the artistic crafts series of technical handbooks edited by w. r. lethaby bookbinding [illustration: white pigskin.--_basle_, .] bookbinding, and the care of books a handbook for amateurs bookbinders & librarians by douglas cockerell with drawings by noel rooke and other illustrations [illustration] new york d. appleton and company copyright, , by d. appleton and company _all rights reserved_ editor's preface in issuing this volume of a series of handbooks on the artistic crafts, it will be well to state what are our general aims. in the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of workshop practice, from the points of view of experts who have critically examined the methods current in the shops, and putting aside vain survivals, are prepared to say what is good workmanship, and to set up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more especially associated with design. secondly, in doing this, we hope to treat design itself as an essential part of good workmanship. during the last century most of the arts, save painting and sculpture of an academic kind, were little considered, and there was a tendency to look on "design" as a mere matter of _appearance_. such "ornamentation" as there was was usually obtained by following in a mechanical way a drawing provided by an artist who often knew little of the technical processes involved in production. with the critical attention given to the crafts by ruskin and morris, it came to be seen that it was impossible to detach design from craft in this way, and that, in the widest sense, true design is an inseparable element of good quality, involving as it does the selection of good and suitable material, contrivance for special purpose, expert workmanship, proper finish and so on, far more than mere ornament, and indeed, that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine workmanship than a matter of merely abstract lines. workmanship when separated by too wide a gulf from fresh thought--that is, from design--inevitably decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation, divorced from workmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls into affectation. proper ornamentation may be defined as a language addressed to the eye; it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech of the tool. in the third place, we would have this series put artistic craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupation for those who would gain a livelihood. although within the bounds of academic art, the competition, of its kind, is so acute that only a very few per cent. can fairly hope to succeed as painters and sculptors; yet, as artistic craftsmen, there is every probability that nearly every one who would pass through a sufficient period of apprenticeship to workmanship and design would reach a measure of success. in the blending of handwork and thought in such arts as we propose to deal with, happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary routine of hack labour, as from the terrible uncertainty of academic art. it is desirable in every way that men of good education should be brought back into the productive crafts: there are more than enough of us "in the city," and it is probable that more consideration will be given in this century than in the last to design and workmanship. w. r. lethaby. author's note it is hoped that this book will help bookbinders and librarians to select sound methods of binding books. it is intended to supplement and not to supplant workshop training for bookbinders. no one can become a skilled workman by reading text-books, but to a man who has acquired skill and practical experience, a text-book, giving perhaps different methods from those to which he has been accustomed, may be helpful. my thanks are due to many friends, including the workmen in my workshop, for useful suggestions and other help, and to the society of arts for permission to quote from the report of their special committee on leather for bookbinding. i should also like to express my indebtedness to my master, mr. t. j. cobden-sanderson, for it was in his workshop that i learned my craft, and anything that may be of value in this book is due to his influence. d. c. _november_ . contents part i _binding_ page editor's preface author's note chapter i introduction chapter ii entering--books in sheets--folding--collating--pulling to pieces--refolding--knocking out joints chapter iii guarding--throwing out--paring paper--soaking off india proofs--mounting very thin paper--splitting paper--inlaying--flattening vellum chapter iv sizing--washing--mending chapter v end papers--leather joints--pressing chapter vi trimming edges before sewing--edge gilding chapter vii marking up--sewing--materials for sewing chapter viii fraying out slips--glueing up--rounding and backing chapter ix cutting and attaching boards--cleaning off back--pressing chapter x cutting in boards--gilding and colouring edges chapter xi headbanding chapter xii preparing for covering--paring leather--covering--mitring corners--filling-in boards chapter xiii library binding--binding very thin books--scrap-books--binding in vellum--books covered with embroidery chapter xiv decoration--tools--finishing--tooling on vellum--inlaying on leather chapter xv lettering--blind tooling--heraldic ornament chapter xvi designing for gold-tooled decoration chapter xvii pasting down end papers--opening books chapter xviii clasps and ties--metal on bindings chapter xix leather chapter xx paper--pastes--glue part ii _care of books when bound_ chapter xxi injurious influences to which books are subjected chapter xxii to preserve old bindings--re-backing specifications glossary reproductions of bindings (eight collotypes) index part i binding