich in fibrin-forming elements. When this exudate and the necrosed cellular elements come in contact, the latter furnish a fibrin ferment which transforms the exduate into a fibrinous mass. This process is known as coagulation necrosis, and the resulting fibroid mass, containing in its meshes the necrosed and degenerated epithelium and leucocytes, constitutes the diphtheritic or false membrane. Did the process cease at this point it would be properly called a diphtheritic inflammation, but it does not. A caseating ferment is supplied by the bacilli, and this, acting upon the fibroid patch, transforms it into a dry, finely granular, yellowish mass of tissue detritus resembling cheese. Frequently this caseous inflammation results in the formation of one or more ulcers with thickened, slightly reddened borders, surmounted by several layers of this necrosed tissue. The floor of the ulcer is formed by a grayish-yellow, corroded surface, under which the tissue is transformed into a dry, friable, or firm cheesy mass. In the tongue this may progress to two fingers' thickness into the muscular portion; in the cheek it may form an external opening, permitting fluids to escape from the mouth; upon the palate it frequently reaches and includes the bone in its destructive course; upon the gums it has produced necrosis of the tooth sockets, causing loss of the teeth. In the advanced forms, caseous foci may be seen in the lung and in the liver and necrotic patches observed on the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract. _Symptoms._--Necrotic stomatitis is both a local and a systemic affection. Primarily it is local. The local lesion is the caseo-necrotic patch or ulcer developed as a result of the multiplication of the bacilli at the point of inoculation. The general affection is an intoxication, or poisoning, of the whole system produced by a soluble toxin elaborated by the bacilli. The stage of incubation is from three to five days. The first symptoms noted are a disinclination to take nourishment, some drooling from the mouth, and an examination of the mouth will show on some portion of its mucous membrane a circumscribed area of infiltration and redness, possibly an erosion. The latter gradually extends in size and depth, forming a sharply circumscribed area of necrotic inflammation. It may measure anywhere from the size of a 5-cent piece to that of a silver dollar or even larger. It has the appearance of a corroded surface, under which the mucous membrane or muscular tissue seems transformed into a dry, friable, or firm cheesy mass. It is grayish yellow in color and is bordered by a zone of thickened tissue slightly reddened and somewhat granulated. The necrotic tissue is very adherent and can be only partially peeled off. It is homogeneous, cheesy, and may extend two fingers' depth into the tissues beneath. The general symptoms are languor, weakness, and slight fever. In spite of plenty of good feed the calf is seen to be failing. It stops sucking, or, if older, altogether refuses to eat. The temperature at this time may be from 104° to 107° F. The slobber becomes profuse, swallowing very difficult, opening of the mouth quite painful, and a most offensive odor is exhaled. The tongue is swollen and its motion greatly impaired. Sometimes the mouth is kept open, permitting the tumefied tongue to protrude. One or more of the above symptoms direct the attention to the mouth as the seat of disease; or, having noticed the debility and disinclination to eat, an examination of the animal may show a lump under the neck or swelling of the throat or head. The following extract from a letter is characteristic: I noticed my calves beginning to fail about the first week in December, but could not account for it, as they were getting plenty of grain and hay. My attention was first attracted by a swelling under the neck of one of the calves. I cast the animal and found that it was feed that had collected and the animal couldn't swallow it. I removed it, and in so doing noticed a large ulcer on the tongue and a very offensive odor. This was the first knowledge I had of anything being wrong with the calves' mouths. They may have been sick for some time before this. Out of a herd of 100 belonging to this man, 70 were affected, and the letter emphasizes the insidious character of the onset. The general affection at this time manifests itself by dejectedness, extreme weakness, and emaciation, constant lying down, with stiffness and marked difficulty in standing. The disease frequently extends to the nasal cavities, producing a thin, yellowish, or greenish-yellow, sticky discharge which adheres closely to the borders of the nostrils. Their edges also show caseous patches similar to those in the mouth. Sometimes the nasal passage is obstructed by great masses of the necrosed exudate, thus causing extreme difficulty in breathing. When the caseous process involves the larynx and trachea there result cough, wheezing, and dyspnea, together with a yellowish mucopurulent expectoration. When life is prolonged three or four weeks, caseous foci may be established in the lung, giving rise to all the signs of a bronchopneumonia. Many of these cases are associated with a fibrinous pleurisy. The invasion of the gastrointestinal tract is announced by diarrheal symptoms. This disease principally attacks sucklings not more than 6 weeks of age, but calves 8 and 10 months old are frequently affected, and several cases in adult cattle have been reported to this office. In its very acute form many of the cases run their course in from five to eight days. In these the local lesions are not strongly marked, and death seems due to acute intoxication. In other enzootics the majority of the affected animals live from three to five weeks. These are cases that occasionally present the pulmonary and intestinal symptoms, and sometimes develop also caseo-necrotic lesions in the liver. Ordinarily cases show no tendency to spontaneous cure. Left to themselves they die. On the contrary, if taken in hand early, the disease is readily amenable to treatment. In the latter event the prospects of recovery are excellent. _Differential diagnosis._--Necrotic stomatitis may be differentiated from foot-and-mouth disease by the fact that in the latter there is a rapid infection of the entire herd, including the adult cattle, as well as the infection of hogs and sheep. The characteristic lesion of foot-and-mouth disease is the appearance of vesicles containing a serous fluid upon the mucous membrane of the mouth and upon the udder, teats, and feet of the affected animals. In necrotic stomatitis vesicles are never formed, necrosis occurring from the beginning and followed by the formation of yellowish, cheesy patches, principally found in the mouth. Mycotic stomatitis occurs in only a few animals of the herd, chiefly the adult cattle, and the lesions produced consist of an inflammation of the mouth and lips and of the skin between the toes, followed in a few days by small irregular ulcers in the mouth. This disease appears sporadically, usually in the early fall after a dry summer, does not run a regular course, and can not be inoculated. _Prevention._--Prophylaxis should be carried out along three lines: (1) Separation of the sick from the healthy animals. (2) Close scrutiny and thorough disinfection once or twice daily for five days of the mouths and nasal passages of those animals that have been exposed. (3) Complete disinfection of all stalls and sheds. The disease appears to break out in winter and hold over to spring. It is conceivable that exposure to cold might so disturb the normal circulation of the oral tissues as to make the mucous membrane an excellent location for the causative factor of the disease. There is another possibility, however, which bears on the third line of prophylaxis. The so-called diphtheritic inflammations of the vagina and uterus in cows are caused by the same organism that induces necrotic stomatitis. A European writer has recently pointed out the almost constant relation of such attacks to previous occurrences of foul foot or foot rot in the same or other cattle on the place. In all likelihood, in such cases, the stalls and sheds are the harborers of this germ. It is possible that many of these outbreaks have some relation to preceding cases of the above-mentioned diseases and the greater use in winter of the stalls and sheds, thus harboring the _Bacillus necrophorus._ _Treatment._--The treatment consists almost solely in careful and extensive cleansing and disinfection of the mouth and other affected surfaces. The mucous membrane of the mouth should be copiously irrigated with a 4 per cent solution of boracic acid in warm water at least twice daily. As exposure to oxygen kills the bacilli, one need have no fear about disturbing or tearing off the caseous patches or necrotic tissue during irrigation. The irrigation of the sores should then be followed by the application with a brush or rag on a stick of a paste made with 1 part of salicylic acid and 10 parts of water, or the affected areas may be painted with Lugol's solution of iodin (iodin, 1; potassium iodid, 5; water, 200). Frequent injections of 1 per cent carbolic-acid solution into the mouth make an excellent treatment. The internal administration of 2 grams of salicylic acid and 3 grams of chlorate of potassium three times a day has also proved to be very beneficial when accompanied with local antiseptic treatment. MALIGNANT CATARRH. Malignant catarrh, or infectious catarrhal fever, is an acute infectious disease of cattle preeminently involving the respiratory and digestive tracts, although the sinuses of the head, the eyes, and the urinary and sexual organs are very frequently affected. It is relatively rare in this country, being more common on the continent of Europe. Outbreaks have occurred, however, in Minnesota, New York, and New Jersey. So far the causal agent of the disease has never been isolated, and inoculation experiments with the view of artificially reproducing the disease have proved negative in every case. In spite of the foregoing statements the consensus of opinion of eminent investigators points to malignant catarrh as being of specific origin; that is, due to some form of microorganism the contagious character of which is poorly developed. This accounts for the slow transmissibility of the disease from one animal to another. In fact, malignant catarrh is a type of that class of affections scientifically known as miasmatic diseases; that is, they remain stationary in stables with damp floors, low ceilings, poor ventilation, and bad sanitary conditions in general. Such places furnish a favorable seat of propagation for the infective material, and it will remain active for a long time, causing the loss of a few animals each year. One European veterinarian reports an instance in which the disease remained for 25 years on the same farm, attacking in all 225 animals, with a mortality of about 98 per cent. The disease is most common in late winter and early spring, at all altitudes, and has a special preference for young, well-nourished cattle, although older animals are not immune. The time between the entrance of the infective principle into the body of the animal and the appearance of the first symptoms is relatively very long, averaging, according to German investigators, from 20 to 30 days. Fortunately, it is not a disease which spreads to any great extent or which causes severe losses, and hence legislative enactments do not seem to be necessary for its restriction. _Symptoms._--These are extremely variable according to the point of localization of the lesions. It is usually ushered in with a chill, followed by a marked rise of temperature (104° to 107° F.). The head droops, the skin is hot and dry, and the coat staring. Quivering of the muscles in various parts of the body is frequently observed. Marked dullness of the animal, passing, according to some observers, into an almost stupefied condition later on, is quite common. The secretion of milk stops in the beginning of the disease, and loss of flesh, invariably associated with the disease, is extremely marked and rapid. The lesions of the eyes may best be likened to moon blindness (periodic ophthalmia) in horses. There is first an abundant secretion of tears, which run down the face. The lids are swollen and inflamed, and indeed this may be so marked as to cause involuntary eversion, exposing the reddened conjunctiva to view. Sunlight is painful, as is shown by the fact that the animal keeps the eyes continuously closed. This inflammation may extend to the cornea, causing it to assume a slightly clouded appearance in mild cases or a chalky whiteness in more severe affection. Cases of ulceration of the cornea followed by perforation and subsequent escape of the aqueous humor, leading to shrinking of the eyeball and permanent loss of sight, have been recorded, but these are relatively rare, although slight inflammation of the deeper structures of the eye (iris) are more frequent. In mild cases this inflammation may undergo complete resolution, but more frequently permanent cloudliness of the cornea, either diffuse or in spots (leucoma), is the result. The mucous membrane of the mouth, nose, sinuses of the head, throat, and lower respiratory passages are also involved. It is first catarrhal in character, but soon a false or diphtheritic membrane is formed, with the production of shallow ulcers. There is dribbling of saliva from the mouth and discharge from the nose, at first watery, becoming thicker and mixed with blood and small masses of cast-off croupous membrane, causing a very fetid odor. These croupous areas when they form in the throat, larynx, or windpipe, may lead to narrowing of the passages, with consequent difficult breathing and even suffocation. Various respiratory murmurs may also be heard, caused by the to-and-fro movement of mucus and inflammatory deposits along the air passages. There is also inflammation of the horn core with consequent loosening of the horn shell, and the horns are thus readily knocked off by the uneasy, blind sufferer. The animal may refuse all feed from the time of the initial rise of temperature, or in less severe cases, and especially when the lesions of the digestive tract are not so marked, the appetite may remain until the disease is well advanced. Constipation is quite common at the commencement of the attack, followed by diarrhea and severe straining, the evacuations becoming very soft, fetid, and streaked with blood. Cases of the evacuation of desquamated patches of diphtheritic membrane from the intestinal mucosa 6 to 9 feet in length have been reported. The kidneys and bladder are usually inflamed, the urine being voided with difficulty and the animal evincing signs of pain. Inflammatory elements, as albumen, casts, etc., may be seen on examination of the urine. In cows the mucous membrane of the vestibule is congested, swollen, and may contain ulcers and an excessive quantity of mucus. Abortion during advanced pregnancy is not infrequent, following a severe attack. In connection with these various symptoms there may be much uneasiness on the part of the animal, leading in some cases to madness and furious delirium, in others to spasms and convulsions or paralysis. A vesicular eruption of the skin may occur, seen principally between the toes and on the inside of the flank and in the armpits, with subsequent loss of hair and epidermis. Like other infectious diseases, malignant catarrh pursues a longer or shorter course in accordance with the severity of the attack. In acute cases death is said to take place three to seven days after the appearance of symptoms. Recovery, if it occurs, may take three or four weeks. According to statistics, from 50 to 90 per cent of the affected animals die. If animals which have died of this disease are examined, in addition to the changes of the mucous membrane of mouth and nasal cavities referred to above, shallow ulcers in these situations will be found occasionally. These necrotic processes may pass beneath the mucous membrane and even involve the underlying bony structure. In severe cases membranous (croupous) deposits are found in the throat. Similar deposits have been found upon the mucous membrane of the fourth stomach and intestine, which is always inflamed. There is more or less inflammation of the membranes of the brain, kidneys, and liver, and some fatty degeneration of the voluntary muscles. In countries where rinderpest occasionally appears it may be difficult to distinguish between it and malignant catarrh, owing to a general similarity of the symptoms. The principal points to be observed in differentiating between the two are the very slight transmissibility of the latter as compared with the intense contagiousness of the former, and the tendency of malignant catarrh to run a more chronic course than rinderpest, which usually results fatally in a very few days. Only a trained veterinarian who takes into consideration all the different symptoms and lesions of both diseases should decide in such cases. _Treatment._--There is no specific treatment for this affection. Copious blood letting in the earliest stages has been highly recommended, however, as this has a tendency to deplete the system and lessen the exudation of inflammatory products. Antiseptic washes, such as 4 per cent boric-acid solution to the eyes and Dobell's solution applied to the nose and mouth with ice poultices over the crest of the head and frontal region, have also proved efficacious. Calomel should also be given in 1-dram doses twice a day for three days, and in severe cases, involving the respiratory tract, a powder containing ferrous sulphate, quinin, and subnitrate of bismuth, given twice a day, will be found beneficial. At the same time it must be remembered that much greater success is to be looked for in the preventive treatment. This consists in the removal of the healthy from the infected animals (not vice versa) and thorough cleaning and disinfecting of the contaminated stables. If the floors are low and damp, they should be raised and made dry. If this can not be done, place a layer of cement under the stable floor to prevent water from entering from below. The stable should be well ventilated and the soil in the pastures thoroughly drained. If this is carefully carried out, the contagion should be destroyed and the danger of the reappearance of the disease in a great measure lessened. MALIGNANT EDEMA. Malignant edema, also termed gangrenous septicemia, is an acute, inflammatory disease of domestic and wild animals, resulting from the introduction of a specific organism into the deep connective tissues of a susceptible animal and proving fatal in many instances within 24 to 48 hours. The disease may be inoculated from one animal to another, but only by inserting the virus deeply below the skin. It is infrequently met with in cattle, but may follow operating wounds, as roweling, castration, and phlebotomy, which have become infected with septic matter, soil, or unclean instruments. In the pathological laboratory of the Bureau of Animal Industry the organism has also been obtained from the infected muscles of a calf that was supposed to have died of blackleg, and, as a result, all blackleg virus is thoroughly tested before it is made into blackleg vaccine in order to exclude the malignant-edema organism. The essential cause of malignant edema is a long, slender, motile, spore-bearing bacillus, resembling the bacillus of blackleg, and which can develop only in the absence of the atmosphere. Unlike the bacilli of anthrax and blackleg, which are confined to certain districts, this organism is widely distributed and found in ordinary garden soil, foul water, and in the normal intestinal tract of the herbivora. It may be brought to the surface of the soil by growing plants, rains, winds, or burrowing insects and rodents. In animals that have succumbed to the disease the germ is confined to the seat of infection, but a few hours after death it may migrate through the blood channels to other parts of the body. The bacillus may attack man, horses, asses, goats, sheep, pigs, cats, dogs, and poultry. Adult cattle, although refractory to experimental inoculation, suffer from natural infection, while calves are susceptible to both these methods of exposure. (Kitt.) The introduction of the bacillus into abrasions of the skin and superficial sores rarely does any harm, because the germ is quickly destroyed by contact with air. If, however, the organisms are inserted deeply into the subcutaneous tissues of susceptible animals, they quickly develop, producing a soluble poison, which is the fatal agent. In lamb-shearing season, or after docking or castration, the mortality is higher among these animals because of wounds inflicted at such times. The application of antiseptics to wounds thus made will reduce the percentage of deaths to a minimum. _Symptoms._--Usually the first symptoms are overlooked. In the early stages the animal appears listless, disinclined to move about, and lies down in shady and quiet places. If forced to move about, the hind legs are drawn forward with a peculiar, stiff, dragging movement, and there may be slight muscular trembling over all the body, which becomes more intense as the disease progresses. When driven, the animal shows signs of fatigue, ultimately dropping to the ground completely exhausted. Breathing becomes fast and painful, with frequent spasmodic jerks. The pulse is quick and weak and the temperature is 106° to 107° F. An edematous, doughy, and painful swelling appears at the point of infection. This tumefaction spreads more and more, and crackles on pressure. In case of an open wound, a fetid liquid and frothy discharge is observed. The center of the swelling may appear soft and jellylike, while the margin is tense, hot, and painful. The symptoms increase rapidly, resulting in coma and death. _Lesions._--After death the fat and subcutaneous tissues surrounding the infected area are infiltrated with a yellow gelatinous material containing an orange-colored foam, due to the presence of gas bubbles. The muscles at this point are friable, spongy, and of a uniform brownish tint, dissociated by gas and with a blood-tinged exudate. This gangrenous tissue, when present before death, can be removed without pain to the animal. The intestines are generally normal, but, together with the peritoneum, they may be inflamed, and the lungs are usually the seat of an edema. The spleen, liver, and kidneys retain their normal appearance, in marked contrast with anthrax. _Differential diagnosis._--Unlike blackleg, this disease never appears as an epizootic but in isolated cases. It may also be differentiated from the former by the history of a recent parturition or surgical operation, by the presence of an external injury at the site of the swelling accompanied with a fetid liquid discharge, and the gangrenous appearance of the tumefaction. Man is susceptible to malignant edema, but not to blackleg. Malignant edema may also be easily differentiated from anthrax in that the blood and spleen are normal in appearance, while in the latter disease the blood is dark and of a tarlike consistency, and the spleen appears swollen, injected, and softened. The local tumor in malignant edema contains gas bubbles, which are absent in anthrax swellings. Inoculation experiments of guinea pigs, rabbits, and chickens will also disclose the differences among the above-mentioned three diseases, since all these species are killed by the germ of malignant edema, only the first two species by the anthrax bacillus, while the guinea pig alone will succumb to the blackleg infection. _Treatment._--Treatment is chiefly surgical and consists in laying the infected areas wide open by free incision, followed by a liberal application of a 30 per cent solution of hydrogen dioxid and subsequently a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. Usually the disease when observed has advanced to such an extent that medicinal interference is without avail. Preventive treatment is by far the most desirable, and consists, essentially, in a thorough disinfection of all accidental and surgical wounds, the cleansing of the skin, and the exclusion of soil, filth, and bacteria during surgical operations of any nature. Sheds, barns, and stables should receive a thorough application of quicklime or crude carbolic acid wash after all rubbish has been removed and burned. All dead animals should be burned or deeply buried and covered well with quicklime. SOUTHERN CATTLE FEVER (TEXAS FEVER, TICK FEVER). [Pls. XLIV-XLIX.] This disease, which is more commonly known as Texas fever, and sometimes as splenetic fever, is a specific fever communicated by cattle which have recently been moved northward from the infected district; it is also contracted by cattle taken into the infected district from other parts of the world. It is characterized by the peculiarity among animal diseases that the animals which disseminate the infection are apparently in good health, while those which sicken and die from it do not, as a rule, infect others. It is accompanied with high fever, greatly enlarged spleen, destruction of the red blood corpuscles, escape of the coloring matter of the blood through the kidneys, giving the urine a deep-red color, with a yellowness of the mucous membranes and fat, which is seen more especially in fat cattle, by a rapid loss of strength, and with fatal results in a large proportion of cases. This disease has various names in different sections of the country where it frequently appears. It is often called Spanish fever, acclimation fever, red water, black water, distemper, murrain, dry murrain, yellow murrain, bloody murrain, Australian tick fever, and tristeza of South America. The earliest accounts we have of this disease date back to 1814, when it was stated by Dr. James Mease, before the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, that the cattle from a certain district in South Carolina so certainly disease all others with which they mix in their progress to the North that they are prohibited by the people of Virginia from passing through the State; that these cattle infect others while they themselves are in perfect health, and that cattle from Europe or the interior taken to the vicinity of the sea are attacked by a disease that generally proves fatal. Similar observations have been made in regard to a district in the southern part of the United States. The northern limits of this area are changed yearly as a result of the dissemination or eradication of the cattle tick along the border, but the infected area has gradually decreased, owing to the successful endeavors pushed forward to eliminate the ticks. It was the frequent and severe losses following the driving of cattle from the infected district in Texas into and across the Western States and Territories which led to the disease being denominated Texas fever. It is now known, however, that the infection is not peculiar to Texas or even to the United States, but that it also exists in southern Europe, Central and South America, Australia, South Africa, and the West Indies. When cattle from other sections of the country are taken into the infected district they contract this disease usually during the first summer, and if they are adult animals, particularly milch cows or fat cattle, nearly all die. Calves are much more likely to survive. The disease is one from which immunity is acquired, and therefore calves which recover are not again attacked, as a rule, even after they become adult. When the infection is disseminated beyond the permanently infected district, the roads, pastures, pens, and other inclosures are dangerous for susceptible animals until freezing weather. The infection then disappears, and cattle may be driven over the grounds or kept in the inclosures the succeeding summer and the disease will not reappear. There are some exceptions to this rule in the section just north of the boundary line of the infected district. In this locality the infection sometimes resists the winters, especially if they are mild. In regard to the manner in which the disease is communicated, experience shows that this does not occur by animals coming near or in contact with one another. It is an indirect infection. The cattle from the infected district first infect the pastures, roads, pens, cars, etc., whence the susceptible cattle obtain the virus secondhand. Usually animals do not contract the disease when separated from infected pastures by a fence. If, however, there is any drainage or washing by rains across the line of fence this rule does not hold good. The investigations made by the Bureau of Animal Industry demonstrate that the ticks which adhere to cattle from the infected district are the only known means of conveying the infection to susceptible cattle. The infection is not spread by the saliva, the urine, or the manure of cattle from the infected district. In studying the causation and prevention of this disease, attention must therefore be largely given to the tick, and it now seems apparent that if cattle could be freed from this parasite when leaving the infected district they would not be able to spread the malady. The discovery of the connection of the ticks with the production of the disease has played a very important part in determining the methods that should be adopted in preventing its spread. It established an essential point and indicated many lines of investigation which have yielded and are still likely to yield very important results. _Nature of the disease._--Texas fever is caused by an organism which lives within the red blood corpuscles and breaks them up. It is therefore simply a blood disease. The organism does not belong to the bacteria but to the protozoa. It is not, in other words, a microscopic plant, but it belongs to the lowest forms of the animal kingdom. This very minute organism multiplies very rapidly in the body of the infected animal, and in acute cases causes an enormous destruction of red corpuscles in a few days. How it gets into the red corpuscle it is not possible to state, but it appears that it enters as an exceedingly minute body, probably endowed with motion, and only after it has succeeded in entering the corpuscle does it begin to enlarge. Plate XLV, figure 4, illustrates an early stage of this blood parasite. The red corpuscle contains a very minute, roundish body which is stained blue to bring it into view. The body is, as a rule, situated near the edge of the corpuscle. Figure 5 illustrates an older stage in the growth of the parasite, in fact the largest which has thus far been detected. It will be noticed that there are usually two bodies in a corpuscle. These bodies are in general pear-shaped. The narrow ends are always toward each other when two are present in the same corpuscle. If we bear in mind that the average diameter of the red blood corpuscles of cattle is from 1/4000 to 1/5000 inch, the size of the contained parasite may be at once appreciated by a glance at the figures referred to. The various disease processes which go on in Texas fever, and which we may observe by examining