chapter i introduction the reasons for binding the leaves of a book are to keep them together in their proper order, and to protect them. that bindings can be made, that will adequately protect books, can be seen from the large number of fifteenth and sixteenth century bindings now existing on books still in excellent condition. that bindings are made, that fail to protect books, may be seen by visiting any large library, when it will be found that many bindings have their boards loose and the leather crumbling to dust. nearly all librarians complain, that they have to be continually rebinding books, and this not after four hundred, but after only five or ten years. it is no exaggeration to say that ninety per cent. of the books bound in leather during the last thirty years will need rebinding during the next thirty. the immense expense involved must be a very serious drag on the usefulness of libraries; and as rebinding is always to some extent damaging to the leaves of a book, it is not only on account of the expense that the necessity for it is to be regretted. the reasons that have led to the production in modern times of bindings that fail to last for a reasonable time, are twofold. the materials are badly selected or prepared, and the method of binding is faulty. another factor in the decay of bindings, both old and new, is the bad conditions under which they are often kept. the object of this text-book is to describe the best methods of bookbinding, and of keeping books when bound, taking into account the present-day conditions. no attempt has been made to describe all possible methods, but only such as appear to have answered best on old books. the methods described are for binding that can be done by hand with the aid of simple appliances. large editions of books are now bound, or rather cased, at an almost incredible speed by the aid of machinery, but all work that needs personal care and thought on each book, is still done, and probably always will be done, by hand. elaborate machinery can only be economically employed when very large numbers of books have to be turned out exactly alike. the ordinary cloth "binding" of the trade, is better described as casing. the methods being different, it is convenient to distinguish between casing and binding. in binding, the slips are firmly attached to the boards before covering; in casing, the boards are covered separately, and afterwards glued on to the book. very great efforts have been made in the decoration of cloth covers, and it is a pity that the methods of construction have not been equally considered. if cloth cases are to be looked upon as a temporary binding, then it seems a pity to waste so much trouble on their decoration; and if they are to be looked upon as permanent binding, it is a pity the construction is not better. for books of only temporary interest, the usual cloth cases answer well enough; but for books expected to have permanent value, some change is desirable. valuable books should either be issued in bindings that are obviously temporary, or else in bindings that are strong enough to be considered permanent. the usual cloth case fails as a temporary binding, because the methods employed result in serious damage to the sections of the book, often unfitting them for rebinding, and it fails as a permanent binding on account of the absence of sound construction. in a temporary publisher's binding, nothing should be done to the sections of a book that would injure them. plates should be guarded, the sewing should be on tapes, without splitting the head and tail, or "sawing in" the backs, of the sections; the backs should be glued up square without backing. the case may be attached, as is now usual. for a permanent publisher's binding, something like that recommended for libraries (page ) is suggested, with either leather or cloth on the back. at the end of the book four specifications are given (page ). the first is suggested for binding books of special interest or value, where no restriction as to price is made. a binding under this specification may be decorated to any extent that the nature of the book justifies. the second is for good binding, for books of reference and other heavy books that may have a great deal of wear. all the features of the first that make for the strength of the binding are retained, while those less essential, that only add to the appearance, are omitted. although the binding under this specification would be much cheaper than that carried out under the first, it would still be too expensive for the majority of books in most libraries; and as it would seem to be impossible to further modify this form of binding, without materially reducing its strength, for cheaper work, a somewhat different system is recommended. the third specification is recommended for the binding of the general run of small books in most libraries. the fourth is a modification of this for pamphlets and other books of little value, that need to be kept together tidily for occasional reference. thanks, in a great measure, to the work of mr. cobden-sanderson, there is in england the germ of a sound tradition for the best binding. the report of the committee appointed by the society of arts to investigate the cause of the decay of modern leather bindings, should tend to establish a sound tradition for cheaper work. the third specification at the end of this book is practically the same as that given in their report, and was arrived at by selection, after many libraries had been examined, and many forms of binding compared. up to the end of the eighteenth century the traditional methods of binding books had altered very little during three hundred years. books were generally sewn round five cords, the ends of all of these laced into the boards, and the leather attached directly to the back. at the end of the eighteenth century it became customary to pare down leather until it was as thin as paper, and soon afterwards the use of hollow backs and false bands became general, and these two things together mark the beginning of the modern degradation of binding, so far as its utility as a protection is concerned. the society of arts committee report that the bookbinders must share with the leather manufacturers and librarians the blame for the premature decay of modern bindings, because-- " . books are sewn on too few, and too thin cords, and the slips are pared down unduly (for the sake of neatness), and are not in all cases firmly laced into the boards. this renders the attachment of the boards to the book almost entirely dependent on the strength of the leather. " . the use of hollow backs throws all the strain of opening and shutting on the joints, and renders the back liable to come right off if the book is much used. " . the leather of the back is apt to become torn through the use of insufficiently strong headbands, which are unable to stand the strain of the book being taken from the shelf. " . it is a common practice to use far too thin leather; especially to use large thick skins very much pared down for small books. " . the leather is often made very wet and stretched a great deal in covering, with the result that on drying it is further strained, almost to breaking point, by contraction, leaving a very small margin of strength to meet the accidents of use." the history of the general introduction of hollow backs is probably somewhat as follows: leather was doubtless first chosen for covering the backs of books because of its toughness and flexibility; because, while protecting the back, it would bend when the book was opened and allow the back to "throw up" (see fig. , a). when gold tooling became common, and the backs of books were elaborately decorated, it was found that the creasing of the leather injured the brightness or the gold and caused it to crack. to avoid this the binders lined up the back until it was as stiff as a block of wood. the back would then not "throw up" as the book was opened, the leather would not be creased, and the gold would remain uninjured (see fig. , b). this was all very well for the gold, but a book so treated does not open fully, and indeed, if the paper is stiff, can hardly be got to open at all. to overcome both difficulties the hollow back was introduced, and as projecting bands would have been in the way, the sewing cord was sunk in saw cuts made across the back of the book. [illustration: fig. .] the use of hollow backs was a very ingenious way out of the difficulty, as with them the backs could be made to "throw up," and at the same time the leather was not disturbed (see fig. , c). the method of "sawing in" bands was known for a long time before the general use of hollow backs. it has been used to avoid the raised bands on books covered with embroidered material. if a book is sewn on tapes, and the back lined with leather, there is no serious objection to a carefully-made hollow back without bands. the vellum binders use hollow backs made in this way for great account books that stand an immense amount of wear. they make the "hollow" very stiff, so that it acts as a spring to throw the back up. but although, if carefully done, satisfactory bindings may be made with hollow backs, their use has resulted in the production of worthless bindings with little strength, and yet with the appearance of better work. the public having been accustomed to raised bands on the backs of books, and the real bands being sunk in the back, the binders put false ones over the "hollow." to save money or trouble, the bands being out of sight, the book would be sewn on only three or sometimes only two cords, the usual five false ones still showing at the back. often only two out of the three bands would be laced into the board, and sometimes the slips would not be laced in at all. again, false headbands worked by the yard by machinery would be stuck on at the head and tail, and a "hollow" made with brown paper. then leather so thin as to have but little strength, but used because it is easy to work and needs no paring, would be stuck on. the back would often be full gilt and lettered, and the sides sprinkled or marbled, thus further damaging the leather. in every large library hundreds of books bound somewhat on these lines may be seen. when they are received from the binder they have the appearance of being well bound, they look smart on the shelf, but in a few years, whether they are used or not, the leather will have perished and the boards become detached, and they will have to be rebound. as long as librarians expect the appearance of a guinea binding for two or three shillings, such shams will be produced. the librarian generally gets his money's worth, for it would be impossible for the binder to do better work at the price usually paid without materially altering the appearance of the binding. the polished calf and imitation crushed morocco must go, and in its place a rougher, thicker leather must be employed. the full-gilt backs must go, the coloured lettering panel must go, the hollow backs must go, but in the place of these we may have the books sewn on tapes with the ends securely fastened into split boards, and the thick leather attached directly to the backs of the sections. (see specification iii. page .) such a binding would look well and not be more expensive than the usual library binding. it should allow the book to open flat, and if the materials are well selected, be very durable, and specially strong in the joints, the weak place in