the organs after death, all result from the destruction of the red corpuscles; this destruction may be extremely rapid or slow. When it is rapid we have the acute, usually fatal, type of Texas fever, which is always witnessed in the height of the Texas-fever season, that is, during the latter weeks of August and the early weeks of September. When the destruction of corpuscles is slower, a mild, usually nonfatal, type of the disease is called forth, which is only witnessed late in autumn or more rarely in July and the early part of August. Cases of the mild type occurring thus early usually become acute later and terminate fatally. The acute disease is fatal in most cases, and the fatality is due not so much to the loss of blood corpuscles as to the difficulty which the organs have in getting rid of the waste products arising from this wholesale destruction. How great this may be a simple calculation will serve to illustrate. In a steer weighing 1,000 pounds, the blood in its body weighs about 50 pounds, if we assume that the blood represents one-twentieth of the weight of the body, which is a rather low estimate. According to experimental determination at the bureau station, which consists in counting the number of blood corpuscles in a given quantity of blood from day to day in such an animal, the corpuscles contained in from 5 to 10 pounds of blood may be destroyed within 24 hours. The remains of these corpuscles and the coloring matter in them must be either converted into bile or excreted unchanged. The result of this effort on the part of the liver causes extensive disease of this organ. The bile secreted by the liver cells contains so much solid material that it stagnates in the finest bile canals and chokes these up completely. This in turn interferes with the nutrition of the liver cells and they undergo fatty degeneration and perish. The functions of the liver are thereby completely suspended and death is the result. This enormous destruction of corpuscles takes place to a large extent in the kidneys, where a great number of corpuscles containing the parasites are always found in acute cases. This accounts largely for the blood-colored urine, or red water, which is such a characteristic feature of Texas fever. The corpuscles themselves are not found in the urine; it is the red coloring matter, or hemoglobin, which leaves them when they break up and pass into the urine. _Symptoms._--After a period of exposure to infected soil, which may vary from 13 to 90 days, and which will be more fully discussed under the subject of cattle ticks as bearers of the Texas-fever parasite, the disease first shows itself in dullness, loss of appetite, and a tendency to leave the herd and stand or lie down alone. A few days before these symptoms appear the presence of a high fever may be detected by the clinical thermometer. The temperature rises from a normal of 101° to 103° F. to 106° and 107° F. There seems to be little or no change in temperature until recovery or death ensues. The period of high temperature or fever varies considerably. As it indicates the intensity of the disease process going on within, the higher it is the more rapid the fatal end. When it does not rise above 104° F. the disease is milder and more prolonged. The bowels are mostly constipated during the fever; toward the end the feces may become softer and rather deeply tinged with bile. The urine shows nothing abnormal during the course of the disease until near the fatal termination, when it may be deeply stained with the coloring matter of the blood. (Hemoglobinuria; see Pl. XLV, fig. 3.) Although this symptom is occasionally observed in animals which recover, yet it may generally be regarded as an indication of approaching death. The pulse and respiration are usually much more rapid than during health. Other symptoms in addition to those mentioned have been described by observers, but they do not seem to be constant, and only those described above are nearly always present. As the end approaches emaciation becomes very marked, the blood is very thin and watery, and the closing of any wound of the skin by clots is retarded. The animal manifests increasing stupor and may lie down much of the time. Signs of delirium have been observed in some cases. Death occurs most frequently in the night. The duration of the disease is very variable. Death may ensue in from three days to several weeks after the beginning of the fever. Those that recover ultimately do so very slowly, owing to the great poverty of the blood in red corpuscles. The flesh is regained but very gradually, and the animal may be subjected to a second, though mild, attack later on in the autumn, which pushes the full recovery onward to the beginning of winter. In the mild type of the disease, which occurs in October and November, symptoms of disease are well-nigh absent. There is little if any fever, and if it were not for loss of flesh and more or less dullness the disease may pass unnoticed, as it undoubtedly does in a majority of cases. If, however, the blood corpuscles are counted from time to time a gradually diminishing number will be found, and after several weeks only about one-fifth or one-sixth of the normal number are present. It is indeed surprising how little impression upon the animal this very impoverished condition of the blood appears to make. It is probable, however, that if two animals kept under the same conditions, one healthy and the other at the end of one of these mild attacks, are weighed, the difference would be plainly shown. _Pathological changes observable after death._--In the preceding pages some of these have already been referred to in describing the nature of the disease. It is very important at times to determine whether a certain disease is Texas fever or some other disease, like anthrax, for example. This fact can, as a rule, be determined at once by a thorough microscopic examination of the blood. The necessary apparatus and the requisite qualifications for this task leave this method entirely in the hands of experts. There are, however, a considerable number of changes caused by this disease which may be detected by the naked eye when the body has been opened. Put together they make a mistake quite impossible. The presence of small ticks on the skin of the escutcheon, the thighs, and the udder is a very important sign in herds north of the Texas-fever line, as it indicates that they have been brought in some manner from the South and have carried the disease with them, as will be explained later. Another very important sign is the thin, watery condition of the blood, either just before death or when the fever has been present for four or five days. A little incision into the skin will enable any one to determine this point. Frequently the skin is so poor in blood that it may require several incisions to draw a drop or more. The changes in the internal organs, as found on post-mortem examinations, are briefly as follows: The spleen, or milt, is much larger than in healthy animals. It may weigh three or four times as much. When it is incised the contents or pulp is blackish (see Pl. XLIV, fig. 1), and may even well out as a disintegrated mass. The markings of the healthy spleen (fig. 2) are all effaced by the enormous number of blood corpuscles which have collected in it, and to which the enlargement is attributable. Next to the spleen the liver will arouse our attention. (See Pl. XLV, fig. 2.) It is larger than in the healthy state, has lost its natural brownish color (fig. 1), and now has on the surface a paler, yellowish hue. When it is incised this yellowish tinge, or mahogany color, as it has been called by some, is still more prominent. This is owing to the large quantity of bile in the finest bile capillaries, and as these are not uniformly filled with it the cut surface has a more or less mottled appearance. This bile injection causes in many cases a fatty degeneration of the liver cells, which makes the organ appear still lighter in color. In all cases the gall bladder should be examined. This is distended with bile, which holds in suspension a large number of yellow flakes, so that when it is poured into a tall bottle to settle fully one-half or more of the column of fluid will be occupied by a layer of flakes. If mucus is present at the same time, the bile may become so viscid that when it is poured from one glass to another it forms long bands. The bile in health is a limpid fluid, containing no solid particles. If the animal during life has not been observed to pass urine colored with blood or red water, the bladder should be opened. This quite invariably, in acute cases, contains urine which varies in color from a deep port wine to a light claret. In many cases the color is so dense that light will not pass through even a thin layer. (Pl. XLV, fig. 3.) The kidneys are always found congested in the acute attack. The disease exerts but little effect on the stomach and intestines beyond more or less reddening of the mucous membrane; hence an examination of them may be safely omitted. The lungs are, as a rule, not diseased. The heart usually shows patches of blood extravasation on the inside (left ventricle) and less markedly on the outer surface. We have observed jaundice of the various tissues but very rarely. It has been observed by some quite regularly, however. During the hot season about 90 per cent of the susceptible mature animals from a noninfected district die, but later, in the cool weather, the disease assumes a milder type, with a consequent decrease in the number of deaths. _The cattle tick, Margaropus annulatus, as the carrier of Texas fever._ (Pls. XLVI, XLVII, and XLVIII.)--The cattle tick is, as its name indicates, a parasite of cattle in the southern part of the United States. It belongs to the group of Arthropoda and to the genus _Margaropus_ (or _Boophilus_), which is included in the order Acarina. Its life history is quite simple and easily traced from one generation to another. It is essentially a parasite, attaching itself to the skin (Pl. XLVIII) and drawing the blood of its host. It is unable to come to maturity and reproduce its kind unless it becomes attached to the skin of cattle, whence it may obtain its food. The eggs laid on the ground after the female has dropped from the host begin to develop at once. When the embryo is fully formed within the shell it ruptures this and gains its freedom. The time required from the laying of the eggs to their hatching varies considerably, according to the temperature. In the laboratory in the heat of midsummer this was accomplished in about 13 days. In the late fall, under the same conditions, it required from four to six weeks. The larva after emerging from the egg is very minute, six-legged, and is just visible to the naked eye. (Pl. XLVI, fig. 3.) If these larvæ are kept on a layer of moist sand or earth in a covered dish, they may remain alive for months, but there is no appreciable increase in size. So soon, however, as they are placed upon cattle growth begins. On pastures these little creatures soon find their way on to cattle. They attach themselves by preference to the tender skin on the escutcheon, the inside of the thighs, and on the base of the udder. Yet when they are very numerous they may be found in small numbers on various parts of the body, such as the neck, the chest, and the ears. (Pl. XLVIII and Pl. XLIX, fig. 1.) The changes which they undergo during their parasitic existence were first studied by Dr. Cooper Curtice, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, in 1889. The young tick molts within a week, and the second or nymphal stage of the parasite's life is thus ushered in. After this change it has four pairs of legs. Within another week another molt takes place by which the tick passes from the nymphal to the sexual, or adult, stage. Impregnation now takes place, and, with the development of the ova in the body, the tick takes an increased quantity of blood, so that in a few days it becomes very much larger. That the rapid growth is due to the blood taken in may be easily proved by crushing one. The intestine is distended with a thick, tarry mass composed of partly digested blood. When the female has reached a certain stage of maturity she drops to the ground and begins to lay a large number of eggs, which hatch in the time given above. The life of the cattle tick is thus spent largely on cattle, and although the young, or larvæ may live for a long time on the ground in the summer season, they can not mature except as parasites on cattle and horses. We have purposely omitted various details of the life history, including that of the male, as they are not necessary to an understanding of our present subject--Texas fever. How this is transmitted we will proceed to consider. Before the enforcement of the Federal quarantine southern cattle sent north during the spring and summer months carried on their bodies large numbers of the cattle ticks, which, when matured, would drop off and lay their eggs in the northern pastures. After hatching, the young ticks would soon get upon any northern cattle which happened to be on the pasture. So soon as they attached themselves to the skin they inoculated the cattle, and Texas fever would break out a week or more thereafter. For many years there had been a growing suspicion that the cattle tick was in some way concerned in the spread of Texas fever, and the facts which supported this supposition finally became so numerous and convincing that a series of experiments was inaugurated by the Bureau of Animal Industry which served to show that the tick is abundantly able to carry the disease to a herd of healthy cattle, and, in fact, is probably the only agent concerned in the transmission of the disease from southern cattle to susceptible northern animals. _Injurious effects of cattle ticks._--Unfortunately many cattle owners who have always been accustomed to see both ticks and ticky cattle on their farms are not inclined to attach much importance to these parasites, and, as a rule, through lack of appreciation of their damaging effects, placidly consider them as of little consequence. That ticks may be detrimental to their hosts in several ways has probably not suggested itself to these stockmen, who are most vitally affected, and it therefore seems necessary to emphasize the fact that, in addition to their relation to Texas fever, they may also be injurious to cattle as external parasites. While the power of transmitting Texas fever is undoubtedly the most dangerous property possessed by the cattle tick and is the principal cause for adopting stringent measures looking to its complete eradication, nevertheless there still remain other good reasons for the accomplishment of this achievement. These secondary objections to the presence of ticks on cattle consists in the physical harm they do to the host aside from the production of the specific disease of Texas fever. True, a few parasites may remain on cattle indefinitely without causing any noticeable effect, but it is not uncommon to notice bovine animals on pastures with their hides heavily infested with these pests. In such cases it can readily be seen that the continuous sucking of blood causes more or less impoverishment of the circulation. The animal must therefore be fed more in order to meet the demands of the parasites in addition to the ordinary needs of the host. If the ticks are removed from the body, the bites inflicted are often distinguished by small, inflamed or reddened areas somewhat swollen, with perforations of the skin which may allow the entrance of various kinds of disease germs, and showing that more or less irritation of the hide is produced by these parasites. This condition, together with the loss of blood, frequently induces an irritable state and evidence of uneasiness commonly known as "tick worry," which results in the loss of energy and other derangements of the animal's health. It may in some cases, especially in hot weather, become so pronounced that the animal will lose flesh in spite of good pasturing, thereby reducing the vitality and rendering it more susceptible to the inroads of disease. Moreover, if the infestation of ticks is not controlled, the cattle may be so reduced in condition that growth is retarded, and, in the case of young animals, they may never become fully developed, but remain thin, weak, and stunted--a condition that has been termed "tick poverty"--and easily succumb to other diseases as a result of lowered vitality. In milch cows this debilitating influence of the numerous ticks is shown in a greatly reduced milk supply. This should not appear strange when it is considered that some animals harbor several thousand of the bloodsucking parasites. If these parasites are crushed, it will be found that their intestines are completely filled with a dark, thick mass of blood abstracted from the animal host and containing nutriment that should go to the formation of milk, flesh, and the laying on of fat. In some rare cases the large number of bites on a limited area of skin may be followed by infection with pus-producing organisms, giving rise to small abscesses which may terminate in ulcers. The discharge from these sores, or in some cases the mere oozing of blood serum through the incision made by the mouth parts of the ticks, keeps the hair moist and matted together, and the laying and hatching of fly eggs in these areas give rise to infestation with destructive maggots, causing ulcers and other complications that require medical treatment. These statements regarding the secondary injurious effects of cattle ticks also apply to those ticks which have been previously spoken of as harmless so far as Texas fever is concerned, and, in fact, to all external parasites. Therefore, it is just as important to eradicate the cattle ticks for reasons other than those associated with Texas fever as it is to exterminate lice, fleas, and other vermin. Furthermore, cattle ticks, aside from the losses sustained by their purely parasitic effects, are the greatest menace to the profitable raising and feeding of cattle in the South, because they are an obstacle to cattle traffic between the infected and noninfected districts. _Loss occasioned by cattle ticks._--The economic aspect of the tick problem is unquestionably of the greatest practical interest, since the fundamental importance of all the other questions which surround it depends upon the actual money value involved. A careful and conservative estimate made in 1916 placed the annual loss caused by the ticks in the United States at $40,000,000, and indicated that the ticks also lowered the assets of the South by an additional $33,000,000. The principal items in these losses are set forth below. It is well known that those animals coming from an infected district and sold in the "southern pens" of northern stockyards bring about one-half a cent less per pound than the quoted market price. The handicap that is placed on the southern cattle raiser as a result of this decrease in value of his stock will average at this figure $3 per head, allowing an individual weight of 600 pounds for all classes of animals. This decreased value reacts and fixes the valuation of all cattle which remain in the infected territory, thereby reducing the assets of the cattle industry of that section. In addition there is a very great loss from the decrease in flesh and lack of development of southern cattle occasioned by the parasitic life of the ticks from without and by the blood-destroying and enervating properties of the protozoan parasites from within. The presence of the tick among the cattle of the South not only lessens the value of the cattle on the hoof but causes the gradings of hides that have been infested with ticks as No. 4 quality. The same hide, if free from tick marks, would grade No. 2. The difference in price between these two grades of hides is 3 cents a pound. As the hide of a southern steer weighs about 42 pounds, the presence of the tick in the hide causes a loss in the hide alone of more than $1.26 a hide. It has been shown that the cost of tick eradication is only about 50 cents a head, so that if the counties make a systematic campaign to eradicate the tick, the increase in value of the hide alone would pay for the cost of tick eradication and leave the farmer a net profit of about 76 cents a hide. The shrinkage in the milk production of cattle harboring many ticks will average 1 quart a day, which in the aggregate is a heavy loss. The damage resulting to the southern purchaser of northern purebred or high-grade cattle is another item of no small moment. About 10 per cent of all such cattle taken into the South die of Texas fever, even after they are immunized by blood inoculations, and about 60 per cent of them succumb to Texas fever when not so treated. As they are usually very expensive animals and of a highly valued strain of blood, the loss in certain cases is excessive and in others almost irreparable, owing to the possible extinction of some particular type especially selected for the improvement of the herd. Another instance in which it is difficult to figure the injury done by the ticks is in the case of death of nonimmune cattle in the tick-free pastures of the South. Such animals are as susceptible to Texas fever as nonimmune northern cattle, and inasmuch as there is in many States only one out of every four farms infested with ticks, the cattle on the remaining farms will in many cases contract Texas fever when exposed to the fever tick. These losses can scarcely be computed, as the death rate depends so much on the season of the year when exposure occurs and on the age of the animal affected. However, the deaths among such cattle are considerable, although this fact is little appreciated or understood by many outside the infected area. On rare occasions a small outbreak of Texas fever occurs north of the quarantine line as a result of improperly disinfected cars, of unscrupulous dealers breaking the quarantine regulations, or of some accidental condition. Such damage, however, is slight, but should be considered in summing up the loss occasioned by the fever tick. The advertisement which a breeder obtains and the sales which are made by having his stock in the show ring are usually lost to the cattle raiser in the infected area who aspires to display his animals in the North, as they are barred from most of these exhibitions. On the other hand, the southern farmer is not given an opportunity to see and be stimulated by the fine specimens of northern cattle which might be shown at southern stock exhibits, for the reason that the danger of contracting Texas fever is too patent to warrant such exposure. A heavy expense is incurred by the Government and the States in enforcing the regulations that apply to the quarantine line. Another loss which is indirectly sustained by the southern cattle industry through increased freight rates is the cost, to the railroad companies, of cleaning and disinfecting the cars that carry cattle and in providing separate pens for them at various places. These statements are sufficient to indicate that the loss to the quarantined section from the cattle tick is something enormous. Such a series of encumbrances as those recorded could be carried by the cattle industry of no other section of the country than the South, whose excellent pastures, rich soil, and salubrious climate are the only reasons for its ability to overcome such obstacles in meeting the competition of the West; and it is the inherent capacity of the South for greatly increasing its herds and enlarging its pasture lands that makes the actual loss even secondary to the potential loss from restrictions necessitated by the presence of the cattle tick. This potential loss may be described as the difference between the value of the cattle industry of the South to-day and the extent to which this industry would be increased if farmers and ranchmen were assured that their lands and cattle would not become infested with fever ticks. Could this assurance be given, the beneficial effects would extend over the entire country, because the market of the northern breeder would thereby become greatly extended. These appalling losses and annual sacrifices of the cattle raisers of the infected district can be entirely effaced, and this at a small proportionate cost; for, with enthusiastic stockmen, satisfactory State legislation, sufficient money, and a corps of trained inspectors, the cattle tick may be exterminated, and every dollar expended in this work will be returned many times during each succeeding year. _The so-called period of incubation._--After the young ticks have attached themselves to cattle the fever appears about 10 days thereafter in midsummer. When the weather is cool, as in autumn, this period may be a little longer. The actual period of incubation may be shorter, for if blood from a case of Texas fever is injected into the blood vessels of healthy cattle the fever may appear within five days. When cattle graze upon pastures over which southern cattle have passed, the time when the disease appears varies within wide limits. When the animals have been put upon pastures immediately after southern cattle have infected them with ticks, it may take from 30 to 60 days, or even longer, before the disease appears. This will be readily understood when we recall the life history of ticks. The southern cattle leave only matured ticks which have dropped from them. These must lay their eggs and the latter must be hatched before any ticks can get upon native cattle. The shortest period is thus not less than 30 days if we include 10 days for the period of incubation after the young ticks have attached themselves to native cattle. When the infection of pastures with ticks has taken place early in the season, or when it is cold, the period is much longer, because it takes longer for the eggs to hatch. If native cattle are placed upon pastures which have been infected with ticks some time before, the disease will appear so much sooner, because the young ticks may be already hatched and attack the cattle at once. It will be evident, therefore, that the length of time between the exposure of native cattle on infected fields and the appearance of the disease depends on the date of original infection, and on the weather, whether cold or hot. When native cattle are placed upon fields on which young ticks are already present, they will show the fever in 13 to 15 days if the season is hot. The fever appears before the ticks have matured. In fact, they are still small enough to be overlooked. In any case very careful search should be made for them in those places which they prefer--the thighs, escutcheon, and udder. After the acute stage of the fever has passed the ticks begin to swell up and show very plainly. (Pl. XLVI, figs. 6 and 7.) _Prevention._--It is generally accepted that if southern cattle are entirely free from that species of tick known as _Margaropus annulatus_ they can be allowed to mingle with the most susceptible animals without danger. Furthermore, it has been learned from the study of the life history of the cattle tick and by observation that this tick infests pastures only transiently, never permanently, and will not mature except upon cattle or equines, that its extermination is possible, and that the disease it causes may be prevented. Therefore the various methods with these results in view should be directed toward the destruction of ticks on cattle as well as their eradication from the pastures. METHODS OF ERADICATING THE TICKS.