most bindings. the lettering on the back may be damaged in time if the book is much used, but if so it can easily be renewed at a fraction of the cost of rebinding, and without injury to the book. while the majority of books in most libraries must be bound at a small cost, at most not exceeding a few shillings a volume, there is a large demand for good plain bindings, and a limited, but growing, demand for more or less decorated bindings for special books. any decoration but the simplest should be restricted to books bound as well as the binder can do them. the presence of decoration should be evidence that the binder, after doing his best with the "forwarding," has had time in which to try to make his work a beautiful, as well as a serviceable, production. many books, although well bound, are better left plain, or with only a little decoration. but occasionally there are books that the binder can decorate as lavishly as he is able. as an instance of bindings that cannot be over-decorated, those books which are used in important ceremonies, such as altar books, may be mentioned. such books may be decorated with gold and colour until they seem to be covered in a golden material. they will be but spots of gorgeousness in a great church or cathedral, and they cannot be said to be over-decorated as long as the decoration is good. so, occasionally some one may have a book to which he is for some reason greatly attached, and wishing to enshrine it, give the binder a free hand to do his best with it. the binder may wish to make a delicate pattern with nicely-balanced spots of ornament, leaving the leather for the most part bare, or he may wish to cover the outside with some close gold-tooled pattern, giving a richness of texture hardly to be got by other means. if he decides on the latter, many people will say that the cover is over-decorated. but as a book cover can never be seen absolutely alone, it should not be judged as an isolated thing covered with ornament without relief, but as a spot of brightness and interest among its surroundings. if a room and everything in it is covered with elaborate pattern, then anything with a plain surface would be welcome as a relief; but in a room which is reasonably free from ornament, a spot of rich decoration should be welcome. it is not contended that the only, or necessarily the best, method of decorating book covers is by elaborate all-over gold-tooled pattern; but it is contended that this is a legitimate method of decoration for exceptional books, and that by its use it is possible to get a beautiful effect well worth the trouble and expense involved. good leather has a beautiful surface, and may sometimes be got of a fine colour. the binder may often wish to show this surface and colour, and to restrict his decoration to small portions of the cover, and this quite rightly, he aiming at, and getting, a totally different effect than that got by all-over patterns. both methods are right if well done, and both methods can equally be vulgarised if badly done. a much debated question is, how far the decoration of a binding should be influenced by the contents of the book? a certain appropriateness there should be, but as a general thing, if the binder aims at making the cover beautiful, that is the best he can do. the hints given for designing are not intended to stop the development of the student's own ideas, but only to encourage their development on right lines. there should be a certain similarity of treatment between the general get-up of a book and its binding. it is a great pity that printers and binders have drifted so far apart; they are, or should be, working for one end, the production of a book, and some unity of aim should be evident in the work of the two. the binding of manuscripts and early printed books should be strong and simple. it should be as strong and durable as the original old bindings, and, like them, last with reasonable care for four hundred years or more. to this end the old bindings, with their stout sewing cord, wooden boards, and clasps, may be taken as models. the question is constantly asked, especially by women, if a living can be made by setting up as bookbinders. cheap binding can most economically be done in large workshops, but probably the best bindings can be done more satisfactorily by binders working alone, or in very small workshops. if any one intends to set up as a bookbinder, doing all the work without help, it is necessary to charge very high prices to get any adequate return after the working expenses have been paid. in order to get high prices, the standard of work must be very high; and in order to attain a high enough standard of work, a very thorough training is necessary. it is desirable that any one hoping to make money at the craft should have at least a year's training in a workshop where good work is done, and after that, some time will be spent before quite satisfactory work can be turned out rapidly enough to pay, supposing that orders can be obtained or the books bound can be sold. there are some successful binders who have had less than a year's training, but they are exceptional. those who have not been accustomed to manual work have usually, in addition to the necessary skill, to acquire the habit of continuous work. bookbinding seems to offer an opening for well-educated youths who are willing to serve an apprenticeship in a good shop, and who have some small amount of capital at their command. in addition to the production of decorated bindings, there is much to be done by specialising in certain kinds of work requiring special knowledge. repairing and binding early printed books and manuscripts, or the restoration of parish registers and accounts, may be suggested. chapter ii entering--books in sheets--folding--collating--pulling to pieces--refolding--knocking out joints entering on receiving a book for binding, its title should be entered in a book kept for that purpose, with the date of entry, and customer's name and address, and any instructions he may have given, written out in full underneath, leaving room below to enter the time taken on the various operations and cost of the materials used. it is well to number the entry, and to give a corresponding number to the book. it should be at once collated, and any special features noted, such as pages that need washing or mending. if the book should prove to be imperfect, or to have any serious defect, the owner should be communicated with, before it is pulled to pieces. this is very important, as imperfect books that have been "pulled" are not returnable to the bookseller. should defects only be discovered after the book has been taken to pieces, the bookbinder is liable to be blamed for the loss of any missing leaves. books in sheets the sheets of a newly printed book are arranged in piles in the printer's warehouse, each pile being made up of repetitions of the same sheet or "signature." plates or maps are in piles by themselves to make a complete book one sheet is gathered from each pile, beginning at the last sheet and working backwards to signature a. when a book is ordered from a publisher in sheets, it is such a "gathered" copy that the binder receives. some books are printed "double," that is, the type is set up twice, two copies are printed at once at different ends of a sheet of paper, and the sheets have to be divided down the middle before the copies can be separated. sometimes the title and introduction, or perhaps only the last sheet, will be printed in this way. publishers usually decline to supply in sheets fewer than two copies of such double-printed books. if a book is received unfolded, it is generally advisable at once to fold up the sheets and put them in their proper order, with half-title, title, introduction, &c., and, if there are plates, to compare them with the printed list. should there be in a recently published book defects of any kind, such as soiled sheets, the publisher will usually replace them on application, although they sometimes take a long time to do so. such sheets are called "imperfections," and the printers usually keep a number of "overs" in order to make good such imperfections as may occur. folding books received in sheets must be folded. folding requires care, or the margins of different leaves will be unequal, and the lines of printing not at right angles to the back. books of various sizes are known as "folio," "quarto," "octavo," "duodecimo," &c. these names signify the number of folds, and consequently the number of leaves the paper has been folded into. thus, a folio is made up of sheets of paper folded once down the centre, forming two leaves and four pages. the sheets of a quarto have a second fold, making four leaves and eight pages, and in an octavo the sheet has a third fold, forming eight leaves and sixteen pages (see fig. ), and so on. each sheet of paper when folded constitutes a section, except in the case of folios, where it is usual to make up the sections by inserting two or more sheets, one within the other. paper is made in several named sizes, such as "imperial," "royal," "demy," "crown," "foolscap," &c. (see p. ), so that the terms "imperial folio" or "crown octavo" imply that a sheet of a definite size has been folded a definite number of times. [illustration: fig. .] besides the traditional sizes, paper is now made of almost any length and width, resulting in books of odd shape, and the names folio, quarto, &c., are rather losing their true meaning, and are often used loosely to signify pages of certain sizes, irrespective of the number that go to a sheet. on receipt, for instance, of an octavo book for folding, the pile of sheets is laid flat on the table, and collated by the letter or signature of each sheet. the first sheet of the book proper will probably be signature b, as signature a usually consists of the half-title, title, introduction, &c., and often has to be folded up rather differently. the "outer" sides, known by the signature letters b, c, d, &c., should be downwards, and the inner sides facing upwards with the second signatures, if there are any, b , c , d , &c., at the right-hand bottom corner. the pages of an octave book, commencing at page , are shown at fig. . a folder is taken in the right hand, and held at the bottom of the sheet at about the centre, and the sheet taken by the left hand at the top right-hand corner and bent over until pages and come exactly over pages and ; and when it is seen that the headlines and figures exactly match, the paper, while being held in that position, is creased down the centre with the folder, and the fold cut up a little more than half-way. pages , , , will now be uppermost; pages and are now folded over to exactly match pages and , and the fold creased and cut up a little more than half-way, as before. pages and will now be uppermost, and will merely require folding together to make the pages of the section follow in their proper order. if the folding has been done carefully, and the "register" of the printing is good, the headlines should be exactly even throughout. [illustration: fig. .] the object of cutting past the centre at each fold is to avoid the unsightly creasing that results from folding two or more thicknesses of paper when joined at the top edge. a "duodecimo" sheet has the pages arranged as at fig. . the "inset" pages, , , , , must be cut off, and the rest of the section folded as for an octavo sheet. the inset is folded separately and inserted into the