[7] In undertaking measures for eradicating the tick it is evident that the pest may be attacked in two locations, namely, on the pasture and on the cattle. In freeing pastures the method followed may be either a direct or an indirect one. The former consists in excluding all cattle, horses, and mules from pastures until all the ticks have died from starvation. The latter consists in permitting the cattle and other animals to continue on the infested pasture and treating them at regular intervals with agents destructive to ticks and thus preventing engorged females from dropping and reinfesting the pasture. The larvæ on the pasture, or those which hatch from eggs laid by females already there, will all eventually meet death. Such of these as get upon the cattle from time to time will be destroyed by the treatment, while those which fail to find a host will starve in the pasture. Animals may be freed of ticks in two ways. They may be treated with an agent that will destroy all the ticks present, or they may be rotated at proper intervals on tick-free fields until all the ticks have dropped. The method most generally used is dipping the cattle in a solution of arsenic. The pasture-rotation method is not only more complicated, but the necessary tick-free fields are seldom available. DIPPING. The dipping vat is the best and cheapest means of applying the tick-destroying solution. The great advantage of dipping over spraying and applying remedies by hand lies in the fact that thoroughness of the treatment is practically assured. When eradication is undertaken, all the cattle, and also the horses and mules if they harbor ticks, are treated regularly every two weeks during the part of the year that the temperature is favorable to treatment, until the ticks have disappeared. The purpose of the treatment is to destroy all ticks that get on the animals before they have had a chance to mature and drop, thus preventing them from reinfesting the pasture, farm, or range. If the treatment used were absolutely effective in destroying each and every tick on the animals treated there would be no renewal of the infestation after the treatment is begun. The cattle would act simply as collectors of ticks which would be destroyed regularly by the treatment applied every two weeks. It is probable, however, that in most instances, either because of the lack of efficiency of the dip or imperfect application, or because of failure to dip all cattle systematically, some ticks escape treatment and reproduce, thus prolonging the time that otherwise would be required for eradication. If ticks apparently disappear from the cattle after they have been under treatment for some time, the dipping should not be discontinued until a number of careful inspections show that the cattle are free of ticks. If ticks continue on cattle until cold weather and then finally disappear it should be borne in mind that in all probability eradication has not been accomplished and that there may be engorged females, unhatched eggs, and inactive seed ticks on the farm or range, and that even if the cattle should remain free of ticks during the winter they may become reinfested the following spring. In any case in which ticks disappear from the cattle and treatment is discontinued, the cattle should be watched very carefully for ticks until ample time has elapsed to leave no doubt that eradication has been accomplished. As a general rule it has been found that if dipping is begun in March and systematically and thoroughly done, all cattle being dipped every 14 days until November, complete eradication will be secured. In dipping, each animal should be completely covered by the dip. To prevent any animals from going through the vat without becoming wet all over, a man, provided with a forked stick, should be stationed at the middle of the vat to shove under those that have not been completely submerged. Dipping is the only really satisfactory method of treating animals for ticks. In cases of emergency, however, or where there are not cattle enough within a radius of several miles to warrant the construction of a vat in which all the cattle of the community may be dipped, spraying may be advisable. In spraying animals the work should be done with great thoroughness and every portion of the body treated. An animal can not be sprayed properly unless it is tied or otherwise held, nor can good results be obtained unless the hair and skin are thoroughly wetted. _Preparation and use of arsenical dips._[8]--After experimenting for many years to discover a practical method for dipping cattle to destroy ticks without injury to the cattle, the Bureau of Animal Industry has developed a very satisfactory arsenical dip. Two formulas are given for homemade dips, one known as the "S-B" (self-boiled) and the other as the boiled dip. The former is the one usually employed. _The S-B dip._--The formula calls for two stock solutions, arsenic stock and tar stock, which must not be mixed except in the diluted dipping bath. Arsenic stock requires the following materials ready to hand before starting: Pounds. Caustic soda 4 White arsenic 10 Sal-soda crystals 10 There should be also some means for heating the solution in case, as sometimes happens because of impure materials, lack of skill, or some unforeseen circumstance, the heat created by mixing the materials should be insufficient to dissolve all the arsenic. In a 5-gallon kettle or metal[9] pail place the 4 pounds of caustic soda, add 1 gallon of cold water, and stir with a stick until the caustic soda is practically all dissolved. Without delay begin adding the white arsenic, in portions of a pound or two at a time, as fast as it can be dissolved without causing the solution to boil, stirring all the time. If the liquid begins to boil, stop stirring and let it cool slightly before adding more arsenic. The secret of success is to work the arsenic in fast enough to keep the solution very hot--nearly but not quite at the boiling point. The result should be a clear solution, except for dirt. If the liquid persistently remains muddy or milky, it may be because the operation has been conducted so fast that much water has been boiled out and sodium arsenite is beginning to crystallize, so add another gallon of water and stir. If the solution does not then clear up, the caustic soda must have been very low grade, and the undissolved substance must be arsenic. In that case, put the kettle over the fire, heat nearly, but not quite, to boiling, and stir. As soon as the solution of arsenic is complete, dilute to about 4 gallons, add the sodium carbonate, and stir until dissolved. _Cautions._--It is necessary to avoid splashing. Hence never work hurriedly; stir deliberately and regularly; do not dump in the arsenic and sal soda, but carefully slide them in from a grocer's scoop held close to the side of the pail and to the surface of the liquid. Perform the whole operation in a well-ventilated place and avoid inhaling steam. After the solution has become cold add water to make it to exactly 5 gallons,[10] mix well, let settle, and draw off into containers which can be tightly corked or otherwise closed. Jugs or demijohns are best, but tin cans will serve if occasionally inspected for leaks which may occur after a time through the action of the solution upon the solder of the can. Tar stock is prepared thus: In a large metal pail dissolve three-fourths of a pound of caustic soda in 1 quart of water, add 1 gallon of pine tar, and stir thoroughly with a wooden paddle until the mixture, which at first looks streaked and muddy, brightens to a uniform, thick fluid somewhat resembling molasses. Test it by letting about a teaspoonful drip from the paddle into a glass of water (a glass fruit jar or a wide-mouth bottle will do) and stirring thoroughly with a sliver of wood. It should mix perfectly with the water. Globules of tar which can be seen by looking at the glass from underneath and which can not be blended with the water by repeated stirring indicate that more caustic-soda solution is needed. In that case make up more caustic-soda solution of the same strength and add it, not more than a pint at a time, with thorough stirring, until the desired effect is produced. If an appropriate glass vessel for making the test is not at hand, take a little of the mixture between the fingers, then dip the fingers under water and try to rub off the tar. It should leave the fingers perfectly clean after a little rubbing with water. If an oily coating remains, more caustic-soda solution is needed. Such an extra addition of caustic soda will be required only in case of a very low-grade chemical or a very highly acid tar. The tar stock should be kept in closed containers, such as a pail with a friction top. The quantity of S-B arsenic stock or of tar stock made in one operation can be varied as desired, provided the above-given proportions of the ingredients are adhered to. But one should attempt to work the S-B formula on a larger scale only after skill and experience have been acquired. _The boiled dip_ is less convenient than the S-B dip, but the final composition and effect of dipping baths prepared from the two are the same. To make a 500-gallon bath provide: Sal-soda crystals 24 pounds. White arsenic 8 pounds. Pine tar 1 gallon. Put 25 gallons of water into a kettle or tank of from 40 to 50 gallons' capacity, heat to boiling, and add the sal soda. When this has dissolved add the white arsenic, then boil and stir for 15 minutes or longer, until the white arsenic has entirely disappeared. If intended for immediate use cool to 140° F. (by addition of cold water if desired), then pour in the pine tar in a thin stream while constantly and vigorously stirring the solution. Immediately empty the liquid into the dipping vat, which has already been three-fourths filled with water, and stir thoroughly. All the utensils must be free from greasy or oily matter which would coat the arsenic and hinder its solution. The operation of boiling requires constant attention to avoid loss by foaming. Hard water may be used, but in that case considerable undissolved material, which, however, does not contain any arsenic, may be left after boiling. For a stock solution to be kept on hand and used when needed add no tar, but after the solution has become cold make it up to 25 gallons, stir well, let settle, and draw off into containers which can be well closed. In this case the tar stock previously described is also required. _Diluting the dip._--First run water into the vat about three-fourths up to the dipping line, at which its capacity must be known. If tar stock is to be used the necessary amount will be one-third of a gallon for every 100 gallons of vat capacity. Measure it out, mix it with 2 or 3 times its volume of water and pour it along the surface of the water in the vat, stirring a little. Every 100 gallons of standard-strength bath calls for 1-3/5 pounds white arsenic, which quantity is contained in four-fifths of a gallon of S-B stock or in 5 gallons of boiled stock. From these figures the quantity of arsenic or stock needed to charge the vat may be calculated. Or one may base the calculation on the following facts: One pound of white arsenic will make 62-1/2 gallons of bath. One gallon of S-B stock will make 125 gallons of bath. One gallon of boiled arsenic stock will make 20 gallons of bath. All solutions of arsenic are considerably heavier than water and if carelessly put into the vat they may plunge to the bottom and be difficult to mix. Therefore always pour the arsenic stock or a proprietary dip in a thin stream evenly along the vat except at the shallow exit end. Another precaution to be taken in handling proprietary dips is never to mix them first with small quantities of water, which may "break" them. Pour them directly into the water in the vat. Finally, add water up to the dipping line and stir well. An excellent way to stir is by a pail tied to a rope. Sink it at the entrance end of the vat and haul it along the bottom to the exit. Then raise it, throw it back to the entrance end, and haul through again, repeating as many times as necessary but always hauling through in the same direction. The standard-strength bath prepared as above contains practically 0.19 per cent arsenious oxid when fresh. After use oxidation may set in and weaken it, but it will not need to be strengthened so long as it tests not less than 0.175 per cent arsenious oxid. To make up small quantities for spraying, to each 5 gallons of water measured out add first 2 fluid ounces (4 tablespoonfuls) of tar stock, and then 5-1/8 fluid ounces of S-B stock or 2-1/8 pints of boiled arsenic stock. The standard strength of bath should be adhered to so far as possible because its effectiveness against ticks will effect eradication in the least time and with fewest dippings. But if time is not pressing it is sometimes best to begin with a lower strength, say 0.14 or 0.15 per cent, and gradually work up to full strength as the cattle become accustomed to the treatment. This is certainly a wise method for the individual cattle owner who is outside the area of cooperative work and who lacks aid and advice from experts. Weather conditions also need to be considered. Hot or moist weather is more trying to the cattle than cool or dry weather. The longer the time needed for the cattle to dry off after dipping, which of course primarily depends on the proportion of moisture in the air, the more liable they are to show blistering or other injury through the continued absorption of arsenic by the skin. The combination of heat and moisture is particularly bad, and under such conditions it may be desirable, unless other conditions prohibit, to use the bath somewhat weaker than standard strength. The following table shows the quantities of arsenic and stock solutions contained in 100 gallons of bath of different strengths, so that the quantities necessary to charge a vat of any size at any strength can be found by simple multiplication. _Composition of dipping baths._ +-----------+------------------------------+ | Actual | Per 100 gallons of bath. | | arsenious +------------------------------+ | oxid. | White | S-B | Boiled | | | arsenic. | stock. | stock. | +-----------+----------+---------+---------+ | Per cent. | Pounds. | Gallons.| Gallons.| | 0.05 | 0.42 | 0.21 | 1.3 | | .06 | .50 | .25 | 1.6 | | .07 | .58 | .29 | 1.8 | | .08 | .66 | .33 | 2.1 | | .09 | .75 | .38 | 2.3 | | .10 | .83 | .42 | 2.6 | | .11 | .91 | .46 | 2.8 | | .12 | 1.00 | .50 | 3.1 | | .13 | 1.08 | .54 | 3.4 | | .14 | 1.16 | .58 | 3.6 | | .15 | 1.25 | .63 | 3.9 | | .16 | 1.33 | .67 | 4.2 | | .17 | 1.41 | .71 | 4.4 | | .18 | 1.49 | .75 | 4.7 | | .19 | 1.58 | .79 | 4.9 | | .20 | 1.66 | .83 | ... | | .21 | 1.74 | .87 | ... | | .22 | 1.83 | .92 | ... | | .23 | 1.91 | .96 | ... | | .24 | 2.00 | 1.00 | ... | +-----------+----------+---------+---------+ As dipping goes on the bath naturally needs replenishing, and its strength probably needs correction from time to time. Full directions on these points may be found in Farmers' Bulletin 1057. _Prepared dips._--Proprietary arsenical cattle dips appear now to have passed the experimental stage and to have become established as reliable and useful products. At any rate this can be said of the brands which have received permission for use in official dipping in place of the homemade dip. The formulas and standard samples of all such brands are in possession of the Bureau of Animal Industry and the manufacturers are required to guarantee that their products as placed on the market will be kept up to standard and that all requirements of the bureau will be observed. Like the homemade dip they all contain sodium arsenite as the active tick-killing agent. They do not all contain pine tar, because that substance is difficult to blend into a highly concentrated product, but they all contain some other substance or mixture of substances of such character and in such quantity as field trials have proved will produce the same effects. They are not regarded as any more effective or any milder on the cattle than properly prepared homemade dips. None the less they are undoubtedly safer for general use because they offer decidedly fewer opportunities for making mistakes in the quantities used or in the operations gone through and also fewer chances for accidental poisoning or other injury from the handling of powerful chemicals. Whether their higher cost is sufficiently outweighed by these considerations is necessarily a matter for individual decision. _Precautions in the use of arsenic and arsenical dips._--The fact that arsenic is a violent poison is what renders it valuable, for the fever tick is hard to kill. But, like a keen-edged tool, it may be decidedly dangerous if ignorantly or carelessly handled. Three possibilities of danger must be kept constantly in mind; danger to oneself, danger to other persons, danger to animals. The dry, powdered white arsenic should be kept in a tightly covered pail, plainly labeled. Paper bags are unsafe because they easily burst, and arsenic so scattered about looks harmless enough. In weighing or otherwise handling the arsenic avoid raising dust or breathing it in, if raised, and keep it off the skin and clothing. In mixing or boiling stock solutions work only in a well-ventilated place, and on the windward side of the kettle so that steam arising from it will not be inhaled. The stock solutions are in some respects more dangerous than the original substance because the arsenic in them is already in solution and can act very quickly. If any gets on the skin or clothing it must be washed off without delay. Cattle must be kept away from such solutions or from anything that has been in contact with them, for cattle craving salt have been poisoned by licking the outside of leaky barrels and by licking the earth around dipping vats where a little concentrate had been carelessly spilled in charging the vat. All such poisoned earth must be removed, buried, and replaced by fresh. The diluted bath is naturally much less dangerous, but no chances can be taken with it. No puddles from which animals may drink should be allowed to accumulate. The persons who do the dipping should not allow the skin or clothing to be wet by the dip any more or any longer than absolutely necessary. When spraying, the operator should see to it that neither he nor the animals inhale any of the spray. When a vat is to be emptied the approved practice is to run the waste bath into a pit properly guarded by a fence, where it will gradually seep away under the surface and do no harm, provided only that seepage can not be carried to a well, stream, or spring from which any person or domestic animal may drink. The symptoms of arsenical poisoning are rather variable and also depend on the size of the dose and the method of administration. If an animal sickens or dies shortly after dipping it by no means follows that arsenical poisoning or any other effect of the dipping is the cause. Very few cattle relative to the total number dipped have suffered undoubted arsenical poisoning and in most of the cases the cause could be traced to somebody's error or carelessness. In regard to arsenical poisoning of human beings there is a standard antidote, which may be obtained at any drug store with directions for use. It should be kept on hand for emergencies. If the antidote is not at hand the poison must be removed from the stomach by encouraging repeated vomiting, and soothing drinks such as milk, white of eggs and water, or flour and water must be freely given meanwhile. A suspected case of arsenical poisoning must have the attention of a physician at the earliest possible moment, as sometimes the poison works very quickly. _Crude petroleum._--Various kinds of crude petroleum and emulsions of it have been used with more or less success in destroying ticks, but on account of the difficulty of obtaining suitable grades of oil and the liability of injury to cattle, their use has been practically abandoned. _Method of dipping._--The method usually adopted in dipping cattle is to construct a narrow swimming tank with a chute at one end for the entrance of the cattle, and a sloping exit at the other end when the cattle emerge after passing through the vat. (See Pl. XLIX, fig. 2.) A drip chute, or floor, is connected with the exit, where the excess of dip is allowed to drip off the animals and to drain into the vat. Plans and specifications for installing dipping plants may be obtained from the Bureau of Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. TREATMENT. When Texas fever has broken out, all animals, the sick as well as the healthy, should at once be removed to a noninfected pasture. While this may not cut short the disease, it may save the lives of some by removing them from the possibility of attack by more young ticks. Removal from infected pastures likewise prevents a second attack, in October or early in November, which is caused by another generation of ticks. Sick native cattle infect with a new generation of ticks the pasture to which they are removed, but these usually appear so late that they have but little opportunity to do any damage; hence, sick natives do not, as a rule, cause visible disease in other natives. It is of importance to remove all ticks, so far as this is possible, from sick animals, since they abstract a considerable quantity of blood and thereby retard the final recovery. Medical treatment of the sick has generally been unsatisfactory, although in chronic cases and those occurring late in the fall beneficial results have followed. If the animal is constipated, a drench containing 1 pound of Epsom salt dissolved in 1 quart of water should be administered, followed by sulphate of quinin in doses of 30 to 90 grains, according to the size of the animal, four times a day until the system is well saturated with it. Tincture of digitalis one-half ounce and alcohol 2 ounces may be combined with the quinin, according to indications of individual cases. An iron tonic containing reduced iron 2 ounces, powdered gentian 4 ounces, powdered nux vomica 2 ounces, powdered rhubarb 2 ounces, and potassium nitrate 6 ounces will be found beneficial in the convalescent stage when the fever has run its course. This tonic should be given in heaping teaspoonful doses three times a day in the feed. Good nursing is essential in treating these cases, and the animal should be given a nutritious, laxative diet with plenty of clean and cool drinking water and allowed to rest in a quiet place. If the stable or pasture is infested with ticks, the animal should be placed in a tick-free inclosure to prevent additional infestation with these parasites and the introduction of fresh infection into the blood. Furthermore, all ticks that can be seen should be removed from the sick cattle, as they keep weakening the animal by withdrawing a considerable quantity of blood, and thereby retard recovery. QUARANTINE REGULATIONS. The sanitary regulations issued by the Department of Agriculture for the control of cattle shipments from the infected districts have for their initial purpose the prevention of the transportation of ticks from infected regions to those that are not infected, either upon cattle or in stock cars or other conveyer. They are based upon the fact that Texas fever is carried north only by the cattle tick, and the exclusion of this parasite from the noninfected territory has in every instance been found a certain method of excluding Texas fever. The regulations governing the movement of cattle from below the quarantine line are made yearly by the Secretary of Agriculture, and they define the boundary of infected districts. The infected area as now determined is shown in maps issued periodically. In consequence of the enforcement of these quarantine regulations, Texas fever has been practically prevented in the noninfected districts for several years, and little or no hardship has been caused to stockmen handling cattle from the infected areas. Prior to the adoption of these regulations the tick-infested district was rapidly extending northward, but since the quarantine line was established and rational regulations enforced it has gradually been moved farther south. This problem of still further reducing the infested area is of the greatest importance to the cattlemen of the South--in fact, to those on both sides of the line--and one which is receiving special consideration by this department as well as by many of the interested States. TICK ERADICATION. Systematic cooperative work by the Federal Government and the affected States for the eradication of the cattle ticks which transmit Texas fever was begun in the summer of 1906 under authority given by Congress in the appropriation act for the Department of Agriculture. The first Federal appropriation for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1907, was $82,500, and for the fiscal year 1908 an appropriation of $150,000 was made, then for several years $250,000, and this has been increased to $660,000 for 1922. Funds have also been provided by States and counties. The original infected area amounted to 728,543 square miles. Of this territory there has been released from quarantine as a result of the work above mentioned 523,837 square miles (up to July 1, 1922). In other words, 72 per cent of the area has been freed from ticks in 16 years. Great improvement has resulted from this work in the released territory. More cattle are being raised, and a better grade of breeding stock is being introduced; calves grow faster, and cattle put on flesh more rapidly during the grazing season and go into the winter in better condition because of the absence of the ticks; they can be marketed without quarantine restrictions, and higher prices are being obtained; dairy cows give a larger yield of milk; and values of farm lands are enhanced. The difference between the prices realized for cattle from the tick-infested region and the prices of cattle of similar grades from above the quarantine line has ranged from $2.25 to $5 a head at the principal northern live-stock markets, without taking into account the improvement in quality and weight of cattle because of the eradication of the ticks. It can easily be seen that the extermination of the ticks means a large total annual increase in the prices obtained for southern cattle sold in northern markets. In addition to this, the increase in prices of cattle sold locally in the South would represent a large sum. This local increase has been found to amount to from $3 to $15 a head in territory freed from ticks. An agricultural official of one of the Southern States has reported that calves in the tick-free area bring double the prices that can be obtained for similar calves in the tick-infested region. Heretofore it has been impracticable to improve the quality of southern cattle by introducing fine breeding animals from other sections, because such animals were liable to contract Texas fever and die unless protected by inoculation. Furthermore, it is impossible for animals to attain good growth and to thrive when they are heavily infested with ticks. With the eradication of the ticks, however, the southern farmers are enabled to introduce good breeding animals and to improve the grade of their stock. There is no longer any doubt that it is entirely practicable to exterminate the ticks throughout the entire region, and the accomplishment of this result will be of tremendous economic advantage not only to the South but to the whole country. The rate of progress depends mainly on two factors-- the amounts appropriated by the Federal and State Governments, and the cooperation of the people. * * * * * SOUTHERN CATTLE FEVER (TEXAS FEVER, TICK FEVER). DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE XLIV. Normal spleen and spleen affected by Texas fever. Fig. 1. Spleen of an acute, fatal case of Texas fever. The narrow end of the spleen is here represented. Fig. 2. Spleen of healthy steer. Though the latter animal weighed one-half more than the former, the weight of the diseased spleen (6-7/8 pounds) was nearly three times that of the healthy spleen (2-3/8 pounds). PLATE XLV. Texas fever. Fig. 1. The cut surface of a healthy liver taken from a steer slaughtered for beef. Fig. 2. The cut surface of the liver in Texas fever. Fig. 3. Appearance of the urine in an acute, fatal case of Texas fever. Fig. 4. Red corpuscles, magnified 1,000 diameters, containing the parasite of Texas fever. This appears as a blue point _a_ near the edge of the corpuscle. The blood was taken from a skin incision. The case was nonfatal and occurred late in the fall. Fig. 5. Red corpuscles from the blood of an acute, fatal case, 20 hours before death. The Texas-fever microbes _a_ are shown as pear-shaped bodies, stained with methylene blue, within the red corpuscles. The larger body on the right _b_ is a white blood corpuscle, also stained with methylene blue. (Magnified 1,000 diameters.) PLATE XLVI. The cattle tick (_Margaropus annulatus_), the carrier of Texas fever. Fig. 1. A series of ticks, natural size, from the smallest, just hatched from the egg, to the mature female, ready to drop off and lay eggs. Fig. 2. Eggs, magnified 5 times. Fig. 3. The young tick just hatched (magnified 40 times). Fig. 4. The male after the last molt (magnified 10 times). Fig. 5. The female after the last molt (magnified 10 times). Fig. 6. A portion of the skin of the udder, showing the small ticks. From a fatal case of Texas fever produced by placing young ticks on the animal. (Natural size.) Fig. 7. A portion of the ear of the same animal, showing same full-grown ticks ready to drop off. (Natural size.) PLATE XLVII. The cattle tick (_Margaropus annulatus_). Fig. 1. Dorsal view of male. (Greatly enlarged. Original.) Fig. 2. Ventral view of male. (Greatly enlarged. Original.) Fig. 3. Dorsal view of replete female. (Greatly enlarged. Original.) Fig. 4. Ventral view of same. PLATE XLVIII. Portion of a steer's hide, showing the Texas-fever tick (_Margaropus annulatus_). (Natural size. Original.) PLATE XLIX. Fig. 1. Tick-infested steer. Fig. 2. Dipping cattle to kill ticks. PLATE L. Facsimile of poster used to show the difference between cattle of similar breeding raised on a tick-free farm in one case and on a ticky farm in the other. * * * * * CHRONIC BACTERIAL DYSENTERY. Chronic bacterial dysentery is a chronic infectious disease of bovines caused by an acid-fast bacillus simulating the tubercle bacillus and characterized by marked diarrhea, anemia, and emaciation, terminating in death. This disease was observed in the United States for the first time by Pearson in Pennsylvania cattle, and later by Mohler in Virginia cattle, and in an imported heifer from the island of Jersey at the Athenia quarantine station of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Pearson proposed the name chronic bacterial dysentery for this affection, and it has also been termed Johne's disease, chronic bacterial enteritis, chronic hypertrophic enteritis, and chronic bovine pseudotuberculous enteritis by various European investigators. The disease was first studied in 1895 by Johne and Frothingham in Dresden, but they were inclined to attribute to the avian tubercle bacillus the cause of the peculiar lesions of enteritis which they observed. In 1904 Markus reported this disease in Holland, and subsequently it was observed in Belgium, Switzerland, Denmark, and Great Britain. _Cause._--The bacillus, which has been invariably demonstrated in the intestinal lesions and mesenteric lymph glands in this disease, is a rod about 2 to 3 microns long and 0.5 micron wide. It stains more or less irregularly, like the tubercle bacillus, and moreover the similarity goes further, in that the organism is also strongly acid-fast, which facts led Johne and Frothingham to surmise that the disease was caused by avian tubercle bacilli. However, it has now been plainly demonstrated that the bacillus of chronic bacterial dysentery is readily distinguished from the latter organisms, for while it resembles the tubercle bacillus in form and staining qualities, no one has succeeded in growing it in culture media or in reproducing the disease by injecting experiment animals. _Symptoms._--Probably the first symptom noticed is that the animal is losing condition despite the fact that its appetite is good and the food nourishing. This is soon followed by a diarrhea which, while moderate at first, soon becomes excessive and may be either irregular or persistent, the feces being of the consistency of molasses and passed frequently. In the meantime the hair becomes dry and harsh and the animal falls off considerably in weight. The temperature, however, remains about normal. The appetite does not seem to be greatly impaired until the last few weeks of life, but nevertheless emaciation continues, the animal becomes more and more anemic, great muscular weakness and exhaustion are manifested, and death follows, apparently as the result of the persistent diarrhea and great emaciation. The disease may continue for four or five weeks or may last for a year, or even longer, before death intervenes. _Lesions._--The lesions observed on post-mortem are remarkably slight and are out of all proportion to the severity of the symptoms manifested. The disease appears to start in the small intestines, especially in the lower portion, where the lesions are usually the most marked, but it also involves the large intestines, including the rectum. The mucous membrane may alone be affected, although usually in the long-standing cases the submucosa is also invaded and the entire intestinal wall is then much thicker than normal and the tissue infiltrated with an inflammatory exudate. The mucous membrane or inside lining membrane is markedly wrinkled or corrugated, showing large, coarse folds with more or less reddening or hemorrhagic patches or spots on the summits of the ridges, especially noticeable in the large intestines. The mesenteric lymph glands are usually somewhat enlarged and appear watery on section. The other organs do not appear to be affected except from the anemia present in the later stages of the disease. _Differential diagnosis._--The principal disease with which bacterial dysentery may be confused is tuberculosis, but the application of the tuberculin test will readily diagnose the latter disease, while no reaction will be noted in case the injected animal is suffering with the former affection. The disease may also be mistaken for the parasitic affections resulting from stomach worms (verminous gastritis) and intestinal parasites, especially uncinariasis, but a microscopic examination of the feces is necessary in order to establish definitely the diagnosis. _Treatment._--As with all other forms of infectious disease, it is advisable to separate