centre of the octavo portion. other sizes are folded in much the same way, and the principle of folding one sheet having been mastered, no difficulty will be found in folding any other. plates often require trimming, and this must be done with judgment. the plates should be trimmed to correspond as far as possible with the printing on the opposite page, but if this cannot be done, it is desirable that something approaching the proportion of margin shown at fig. (folio) should be aimed at. that is to say, the back margin should be the smallest, the head margin the next, the fore-edge a little wider, and the tail widest of all. when a plate consists of a small portrait or diagram in the centre of the page, it looks better if it is put a little higher and a little nearer the back than the actual centre. [illustration: fig. .] plates that have no numbers on them must be put in order by the list of printed plates, or "instructions to the binder." the half-title, title, dedication, &c., will often be found to be printed on odd sheets that have to be made up into section a. this preliminary matter is usually placed in the following order: half-title, title, dedication, preface, contents, list of illustrations or other lists. if there is an index, it should be put at the end of the book. all plates should be "guarded," and any "quarter sections," that is, sections consisting of two leaves, should have their backs strengthened by a "guard," or they may very easily be torn in the sewing. odd, single leaves may be guarded round sections in the same way as plates. when a book has been folded, it should be pressed (see p. ). there will sometimes be pages marked by the printer with a star. these have some error in them, and are intended to be cut out. the printer should supply corrected pages to replace them. collating in addition to the pagination each sheet or section of a printed book is lettered or numbered. each letter or number is called the "sheet's signature." printers usually leave out j w and v in lettering sheets. if there are more sections than there are letters in the alphabet, the printer doubles the letters, signing the sections a a, b b, and so on, after the single letters are exhausted. some printers use an arabic numeral before the section number to denote the second alphabet, as a, b, &c., and others change the character of the letters, perhaps using capitals for the first alphabet and italics for the second. if the sheets are numbered, the numbers will of course follow consecutively. in books of more than one volume, the number of the volume is sometimes added in roman numerals before the signature, as ii a, ii b. the main pagination of the book usually commences with chapter i., and all before that is independently paged in roman numerals. it is unusual to have actual numbers on the title or half-title, but if the pages are counted back from where the first numeral occurs, they should come right. there will sometimes be one or more blank leaves completing sections at the beginning or end. such blank leaves must be retained, as without them the volume would be "imperfect." to collate a modern book the paging must be examined to see that the leaves are in order, and that nothing is defective or missing. the method of doing this is to insert the first finger of the right hand at the bottom of about the fiftieth page, crook the finger, and turn up the corners of the pages with it. when this is done the thumb is placed on page , and the hand twisted, so as to fan out the top of the pages. they can then be readily turned over by the thumb and first finger of the left hand (see fig. ). this is repeated throughout the book, taking about fifty pages at a time. it will of course only be necessary to check the odd numbers, as if they are right, the even ones on the other side of the leaf must be so. if the pages are numbered at the foot, the leaves must be fanned out from the head. [illustration: fig. .] plates or maps that are not paged can only be checked from the printed list. when checked it will save time if the number of the page which each faces is marked on the back in small pencil figures. in the case of early printed books or manuscripts, which are often not paged, special knowledge is needed for their collation. it may roughly be said, that if the sections are all complete, that is, if there are the same number of leaves at each side of the sewing in all the sections, the book may be taken to be perfect, unless of course whole sections are missing. all unpaged books should be paged through in pencil before they are taken apart; this is best done with a very fine pencil, at the bottom left-hand corner; it will only be necessary to number the front of each leaf. pulling to pieces after the volume has been collated it must be "pulled," that is to say, the sections must be separated, and all plates or maps detached. if in a bound book there are slips laced in the front cover, they must be cut and the back torn off. it will sometimes happen that in tearing off the leather nearly all the glue will come too, leaving the backs of the pages detached except for the sewing. more usually the back will be left covered with a mass of glue and linen, or paper, which it is very difficult to remove without injury to the backs of the sections. by drawing a sharp knife along the bands, the sewing may be cut and the bands removed, leaving the sections only connected by the glue. then the sections of the book can usually be separated with a fine folder, after the thread from the centre of each has been removed; the point of division being ascertained by finding the first signature of each section. in cases where the glue and leather form too hard a back to yield to this method, it is advisable to soak the glue with paste, and when soft to scrape it off with a folder. as this method is apt to injure the backs of the sections, it should not be resorted to unless necessary; and when it is, care must be taken not to let the damp penetrate into the book, or it will cause very ugly stains. the book must be pulled while damp, or else the glue will dry up harder than before. the separated sections must be piled up carefully to prevent pages being soiled by the damp glue. all plates or single leaves "pasted on" must be removed. these can usually be detached by carefully tearing apart, but if too securely pasted they must be soaked off in water, unless of course the plates have been painted with water-colour. if the plates must be soaked off, the leaf and attached plate should be put into a pan of slightly warm water and left to soak until they float apart, then with a soft brush any remaining glue or paste can be easily removed while in the water. care must be taken not to soak modern books printed on what is called "art paper," as this paper will hardly stand ordinary handling, and is absolutely ruined if wetted. the growing use of this paper in important books is one of the greatest troubles the bookbinder has to face. the highly loaded and glazed surface of some of the heavy plate papers easily flakes off, so that any guard pasted on these plates is apt to come away, taking with it the surface of the paper. moreover, should the plates chance to be fingered or in any way soiled, nothing can remove the marks; and should a corner get turned down, the paper breaks and the corner will fall off. it is the opinion of experts that this heavily loaded art paper will not last a reasonable time, and, apart from other considerations, this should be ample reason for not using it in books that are expected to have a permanent value. printers like this paper, because it enables them to obtain brilliant impressions from blocks produced by cheap processes. in "cased" books, sewn by machinery, the head and tail of the sheets will often be found to be split up as far as the "kettle" stitches. if such a book is to be expensively bound, it will require mending throughout in these places, or the glue may soak into the torn ends, and make the book open stiffly. some books are put together with staples of tinned iron wire, which rapidly rust and disfigure the book by circular brown marks. such marks will usually have to be cut out and the places carefully mended. this process is lengthy, and consequently so costly, that it is generally cheaper, when possible, to obtain an unbound copy of the book from the publishers, than to waste time repairing the damage done by the cloth binder. generally speaking, the sections of a book cased in cloth by modern methods are so injured as to make it unfit for more permanent binding unless an unreasonable amount of time is spent on it. it is a great pity that publishers do not, in the case of books expected to have a permanent literary value, issue a certain number of copies printed on good paper, and unbound, for the use of those who require permanent bindings; and in such copies it would be a great help if sufficient margin were left at the back of the plates for the binder to turn it up to form a guard. if the plates were very numerous, guards made of the substance of the plates themselves would make the book too thick; but in the case of books with not more than a dozen plates, printed on comparatively thin paper, it would be a great advantage. some books in which there are a large number of plates are cut into single leaves, which are held together at the back by a coating of an indiarubber solution. for a short time such a volume is pleasant enough to handle, and opens freely, but before long the indiarubber perishes, and the leaves and plates fall apart. when a book of this kind comes to have a permanent binding, all the leaves and plates have to be pared at the back and made up into sections with guards--a troublesome and expensive business. the custom with binders is to overcast the backs of the leaves in sections, and to sew through the overcasting thread, but this, though an easy and quick process, makes a hopelessly stiff back, and no book so treated can open freely. refolding [illustration: fig. .--dividers] when the sheets of books that have to be rebound have been carelessly folded, a certain amount of readjustment is often advisable, especially in cases where the book has not been previously cut. the title-page and the half-title, when found to be out of square, should nearly always be put straight. the folding of the whole book may be corrected by taking each pair of leaves and holding them up to the light and adjusting the fold so that the print on one leaf comes exactly over the print on the other, and creasing the fold to make them stay in that position. with a pair of dividers (fig. ) set to the height of the shortest top margin, points the same distance above the headline of the other leaves can be made. then against a carpenter's square, adjusted to the back of the fold, the head of one pair of leaves at a time can be cut square (see fig. ). if the book has been previously cut this process is apt to throw the leaves so far out of their original position as to make them unduly uneven. [illustration: fig. .] accurate folding is impossible if the "register" of the printing is bad, that is to say, if the print on the back of a leaf does not lie exactly over that on the front. crooked plates should usually be made straight by judicious trimming of the margins. it is better to leave a plate short at tail or fore-edge than to leave it out of square. knocking out joints the old "joints" must be knocked out of the sections of books that have