immediately the diseased and suspected cattle from the healthy animals. The feces passed by the former animals should be placed on cultivated soil where healthy cattle will not be exposed to them, as the bacilli producing the disease are readily found in such manure. The stalls, stables, and barnyards should also be thoroughly disinfected, as has been described under "Tuberculosis," in this chapter, special attention being given to those places which have been soiled by feces. The administration of medicines has thus far been quite unsatisfactory, although treatment should be directed toward disinfecting the intestines with intestinal antiseptics, such as tannopin in 1 dram doses twice daily, and strengthening the animal by the use of stimulants such as strychnin in half-grain doses given twice daily hypodermically. Salol, turpentine, or subnitrate of bismuth in a starch or wheat-flour gruel may also give temporary relief, but the diarrhea is likely to reappear and cause the death of the animal. In all cases the feed must be carefully selected to assure good quality, and should consist preferably of nutritious dry feed. NAGANA. Nagana, also called tsetse-fly disease, is an infectious fever occurring chiefly in horses and cattle, characterized by alternating paroxysms and intermissions and produced by a specific flagellate protozoan (_Trypanosoma brucei_) in the blood. It is probably transmitted from animal to animal solely by the bites of the tsetse fly. This insect is something like a large house fly, and when it settles on a diseased animal, sucks the blood and infects its proboscis, it is enabled on biting a second animal to infect the latter by direct inoculation. This disease is found throughout a large portion of central and southern Africa, along the low-lying and swampy valleys. It has never occurred in the United States, nor is it known to be present in the Philippines, but its relation to surra and the possibility of its appearance in one of our island dependencies are the reasons for including a few remarks at this time. _Symptoms._--The chief symptoms in addition to the fever, which is usually about 104° to 105° F., are the muscular wasting, progressive anemia, and loss of power, together with the edema most marked about the head, legs, abdomen, and genital organs. The urine is yellow and turbid, and occasionally contains albumin and blood. There is paralysis of one or both of the hind legs, difficult urination and defecation, labored breathing, discharge from the eyes and nose, extreme thirst, and gradual extension of paralysis to other parts of the body. The disease runs a chronic course, lasting from three to six weeks in horses, and from one to six months in cattle. Besides these animals, the mule, ass, buffalo, antelope, hyena, camel, and dog contract the disease naturally, and sheep, goats, cats, and small laboratory animals succumb to artificial inoculation. _Lesions._--The spleen and lymphatic glands are enlarged. There are sero-fibrinous exudates in the body cavities, the liver is enlarged and engorged, heart flabby, and a catarrhal condition is present in the respiratory passages. Pathological changes occur in the spinal cord. The finding of the trypanosoma by microscopic examination of the blood will be conclusive evidence for diagnosis. _Treatment._--Treatment has not proved satisfactory. Quinin, arsenic, methylene blue, and other drugs have been used, but without success. Endeavors thus far made to produce immunity from this disease have likewise been unavailing. CATTLE FARCY. This is a chronic disease of cattle occurring in France and the island of Guadeloupe, West Indies. It is characterized by caseating nodular swellings, first of the skin and afterwards of the superficial lymphatic vessels and glands, finally proving fatal within a year by extension to the viscera. The swellings rupture and discharge a purulent yellowish fluid, which contains the causative organism. This affection, called farcin du boeuf by the French, resembles cutaneous glanders or farcy of horses, but is caused by an entirely different organism, the streptothrix of Nocard. Moreover, cattle are immune from glanders, and for this reason the name, unfortunately applied to this disease, should not lead to any confusion with the cutaneous glanders or farcy of horses. Although the disease has been described as occurring only in Guadeloupe and France, the possibility of its occurrence in American possessions warrants its mention in this chapter. _Treatment._--Treatment consists in making incisions into the swellings and syringing them out with 2 per cent compound cresol solution. The cavities may then be packed with cotton, soaked in 5 per cent zinc-chlorid solution. The swollen lymphatics may also be bathed or covered with cloths wrung out in this solution. OTHER INFECTIOUS DISEASES. The following are also infectious diseases of cattle, a discussion of which will be found in previous chapters: Page. Contagious abortion 167 White scour of calves 261 Infectious ophthalmia (pink eye) 345 FOOTNOTES: [4] These membranes comprise the smooth, very delicate, glistening lining of the large body cavities. In the thorax the serous membrane (pleura) covers the ribs and diaphragm as well as the whole lung surface. In the abdomen a similar membrane (peritoneum) lines the interior of the cavity and covers the bowels, liver, spleen, etc. [5] Hogs are subject to actinomycosis. [6] The distribution of Government blackleg vaccine was discontinued July 1, 1922. [7] Only a general outline of methods of eradication will be given here. For detailed information, including directions for the construction of dipping vats and for the preparation of dips, the reader is referred to Farmers' Bulletin 1057, which may be obtained free upon application to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. [8] For fuller information see Farmers' Bulletin 1057, from which the directions here given are mainly derived. [9] The chemicals employed have no effect upon iron. They will, however, actively corrode zinc, tin, or solder; hence a soldered pail must be watched for leaks and is far inferior to a seamless pail, stamped from a single sheet of iron. A tinned pail is preferred to a galvanized one, but a plain iron seamless pail or an iron kettle should be obtained if possible. [10] Best done by previously determining by measurement the depth of 5 gallons of water in the kettle. Set the kettle exactly level and mark the depth on a stick held vertically on the center of the bottom. ANIMAL PARASITES OF CATTLE. By B. H. RANSOM, Ph. D., _Chief of Zoological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry._ The animal parasites of cattle comprise more than a hundred different species, belonging to various groups of the animal kingdom. Fortunately not all these parasites occur in this country--many are uncommon, and many are comparatively harmless. Some forms, however, occur frequently, and some are of distinct importance to the American stockman on account of the damage for which they are responsible. It is these parasites particularly which will be referred to in the present article, and although some forms are discussed which are rare or apparently of little economic importance, most of the minor and unusual parasites and species not found in this country have been omitted from consideration. FLIES.[11] Of the various species of flies which infest cattle some are injurious on account of the annoyance, pain, and loss of blood due to their bites, and sometimes also on account of diseases or parasites which are thus transmitted from the blood of diseased animals to that of healthy cattle, while others, which in the winged adult state do not bite, are injurious because they live parasitic on cattle during their larval stages. _Remedies for flies._[12]--Most remedies used for protecting cattle from the attacks of flies have to be applied frequently, and few, if any, will keep flies away for more than a day or two following their application. The numerous proprietary fly repellents to be found on the market are usually more expensive, and often less efficacious than homemade mixtures. At the Minnesota experiment station rancid lard 1 pound and kerosene one-half pint, mixed thoroughly until a creamy mass forms, was found to give excellent results as a fly repellent, lasting for two or three days, when rubbed not too thickly with a cloth or with the bare hand over the backs of cows. Mixtures of cottonseed oil and pine tar containing from 10 to 50 per cent of the latter substance were found by investigations in the Bureau of Animal Industry to have a marked repellent action against flies when applied lightly every day. A too free application of tar mixtures and other preparations containing phenols is liable to cause poisoning; hence care should be observed in this regard. Jensen (1909) recommends the following formula, which is said to protect cows for a week: Common laundry soap 1 pound. Water 4 gallons. Crude petroleum 1 gallon. Powdered naphthalin 4 ounces. Cut the soap into thin shavings and dissolve in water by the aid of heat; dissolve the naphthalin in the crude oil, mix the two solutions, put them into an old dasher churn, and mix thoroughly for 15 minutes. The mixture should be applied once or twice a week with a brush. It must be stirred well before being used. THE STABLE FLY (STOMOXYS CALCITRANS).[13] This fly very closely resembles the house fly, but, unlike the latter, it is a biting fly. It is common about stables and often enters dwellings, especially in cloudy weather. According to Noé, it is the agent of transmission of a parasitic roundworm of cattle (_Setaria labiato-papillosa_, see p. 529). This fly has been shown capable of transmitting anthrax from diseased to healthy animals, and under some conditions it may transmit surra, a disease caused by a blood parasite which affects horses, cattle, and other livestock. The annoyance suffered by cattle and horses from stable flies is much lessened if the stables are darkened. The screening of doors and windows, however, is preferable, as ventilation is not interfered with as it is in darkening stables. For milk cows coverings made from burlap (double thickness), including trouserlike coverings for the legs, may be used when the flies are very numerous and troublesome. One of the fly repellents mentioned above may be applied to cattle to protect them from stable flies. The Hodge flytrap fitted to the windows of dairy barns is a useful means of destroying stable flies. The United States Bureau of Entomology has found that a mixture of fish oil (1 gallon), oil of pine tar (2 ounces), oil of pennyroyal (2 ounces), and kerosene (1/2 pint) is fairly effective for a short time when applied lightly, but thoroughly, to the portions of animals not covered with blankets. The risk of poisoning with tar mixtures as already mentioned should be borne in mind in using this remedy. Care should be taken to apply it lightly. The stable fly breeds in moist accumulations of straw, chaff, cow or horse manure, and various fermenting vegetable substances. The débris collecting in and under outdoor feed troughs, and the remains of straw stacks are favorable breeding places for the stable fly. Under the most favorable conditions about three weeks are required for development from the egg to the adult stage. The proper care of straw and the proper disposal of stable manure are very necessary in the control of stable flies. Straw stacks should be carefully built so as to shed rain, and loose straw or chaff should be scattered or burned. Straw not required for winter feed should be promptly disposed of by burning or scattering and plowing it under. Stable manure should be hauled out and scattered at regular intervals, preferably every three days, and the vicinity of stables should be kept free from accumulations of straw and hay that may become wet and serve as breeding places for the stable fly. THE HORNFLY (LYPEROSIA IRRITANS).[14] This fly, now found nearly everywhere in the United States, was introduced into this country from Europe about the year 1885. Hornflies have the habit of clustering about the base of the horn (fig. 2), whence the name by which they are popularly known. They do not damage the horn, and congregate there only to rest. In view of the general practice of dehorning cattle, the name hornfly is less distinctive than it once was. Moreover, hornflies rest on other parts of the body as well as the horns. When resting, their wings are held down close to the body (fig. 1); when feeding, their wings are held out nearly at right angles, ready for flight. They puncture the skin and suck blood, usually attacking the upper parts of the body, particularly those which are out of reach of the animal's head or tail. Unlike most flies, they remain on the animal more or less constantly, day and night. Owing probably to the irritation and annoyance caused by these flies, cattle often do not thrive as they should during seasons when the flies are numerous. The hornfly has also been charged with transmitting diseases, such as anthrax. [Illustration: PLATE XLIV. NORMAL SPLEEN AND SPLEEN AFFECTED BY TEXAS FEVER. Fig. 1. SPLEEN OF AN ACUTE, FATAL CASE OF TEXAS FEVER. Fig. 2. SPLEEN OF HEALTHY STEER.] [Illustration: PLATE XLV. TEXAS FEVER.] [Illustration: PLATE XLVI. THE CATTLE TICK (MARGAROPUS ANNULATUS), THE CARRIER OF TEXAS FEVER.] [Illustration: PLATE XLVII. THE CATTLE TICK (MARGAROPUS ANNULATUS). Figs. 1 and 2 DORSAL AND VENTRAL VIEWS OF MALE. Figs. 3 and 4 DORSAL AND VENTRAL VIEWS OF REPLETE FEMALE. (GREATLY ENLARGED.)] [Illustration: PLATE XLVIII. PORTION OF A STEER'S HIDE, SHOWING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK (MARGAROPUS ANNULATUS) OF THE UNITED STATES. NATURAL SIZE. ORIGINAL.] [Illustration: PLATE XLIX. FIG. 1.--TICK-INFESTED STEER.] FIG. 2.--DIPPING CATTLE TO KILL TICKS.] [Illustration: PLATE L. FACSIMILE OF POSTER USED IN TICK ERADICATION WORK.] The fly lays its eggs in freshly dropped cow manure. They hatch in about 24 hours, and the larvæ or maggots in four or five days develop to the pupal stage, which lasts a week or 10 days. From the pupal stage the mature fly emerges. The entire process of development from the deposition of the egg to the appearance of the mature fly therefore may be completed in two weeks, or even in a shorter time. To protect cattle from attacks of the hornfly they may be treated with one of the remedies mentioned above (p. 502). Dipping cattle in a vat provided with splashboards set at the proper angle destroys most of the hornflies present on the animals. Unless the splashboards are used all but a few of the flies succeed in escaping as the cattle plunge into the bath and later return to them. Scattering the droppings of cattle with a shovel, or with brush dragged over pastures, in order to insure the rapid drying of the manure and consequent destruction of the larvæ, is, when practicable, an efficient means of reducing the number of these flies. [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Hornfly (_Lyperosia irritans_) in resting position. Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Hornflies (_Lyperosia irritans_) on cow horn. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] BUFFALO GNATS. These small flies, also known as black flies, are about one-eighth of an inch long and have a characteristic "humped" back (fig. 3). They breed in running water and appear in swarms during spring and summer, often in enormous numbers, causing great annoyance to stock and human beings, on account of their bites and their entrance into the eyes, nose, mouth, and other openings of the body. Their bites appear to be poisonous, and in seasons especially favorable to the gnats heavy losses of horses and cattle often occur. Buffalo gnats are more troublesome in bright, sunny weather than when it is cloudy, and animals which have not shed their winter coats suffer more from their attacks than those with smooth coats. Cattle kept in darkened stables are not molested. The application of one of the fly repellents already mentioned (p. 502) may help to protect animals from buffalo gnats. The burning of smudges is also a useful means of protecting stock from the attacks of these flies. [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Buffalo gnat. Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] SCREW WORMS.[15] Screw worms (fig. 4) are the maggots of a fly (_Chrysomyia macellaria_), so called from their fancied resemblance to a screw. The adult fly (fig. 5) is about one-third of an inch long, with a bluish-green body, red eyes, and with three dark longitudinal stripes on the back (thorax). Attracted by odors of decay, it deposits its eggs, 300 to 400 at a time, in cuts, sores, castration wounds, etc. The crushing of a tick on the skin commonly results in screw-worm infection at that point. The eggs hatch in a few hours and the larvæ or maggots, or so-called screw worms, begin to burrow into the flesh and continue burrowing and feeding from three to six days, after which they leave the wound and crawl into the earth, there transforming into the quiescent pupal stage. This stage is completed in three to fourteen days. The mature flies then emerge from the pupal envelope and are soon ready for egg laying. From two to three weeks are therefore required for the entire life cycle, although under certain conditions it is possible for the fly to undergo its full development in as short a time as seven days, and on the other hand as long as a month is often required. Besides cattle, the screw-worm fly attacks sheep, horses, dogs, and man. In the case of hogs it is generally the ears which are affected. The fly also breeds in dead animals, and all carcasses should therefore be buried deeply or burned. The complete destruction of all dead animals by burning has been found by the Bureau of Entomology to be by far the best method of controlling screw worms. _Treatment for screw worms._--For proper treatment an animal suffering from screw worms should be caught and thrown. Chloroform is then poured into the wound, taking care that it penetrates thoroughly into all the burrows of the screw worm, if necessary using a slender stick or a small bunch of twisted hay as a probe. The animal should be held for several minutes in order to insure the continued action of chloroform. Instead of chloroform, gasoline may be used, and carbon tetrachlorid is said by some authorities to give good results. Finally, the dead or dying maggots may be removed with forceps, the wound washed with a weak carbolic or cresylic acid solution, and painted with pine tar to reduce the chances of further attack by flies. Finally the wound should be dressed with a carbolic or cresylic ointment to promote healing and thus prevent further infection, or the wound may be painted with pine tar. Dipping in the arsenical dips used for destroying cattle ticks is a convenient method of treatment if many animals are involved. [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Screw worm (larva of _Chrysomyia macellaria_). Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Screw-worm fly (_Chrysomyia macellaria_). Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] GRUBS, WARBLES, BOTS. Ox warbles are whitish or, when full grown, dark-colored grubs or maggots that develop from the eggs deposited on the hairs of cattle by certain flies known as warble flies. In the United States there are two species of ox-warble flies, technically known as _Hypoderma lineatum_ and _Hypoderma bovis._ These flies somewhat resemble bees in their general appearance, but like all flies have only two wings. The first named, _H. lineatum_, is commonly called the heel fly and is more generally distributed over the United States than the other species. The tail has a distinctive reddish-orange color and the legs are rough and hairy. This fly commonly deposits its eggs about the coronet, whence the name of heel fly, and on the fetlocks, knees, and hocks. When cattle are resting, eggs are deposited along the line of contact of the body with the soil. Cattle are frequently indifferent to the activity of this fly in depositing its eggs. Commonly 8 to 10 eggs, sometimes as many as 14, are attached to a single hair. In the United States the other warble fly, _H. bovis_, has been found only in the North (New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Michigan, Iowa, Missouri, and Washington) and has not yet been found in the Southern States. The tail is orange-yellow, lighter in color than that of the other species, and the legs have but few hairs. This fly commonly deposits its eggs on the outside of the hind quarters and above the fetlocks when the animals are moving, or lower down if they are quiet. Cattle are usually much disturbed by the activity of this fly and not infrequently appear terror stricken. The eggs are attached singly, one egg to a hair near its base. The eggs of the warble flies hatch as a rule in about a week, the time varying with local conditions. The young warble is about 1 mm. (1/25 inch) long. It crawls to the base of the hair and burrows into the hair follicle. The entrance of the larvæ frequently causes sudden appearance of swellings. The larvæ of _H. bovis_ in entering the skin rarely cause a flow of serum or pus formation, but those of _H. lineatum_ commonly cause a considerable flow of serum with pus formation resulting in a matting of the hair on affected areas of the skin. The warbles after penetrating the skin migrate through the body and ultimately reach the backs of the cattle, _H. lineatum_ usually appearing there in northern latitudes about the middle of December and _H. bovis_ about a month later. During their migrations, before they reach the back, the young warbles spend a considerable period in the walls of the esophagus, or gullet, and may be found in this location as early as August 15. During the fall and winter a large proportion of the gullets of cattle that are slaughtered are found to be infested with warbles, and are known as grubby gullets or weasands in the packing houses. When the warbles first appear in the back they are about 3/5 inch long. They cause swellings about the size of pigeons' eggs, each swelling having a small hole in the center, which has been punctured in the skin by the warble to enable it to breathe. Through this hole the warble leaves the back of the cow when it has completed its parasitic stage of development, at which time it measures nearly an inch in length. The full-grown larvæ begin to leave the backs of the cattle early in the year, and in northern latitudes the last leave before the middle of July. After leaving the backs of the cattle they burrow into the ground, lie quiescent for about a month, and become transformed into mature flies. In northern latitudes the mature flies of the species _H. lineatum_ may be observed during April and May, and those of the other species during June and July. The damage caused by warbles includes injury to stampeding cattle frightened by the fly, decreased milk flow and diminished growth in infested animals, and injury to hides, the last item being especially serious. _Treatment._--The best method of control known at present is to extract the warbles from the backs of cattle and kill them. If they are almost ready to leave the cattle, they may be squeezed from the backs with the fingers. Forceps are useful in removing the warbles, but it is important to be careful in extracting warbles not to crush them, as the body juices of these parasites are sometimes poisonous to cattle if absorbed into their circulation. In the South herds may be examined in November or early in December and once a month during the next two or three months. In the North the first examination may be made six weeks to two months later, with two or, better, three following examinations at intervals of a month. If this procedure is carefully carried out there will be a noticeable diminution of warbles the following year, and if persisted in the warble can be almost if not completely eradicated. Where an entire community follows up the practice of removing and destroying warbles, the results are highly beneficial. As a result of recent studies by various investigators it appears that the tiny grubs, newly hatched from the eggs, may gain entrance to the body by penetrating directly through the skin. Many observers, however, have held that the eggs or newly hatched larvæ are taken into the mouth by the cattle licking themselves. It is possible, as in the case of several other parasites, that both modes of infection may occur and that the larvæ may gain entrance to the body either by penetrating the skin or by being swallowed. From the evidence at present available it seems likely that the usual mode of entrance is through the skin. Irrespective of the mode of infection, the larvæ evidently wander extensively through the tissues of the body, developmental stages being found in considerable numbers in the wall of the esophagus during the fall of the year. They have also been found in the spinal canal and in various other locations. Finally, about January they appear beneath the skin of the back, forming the well-known swellings. The posterior end of the grub is near the small opening in the hide, through which the grub breathes and discharges its excrement, and through which, when its development is complete, it finally escapes. The anterior end of the grub is at the bottom of the tumor, where the mucus collects upon which it feeds. By spring or early summer the grub is full grown and forces its way out of the skin, falling to the ground, into which it burrows for a short distance and transforms into the pupal stage. In about a month the mature fly emerges. It has lately been discovered that a second species of warble fly (_Hypoderma bovis_) common in Europe is of not uncommon occurrence in Canada and the northern part of the United States, whereas it was formerly supposed that the ox warbles of this country were all of the one kind. The general appearance, life history, and effects of the European species are much the same as those of the American form. Grubs weaken cattle, cause them to fall off in flesh and milk, and decrease the value of the hide. The beef in the immediate vicinity of a grub becomes slimy and of a greenish color, and is known to the butchers as "licked beef." The total loss to this country on account of the warble fly is estimated at $35,000,000 to $50,000,000 a year, at the least, and may amount to considerably more. _Treatment for warbles._--During the winter and spring examine the cattle for the presence of warbles. By passing the hand over the backs of the animals the swellings marking the location of the grubs may be readily found. Pressure properly applied to the swellings will cause the grubs to "pop out" if they have reached a late stage of development. They may be more easily removed by means of slender forceps inserted into the opening of the warbles, and a still more certain method of removing them, particularly if the lumps are still very small, is to cut into the swellings with a sharp knife or bistoury, after which they may be pressed out. Care should be taken to crush all grubs removed, so as to prevent the possibility of their further development and transformation into flies. In order that none may escape it is advisable to examine the cattle every two weeks during the late winter and spring, at each examination removing the grubs which have developed sufficiently to cause perceptible swellings. Another method of treatment is to force grease or oil into the openings of the warbles, which kills the grubs. This method is less certain than that of removing the grubs, and has the further objection that the dead grubs remain beneath the skin. Cattle may be treated during the summer with fly repellents (p. 502) to keep off the warble flies. The efficacy of repellents against these flies is probably, however, not very great. In localities where the character of the cattle industry is such as to render practicable the systematic examination of cattle and the removal of the grubs--that is, where the herds are comparatively small and subject to the close supervision of the owners--it is possible, by the exercise of a little care and with very little effort on the part of the cattle owners, provided they work together, each doing his share by seeing to the removal of grubs from his own cattle, so that as few as possible survive to transform into flies, to reduce the number of grubs within one or two seasons almost, if not entirely, to the point of extinction. Investigations not yet completed indicate that grub eradication may sometimes be accomplished by the use of arsenical dips, which are extensively used at the present time for destroying cattle ticks. (See p. 497.) It is possible that the destructive action of arsenical dips upon warbles is more or less dependent upon the fact that arsenic is stored up in small quantities in and upon the skin of cattle that are repeatedly dipped in arsenical dips. The arsenical dip appears to act, not upon the well-developed grub beneath the skin, but upon the eggs or the newly hatched larvæ, probably the latter. Accordingly the dipping of cattle to destroy grubs should be carried out during the fly season and repeated treatments should be given every two or three weeks, as in dipping cattle to eradicate ticks. [Illustration: FIG. 6.--The warble fly (_Hypoderma lineatum_): _a_, adult female; _b_, eggs attached to a hair, × 25; _c_, larva as seen in egg; _d_, larva from esophagus of an ox; _e_, later stage of larva from beneath the skin of the back; _f_, larva at the stage when it leaves the back of cattle and falls to the ground--all enlarged (after Riley).] LICE.[16] Cattle in the United States are commonly infested with three species of lice, two of them sucking lice (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_, the short-nosed cattle louse, and _Linognathus vituli_, the long-nosed cattle louse), commonly known as blue lice, and one biting louse (_Trichodectes scalaris_), commonly known as the red louse. The blue lice (figs. 7 and 8) suck the blood of cattle and are more injurious than the red lice (fig. 9). Unless very abundant the latter cause little injury. If numerous they irritate and worry their host probably more by their sharp claws than by their bites, as their food seems to consist entirely of particles of hair and dead skin. Cattle lice reproduce by means of eggs or nits (fig. 10) which they fasten to the hair. The blue lice infest chiefly the neck and shoulders; red lice, when present, may be found almost anywhere on the body, but are usually most numerous on neck, shoulders, and at the root of the tail. On account of the itching caused by the lice, infested cattle rub against posts, trees, etc., and lick themselves, the hair sometimes coming out and the skin becoming thickened so that mange may be suspected. _Treatment for lice._--Cattle may be treated for lice by means of hand applications, spraying, or dipping. Dusting powders sold under various trade names are of value in helping to hold lice in check when the weather is too cold for dipping or spraying. The application of greases and insecticidal liquids by hand is fairly effective and practicable in cases in which there are only a few animals to be treated. The following remedies have proved effective when applied by hand, the treatment being repeated if necessary in about 16 days: (1) Cottonseed oil and kerosene, equal parts; (2) kerosene, 1/2 pint, mixed with lard, 1 pound; (3) crude petroleum; (4) any of the dips recommended for use in dipping, and diluted in the same proportions as for dipping. Oils or greases should not be used in very warm or very cold weather. The remedies mentioned may be applied with a brush or a cloth. They should be distributed in a thin, even coating over the surface of the body, taking care that there is no excess quantity at any point. In spraying, any of the dips recommended for lice, properly diluted, are applied by means of a spray pump over the entire body. Thorough wetting of the skin and hair is important, and a second treatment should be given 15 or 16 days later. When a considerable number of animals are to be treated the most satisfactory method of destroying lice is by the use of a dipping vat. Two dippings should be given 15 or 16 days apart. Dipping in the fall is good insurance against risk of loss from lice during the winter. All animals in the herd should be treated regardless of the number showing infestation. Either coal-tar-creosote or nicotin dips may be used. These are sold under various trade names. The directions for dilution given by the manufacturer should be carefully followed. As coal-tar-creosote dips do not mix well with all kinds of water, they should be tested with the water to be used for making the solution by mixing some of the dip in the proper proportions with the water in a clean and clear-glass bottle or jar. If an oily layer or mass of globules collects either at the top or the bottom of the mixture after standing an hour, the dip is not suitable for use with that kind of water. Imperfectly mixed coal-tar-creosote dips are liable to poison animals even when not used in stronger solutions than that recommended by the manufacturers, and are also likely to be inefficacious. The lime-sulphur dip, which is highly efficacious as a mange remedy, is of little value for destroying lice, especially blue lice. The arsenical dip used in tick eradication is a good louse remedy, but its use is not advisable on account of its poisonous nature, except under the supervision of capable persons who know how to use it and what precautions to take. [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Short-nosed blue louse (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_) of cattle. Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Long-nosed bluelouse (_Linognathus vituli_) of cattle. Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Red louse (_Trichodectes scalaris_) of cattle. Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Egg of short-nosed blue louse (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_) attached to a hair. Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] MANGE, ITCH, SCAB.[17] Cattle are subject to four kinds of mange, of which common mange or psoroptic mange is the most important. PSOROPTIC MANGE. Psoroptic mange of cattle is caused by small mites (fig. 11) which multiply rapidly and are spread from diseased to healthy cattle by bodily contact, or by pens, stables, railroad cars, etc., recently occupied by mangy cattle. The mites attack the skin and cause it to become thickened and covered with crusts and scabs, with a consequent loss of hair. Intense itching accompanies the disease, and affected cattle are more or less constantly rubbing and licking themselves. Psoroptic mange commences at the root of the tail, or on the neck, or withers, and gradually extends over the back up to the head, over the sides, and may finally affect nearly the entire body except the legs. In serious cases the skin may become ulcerated; the animals are greatly weakened and emaciated, and finally die. By taking scrapings from the edges of scabby patches and placing them on a piece of black paper in a warm place the mites may be seen as tiny white objects crawling over the paper, more distinctly if a magnifying glass is used. Mange may be confused with lousiness, ringworm, or with any condition in which there is itching or loss of hair, but if mites are found there is no question of the diagnosis. The disease is worse during cold, wet weather. Mangy cattle when on good pasture during the summer often seem to recover, but in the fall the disease again appears in a severe form. _Treatment._--The most generally used and most satisfactory method of treating cattle mange consists in dipping the animals in a vat filled with a liquid of such nature that it will kill the parasites without injuring the cattle. Vats for dipping cattle are built of wood, stone, or concrete, and vary in length from 30 to 100 feet or more. They vary in width from 3 to 7 feet at the top and 1-1/2 to 3 feet at the bottom, and the depth may be from 7 to 10 feet. A narrow chute through which the cattle are driven leads to one end of the vat, where a steep slide pitches the cattle into the dipping fluid, through which they swim, and climb out of the vat at the other end, which is built sloping and provided with cross cleats to give the animals a foothold. A draining pen with floor sloping back toward the vat is generally provided. The dip should be used warm, 100° to 105° F., and the cattle should be held in the vat for two minutes to insure thorough action of the dip. The head of each animal should be ducked at least once. Care should be taken that the vat contains a sufficient depth of fluid to swim the animals to be dipped. The dipping fluid may be heated from a steam boiler by pipes or hose, or water heated in large iron cauldrons or tanks may be used for charging the vat, and hot water with a proper quantity of dip added from time to time as the dipping fluid becomes cool. If crude-petroleum dips are used, one dipping is usually sufficient, and the dip is used cold. Crude-petroleum dips are rarely used for common mange, but are of special value for sarcoptic mange, which is cured with difficulty by the ordinary dips. In the treatment of ordinary mange with lime-sulphur or nicotin dips two dippings are necessary, the second dipping being given 10 to 14 days after the first. The second treatment is necessary to kill the few parasites which sometimes escape at the first treatment, either in the egg stage or as fecundated females. [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Mite which causes psoroptic scab of sheep. Enlarged about 100 times. The mite of psoroptic cattle mange is almost identical in appearance.] LIME-SULPHUR DIP. The lime-sulphur dip is made in the proportion of 12 pounds of unslaked lime (or 16 pounds of commercial hydrated lime--not air-slaked lime), 24 pounds of flowers of sulphur, and 100 gallons of water. _Directions for preparing 100 gallons of dip._--Weigh out the lime, 12 pounds (or hydrated lime, 16 pounds), and sulphur, 24 pounds. Place the unslaked lime in a shallow, water-tight box similar to a mortar box, or some other suitable vessel, and add water enough to slake the lime and form a lime paste or lime putty. Sift into this paste the flowers of sulphur and stir well; then place the lime-sulphur paste in a kettle, boiler, or tank containing 30 gallons of water, the water being first heated nearly to the boiling point. Boil the mixture for two hours at least, stirring frequently; add water occasionally to maintain the original quantity. Allow the mixture to settle in the tank or draw the entire contents of the kettle or boiling tank into a large tub or barrel placed near the dipping vat and provided with a bunghole about 4 inches from the bottom, and then allow ample time to settle--from two to three hours or more if necessary. When fully settled, draw off the clear liquid into the dipping vat, taking care not to allow any of the sediment to accompany it, as the sediment is liable to render the dip unnecessarily caustic. The clear liquid thus obtained requires only the addition of sufficient clear warm water to bring the total up to 100 gallons. Flowers of sulphur must be used and the lime must be of good quality. The dipping bath should be used at a temperature of 100° to 105° F., and for official dippings must be maintained at all times at a strength of not less than 2 per cent of "sulphid sulphur" as indicated by the Bureau of Animal Industry field test for lime-sulphur baths. NICOTIN DIP. The nicotin dip is made with sufficient extract of tobacco, or nicotin solution, to give a mixture containing not less than five one-hundredths of 1 per cent nicotin and 2 per cent flowers of sulphur. Sufficient nicotin would therefore be furnished for 96 gallons (about 800 pounds) of dip by 1 pound of a 40 per cent solution of nicotin. The formula for this dip would be: Nicotin, four-tenths of a pound; flowers of sulphur, 16 pounds; water, 96 gallons. To calculate how much nicotin solution or extract of tobacco should be used for 96 gallons of water, divide the quantity of nicotin required in the dip by the proportion of nicotin in the extract. For example, suppose the nicotin solution contains 25 per cent nicotin, we have 0.40 ÷ 0.25 = 1.6. Therefore in this case it would require 1.6 pounds of nicotin solution for the 96 gallons of dip. Or, if a tobacco extract is used, having, for example, 2.4 per cent of nicotin, the formula would be as follows: 0.40 ÷ 0.024 = 16.66, and therefore 16.66 pounds would be required for 96 gallons of dip. Do not use any preparation the strength of which is not given on the outside of the package. In preparing these dips the nicotin solution and sulphur should be mixed together with water before adding them to the water in the dipping vat. On no account should the dip be heated above 110° F. after the nicotin solution is added, as heat is liable to evaporate the nicotin and weaken the dip. For official dippings the dipping bath should be used at a temperature of 100° to 105° F. and at all times must be maintained at a strength of not less than five one-hundredths of 1 per cent nicotin as indicated by a field test approved by the Bureau of Animal Industry. A homemade nicotin dip may be prepared as follows: For each 100 gallons of dip desired, take 21 pounds of good, prepared tobacco leaves; soak the leaves in cold or lukewarm water for 24 hours in a covered pot or kettle; then bring the water to near the boiling point for a moment, and, if in the morning, allow the infusion to draw for an hour; if in the evening, allow it to draw overnight; the liquid is next strained (pressure being used to extract as much nicotin as possible from the wet leaves) and diluted to 100 gallons per 21 pounds of tobacco. This dip should be used as fresh as possible, as it contains a large amount of organic material which will soon decompose. CRUDE-PETROLEUM DIPS. Crude-petroleum dips, which are valuable for the treatment of sarcoptic mange, are not often used for the treatment of psoroptic mange or of chorioptic mange, oily dips being liable to injure animals, especially if they are moved rapidly soon after treatment, if they are exposed to bright sunshine, or if they become chilled. Besides unprocessed crude petroleum, processed petroleum from which the gasoline and other light hydrocarbons have been removed may be utilized in the treatment of cattle for mange, particularly sarcoptic mange. There are a number of proprietary brands of crude-petroleum dips on the market, consisting of processed crude petroleum with other substances added, mainly lighter oils to give the dip a suitable consistency. In dipping cattle in crude-petroleum dips fill the vat with water to within 1 foot or 18 inches of the dip line and then add the oil until the surface is flush with the dip line. The oil floats on the water, and as the animals pass through the vat their bodies become coated with oil. CHORIOPTIC MANGE. Chorioptic mange, due to a species of mite different from that causing common cattle mange, is confined almost entirely to the region at the root of the tail and if not treated may persist for years. The treatment is the same as for psoroptic mange. SARCOPTIC MANGE. Sarcoptic mange, frequently called "barn itch," is caused by a mite very similar to that which causes itch in human beings. It commonly affects the head and neck, but may also occur on various other parts of the body. Bulls are particularly liable to be affected with this form of mange. Cattle may become infected not only from other cattle, but also from horses, goats, dogs, sheep, and hogs. As a rule sarcoptic mange in any species of animal, if acquired from an animal of another species, is likely to run a short course and tend toward a spontaneous recovery. The treatment likely to be most efficacious is that of dipping in a crude-petroleum dip, one treatment as a rule being sufficient. If lime-sulphur dip is used, four or five successive treatments, or even more, at weekly intervals, may be necessary before a cure is effected. DEMODECTIC MANGE. Demodectic mange, which is caused by a small parasite that lives in the hair follicles, causing pustules, especially on the neck and shoulders, occurs occasionally among cattle in this country and is of importance on account of the injury to the hide. When tanned, hides infested by this parasite are pitted, the pits, in some cases, being so deep that they form holes. No practicable treatment is known for this disease. TICKS.[18] About 10 species of ticks have been reported as parasites of cattle in the United States. The most common and most important is the species known as _Margaropus annulatus_, which transmits Texas fever. Information concerning this tick and Texas fever has been given elsewhere in this volume (p. 475). The spinose ear tick (_Ornithodoros megnini_) is frequently found in the ears of cattle in the western part of the United States, and is of common occurrence also in the ears of horses, dogs, cats, etc. When its parasitic stage of development is completed the ear tick leaves its host. Mating between the sexes occurs after the ticks have cast their skins following the abandonment of their host. They usually crawl up some distance from the ground and secrete themselves in cracks and crevices in trees, walls of buildings, etc., where the females deposit their eggs. After the eggs hatch, the larval ticks, which emerge from them, when they succeed in finding a host, enter the ears and gradually develop to the stage at which they are ready to leave the host animal. The females may live several months, or even years, if they do not find mates. After mating they may deposit their eggs intermittently. Hatching of the eggs may occur as early as 10 days after deposition. The larvæ may live for 80 days without a host. The parasitic period has been observed to vary from about two to about seven months. _Treatment._--On account of their habits and great vitality and their occurrence in various kinds of animals besides cattle, complete eradication is a difficult problem. The only effective treatment known is to introduce directly into the ear passages a remedy that will kill the ticks. Later, of course, the cattle may become reinfested from exposure to infested ranges or inclosures. The following mixture, however, in addition to killing the ticks in the ears, will protect against reinfestation for about 30 days: Ordinary commercial pine tar, two parts; cottonseed oil, one part--in each case by volume. Animals to be treated are confined in a chute, and the mixture is injected into the ears with a syringe, after the wax and other débris in the ears have been cleaned out with a wire probe that has an eyelet at one end. Further information concerning ear ticks and the details of their treatment is given in Farmers' Bulletin 980. BLOODSUCKERS OR LEECHES. These worms are sometimes taken up by cattle when drinking from ponds. They may attach themselves to the inner surface of the mouth or nose, and sometimes reach the upper part of the windpipe or of the gullet. Bleeding at the mouth or nose may be noticed, the membranes where the leech is attached are liable to be swollen and congested, and as a result of the loss of blood a condition of anemia may result. _Treatment._--If the worm can be reached it may be destroyed by cutting it in two with a pair of scissors, or it may be removed with forceps or with the fingers after wrapping a towel around the hand so that the worm can be held without slipping. Fumigation with tobacco or tar may cause the worm to release its hold if it can not be removed by other means. Ponds may be rid of infestation with bloodsuckers by the introduction of eels. PARASITES OF THE STOMACH. The stomach of cattle consists of four compartments, of which the first and fourth are most likely to be the seat of parasitic infestation. The first stomach, or paunch, contains large numbers of minute parasites known as protozoa, which are too small to be seen with the naked eye. These small organisms apparently are in no way injurious. A species of fluke (_Paramphistomum cervi_ or a closely related species) is occasionally found in North American cattle, especially grass-fed cattle, attached to the inner surface of the first stomach (fig. 12). This worm is about one-half inch long, and somewhat conical in shape; hence the name, conical fluke, by which it is sometimes known. Although this parasite has been accused of producing serious effects, it is generally considered harmless. Several species of roundworms may occur in the fourth stomach. Two of these are of special importance. [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Portion of the wall of the first stomach with conical flukes attached.] THE TWISTED STOMACH WORM (HÆMONCHUS CONTORTUS). The twisted stomach worm (_Hæmonchus contortus_, figs. 13, 14, 15) is sometimes found in enormous numbers in the fourth stomach of cattle. Sheep, goats, and other ruminants may also be infested with it. Among the symptoms caused by this parasite may be mentioned anemia, loss of flesh, general weakness, dullness, capricious appetite, excessive thirst, and diarrhea. The anemic condition is seen in the paleness of the skin and mucous membranes of the mouth and eye, and in the watery swellings which often develop under the lower jaw ("poverty jaw"). If the fourth stomach of a dead animal is cut open and the contents carefully examined, the parasites, which are from 1/2 inch to 1-1/4 inches in length and about as thick as an ordinary pin, may be seen, if present in any considerable number, actively wriggling about like little snakes. Cattle become infected with these parasites by grazing on pastures on which infested cattle, sheep, or goats have grazed and scattered their droppings. The worms in the stomach produce a multitude of eggs (fig. 14_c_) of microscopic size, which pass out of the body in the feces. In warm weather these eggs hatch in a few hours. If the temperature is below 40° F., they remain dormant, and if below freezing, they soon die. The eggs are also killed by dryness; moisture, on the other hand, favoring their development. The larvæ which hatch from the eggs are microscopic in size, and, like the eggs, are, at first and until they have developed to a certain stage, very susceptible to freezing and drying. In very warm weather the larvæ complete their development, so far as they are able to develop outside the body, in two or three days. In cooler weather the time required for this development is longer, and at temperatures below 70° F. 10 days to several weeks may be necessary. The larvæ are then ready to be taken into the body. The eggs and early stages of the larvæ apparently do not develop if swallowed, and only the completed larval stage seems to be infectious. In this stage the larvæ migrate up grass stalks (fig. 15) or other objects, showing activity whenever the air is saturated with moisture; that is, during rains, fogs, and dews. When the air becomes dry and the moisture evaporates from the grass the young worms cease their activity, resuming their migrations when the air again becomes overladen with moisture. Larvæ which have developed to the infectious stage, unlike the eggs and early larval stages, are able to survive long periods of freezing and dryness. In two weeks to a month after the embryos are swallowed they reach maturity and begin producing eggs. _Preventive treatment._--Preventive measures are important. As moisture favors the development of the embryos, high sloping ground is preferable for pastures. If low ground is used, it should be properly drained. The pasture should not be overstocked. Burning over the pasture will destroy most of the young worms on the grass and on the ground, and this means of disinfection under certain circumstances may be very advantageously used. The herd should be changed to fresh pasture as often as possible. Cattle should be supplied with water from wells, springs, or flowing streams, preferably in tanks or troughs raised above the ground. To a slight degree salt serves to protect cattle against infection with internal parasites, and plenty of it should therefore be kept accessible. Affected animals should be isolated from the rest of the herd in hospital pens or pastures. A plentiful supply of nourishing feed is an important factor in enabling cattle to withstand the attacks of stomach worms and other intestinal parasites. The stabling of cattle, with the maintenance of clean and sanitary surroundings and liberal feeding, will often stop losses from internal parasites, even though no medicinal treatment is given. _Medicinal treatment._--In dosing animals for stomach worms it is advisable to treat not only the animals which are seriously affected, but the rest of the herd as well, since the parasites with which they are infested will remain as a source of reinfection to the others. The cattle should be removed to fresh pasture after treatment, if possible. The animals to be treated should be deprived of feed for 12 to 16, or even 24, hours before they are dosed, and if the bluestone treatment is used should receive no water on the day they are dosed until several hours after dosing. In drenching, a long-necked bottle or a drenching tube may be used. In case the former is used the dose to be given may be first measured off, poured into the bottle, and the point marked on the outside with a file, so that subsequent doses may be measured in the bottle itself. A simple form of drenching tube (fig. 16) consists of a piece of rubber tubing about 3 feet long and one-half inch in diameter, with an ordinary tin funnel inserted in one end and a piece of brass or iron tubing 4 to 6 inches long, of suitable diameter, inserted in the other end. In use the metal tube is placed in the animal's mouth between the back teeth, and the dose is poured into the funnel, which is either held by an assistant or fastened to a post. The flow of liquid through the tube is controlled by pinching the rubber tubing near the point of union with the metal tube. It is important not to raise the animal's head too high on account of the danger of the dose entering the lungs. The nose should not be raised higher than the level of the eyes. The animal may be dosed either standing on all fours or lying on the side. The position on all fours is preferred by some authorities, who believe that more of the remedy is likely to reach the fourth stomach when the animal is dosed standing than when dosed in other positions. Great care should be used in dosing to prevent the entrance of the liquid into the lungs, and in the preparation and administration of the remedy to avoid getting the solution too strong or the dose too large. Bluestone, or copper sulphate, has been extensively used in South Africa in the treatment of sheep and cattle for stomach worms and is recommended by the colonial veterinary surgeon of the Cape Colony as the best and safest remedy. To prepare the solution take 1 pound (avoirdupois) of pure bluestone, powder it fine, and dissolve in 9-1/2 gallons of warm water. It is better first to dissolve the bluestone in 2 or 3 quarts of boiling water, then add the remaining quantity of cold water, and mix thoroughly. This solution may be given to cattle in the following-sized doses: Calves 3-1/2 to 4 fluid ounces. Yearlings 6 fluid ounces. Two-year-olds and over 12 to 16 fluid ounces. In making up the solution only clear blue crystals of bluestone should be used. Bluestone with white patches or crusts should be rejected. It is especially important that the bluestone and water be accurately weighed and measured, and that the size of the dose be graduated according to the age of the animal. The special value of medicated salts advertised under various trade names as preventives against worms is problematical. Commonly they contain little else than ordinary salt, the other substances being in such small quantity that their therapeutic effect is practically negligible. Definite evidence that they are more efficacious than plain salt is not yet available and their use is not recommended. [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Twisted stomach worms (_Hæmonchus contortus_). Outlines showing natural size of male (above) and female.] [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Twisted stomach worms (_Hæmonchus contortus_). Male (_a_), female (_b_), and egg (_c_). Enlarged.] [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Larva of twisted stomach worm (_Hæmonchus contortus_) coiled on tip of grass blade. Enlarged.] [Illustration: FIG. 16.--A drenching tube made from an ordinary tin funnel, a piece of rubber hose, and a piece of brass pipe.] THE ENCYSTED STOMACH WORM (OSTERTAGIA OSTERTAGI). This parasite is as thick as a fine hair and less than half an inch in length. It lives in small cysts in the wall of the fourth stomach (fig. 17) and is also found free in the cavity of the stomach. When numerous, these parasites cause a thickening of the stomach wall and disturb its digestive functions. The symptoms caused by this parasite are very similar to those produced by the twisted stomach worm. The life history of the encysted stomach worm is not known in detail, but it is undoubtedly very much the same as that of the twisted stomach worm. The same measures as recommended above for preventing infection with the twisted stomach worm should be used. Medicinal treatment would seem to be of little use, owing to the protected position in which the parasite occurs. [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Piece of lining of fourth stomach, showing cysts of the encysted stomach worm (_Ostertagia ostertagi_).] INTESTINAL PARASITES. TAPEWORMS. Two species of tapeworms (fig. 18) are known to occur in the small intestine of American cattle. They sometimes grow to a length of several yards and to a breadth of three-fourths of an inch. Small portions of tapeworms, consisting of one or more segments, are occasionally seen in the droppings of infested cattle. The life history is not known, but the infectious stage is undoubtedly taken in with the feed or water, infection being spread by the eggs of the parasite contained in the feces of infested animals. The eggs are perhaps swallowed by some small creature (an insect, worm, or snail) which acts as an intermediate host, and which when accidentally swallowed by a cow while grazing or drinking carries with it into her stomach the infectious stage of the tapeworm. Adult cattle do not seem to suffer much from infestation with tapeworms, but in calves these parasites may cause scouring and emaciation. _Treatment._--Medicinal treatment for tapeworms in cattle is usually unsatisfactory, but the bluestone treatment used for stomach worms and mentioned above (p. 522) sometimes expels tapeworms. Arsenic in doses of 1-1/2 to 3 grains has been claimed to give good results in the treatment of calves for tapeworms. From results obtained at the Oklahoma Experiment Station in the treatment of tapeworms of sheep it would appear that the efficacy of the bluestone treatment against these parasites may be increased by the addition of tobacco. For use on cattle the bluestone and tobacco mixture may be prepared as follows: 13 ounces of snuff or powdered tobacco is soaked over night in about 8 gallons of water. To this decoction is added 1 pound of copper sulphate which has been dissolved in 2 or 3 quarts of boiling water. Sufficient water is then added to the mixture to make a total of 9-1/2 gallons. The doses of this solution are the same as for the simple copper sulphate solution, described on page 522, namely: Calves 3-1/2 to 4 fluid ounces. Yearlings 6 fluid ounces. Two-year-olds and over 12 to 16 fluid ounces. [Illustration: FIG. 18.--A tapeworm (_Moniezia planissima_) which infests cattle.] ROUNDWORMS. A large roundworm (_Ascaris vitulorum_) measuring 6 to 12 inches in length, sometimes found in the intestines of cattle, especially calves, may cause inflammation and occasionally rupture of the intestine. Infection occurs through the swallowing of the eggs of the parasite in feed or water which has been contaminated with the feces of infested cattle. A number of species of small roundworms, varying in size from an eighth of an inch to an inch or more in length, occur in the intestines. Of these may be mentioned the hookworm (_Bunostomum phlebotomum_) and the nodular worm (_[OE]sophagostomum radiatum_). The former is about an inch long and is found in the small intestine. The latter is somewhat smaller and is found in the cecum and large intestine. Hookworms, when numerous, may cause anemia and other symptoms similar to those caused by stomach worms (see p. 519). The injury to the mucous lining of the intestine from the bites of hookworms may cause severe inflammation, and affords an avenue of infection with the germs of various diseases. The adult nodular worms apparently do not attack the wall of the intestine, but derive their nourishment from the intestinal contents. Several species of small, very slender roundworms (_Trichostrongylus_), less than a quarter of an inch in length, sometimes occur in the small intestine and fourth stomach, and a severe gastroenteritis, or inflammation of the stomach and intestines, has been attributed to them. One species of small roundworm (_Cooperia punctata_) burrows in the wall of the small intestine and causes caseous nodules in the mucous lining. This parasite sometimes occurs in very large numbers in the intestines of cattle in certain sections of the country, and apparently does considerable damage. _Nodular disease_ of the intestine, due to young nodular worms which burrow in the intestinal wall during a certain stage in their life history, sometimes apparently produces serious effects, particularly in young cattle, but commonly has little or no perceptible influence on the general health. It, however, often renders the intestine unfit for use as sausage casings, and as it is widely prevalent among cattle the loss from this source is considerable. The greenish or yellowish nodules with cheesy contents are frequently mistaken by the inexperienced for lesions of tuberculosis. The life histories of the various small roundworms occurring in the intestines of cattle, so far as they have been worked out, are very similar to that of the twisted stomach worm as described on page 519. _Treatment for intestinal roundworms._--The preventive measures are similar to those recommended in the case of the twisted stomach worm (p. 521). Medical treatment is generally not very satisfactory. According to the Oklahoma Experiment Station, the addition of 1 per cent of tobacco to the bluestone solution used in the treatment of stomach worms in sheep is effective in the removal of hookworms. The bluestone and tobacco mixture described on page 524 may be of value in the treatment of hookworms in cattle. It is asserted by one author that 2 or 3 drams of rectified empyreumatic oil in a mucilaginous emulsion, followed the next morning with a purgative of 1 to 1-1/2 pounds of sulphate of soda, will expel the large roundworms (_Ascaris vitulorum_). PROTOZOA. A number of species of protozoa have been reported as parasites of the intestines of cattle. To one species has been attributed a serious disease of cattle in Switzerland known as red dysentery, but so far comparatively few cases of this disease have been recorded in America. It is probably more common than is generally supposed. Calves particularly seem most likely to be affected. FLUKES IN LIVER AND LUNGS. Two species of flukes occurring in the liver and lungs are known to affect cattle in the United States. These parasites are flat, leaf-like worms; one of them, the common liver fluke (_Fasciola hepatica_, fig. 19), is less than an inch in length, while the other, the large American fluke (_Fasciola magna_, fig. 20), is considerably larger when full grown. In their life history these flukes depend on snails as intermediate hosts. At a certain stage of development the young flukes leave the snails, become encysted on stalks of grass (fig. 21), or fall into drinking water, and finally may be swallowed by cattle. Stiles writes as follows: Flukes may produce a serious, often fatal, disease, more especially in younger animals. The symptoms are somewhat similar to those produced by worms in the stomach. The first symptoms are generally overlooked, the disease not attracting attention until the appetite is diminished; rumination becomes irregular, the animals become hidebound, and the coat dull and staring. The staring coat is due to the contraction of the muscles of the hair follicles. The visible mucous membranes become pale, eyes become dull, there is running at the eyes, and the animal gradually becomes emaciated. As the disease advances the milk supply is lessened, fever appears, there is generally great thirst, but the appetite almost ceases; edematous swellings appear on the belly, breast, etc.; diarrhea at first alternates with constipation, but finally becomes continuous. The disease lasts from two to five months, when the most extreme cases succumb. Most of the German cattle are said to be infested with liver flukes, but even when a large number are present the nourishment of the cattle is not disturbed. Thickening of the gall ducts, so that a so-called "Medusa's head" forms on the surface of the liver toward the stomach, appears in even well-nourished animals; even in cases of a cirrhosis of the liver it is seldom that any effect upon the cattle's health can be noticed, and so long as a portion of the liver tissue about twice the size of the fist remains intact, the nourishment of the animal may be comparatively good. It is rare that one sees a generalized edema in slaughtered cattle as a result of fluke invasion, and even in the heaviest infections of young cattle only emaciation is noticed. _Treatment._--Medicinal treatment is unsatisfactory. The disease may be prevented to a considerable extent by giving animals plenty of salt, and by introducing carp, frogs, and toads into infected districts; these animals destroy the young stages of the parasite and feed upon the snails which serve as intermediate hosts. The drainage of wet pastures and the avoidance of swampy lands for grazing purposes are important measures in the prevention of fluke diseases. Railliet and others have recently recommended the application of lime to fluky pastures, having discovered that very weak solutions are destructive not only to fluke embryos but to snails. This application is to be made during the summer months at the rate of about 500 to 1,000 pounds of lime per acre. The same authors also recommend extract of male fern for the treatment of fluke disease. Moussu states that the average dose for cattle is 1 gram of the extract for each 10 kilograms of live weight; that is, 10 grams for a young animal weighing 100 kilograms (about 220 pounds) up to 50 grams as a maximum for large animals weighing 500 kilograms (about 1,100 pounds) or more. The extract is mixed with about 5 times as much non-purgative oil and the dose is administered each morning for five consecutive days two hours before the animal is allowed to feed after having been fasted over night. The extract of male fern used should have a guaranteed strength of 22 to 25 per cent of filicine and 3.5 per cent of filicic acid. [Illustration: FIG. 19.--The common liver fluke (_Fasciola hepatica_).] [Illustration: FIG. 20.--The large American fluke (_Fasciola magna_).] [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Portion of grass stalk bearing three encysted cercariæ of the common liver fluke (_Fasciola hepatica_). Enlarged.] TAPEWORM CYSTS OF LIVER AND OTHER VISCERA. Three kinds of tapeworm cysts are found in the viscera of cattle. One of these (_Multiceps multiceps_, or _C[oe]nurus cerebralis_) will be further referred to in the discussion of gid (p. 528). All these are the intermediate stages of tapeworms, which live when mature in the intestines of dogs, wolves, and other canines. The eggs of the tapeworms are scattered over the fields in the droppings of infested dogs or wolves, and when swallowed in food or water by cattle hatch out and the embryos migrate to the liver, mesentery, lungs, brain, or other organs, where they develop into cysts, variously known as hydatids, bladder worms, water balls, etc. When organs of cattle thus infested are eaten by dogs or wolves the cystic worms are also liable to be swallowed and then develop into mature tapeworms. To prevent cattle from infection with these parasites stray dogs, wolves, and coyotes should be killed wherever found, and dogs too valuable to kill should be kept free from tapeworms. As a precaution against infection with tapeworms, the viscera of cattle, sheep, or hogs should not be fed to dogs unless cooked. HYDATIDS (_Echinococcus granulosus_) form tumors (fig. 22) of varying size (sometimes as large as 6 inches in diameter) in the liver, lungs, and other organs. Their contents are liquid, resembling water. The presence of these parasites can not be detected in the living animal and there is no medicinal treatment for them. Organs containing hydatids should be destroyed by burning in order to prevent their being eaten by dogs. This is especially important, as dogs infested with the tapeworm stage of this parasite are a menace to human beings on account of the danger of infecting them with hydatids, which develop in man if the eggs of the hydatid tapeworm are swallowed. THIN-NECKED BLADDER WORMS (_Tænia hydatigena_, fig. 23) are most commonly found attached to the mesentery and omentum. There is no medicinal treatment. GID.--Bladder worms (_Multiceps multiceps_, or _C[oe]nurus cerebralis_), which are occasionally found in the brain of cattle and cause gid, "turnsick," or "staggers," deserve mention, as they are rather common among sheep in the Northwest. As already alluded to, these worms are the intermediate stage of a tapeworm found in dogs, and their life history and the means of preventing infection have been briefly discussed above (see p. 527). Cattle harboring this parasite show symptoms indicating an affection of the brain, walking or turning in circles, dizziness, uneven gait, impaired vision, etc. Treatment consists in trephining the skull and removing the parasite, an operation which requires a skillful operator and is frequently unsuccessful. Unless the parasite is removed affected cattle almost invariably die. [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Hydatids (_Echinococcus granulosus_) in portion of hog's liver.] [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Thin-necked bladder worm (Tænia hydatigena) from abdominal cavity of a steer.] TAPEWORM CYSTS IN THE MUSCLES, BEEF MEASLES.[19] Small tapeworm cysts (_Tænia saginatæ_), about the size of a pea, found in the muscles of cattle are the larvæ of the common tapeworm of man. Cattle become infected from feed or water which has been contaminated by the feces of persons harboring the adult tapeworms, and human beings in turn become infected by eating raw or rare beef infested with the larval stage (measly beef). To prevent cattle from becoming infested with this parasite care should be taken that human feces are not placed where they will contaminate the feed or drinking water. This parasite is very common in cattle in the United States, at least 1 per cent being infested. As a result considerable loss is entailed through condemnations of beef carcasses by meat inspectors, because of the presence of tapeworm cysts. All this loss could be avoided and the danger of tapeworm infestation in human beings from this source could be removed by the observance of proper precautions in disposing of human excreta. At the same time much sickness and many deaths from diseases (hookworm, typhoid fever, etc.) caused by soil pollution would be prevented, and farm life would be rendered much safer than under the poor sanitary conditions which are responsible for the high percentage of tapeworm cysts among cattle in the United States. THREAD WORMS IN THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY. Thread worms (_Setaria labiato-papillosa_) 2 to 4 inches long are frequently found in the abdominal cavity. They seem to cause little or no trouble. The embryos produced by these worms enter the blood vessels. According to Noé, they are spread from one animal to another by stable flies (see p. 503), but this has not been definitely proved. The roundworms found occasionally in the anterior chamber of the eye (see p. 531) are perhaps immature forms of this species which have reached this location during their migration. LUNG WORMS. Lung worms (_Dictyocaulus viviparus_, fig. 24) in cattle are thread-like worms 2 to 4 inches long, found in the bronchial tubes and producing a condition known as verminous bronchitis. The life history of the parasite is not fully known, but infection is evidently derived through the medium of pastures where infested cattle have grazed. In the later stages of the disease the cattle cough, especially at night. Young cattle are more seriously affected than old animals. _Treatment for lung worms._--Various treatments have been advocated for lung worms, including fumigating with different substances and injections of remedies into the trachea by means of a large hypodermic syringe or by a special spraying apparatus, but none have been very successful from a practical standpoint. About all that can be done is to feed affected animals well and protect them from exposure, removing them from the pasture and keeping them in dry yards or stables maintained in a cleanly, sanitary condition. The methods of prevention in general are similar to those described under the discussion of the twisted stomach worm (p. 521). [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Lung worm (_Dictyocaulus viviparus_) of cattle. Outlines showing natural size of male (above) and female.] PARASITES OF THE BLOOD. Certain flukes (_Schistosoma bovis_ and related species) which live in the blood vessels (the large veins) of cattle in tropical and sub-tropical countries cause bloody urine and diarrhea, the feces being mixed with blood. These parasites have not yet been discovered in the United States, although the natural conditions are such in some parts of the country that they are liable to become established if introduced. The embryos of _Setaria labiato-papillosa_ (p. 529) which occur in the blood may be found by microscopical examination. They apparently cause no trouble. The organism which causes Texas fever is a protozoan parasite (_Piroplasma bigeminum_) of microscopic size, which lives in the blood and attacks the red blood corpuscles. For a discussion of this parasite and the disease which it produces see page 476 of this volume. Other parasites which live in the blood cause serious diseases known as surra and nagana (p. 500), but as yet neither of these diseases has gained a foothold in the United States. PARASITES OF THE EYE. Small roundworms, one-third to four-fifths of an inch in length, may occur in the ducts of the lacrimal glands. Several species all belonging to the same genus (_Thelazia_) are known. They sometimes escape from their usual location and may be found on the surface of the eyeball beneath the lids, or even in the eyeball. It has been supposed by some writers that the worms seen in the interior of the eyeball ("snakes in the eye") are immature stages of _Setaria labiato-papilosa_ (see p. 529) which have gone astray from the normal course of their migration, but the correctness of this supposition is uncertain. Worms in the eyes and lacrimal ducts may cause inflammation, in which case the eyes may be syringed with an antiseptic, such as a weak solution of coal-tar stock dip, and iodoform ointment applied if the condition is severe. When worms are present in the eyeball itself, their removal depends upon surgical treatment, usually not advisable, as the worms in that location either cause but little trouble or disappear without treatment. FOOTNOTES: [11] Further information may be found in a very full report on "Insects Affecting Domestic Animals," issued as Bulletin 5, new series, of the Bureau of Entomology of this department. [12] Further information on fly repellents may be found in Bulletin 131 of the Department of Agriculture. [13] For further information consult Farmers' Bulletin 1097. [14] For further information consult Circular 115 of the Bureau of Entomology. [15] For further information consult Farmers' Bulletin 857. [16] For further information see Farmers' Bulletin 909. [17] For a fuller discussion see Farmers' Bulletin 1017, issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. [18] For a more complete discussion consult Farmers' Bulletin 1057, Bulletins 130 and 152 of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and Bulletins 15 (technical series), 72, and 106 of the Bureau of Entomology, all issued by the United States Department of Agriculture. [19] For further information consult Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 214. MYCOTIC STOMATITIS OF CATTLE. By JOHN R. MOHLER, V. M. D., _Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry._ INTRODUCTION. Numerous letters have been received by this bureau in recent years relative to the existence of a disease affecting the mouths and feet of cattle in certain Eastern and Central Western States. Later reports indicate that the malady has made its appearance in the Southwest, where it has caused much alarm among the stockmen owing to its similarity to the foot-and-mouth disease of Europe. The disease, which is to be discussed under the name of mycotic stomatitis, has been carefully investigated by this department on various occasions, and it is with the view of giving the results of these clinical investigations as well as to assert its noninfectiousness and to differentiate it from the virulent foot-and-mouth disease, which it so closely simulates, that this article is prepared. NAME AND SYNONYMS. The name stomatitis signifies that there is present in the affected animals an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth. This inflammation, which quickly develops into ulcers, is one of the principal and most frequently observed lesions. Mycotic stomatitis refers to that form of stomatitis which results from eating food containing irritant fungi. Thus the name not only suggests the cause of the disease, but also indicates the location of the earliest and most prominent symptoms. Other names which have been applied to this disease by different writers are sporadic aphthæ; aphthous stomatitis; sore mouth of cattle; sore tongue; benign, simple, or noninfectious foot-and-mouth disease; mycotic aphthous stomatitis; and sporadic stomatitis aphthosa. CHARACTER OF THE DISEASE. Mycotic stomatitis is a sporadic, or noninfectious, disease which affects cattle of all ages that are on pasture, but more especially milch cows. It is characterized by inflammation and ulceration of the mucous membrane of the mouth, producing salivation and inappetence, and secondarily affecting the feet, which become sore and swollen. Superficial erosions of the skin, particularly of the muzzle and of the teats and udders of cows, may also be present, with some elevation of temperature and emaciation. CAUSE. This disease, as its name indicates, results from the eating of forage containing fungi or molds. It is probable that more than one fungus is involved in the production of this disease, but no particular species has been definitely proved to be the causative factor. Several attempts have been made by the writer to determine the exact cause and also to transmit the disease to other animals by direct inoculation, but with negative results. Suspicion, however, has been directed by various observers to the Uromyces and the red and black rusts that occur on clovers. These fungi cause very severe irritation of the lining membrane of the mouth, producing sometimes a catarrhal, at other times an aphthous, and occasionally an ulcerous stomatitis. The fungus of rape, etc. (_Polydesmus excitiosus_), is very irritating to the mouths and feet of cattle, causing severe inflammation and in some instances producing symptoms that have been mistaken for foot-and-mouth disease. The fungi (Penicillium and Puccinia) found on grasses have also been credited with the production of stomatitis. The fact that this disease disappears from a locality at a certain time and reappears at irregular intervals would suggest the probability that certain climatic conditions were essential for the propagation of the causative fungi, since it is well known that the malady becomes prevalent after a hot, dry period has been followed by rain, thus furnishing the requirements necessary for the luxuriant development of molds and fungi. Owing to this fact the disease is observed in one locality during one season and in an entirely different section another year, but reappears in the former center when favorable conditions prevail. In this way the affection has occurred at irregular intervals in certain sections of both the United States and Canada. SYMPTOMS AND LESIONS. Among the first symptoms observed in mycotic stomatitis are inability to eat, suspension of rumination, frequent movements of the lips with the formation of froth on their margins, and in some cases a dribbling of saliva from the mouth. There is a desire to eat, and frequent attempts to take food are made, but prehension is very difficult. If, however, feed is placed on the back of the tongue, it is readily masticated and swallowed. If the mouth is examined at this time, it will be found red and hot, and exceptionally small blisters will be seen, which, however, quickly become eroded and develop into active ulcers varying in size from one-eighth to 1 inch in diameter. Where several ulcers have coalesced a large and irregularly indented patch is formed. These erosions are most frequently found on the gums around the incisor teeth, on the dental pad, inside the lips, and on the tip of the tongue, but they also occur on the cheeks, interdental space, and dorsum of the tongue. The ulcers have a hemorrhagic border, a depressed suppurating surface, and contain a brownish or yellowish colored débris, which is soon replaced by granulation tissue. As a result of this sloughing of the tissues and the retention of food in the mouth, a very offensive odor is exhaled. The muzzle becomes dry and parched in appearance, which condition is shortly followed by erosions and exfoliations of the superficial layer of the skin. Adherent brownish crusts and scabs form over the parts, and similar lesions are seen around the nostrils and external surface of the lips. In some cases there are associated with these alterations a slight swelling and painfulness in the region of the pasterns, at times affecting the forefeet, at other times the hind feet, and occasionally all four feet. In a few cases the swelling may extend above the fetlock, but it has never been observed above the knee or hock. The skin around the coronet may occasionally become fissured and the thin skin in the cleft of the foot eroded and suppurated, but without the formation of vesicles. As a result of these feet lesions, the affected animal may assume a position with its back arched and the limbs propped under the body as in a case of founder, and will manifest much pain and lameness in walking. If it lies down, the animal shows reluctance in getting up, and although manifesting no inclination to move about, when forced to do so there is more or less stiffness and a tendency to kick or shake the foot as if to dislodge a foreign body from between the claws. In some outbreaks the milch cows have slight superficial erosions on the teats which at times extend to the udder. The cracks in the skin are filled with serum and form brownish-colored scabs. The teats become tender and the milk secretion diminishes; in some cases it disappears. A similar tendency toward the formation of fissures and scabs on the skin of the neck and shoulders has manifested itself in a recent outbreak in Texas, and this feature was likewise noticeable in the disease when it occurred in Maryland and Virginia in 1889. In mild cases only the mouth lesions may be observed, or these alterations may be associated with one or more of the other above-described symptoms, but in severe cases, where there is a generalized mycotic intoxication, one animal may show all these alterations. When the disease is well developed the general appearance of the animal is one of great lassitude, and it either stands off by itself with hind feet drawn under the body and its forefeet extended, or it assumes a recumbent position. Owing to the inability to eat and to the general systemic disturbance present, the animal loses flesh very rapidly and becomes greatly emaciated in the latter stages of the disease. The temperature and pulse are somewhat increased, the former 2 or 3 degrees, the latter to from 75 to 90 beats per minute. The fever is not lasting, and these symptoms are soon modified. The animal has an anxious look, and in a few cases there is a gastrointestinal irritation, the feces being thin, of a dark color, and of an offensive odor. PROGNOSIS AND MORTALITY. Mycotic stomatitis is not a serious disease, and in uncomplicated cases recoveries soon follow the removal of the cause and the application of the indicated remedies. In such cases complete restoration may take place within one week. In mild outbreaks a large percentage of the animals will recover without treatment, but that the disease is fatal is shown by the fact that animals which develop an aggravated form of the affection succumb if not treated. In such animals death occurs in 6 or 8 days, but the mortality in the serious outbreaks thus far investigated has been less than 0.5 per cent. The course of this disease is irregular and runs from 7 to 15 days, the average case covering a period of about 10 days. DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS. FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. In examining a case of mycotic stomatitis it is important not to mistake it for foot-and-mouth disease, which has appeared in this country on six occasions only. This may be easily accomplished by taking into consideration the fact that in the contagious foot-and-mouth disease there is a rapid infection of the entire herd, as well as of any hogs and sheep that may be on the premises. It is also readily transmitted to neighboring herds by the spread of the infection from diseased animals, but it never occurs spontaneously. The characteristic lesion of foot-and-mouth disease is the appearance of vesicles containing serous fluid in the mouth and upon the udder, teats, heels, and coronary bands of the affected animals. Drooling is profuse, and there is a peculiar smacking sound made by sucking the affected lips. Mycotic stomatitis occurs sporadically on widely separated farms, affecting only a few animals in each herd, and the lesions produced consist of erosions without the typical vesicular formations of foot-and-mouth disease. The failure of the vesicles, if any appear, to spread extensively in the mouth, the absence of these blisters on other portions of the body-- notably the teats and udder, and characteristically the feet--together with the absence of infection in the herd, and the inability to transmit the disease to calves by inoculation, distinguish between this affection and foot-and-mouth disease. The erosions of the mouth are not so extensive and they heal more rapidly in mycotic stomatitis. The swelling of the feet and stiffness of the animal are also more marked in mycotic stomatitis. ERGOTISM. The lesions resulting from ergotism may be differentiated from those of mycotic stomatitis by the lack of ulcerative eruptions in the mouth and by the location of the lesions at the tips of the ears, end of the tail, or upon the lower part of the legs, usually below the knees or hocks. The lesions of ergotism do not take the form of ulcers or festers, but the end of the limb affected is diseased "in toto" and the eruption extends entirely around the limbs, followed soon afterwards by a distinct line of demarcation between the healthy skin above and the diseased below. The absence of suppurating sores between the claws and on the mucous membrane of the mouth, the knowledge that the lesion upon the limb in question extends uninterruptedly around it, and the presence of ergotized seeds in the hay or grain fed the animals should point conclusively to a diagnosis of ergotism. FOUL FOOT. In foul foot, or ground itch, of cattle, the inflammation of the skin and toes usually affects but one foot. It begins as a superficial inflammation followed by sloughing, ulceration, and the formation of fistulous tracts which may involve the tendons, bones, and joints. The mouth remains unaffected, and the presence of the disease may be traced to filth and poor drainage. NECROTIC STOMATITIS. In necrotic stomatitis (calf diphtheria) there is a formation of yellowish cheesy patches in the mouth without any lesions of the feet or udder. It affects sucking calves chiefly, and is caused by the _Bacillus necrophorus._ TREATMENT. The treatment of mycotic stomatitis should consist in first removing the herd of cattle from the pasture in which they have been running. The affected animals should, if it is possible, be brought to the barn or corral and fed on soft, nutritious food, such as bran mashes, ground feed, and gruels. A bucket of clear, cool water should be kept constantly in the manger, so that the animal may drink or rinse the mouth at its pleasure; and it will be found beneficial to dissolve 2 heaping tablespoonfuls of borax or 1 tablespoonful of potassium chlorate in each of the first two buckets of water taken during the day. If the animals are gentle enough to be handled, the mouth should be swabbed out daily with antiseptic washes, such as a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid or a 1 per cent solution of compound solution of cresol or of permanganate of potassium, or 1 part of hydrogen peroxid to 2 parts of water. This should be followed by astringents, such as one-half tablespoonful of alum, borax, or chlorate of potassium placed on the tongue. Probably a more satisfactory method of administering the antiseptic treatment to a large number of animals would be to mix thoroughly 2 teaspoonfuls of pure carbolic acid every morning in a quart of bran mash and give to each affected animal for a period of five days. Range cattle may be more readily treated by the use of medicated salt placed in troughs accessible to the animals. This salt may be prepared by pouring 4 ounces of crude carbolic acid upon 12 quarts of ordinary barrel salt, after which they are thoroughly mixed. The lesions of the feet should be treated with a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid, while the fissures and other lesions of the skin will be benefited by the application of carbolized vaseline or zinc ointment. If the animals are treated in this manner and carefully fed, the disease will rapidly disappear. INDEX. Abdomen-- dropsy affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 47 inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 224 of calf, dropsy, description, and treatment, 180 wounds, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 43 Abdominal cavity, kinds of parasites affecting, 529 Abortion-- contagious-- description and causes, 165 treatment and prevention, 170 noncontagious-- causes, 165 treatment, 170 Abscess-- bacteria causing, 237 ear treatment, 355 lung, description, 99 navel, cause and treatment, 249 orbital and periorbital, symptoms and treatment, 352 Abscesses-- danger in castration of cattle, 300 treatment, 295 Absorbents, description, 75 _Achorion schonleinii_, fungus causing _Tinea favosa_, 332 Acids-- mineral, poisoning, description and treatment, 54 poisoning, description and treatment, 54 vegetable, poisonous, description and treatment, 61 Aconite poisoning, description and treatment, 63 Actinomycosis-- description and symptoms, 440-449 jawbone, description and treatment, 442 lungs, 442 prevention and treatment, 445-446 relation to public health, 447 Adenoma, description, 310 Administration of medicines, chapter by Leonard Pearson, 7-11 Afterbirth, retention, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 220 Air tubes, lung, parasites affecting, description and treatment, 530 Air under the skin, description, symptoms, and treatment, 334 Albumin, urine, description and treatment, 121 Albuminuria, description and treatment, 121 Alkalies, poisoning, description and treatment, 59 Amaurosis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 348 Anaphrodisia, cause, prevention, and treatment, 149 Anasarca of the skin, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 330 Anesthesia, uses in operations, 289 Aneurism, description, 85 Angioma tumor, description, 310 Animal Industry Bureau, experiments against hemorrhagic septicemia, 401 Animal parasites of cattle, chapter by B. H. Ranson, 502-531 Animal products, poisonous, description and treatment, 71 Anthrax-- cause, symptoms, treatment, etc., 449-458 human, description, 458 serum, relation to blackleg, 458 symptomatic, description, cause, treatment, etc., 449-458 treatment by use of serum, 455 Aphtha, calf, description and treatment, 263 Aphtha parasite (_Saccharomyces albicans_), cause, 263 Aphthous fever. _See_ Foot-and-mouth disease. Aphthous stomatitis, reference, 532 Apoplexy-- cerebral, description and treatment, 106 parturient, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226 Appetite-- depraved, description, causes and treatment, 28 Loss, symptom of foot-and-mouth disease, 383 Aqueous humor of eye, description, 341 Argentina, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Arsenic poisoning, description, symptoms, and treatment, 54 Arsenical dips-- for destroying cattle ticks, 488 use against screw worms, 507 Arsenical vapor, danger of inhalation in making cattle dip, 489 Arteries-- and veins, wounds, description and treatment, 83 obstruction, description and treatment, 85 _Ascaris vitulorum_, intestinal roundworm, description and treatment, 524 Ascites-- causes, symptoms, and treatment, 47 description and treatment, 180 Asepsis in surgical operations, 289 Aseptic periostitis, description and treatment, 266 Asphyxia electrica, symptoms and treatment, 111 Atkinson, V. T.-- chapter on "Bones: Diseases and accidents", 264-288 chapter on "Poison and poisoning", 51-70 Atrophy, description, 81 Auscultation, definition, 91 Austria-Hungary, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 _Bacillus_-- _cyanogenes_, causing blue milk, 242 _tuberculosis_, (_Mycobacterium tuberculosis_, new terminology) causing tuberculosis, 407 Back, sprain, causes and treatment, 270 Bacteria-- causing abscess, 237 definition, 360 _Bacterium bovisepticum_, causing hemorrhagic septicemia, 397 Balkan countries, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Ball-- eye, description, 340 hair, in stomach, description, 29 Balls, use in administering medicines, 8 Bee stings, description and treatment, 71 Beef measles, discussion and management, 529 Belgium, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Benign tumors, description, 306 Big jaw. _See_ Actinomycosis. Black quarter. _See_ Blackleg. Blackleg-- description, cause and treatment, 459, 464 serum, relation to anthrax, 458 vaccine, note on distribution by Animal Industry Bureau, 463 Bladder-- eversion, description, and treatment, 218 or rectum, full, as obstruction to parturition, 178 palsy of neck, cause and treatment, 130 paralysis, causes and treatment, 128 rupture, symptoms, 218 spasms, description and treatment, 128 stone, symptoms and treatment, 142 Bladder worms-- affecting brain, description and treatment, 528 thin-necked, description and treatment, 528 Bleeding-- description and treatment, 83 lungs, description and treatment, 99 navel, cause and treatment, 248 nose, cause and treatment, 93 womb, description, symptoms, and treatment, 214 Blisters, water, symptoms and treatment, 328 Bloating, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 22 Blood-- clots on walls of vagina, description and treatment, 220 coagulated, under vaginal walls after calving, treatment, 179 description and influence of food on, 75 flukes (_Schistosoma bovis_), note, 526 parasites affecting, different kinds, 526 protozoa affecting, 510-536 vessels-- functions, 73 heart, lymphatics, diseases, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh, 73-86 Bloodsuckers affecting cattle, description and treatment, 519 Bloody milk, cause and treatment, 241 Bloody urine-- caused by blood flukes, 526 description, symptoms, and treatment, 119 Blue disease, cause, 253 Blue lice (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_ and _H. vitali_), description, 512 Blue milk, cause and treatment, 242 Boils, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 328 Bones-- broken, description of kinds and treatment, 271-282 diseases and accidents, chapter by V. T. Atkinson, 264-288 dislocations, description and treatment, 282 face, fracture, description, and treatment, 277 luxations, description and treatment, 282 manner of nourishment, 264 number and description, 264 shape, classes, 265 Bony tumor, description and treatment, 314 _Boophilus annulatus_, Texas fever tick. _See Margaropus annulatus._ Bots affecting cattle, description and treatment, 507 Bovine tuberculosis and the public health, 429 Bowel hernia, description and treatment, 39 Bowels-- diseases affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 34-43 obstruction resulting from invagination, symptoms and treatment, 35 twisting and knotting, symptoms, post-mortem appearance, and treatment, 35 Brain-- and its membranes, inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 103 bladder worms affecting, treatment, 527 _C[oe]nurus cerebralis_ _(Multiceps multiceps)_ affecting, treatment, 527 concussion, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 107 congestion, description and treatment, 106 description, 101 tumors, description, 112 Brazil, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Breach-- navel, symptoms and treatment, 252 uterus, cause and treatment, 162 Breathing, suspended in young calves, discussion, 247 Bronchial tubes, parasites affecting, 530 Bronchitis-- description, symptoms, and treatment, 94 verminous-- description, symptoms, treatment, and prevention, 100 parasite (_Strongylus micrurus_), cause, 100 Brush, report of foot-and-mouth disease in man, 394 Buffalo gnats, description and remedy, 505 Bull, ringing, method, 291 Bulls, susceptibility to sarcoptic mange, 517 Burns and scalds, causes and treatment, 333 Calculi-- classification, 137 forms in different situations, 138 in prepuce or sheath, treatment, 144 renal, description and treatment, 139 urethral, description and treatment, 139 urinary-- classification, 137 description and causes, 130 effect of different feeds, 131 Calculus-- blocking teats, treatment, 243 prevention, 141 vesical or urethral, symptoms and treatment, 142 Calf-- attention necessary at birth, 247 diphtheria, description, symptoms, and treatment, 464-469 dropsy-- general, cause and treatment, 180 of abdomen, description and treatment, 180 monstrosities, descriptions, causes, and treatment, 182-184 muscles, rigid contraction, cause and treatment, 181 slinking, description, 165 swelling, caused by gas, treatment, 181 tumors affecting, description and treatment, 181 Calves-- congenital imperfections, kinds, 263 indigestion affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 34 newborn, acute scouring, description, prevention and treatment, 261 pyemic and septicemic inflammation, symptoms and treatment, 251 young-- aphtha, or thrush, affecting, description and treatment, 233 constipation affecting, cause and treatment, 253 diseases affecting, chapter by James Law, 247-263 rickets affecting, description and treatment, 263 ulcers in mouth, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 464 Calving-- dropping and palsy following, description and treatment, 233 retarded by nervousness, 179 symptoms, 173 Canada, source of foot-and-mouth infection, 386 Cancer, description and treatment, 315 Capsule, eye, description, 342 Capsules, use in administering medicines, 8 Carbolic-acid poisoning, description and treatment, 60 Carbon dioxid, formation in preparing cattle dip, 489 Carbuncle, description, 458 Carcinoma, description and treatment, 315 Caries, teeth, description, 16 Carpus, fracture, description and treatment, 281 Cartilage, ear, necrosis affecting, 357 Caruncula lacrimalis of eye, description, 344 Casein concretions blocking teats, cause and treatment, 343 Casting the withers, cause and treatment, 215 Castration-- dangers and care, 299-301 of female, description of operation, 300 of male, description of operation, 299 Cataract, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 348 Catarrh-- description, symptoms, and treatment, 92, 93 gastrointestinal, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 32, 33 malignant, description, symptoms, and treatment, 469-472 nasal, description, symptoms, and treatment, 92 Catarrhal fever, infectious, description, symptoms, and treatment, 469-472 Cats, ear ticks on, note, 518 Cattle-- animal parasites affecting, chapter by B. H. Ransom, 502-531 dip, preparation and use, 488-494 dose of vaccine against anthrax, 459 drenching, care of lungs, 522 farcy, description and treatment, 501 infected with anthrax, description, 458 infection with sarcoptic mange, 517 infectious diseases, chapter by John R. Mohler, 358-501 infestation with tapeworm, 523 injury by use of petroleum against ticks, 494 loss of blood by inoculations, limits of safety, 500 northern, immunization against Texas fever, manner, 498 parasitic diseases, prevention, 510 plague. _See_ Rinderpest. protection from flies, formulas for mixtures, 502-503 rabies affecting, description, symptoms, etc, 402-406 southern, injury by ticks, 482 tick, _Margaropus annulatus_, as carrier of Texas fever, 480 ticks-- injurious effects of and losses caused by, 481-485 methods of ridding cattle of, 485-494 tumors affecting, chapter by John R. Mohler, 303-319 Cerebral apoplexy, description and treatment, 106 Cerebrospinal division, description, 101 Chapped teats, cause and treatment, 243 Charbon. _See_ Anthrax. Chest, dropsy affecting, description and treatment, 99 Children, infection with foot-and-mouth disease, 394 China, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Choking, symptoms and treatment, 20 Chorioptic mange, location and treatment, 517 Choroid coat of the eye, description, 342 Chrondroma tumor, description and treatment, 314 Chronic tympanites, cause and treatment, 25 Coal-oil poisoning, description and treatment, 59 _C[oe]nurus cerebralis_ (_Multiceps multiceps_) affecting brain, treatment, 527 Coital exanthema, description, symptoms, and treatment, 401 Cold in the head, description, symptoms, and treatment, 92 Colic, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 31 Concussion of the brain, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 107 Congenital imperfections in calves, kinds, 263 Congestion-- and inflammation of testicles, description and treatment, 152 brain, description and treatment, 106 liver, description, symptoms, and treatment, 45 spinal cord, description, symptoms, and treatment, 110 bladder, description and treatment, 233 Conjunctivitis-- causes, symptoms, and treatment, 344 infectious catarrhal, symptoms, treatment and prevention, 345 Connecticut, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Constipation-- cause and treatment, 36 young calves, cause and treatment, 253 Contagious-- abortion-- causes, 165-172 prevention and treatment, 170 diseases, disinfection of premises, 363 inflammation of the udder, description, prevention, and treatment, 237 mammitis, description, prevention, and treatment, 237 pleuropneumonia-- cause, incubation, and symptoms, 369 definition and history, 366 post-mortem appearance, 373 prevention and treatment, 377 scouring, acute, in newborn calves, description, prevention, and treatment, 261 Contused or lacerated wounds, description and treatment, 298 Contusion of lips, wounds, and snake bites of mouth, symptoms and treatment, 14 Copper poisoning, description and treatment, 56 Cornea-- eye, description, 341 ulcers, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 347 Corneal dermatoma, description and treatment, 349 Corneitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 345 Cough, examination, 89 Cow, pregnant, hygiene, 160 Cowpox, description, symptoms, and treatment, 240, 438 Cows, milk, protection from flies, 503 Cramps of hind limbs during pregnancy, cause, 162 Cranium, fracture, description and treatment, 278 Creeps, description, symptoms, and treatment, 267 Cresol-- compound solution, composition and use, 366 use in foot-and-mouth disease, 393 Croupous enteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment, 35 Crude petroleum-- danger to cattle in use against ticks, 494 dip for destroying cattle ticks, 491 Cud, loss, description, 27 Cuts, barbed-wire, description and treatment, 297 Cyanosis, cause, 81, 253 Cysts-- dental, description and treatment, 318 dermoid-- and sebaceous, description and treatment, 330 description and treatment, 318 description, 308 extravasation, description, 317 mucous, description and treatment, 319 parasitic, description, 317 proliferation, description and treatment, 319 serous, description and treatment, 318 Dairy business, injury by foot-and-mouth disease, 384 Dandruff, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 329 Deformities, hoof, causes and treatment, 338 Dehorning, description, 292 Delaware, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Demodectic mange, description and treatment, 517 Denmark, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Dental cysts, description and treatment, 318 Dermis, description, 320 Dermoid cysts, description and treatment, 318, 330 Diabetes-- insipidus, cause and treatment, 118 mellitus, description, 123 Diarrhea-- and dysentery, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 34 calf, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 32 causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment, 254-261 _See also_ Gastrointestinal catarrh. Dickson, William, and William H. Lowe, chapter on "Surgical operations", 289-302 Digestive organs, diseases affecting, chapter by A. J. Murray, 14-50 Dilatation and hypertrophy of heart, description, 82 Diphtheria, calf, description, cause, treatment, etc, 464-469 Dipping-- bath, cattle, temperature, 490 remedy for screw worms, 506 Dips-- arsenical, protection of hands in use, 493 cattle, for ticks, 494-498 mange and scab, 513, 514 Disinfection, house, methods, 363 Dislocation, eyeball, treatment, 353 Dislocations, bones, description and treatment, 282 Diuresis, causes and treatment, 118 Dogs, ear tick, 518 Drainage, usefulness in prevention of fluke diseases, 527 Drenching tube, use in eradicating worms, 522 Dropping, following calving, description and treatment, 233 Dropsy-- abdomen, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 47 abdomen of calf, description and treatment, 180 chest, description and treatment, 99 general, of calf, cause and treatment, 180 hind limbs and between thighs, during pregnancy, cause, 162 membranes of fetus, description and treatment 162 navel, description and treatment, 253 womb, description and treatment, 162 Dysentery-- and diarrhea, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 34 chronic bacterial, description, treatment, etc, 498 red, note, 531 _See also_ Gastrointestinal catarrh. Dyspepsia, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 29 Ear tick, spinose, presence in cattle, horses, dogs, etc, 518 Ears-- abscess affecting, treatment, 355 cartilage, necrosis affecting, 357 diseases affecting, chapter by M. R. Trumbower, 355-357 enchondroma, description and treatment, 357 foreign bodies lodging in, symptoms and treatment, 356 frostbite, symptoms and treatment, 357 fungoid growths, cause and treatment, 356 internal inflammation, symptoms and treatment, 355 lacerations, cause and treatment, 357 scurvy, cause and treatment, 356 ticks affecting, treatment, 518 _Echinococcus granulosus_, hydatid, description, 528 Ectropion of the eyelid, description and treatment, 350 Eczema-- description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 325 epizootic, reference, 383 Edema-- causes, symptoms, and treatment, 330 malignant, description, symptoms, and treatment, 472-474 Elephantiasis, description, 330 Emaciation, symptom of foot-and-mouth disease, 383 Emphysema, description and treatment, 98, 334 Enchondroma, ear, description and treatment, 357 Encysted stomach worm, description and treatment, 523 Endocarditis, description and treatment, 81 Enemata, uses and methods, 9 Enteritis-- causes, symptoms, post-mortem appearance, and treatment, 35 croupous, description, symptoms, and treatment, 35 simple. _See_ Gastroenteritis. Entropion, eyelid, description and treatment, 350 Epidermis, description, 320 Epilepsy, description, cause, and treatment, 107 Epistaxis, cause and treatment, 93 Epizootic aphtha, reference, 383 Ergotism-- and mycotic stomatitis, differentiation, 536 description and treatment, 69 Eruption, vesicular, of genital organs, description, symptoms, and treatment, 401 Erythema, description, causes, and treatment, 323 Eversion-- bladder, description and treatment, 218 eyelid, description and treatment, 350 womb, cause and treatment, 215 Extra-uterine gestation, description and treatment, 163 Extravasation cysts, description, 317 Eye-- and its appendages, diseases affecting, chapter by M. R. Trumbower, 340-354 aqueous humor, description, 341 capsule, description, 342 caruncula, lacrimalis affecting, 344 choroid coat, description, 342 cornea-- description, 341 ulcers affecting, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 347 description, 340 foreign bodies penetrating, treatment, 351 lens, description, 342 muscles, description, 343 parasites affecting, treatment, 349, 531 puncta lacrimalia, description, 344 retina, description, 342 roundworms affecting, treatment, 524 sclerotic membrane, description, 341 vitreous humor, description, 342 Eyeball-- description, 340 dislocation, cause and treatment, 353 hairy tumor affecting, description and treatment, 349 Eyelashes, inversion, treatment, 350 Eyelids-- description, 343 ectropion affecting, description and treatment, 350 entropion, description and treatment, 350 eversion, description and treatment, 350 inversion, description and treatment, 350 laceration, cause and treatment, 351 tumors affecting, description and treatment, 350 Face bones, fracture, description and treatment, 277 Farcy, cattle, description and treatment, 501 _Fasciola hepatica_, description, 526 _Fasciola magna_, description, 526 Fatty degeneration, heart, description, 82 Feed, character, analyses, effect on milk, 256-258 Feeding-- character, effect on digestive organs, 12 value as remedy for stomach worms, 521-523 "Feeding-lot" method of freeing cattle and pastures from ticks, 494-497 Fetlock-- fracture below, treatment, 282 sprain, causes and treatment, 269 Fetus-- developing outside womb, description and treatment, 163 membranes, dropsy affecting, description and treatment, 162 prolonged retention, description and treatment, 164 Fever-- milk, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226-237 parturition, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226 southern, splenetic, or Texas. _See_ Texas fever. Fibroma-- interdigital, description and treatment, 338 tumor, description and treatment, 311 Fibrous periostitis, description and treatment, 266 _Filaria cervina_, worm found in the eye, 349 _Filaria lablato-papillosa_, parasitic roundworm of cattle, 524 _Filaria oculi_, description and treatment, 349 Fissure of the wall of hoof, description and treatment, 338 Fistula, milk, description and treatment, 245 Flies-- injurious to cattle, 502-506 larval, note, 502 Flooding from womb, description and treatment, 214 Fluke disease, control by use of lime, 526 Flukes, prevention by drainage, 526 Fly-- Spanish, poison, description and treatment, 70 stable, breeding places, 503 Fly preventives, injury to cattle by poisoning, 503 Flytrap, use against stable flies, 503 Fluke, disease of cattle, 526 Flukes, liver and lungs, description, 526 Foods, character, effect on digestive organs, 12 Foot-- diseases affecting, chapter by M. R. Trumbower, 335-339 foul, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 336 soreness, description and treatment, 335 Foot rot, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 336 Foot-and-mouth disease-- benign, simple, or noninfectious, 535 danger to man, 394-395 description, cause, symptoms, etc., 383-395 diagnosis, 391-392 eradication by slaughter, efficacy, 394 incubation period, 384 losses other than by death of animal, 384 mortality, 384, 391 occurrence in various countries of world, 385-386 prevention and eradication, 392-394 similarity to mycotic stomatitis, 536 symptoms, 383, 389-391 symptoms in man, 394 United States, outbreaks, 386-389 Forage, insects on, description of poisonous effect, 70 Formaldehyde gas, liberation by use of permanganate, 365 Foul in foot, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 336 Founder, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 335 Fractures-- below hock and fetlock, description and treatment, 282 compound, comminuted, and complicated, 271 description of different kinds, and treatment, 271-282 face bones, description and treatment, 277 general symptoms and treatment, 272, 273 hip point, causes and treatment, 280 horns, description and treatment, 277 limbs, description and appliances for treatment, 281-2 lower jaw, cause and treatment, 278 metacarpus and metatarsus, description and treatment, 282 pelvis, description and treatment, 178, 279 ribs, cause and treatment, 281 special, descriptions and treatment, 277 spinal column, description and treatment, 279 vertebra, description and treatment, 279 France, foot-and-mouth disease, 385 Froesch, note on destruction of foot-and-mouth infection, 395 Frostbites-- ears, symptoms and treatment, 357 treatment, 334 Fungi, poisonous, description of poisoning, 70 Fungoid growth of the ear, cause and treatment, 356 Fungus hematodes-- cause and treatment, 353 description, 316 Furunculus, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 328 Ganglionic division of the nervous system, 103 Gangrene, danger in castration of cattle, 300 Gangrenous septicemia, symptoms and treatment, 472 Garget, description and treatment, 233 Gas-- cause of swelling in calf, treatment, 181 under the skin, symptoms and treatment, 334 Gastroenteritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 33 Gastrointestinal catarrh, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 29, 32 Generative organs-- diseases, chapter by James Law, 147-214 discussion, 147 Genital organs, vesicular eruption affecting, description, symptoms, and treatment, 401 Germany, foot-and-mouth disease, 385-386 Gestation, extra-uterine, description and treatment, 163 Gid, parasite of sheep and cattle, 528 Glands, skin, location and use, 321 Gnats, buffalo, description and remedy, 505 Goiter, cause, description, symptoms, and treatment, 310 Gonorrhea, description and treatment, 156 Gravel-- description and cause, 130 effect of different feeds, 132 in prepuce or sheath, treatment, 144 Great Britain, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Grubs, cattle, description, 507 Gullet-- diseases affecting, description, symptoms, and treatment, 17-22 wounds and injuries, cause and treatment, 22 Gut tie, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 41 _Hæmatopinus eurysternus_ and _H. vituli_, description and treatment, 508 _Hæmonchus contortus_, description and treatment, 519 Hair balls, cause, 29 Hair, description, 320 Harbaugh, W. H.-- chapter on "Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics", 73-86 chapter on "Diseases of the nervous system", 101-112 Haw, inflammation and enlargement, description and treatment, 354 Health, public, relation of actinomycosis, 447 Heart-- blood vessels and lymphatics, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh, 73-86 description, 73 dilation and hypertrophy, description, 82 examination of, 77 fatty degeneration, description, 82 injury by foreign bodies, description, symptoms, and treatment, 78 misplacement, description, 83 palpitation, description, 78 rupture, description, 82 valves, diseases affecting, symptoms and treatment, 82 Heat prostration, symptoms and treatment, 108 Heaves, description and treatment, 98 Heel, ulcerations, causes and treatment, 337 Hemaglobinuria or hematuria, description, symptoms, and treatment, 119 Hematodes, fungus, description, 316 Hemoptysis, description and treatment, 99 Hemorrhage-- danger in castration of cattle, 300 treatment, 83 Hemorrhagic septicemia, causes, symptoms, etc, 397-401 Hepatitis, symptoms and treatment, 45 Hernia-- bowel, description and treatment, 38 danger in castration of cattle, 300 peritoneal, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 41 rennet, description and treatment, 38 rumen, description and cause, 37 stomach, description and treatment, 38 umbilical, description, causes, and treatment, 41, 252 uterus, cause and treatment, 162 ventral, description and causes, 37 Hides, injury by cattle ticks, 484 Hip point, fracture, causes and treatment, 280 Hip sprain, cause and treatment, 270 Hock-- fracture below, description and treatment, 282 fracture, treatment, 281 Hollow horn, imaginary disease, 27 Hoof-- deformities, causes and treatment, 338 loss, causes and treatment, 336 split, description and treatment, 338 wall, fissure affecting, description and treatment, 338 wounds and pricks, treatment, 338 Horns, fracture, description and treatment, 277 Horses-- dose of vaccine against anthrax, 457 ear tick, note, 518 Hoven, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 22 Hydatids-- and flukes affecting the lungs of animals, 526 description and treatment, 526 Hydrocephalus, description and treatment, 179 Hydrophobia. _See_ Rabies. Hydrothorax, description and treatment, 99 Hygiene, pregnant cow, 160 Hygromata, description and treatment, 317 Hyperplasia, reference, 303 Hypertrophy-- description, 128 heart, with dilation, description, 82 _Hypoderma bovis_, new warble fly, 507 _Hypoderma lineata_, warble fly, description, 507 Illinois, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Immunization, northern cattle against Texas fever, manner, 500 Impetigo, description, causes, and treatment, 327 Incised wounds, description and treatment, 295 Incontinence, urine, cause and treatment, 130 Incubation period of infectious diseases, 362 Indiana, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Indigestion-- calves, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 32, 253 causes, symptoms, and treatment, 26, 29, 31 Induration-- tongue. _See_ Actinomycosis. womb mouth, description and treatment, 176 Infectious aphtha. _See_ Foot-and-mouth disease. Infectious catarrhal conjunctivitis, symptoms, treatment, and prevention, 345 Infectious catarrhal fever, description, symptoms, and treatment, 469-472 Infectious diseases-- cattle, chapter by John R. Mohler, 358-511 classification of symptoms and lesions, 359 general discussion, 358 incubation periods, 362 treatment, discussion, 362 Infectious ophthalmia, or infectious catarrhal conjunctivitis, 345 Inflammation-- brain and its membranes, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 103 contagious, of the udder, description, prevention, and treatment, 237 ear, symptoms and treatment, 355 haw, description and treatment, 354 kidneys, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 123 liver, symptoms and treatment, 45 mucous membrane of mouth, symptoms and treatment, 17 navel veins, description, symptoms, and treatment, 249 parotid gland, symptoms and treatment, 18 pyemic and septicemic, of joints of calves, symptoms and treatment, 251 sheath and penis from bruising, prevention and treatment, 155 sheath, causes and treatment, 153 spleen, description, 45 testicles, description and treatment, 152 traumatic, of the stomach, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 34 udder, description, symptoms, and treatment, 234 urachus, causes and treatment, 248 urethra, description and treatment, 156 vagina, causes and treatment, 223 veins, description and treatment, 86 womb, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 224 Inflammatory diseases, skin, description, symptoms, and treatment, 320-334 Inhalation of medicines, manner, 10 Inoculation, use against hemorrhagic septicemia, 401 Intercostal muscles, rheumatism affecting, description and treatment, 100 Interdigital fibroma, description and treatment, 338 Intestinal parasites, description and treatment, 523 Intestines, roundworms affecting, kind and treatment, 532 Intussusception, causes, symptoms, post-mortem appearance, and treatment, 35 Invagination, cause of obstruction of bowels, symptoms, and treatment, 35 Inversion-- eyelashes, treatment, 350 eyelid, description and treatment, 350 Iodin, tincture, use in punctured wounds, 297 Iowa, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Iris, description, 341 Italy, foot-and-mouth disease, 385 Itch, scab, mites, and mange, description and treatment, 513 Itching, cause and treatment, 322 Japan, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Jaundice, description, symptoms and treatment, 44 Jaw-- big, lump, or lumpy, _See_ Actinomycosis. lower, fracture, cause and treatment, 278 poverty, caused by twisted wireworms, 520 Jawbones, actinomycosis affecting, description and treatment, 440-449 Jensen, formula for protection of cattle from flies, 503 Joint-ill, description, symptoms, and treatment, 251 Kansas, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Kelis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 331 Kentucky, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Keratitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 345 Kidney-- ox, description, 117 parasites affecting, discussion, 127 stone in, description and treatment, 139 Kidneys-- inflammation, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 123 tumors affecting, description, 128 Knee-- fracture below, description and treatment, 282 fracture, description and treatment, 281 tumors, description and treatment, 317 Knotting and twisting of bowels, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 35 Labor pains before relaxation of passages, 175 Lacerated wounds, description and treatment, 298 Laceration, eyelid, cause and treatment, 351 Lacerations-- and ruptures of the vagina, description and treatment, 219 ear, cause and treatment, 357 Lacrimal gland of the eye, description, 343 Lameness, symptom of foot-and-mouth disease, 383 Laminitis, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 335 Laryngitis, cause and treatment, 93 Laurel poisoning, description and treatment, 65 Law, James-- chapter on "Diseases following parturition", 214-246 chapter on "Diseases of the generative organs", 147-214 chapter on "Diseases of the urinary organs", 113-146 chapter on "Diseases of young calves", 247-263 observation of foot-and-mouth disease in man, 395 Lead poisoning, description, symptoms, and treatment, 55 Leeches in cattle, description and treatment, 519 Lens of the eye, description, 342 Leucorrhea, symptoms and treatment, 224 Lice-- blue (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_ and _H. vituli_), description and treatment, 512 red, description and treatment, 513 Lightning stroke, symptoms and treatment, 111 Limbs, fracture of bones, description, 281 Lime, use in fluke control, 534 Lipoma tumor, description and treatment, 314 Lips, contusions, wounds, and snake bites, symptoms and treatment, 14 Livestock, immunization against anthrax, 457-458 Liver-- congestion, description, symptoms, and treatment, 44 diseases affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 44-45 flukes, description and treatment, 526 inflammation affecting, symptoms and treatment, 45 Lockjaw-- danger in castration of cattle, 300 reference, 300 Loco weed poisoning, description and treatment, 67 Loeffler, note on description of foot-and-mouth infection, 395 Louse, red (_Trichodectes scalaris_), description and treatment, 513 Lowe, William H.-- and William Dickson, chapter on "Surgical operations", 289-302 chapter on "Noncontagious diseases of organs of respiration", 87-100 Lump, or lumpy jaw. _See_ Actinomycosis. Lung-- abscess, description, 99 tissue, parasites affecting, 526 Lungs-- actinomycosis affecting, 443 bleeding from, description and treatment, 99 bronchial tubes, parasites affecting, description and treatment, 530 parasites affecting, note, 526 worms of cattle, description and treatment, 530 Luxations of bones, description and treatment, 282 Lymphatics-- description, 75 heart, and blood vessels, diseases, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh, 73-86 Malignant-- catarrh, description, symptoms, and treatment, 469-472 edema, description, symptoms, and treatment, 472-474 pustule, description, 458 tumors, description, 306 Mammitis-- contagious, description, prevention, and treatment, 237 simple, description, symptoms, and treatment, 234 Man-- relation to beef measles in cattle, 529 symptoms of foot-and-mouth disease, 394 treatment with anthrax serum, 459 Mange-- common, description and treatment, 513 itch, scab, mites, description and treatment, 513 psoroptic, description and treatment, 513 sarcoptic, cause and treatment, 517 Manure, breeding place for flies, 511 _Margaropus annulatus_, Texas fever tick, 480 Maryland, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Massachusetts, foot-and-mouth disease, 387, 388 Measles, beef, discussion and management, 529 Measly beef, description and prevention, 529 Medicines, methods of administration, chapter by Leonard Pearson, 7-11 Membrana nictitans of eye, description, 343 Meninges, number and functions, 103 Mercury poisoning, symptoms and treatment, 57 Metacarpus, fracture, description and treatment, 282 Metatarsus, fracture, description, treatment, 282 Metritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 224 Metroperitonitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 224 Michigan, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 _Micrococcus prodigiosus_, cause of bloody milk, 242 Microorganisms, transmission, 361 Milk-- absence, cause and treatment, 241 bloody and blue, cause and treatment, 239, 240, 241-242 diminution, symptom of foot-and-mouth disease, 383 duct-- closure and thickening of mucous membrane, cause and treatment, 244 closure by membrane, description and treatment, 245 effect of different feeds, analyses, 256-258 fever, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226-237 fistula, description and treatment, 245 pasteurization as guard against foot-and-mouth infection, 395 source of foot-and-mouth disease infection, 394 stringy, cause and treatment, 242 Mineral-- acid poisoning, description and treatment, 58 poisons, description and kinds, 54 Minnesota, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Misplacement, heart, description, 83 Mites-- description, 511 mange, itch, scab, description and treatment, 513 Mohler, John R.-- chapter on "Infectious diseases of cattle", 358-511 chapter on "Mycotic stomatitis of cattle", 539-544 chapter on "Tumors affecting cattle", 303-320 Monstrosities, calf, descriptions, causes, and treatment, 182-184 Montana, foot-and-mouth disease, 384 Moor-ill, description, symptoms, and treatment, 119 Morphia, poisoning, description and treatment, 61 Mouth-- diseases affecting, symptoms and treatment, 14-17 inflammation of the mucous membrane, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 17 sore, characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth disease, 391-392 ulcers affecting, in young calves. _See_ Necrotic stomatitis. Mucopurulent discharge from passages, symptoms and treatment, 224 Mucous cysts, description and treatment, 319 Mucous membrane-- of mouth, inflammation, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 17 thickening and closure of milk duct, cause and treatment, 244 _Multiceps multiceps_ (bladderworm), parasite of brain, 527 Murray, A. J., chapter on "Diseases of digestive organs", 12-50 Muscles-- calf, rigid contraction, cause, and treatment, 181 eye, description, 343 intercostal, rheumatism affecting, description and treatment, 100 Mycotic stomatitis-- cattle, chapter by John R. Mohler, 539-542 character, cause, symptoms, lesions, etc., 540 characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth disease, 391-392 differential diagnosis and treatment, 542 prevalence, 539 synonyms, 539 Myocarditis, description, symptoms, and treatment, 81 Myoma tumor, description and treatment, 309 Myxoma tumor, description and treatment, 314 Nagana, description, symptoms, and treatment, 510 Nasal catarrh, description, symptoms, and treatment, 92 Navel-- abscess affecting, causes and treatment, 99 bleeding, cause, and treatment, 248 breach, symptoms, and treatment, 252 dropsy, description and treatment, 253 string, constricting member of fetus, description, 179 urine discharged through, description and treatment, 248 urine duct, inflammation, cause, and treatment, 248 veins, inflammation, description, causes, and treatment, 249 Necrosis-- and diseases of cartilage of the ear, cause and treatment, 357 bony orbit, cause and treatment, 352 Necrotic stomatitis-- characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth disease, 391 description, symptoms, and treatment, 464-469 differentiation from foot-and-mouth disease, 391 Neoformation and neoplasm. _See_ Tumors. Nephritis, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 123 Nerves, description, 101-103 Nervous system, diseases, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh, 101-112 Nervousness, cause of retarding calving, 179 Netherlands, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Nettle rash, description, causes, and treatment, 324 Neurofibroma tumor, description and treatment, 310 New Hampshire, foot-and-mouth disease, 387-388 New Jersey, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 New York, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Nicotin dip, directions for making, 516 Nodular disease of intestines due to hookworms, note, 525 Noncontagious-- abortion-- causes, 165 treatment, 167 diseases of organs of respiration, chapter by William H. Lowe, 87-100 foot-and-mouth disease, reference, 532 Norway, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Nose bleeding, cause and treatment, 93 Nymphomania in female, cause and treatment, 148 Obstruction-- arteries, description and treatment, 85 bowels, resulting from invagination, causes, symptoms, etc, 35 parturition by full bladder or rectum, 178 parturition by masses of fat, cause, 178 _[OE]sophagostomum radiatum_, parasite causing nodular disease, treatment, 525 Ohio, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 _Oidirum albicans_, parasite causing aphtha, or thrush, 263 Operations-- asepsis, importance of, 289 surgical-- chapter by William Dickson, William H. Lowe, 289-302 manner of securing the animals, 289 uses of anesthesia, 289 Ophthalmia-- simple, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 344 specific, symptoms, treatment, and prevention, 345 Opium poisoning, description and treatment, 61 Orbit-- bony, necrosis affecting, cause and treatment, 352 fracture, cause and treatment, 352 tumors, cause and treatment, 353 Orbital-- and periorbital abscess, symptoms and treatment, 352 cavity of the eye, description, 342 Orchitis, description and treatment, 152 _Ornithodoros megnini_, ear tick of cattle, 518 Osteitis, description and treatment, 265 Osteoma, description and treatment, 314 Osteomalacia, description, symptoms, and treatment, 267 Osteomyelitis, description and treatment, 266 _Ostertagia ostertagi_, encysted stomach worm of cattle, 523 Otitis, symptoms and treatment, 355 _Otobius magnini_, ear tick, 518 Ovariotomy, description of the operation, 301 Ovum, inclosed, description and treatment, 181 Ox warbles and grubs, treatment, 507 Pains, labor, before relaxation of passages, 175 Palpitation of heart, description, 76 Palsy-- following calving, description and treatment, 233 of neck of bladder, cause and treatment, 130 Papillary growths and warts on the penis, treatment, 156 Papilloma, description and treatment, 312 Paralysis-- bladder, causes and treatment, 130 description, 109 hind parts during pregnancy, cause and treatment, 163 rear parts of body, cause, 109 _Paramphistonum cervi_, parasite affecting cattle, 519 Paraplegia, symptoms and treatment, 110 Parasites-- animal, of cattle, chapter by B. H. Ransom, 502-531 blood, kinds, 530 bronchial tubes, description and treatment, 530 ear, kinds and treatment, 518 eye, kinds and treatment, 531 intestinal tract, kinds and treatment, 523 kidney, discussion, 125 lung, kinds, 530 stomach, kinds and treatment, 519 Parasitic-- cysts, description, 317 diseases of the skin, description and treatment, 332 Parotid gland, inflammation, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 18 Parotitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 18 Parturient-- apoplexy, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226 collapse, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226 fever, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226 Parturition-- difficult, suggestions for assisting, 74 diseases following, chapter by James Law, 214-245 obstacles, causes, 174 Pasteurization, value in check of foot-and-mouth infection, 395 Pastures, how to free from ticks, 490 Paunch, distention with food, description and treatment, 26 Pearson, Leonard, chapter on "Administration of medicines", 7-11 Pelvis-- fracture, description and treatment, 279 narrow, fracture, cause of difficult parturition, 178 Pemphigus, symptoms and treatment, 328 Penis-- inflammation from bruising, prevention and treatment, 155 ulcers affecting, cause and treatment, 157 warts and papillary growths, treatment, 156 wounds, cause and treatment, 156 Pennsylvania, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Percussion method of examination, 92 Pericarditis, symptoms and treatment, 79 Periorbital and orbital abscess, symptoms and treatment, 352 Periostitis, aseptic, purulent, and fibrous, description and treatment, 265 Peritoneal hernia, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 41 Peritoneum, diseases affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 45-47 Peritonitis-- causes, symptoms, and treatment, 45, 46 danger in castration of cattle, 300 Permanganate, use in production of formaldehyde gas, 365 Persistent urachus, description and treatment, 248 Pharyngeal polypi, description and treatment, 19 Pharyngitis, symptoms, causes, and treatment, 17 Pharynx-- diseases, description, symptoms, and treatment, 19-22 tumors affecting, description and treatment, 19 Philippine Islands, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Phlebitis-- description and treatment, 86 umbilical, description, symptoms, and treatment, 249 Phosphorus poisoning, symptoms and treatment, 57 Pica, description, causes, and treatment, 28 Pink eye. _See_ Ophthalmia. _Piroplasma bigeminum_, _protozoan_ causing Texas fever, 530 Pityriasis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 329 Plants, poisonous, description of poisoning, 63-69 Pleurisy, description, symptoms, and treatment, 95 Pleurodynia, description and treatment, 100 Pleuropneumonia-- cause, incubation, and symptoms, 369 definition and history, 366 post-mortem appearance, 373 prevention and treatment, 377 Pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment, 96 Pneumothorax, description and treatment, 99 Poison, definition, 51 Poisoning-- acid, description and treatment, 58 aconite, description and treatment, 63 alkali, description and treatment, 59 animal products, description and treatment, 69 arsenic, description, symptoms, and treatment, 54 carbolic acid, description and treatment, 60 chapter by V. T. Atkinson, 51-72 coal oil, description and treatment, 59 copper, description and treatment, 56 fungi, description, 70 laurel, description and treatment, 65 lead, description, symptoms, and treatment, 55 loco weed, description and treatment, 67 mercury, description, symptoms, and treatment, 57 phosphorus, symptoms and treatment, 57 plant, description, 63 salt and saltpeter, description, symptoms, and treatment, 60-61 sources, 51 strychnin, description and treatment, 62 symptoms and treatment, 53 Poisonous-- fungi, description, 68 plants, description, 63-69 Poisons-- chapter by V. T. Atkinson, 51-72 description of action, 52 mineral, descriptions, 54-58 vegetables, uses as medicine, 61-71 _Polydesmus excitans_, effect on cattle, 13 Polypi-- description and treatment, 313 pharyngeal, description and treatment, 19 vagina or uterus, description and treatment, 157 Polyuria, causes and treatment, 118 Pork measles, note, 536 Potash, permanganate, use in production of formaldehyde gas, 365 Poverty jaw and scours, caused by twisted wireworm, treatment, 527 Pregnancy-- cramps of hind limbs during, cause, 162 duration, 160 signs, 157 Pregnant cow, hygiene, 160 Prepuce, calculi affecting, treatment, 144 Presentation of fetus, natural, 173 Pricks, hoof, treatment, 338 Probang, use in prevention of choking, 21 Prolapsus vaginæ, description and treatment, 162 Proliferation cysts, description and treatment, 319 Prostration, heat, symptoms and treatment, 108 Protozoa-- as intestinal parasites, note, 526 definition, 359 Protrusion, vagina, description and treatment, 162 Pruritis, causes and treatment, 322 Pseudoplasm. _See_ Tumors. Psoroptic mange, description and treatment, 513 _Pucinia arundinacea_, _P. coronata_, _P. graminis_, _P. straminis_, effect on cattle, 13 Pulmonary congestion, treatment, 98 Pulse-- description, 74 examination, 90 Puncta lacrimalia of the eye, description, 344 Purulent periostitis, description and treatment, 266 Pustule-- description, causes, and treatment, 327 malignant, in man, description, 458 Pterygium, description and treatment, 349 Pyemia, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 395 Pyemic inflammation of joints in calves, description, symptoms, and treatment, 251 Quarter-ill. _See_ Blackleg. Rabies, cattle, description, symptoms, etc., 402-406 Rachitis. _See_ Rickets. Ransom, B. H., chapter on "Animal parasites of cattle", 502-531 Rauschbrand. _See_ Blackleg. Rectal injections, uses and methods, 9 Rectum-- full, obstruction to parturition, 178 method of administering medicines, 9 Red dysentery, note, 526 Red water, description, symptoms, and treatment, 119 Regulations, sanitary, for controlling Texas fever, 495 Renal calculi, description and treatment, 139 Rennet, hernia affecting, description and treatment, 38 Respiration-- examination, 89 organs, methods of diagnosis, 37 organs, noncontagious diseases affecting, chapter by William H. Lowe, 87-100 Retina, eye, description, 342 Rheumatism-- articular and muscular, symptoms, prevention, and treatment, 287, 288 intercostal muscles, description and treatment, 101 Rhode Island, foot-and-mouth disease, 387, 388 Ribs, fracture, cause and treatment, 281 Rickets-- description and treatment, 267 in young calves, description and treatment, 263 Rinderpest, description, cause, symptoms, etc., 379-383 Ringing, bull, method, 291 Ringworm, description, symptoms, and treatment, 332 Roundworms-- description, 524 eye, treatment, 531 intestine, kinds and treatment, 523 stomach, description, 519 Rumen-- distention with food, description and treatment, 22 hernia, description and cause, 37 Rumenotomy, description, 294 Rupture-- bladder, symptoms, 218 danger in castration of cattle, 300 heart, description, 82 womb, cause and treatment, 219 Ruptures-- and lacerations of the vagina, description and treatment, 219-220 description and cause, 37 Russia, foot-and-mouth disease, 382 _Saccharomyces albicans_, parasite of aphtha, or thrush, 263 Salivation-- cause, symptoms, and treatment, 15 symptoms of foot-and-mouth disease, 383 Salt, common, poisoning, description, symptoms, and treatment, 61 Saltpeter poisoning, description, symptoms, and treatment, 60 Salts, medicated, doubtful value against worms, 523 Sarcoma tumor, description and treatment, 315 Satyriasis in male, cause and treatment, 148 Scab, mange, itch, description of kinds and treatment, 513 Scabby teats, treatment, 243 Scalds, causes and treatment, 333 _Schistosoma bovis_, cause of bloody urine, 530 Scleroderma, description, 330 Sclerotic membrane of eye, description, 341 Scouring-- acute contagious, in newborn calves, description, prevention, and treatment, 261 causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment, 253-263 Scours-- and poverty jaw, caused by twisted wireworm, treatment, 519 causes, symptoms, and treatment, 32 Screens, use against flies, remarks, 503 Screwworms-- affecting animals, description and remedy, 506 control by dipping, 506 Scurf, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 329 Scurfy ears, cause and treatment, 356 Sebaceous cysts, description and treatment, 330 Sebaceous glands, location, 321 Seborrhea, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 329 Septicemia-- causes, symptoms, and treatment, 395 gangrenous, description, symptoms, and treatment, 472 hemorrhagic, causes, symptoms, etc, 397-401 hemorrhagic, control by vaccination, etc, 401 Septicemic inflammation of joints in calves, description, symptoms, and treatment, 251 Serous cysts, description and treatment, 318 Serum, use against anthrax, 455 _Setaria labiato-papillosa_, embryo in blood, note, 529 Setoning, description and use, 293 Sheath-- calculi affecting, treatment, 144 inflammation, causes and treatment, 153 penis, inflammation from bruising, prevention and treatment, 155 Sheep, dose of vaccine against anthrax, 455 Shoulder joint, sprain, causes and treatment, 269 Skeleton, number of bones, 264 Skin-- description, 318 diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower, 320-334 gas or air under, symptoms and treatment, 334 glands, location and use, 321 inflammatory diseases, causes and treatment, 323 parasites affecting, description and treatment, 502-521 secretions and growths, descriptions, causes, and treatment, 329-331 wounds, kinds, description and treatment, 333-334 Skull, fracture, description and treatment, 278 Slinking, calf, description, 165 Snake bites, description, symptoms, and treatment, 14, 69 Sore mouth-- characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth disease, 391-392 reference, 532 Sore throat, cause and treatment, 17, 93 Sore tongue, reference, 533 Soreness, foot, description and treatment, 335 Southern cattle fever. _See_ Texas fever. Spanish-fly poisoning, description and treatment, 72 Spasm of the neck of the bladder, description and treatment, 128 Spavin, description and treatment, 284 Spaying, description of operation, 301 Spinal column, fracture, description and treatment, 279 Spinal cord-- congestion, description, symptom, and treatment, 110 description, 102 injuries, description, 109 Spleen-- diseases, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 44-45 inflammation, description, 45 Splenetic fever. _See_ Texas fever. Splenitis, description, 45 Split hoof, description and treatment, 338 Sporadic-- aphthae, reference, 532 stomatitis aphthosa, reference, 532 Sprain-- fetlock, causes and treatment, 269 hip, cause and treatment, 270 shoulder joint, causes and treatment, 269 Sprains, description and treatment, 268 Squinting, description, 349 Stable flies (_Stomoxys calcitrans_), affecting cattle, 503 Stabling, value against stomach worms, 521-522 Staggers, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 103, 529 _Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus_ and _S. pyogenes citreus_, bacteria of abscess, 237 Staphyloma, description, symptoms, and treatment, 348 Sterility, causes, 151 Stings-- venomous. _See_ Snake bites. wasps and bees, description and treatment, 71 Stomach-- diseases affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 22-34 fourth, affected with hernia, description and treatment, 38 hair balls in, 29 parasites affecting, treatment, 519, 524, 529 roundworms affecting, 524 traumatic inflammation, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 34 worm-- encysted, description and treatment, 523 sanitary measures for suppression, 521-522 worms, different kinds affecting cattle, 519 Stomatitis-- cause, symptoms, and treatment, 17 characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth disease, 391-393 mycotic. _See_ Mycotic stomatitis. necrotic, description, symptoms, treatment, etc., 464-469 _Stomoxys calcitrans_ affecting cattle, 503 Stone-- bladder, obstruction to parturition, 178 bladder, symptoms and treatment, 142 description and causes, 130 effect of different feeds, 132-134 kidney, description and treatment, 139 Strabismus, description, 349 Straw, breeding place of stable fly, 503 _Streptococcus pyogenes_, bacteria of abscess, 237 String, navel, constricting member of fetus, description, 179 Stringy milk, cause and treatment, 242 _Strongylus micrurus_, parasite of verminous bronchitis, 100 Struma, cause, description, symptoms, and treatment, 310 Strychnin poisoning, description and treatment, 62 Sudorific glands, location and use, 321 Sugar in urine, description, 123 Sunstroke, symptoms and treatment, 108 Suppression, milk, cause and treatment, 241 Surfeit, description, causes, and treatment, 324 Surgery, discussion, 289 Surgical operations-- asepsis, importance, 289 chapter by William Dickson and William H. Lowe, 289-302 manner of securing the animals during, 290 uses of anesthesia, 289 Swamp lands, drainage as measure against fluke disease, 527 Sweat glands, location and use, 322 Sweden, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Swelling of calf with gas, cause and treatment, 181 Switzerland, foot-and-mouth disease, 385 Symptomatic anthrax. _See_ Blackleg. _Tænia saginatæ_, tapeworm cysts, presence in cattle, 529 Tail, wolf in, imaginary disease, 27 Tapeworm cysts, source of injury to cattle, 529 Tapeworms-- adult, of small intestine, species and remedy, 523 cysts in muscles of cattle, 529 cysts of liver, 527 Tarsus, fracture, description and treatment, 281 Teats-- blocked by calculus, treatment, 243 blocked by concretion of casein, cause and treatment, 243 blocked by warty and other growth inside, description and treatment, 244 chapped, cause and treatment, 243 opening in the side, description and treatment, 245 scabby, treatment, 243 warts affecting, treatment, 243 Teeth-- caries, description, 16 irregularities, cause and treatment, 16 Temperature-- how to examine, 90 limits for dipping bath, 490 Test, tuberculin. _See_ Tuberculin test. Testicles, congestion and inflammation, description and treatment, 152 Tetanus-- danger in castration of cattle, 300 reference, 405 Texas fever-- description, symptoms, prevention, etc, 475-501 immunization of northern cattle, 495 infection carried by the cattle tick (_Margaropus annulatus_), 480 injurious effect of ticks, 482 loss occasioned by cattle ticks, 483 methods of eradication, 487-500 nature of the disease, 476 period of incubation of ticks, 486 prevention, 487 quarantine regulations, 495 symptoms and pathological changes after death, 478-480 tick eradication, plan of work, 487 Threadworms in abdominal cavity of cattle, 529 Throat, sore, symptoms, causes, and treatment, 17 Thrombosis, description and symptoms, 85 Thrush-- calf, description and treatment, 263 parasite (_Saccharomyces albicans_), cause, 263 Ticks-- cattle, time required to kill, 488 ear, 518 injury to cattle hides, 484 parasites of cattle, note, 502 _See also_ Cattle tick; Texas fever. _Tilletia caries_ in wheat, effect on cattle, 13 _Tinea favosa_, description, symptoms, and treatment, 332 _Tinea tonsurans_, description, symptoms, and treatment, 332 Tracheotomy, description, 294 Traumatic inflammation of the stomach, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 34 Trichiasis, treatment, 350 _Trichodectes scalaris_ (red louse), description and treatment, 513 _Trichophyton tonsurans_, fungus causing _Tinea tonsurans_, 332 Trumbower, M. R.-- chapter on "Diseases of the ear", 353-357 chapter on "Diseases of the eye and its appendages", 340-354 chapter on "Diseases of the foot", 335-339 chapter on "Diseases of the skin", 320-334 _Trypanosoma brucei_, cause of nagana, or tsetse-fly disease, 500 Tsetse-fly disease, description, symptoms, and treatment, 500 Tuberculin test-- description and history, 417 harmless to healthy animals, 426 summary of directions for making, 427 _Tuberculosis_-- bovine, and public health, 430 cause and nature of disease, 411 occurrence, 407 statistics of tests in United States, 410 symptoms and diagnosis, 416-417 transmissibility of human and bovine, 432 treatment, 428 Tumor-- bony, description and treatment, 314 chrondroma, description and treatment, 314 fibroma, description and treatment, 311 hairy, on eyeball, description and treatment, 349 lipoma, description and treatment, 314 sarcoma, description and treatment, 315 Tumors-- brain, description, 112 calf, description and treatment, 181 cattle, chapter by John R. Mohler, 303-319 definition and description, 303 description, 303, 305, 307 description of kinds, 309 diagnosis, 308 eyelid, description and treatment, 350 general treatment, 309 kidney, description, 128 malignant and benign, description, 306 orbit, cause and treatment, 353 pharynx, description and treatment, 19 Twisted stomach worms, description and treatment, 519-523 Twisting-- and knotting of the bowels, causes, symptoms, post-mortem appearance, and treatment, 35 of the neck of the womb, description and treatment, 176 Tympanites-- acute, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 22 chronic, causes and treatment, 25 Udder-- congestion, description and treatment, 233 contagious inflammation affecting, description, prevention, and treatment, 237 inflammation, description, symptoms, and treatment, 234 Ulceration, heel, causes and treatment, 337 Ulcerative stomatitis. _See_ Necrotic stomatitis. Ulcers-- calves. _See_ Necrotic stomatitis. cornea, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 347 penis, cause and treatment, 157 Umbilical hernia-- description, causes, and treatment, 39 symptoms and treatment, 252 Umbilical phlebitis, description, causes, and treatment, 249 Urachus-- inflammation, causes and treatment, 248 persistent, description and treatment, 248 Ureteral calculi, description and treatment, 139 Urethra, inflammation affecting, description and treatment, 156 Urethral calculus, symptoms and treatment, 142 Urinary calculi-- classification, 138 description and causes, 130, 137 effect of different feeds, 133 Urinary disorders, symptoms, 118 Urinary organs-- diseases, chapter by James Law, 113-146 functions, 113 Urine-- albumin in, description and treatment, 121 amount passed daily, 115 analyses under different rations, 114 bloody, caused by blood flukes, 526 bloody, description, symptoms, and treatment, 119 cow, analysis, 114 discharged through navel, description and treatment, 248 excessive secretion, cause and treatment, 118 incontinence, cause and treatment, 130 ox, analysis, 115 retention, effect, cause, and treatment, 128 sugar in, description, 123 Urticaria, description, causes and treatment, 124 Uruguay, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Uterus-- hernia affecting, cause and treatment, 162 polypus affecting, description and treatment, 157 Vaccination, disadvantages in use against anthrax, 457 Vaccine-- anthrax, care and use, 457 blackleg, free distribution, note, 463 preparation and use against hemorrhagic septicemia, 395 Vagina-- clots of blood on walls, description and treatment, 220 inflammation, causes and treatment, 223 lacerations and rupture, description and treatment, 219 polypus affecting, description and treatment, 157 _Vaginæ prolapsus_, description and treatment, 162 Vaginal walls, affected with coagulated blood after calving, treatment, 179 Vaginitis, causes and treatment, 223 Valves, heart, diseases affecting, symptoms and treatment, 80 Variola, description, symptoms, and treatment, 438 Vegetable-- acids, poisonous, description and treatment, 58 poisons-- note, 61 uses as medicine, description, symptoms, and treatment, 61-69 Veins-- inflammation, description and treatment, 86 wounds, description and treatment, 83 Venereal desire, diminution or loss, cause, prevention, and treatment, 149 Venereal excess, cause and treatment, 148 Venomous stings. _See_ Snake bites. Ventral hernia, description and causes, 37 Verminous bronchitis-- description, symptoms, and prevention, 100 _parasites_ causing, 100 Vermont, foot-and-mouth disease, 387 Verruca, description, cause, and treatment, 331 Vertebra, fracture, description, and treatment, 279 Vesical calculus, symptoms and treatment, 142 Vesicular eruption of genital organs, description, symptoms, and treatment, 401 Vesicular exanthema, symptoms and treatment, 401 Veterinarians, views on foot-and-mouth disease in man, 395 Virginia, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Vitreous humor of the eye, description, 342 Vomiting, symptoms, cause, and treatment, 27 Wall, hoof, fissure, description and treatment, 338 Warble fly-- damages, estimate, 510 European species, appearance in United States, 510 Warbles-- description and treatment, 507 penetration of skins of cattle, 508 reference, 333 Warts-- description, causes, and treatment, 312, 331 penis, treatment, 156 teats, treatment, 243 Washington, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Wasp stings, description and treatment, 71 Water-- blisters, symptoms and treatment, 328 cold, drinking, a cause of indigestion, symptoms and treatment, 33 head of calf, description and treatment, 179 Weather, relation to occurrence of mycotic stomatitis, 392 Wens, description and treatment, 330 West Virginia, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Wisconsin, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Withers, casting, cause and treatment, 215 Wolf in the tail, imaginary disease, 27 Womb-- bleeding from, description, symptoms, and treatment, 214 dropsy, description and treatment, 162 eversion, cause and treatment, 215 fetus developing outside, description and treatment, 163 inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 224 mouth, induration, description and treatment, 176 rupture, cause and treatment, 219 twisting of neck, description and treatment, 176 Wooden tongue. _See_ Actinomycosis. Wood-ill, description, symptoms, and treatment, 119 Worm-- encysted stomach, description and treatment, 523 eye, description and treatment, 349 Worms-- bladder, description, 528 lung, of cattle, description and treatment, 530 screw, description and remedies, 506 thread, in abdominal cavity of cattle, 529 twisted stomach, description and treatment, 519-520 Wounds-- abdomen, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 43 arteries and veins, description and treatment, 83 contused and lacerated, description and treatment, 298 contusions of the lips and snake bites of mouth, description and treatment, 14 danger of infection from foot-and-mouth disease, 394 drainage, necessity, 298 gullet, description and treatment, 22 healing, treatment and dressing, description, 298 hoof, treatment, 338 incised-- description and treatment, 295 punctured, and lacerated, description and treatment, 295-299 mouth, snake bites and contusions of lips, treatment, 14 penis, cause and treatment, 156 skin, kinds, description, and treatment, 333-334 treatment, summary of care after dressing, 298 Yellows, description, symptoms, and treatment, 44 Zinc poisoning, description and treatment, 57 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. 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