been previously backed. to do this, one or two sections at a time are held firmly in the left hand, and well hammered on the knocking-down iron fixed into the lying press. it is important that the hammer face should fall exactly squarely upon the paper, or it may cut pieces out. the knocking-down iron should be covered with a piece of paper, and the hammer face must be perfectly clean, or the sheets may be soiled. chapter iii guarding--throwing out--paring paper--soaking off india proofs--mounting very thin paper--splitting paper--inlaying--flattening vellum guarding guards are slips of thin paper or linen used for strengthening the fold of leaves that are damaged, or for attaching plates or single leaves. guards should be of good thin paper. that known as whatman's banknote paper answers very well. an easy way to cut guards is shown in fig. . two or three pieces of paper of the height of the required guards are folded and pinned to the board by the right-hand corners. a series of points are marked at the head and tail with dividers set to the width desired for the guards, and with a knife guided by a straight-edge, cuts joining the points are made right through the paper, but not extending quite to either end. on a transverse cut being made near the bottom, the guards are left attached by one end only (see fig. ), and can be torn off as wanted. this method prevents the paper from slipping while it is being cut. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] a mount cutter's knife (fig. ) will be found to be a convenient form of knife to use for cutting guards. in using the knife and straight-edge a good deal of pressure should be put on the straight-edge, and comparatively little on the knife. [illustration: fig. .--mount cutter's knife] to mend the torn back of a pair of leaves, a guard should be selected a little longer than the height of the pages and well pasted with white paste (see page ). if the pair of leaves are not quite separated, the pasted guard held by its extremities may be simply laid along the weak place and rubbed down through blotting-paper. if the leaves are quite apart, it is better to lay the pasted guard on a piece of glass and put the edges of first one and then the other leaf on to it and rub down. on an outside pair of leaves the guard should be inside, so that the glue may catch any ragged edges; while on the inside pair the guard should be outside, or it will be found to be troublesome in sewing. in handling the pasted guards care is needed not to stretch them, or they may cause the sheet to crinkle as they dry. [illustration: fig. .] plates must be guarded round the sections next them. when there are a great many plates the back margin of each, to which a guard will be attached, must be pared (see fig. , a), or the additional thickness caused by the guards will make the back swell unduly. in guarding plates a number can be pasted at once if they are laid one on another, with about an eighth of an inch of the back of each exposed, the top of the pile being protected by a folded piece of waste paper (see fig. ). to paste, the brush is brought from the top to the bottom of the pile only, and not the other way, or paste will get between the plates and soil them. guards should usually be attached to the backs of plates, and should be wide enough to turn up round the adjoining section, so that they may be sewn through. should a plate come in the middle of a section, the guard is best turned back and slightly pasted to the inside of the sheet and then sewn through in the ordinary way. [illustration: fig. .] if plates are very thick, they must be hinged, as shown at fig. , b. this is done by cutting a strip of about a quarter of an inch off the back of the plate, and guarding with a wide guard of linen, leaving a small space between the plate and the piece cut off to form a hinge. it will save some swelling if the plate is pared and a piece of thinner paper substituted for the piece cut off (see fig. , c). if the plates are of cardboard, they should be guarded on both sides with linen, and may even need a second joint. a book that consists entirely of plates or single leaves must be made up into sections with guards, and sewn as usual. in books in which there are a great many plates, it is often found that two plates either come together in the centre of a section, or come at opposite sides of the same pair of leaves. such plates should be guarded together and treated as folded sheets (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] in order to be sure that the pages of a book to be guarded throughout will come in their proper order, it is well to make a plan of the sections as follows, and to check each pair of leaves by it, as they are guarded:-- thus, if the book is to be made up into sections of eight leaves, the pairs of leaves to be guarded together can be seen at once if the number of the pages are written out-- , , , ,-- , , , . first the inside pair, and , are guarded together with the guard outside, then the next pair, and , then and , and then the outside pair, and , which should have the guard outside. a plan for the whole book would be more conveniently written thus-- - - - - - - - - - - - - , and so on. to arrange a book of single leaves for guarding, it is convenient to take as many leaves as you intend to go to a section, and opening them in the centre, take a pair at a time as they come. the number of leaves it is advisable to put into a section will depend on the thickness of the paper and the size and thickness of the book. if the paper is thick, and the backs of the leaves have been pared, four leaves to a section will be found to answer. but if the paper is thin, and does not allow of much paring, it is better to have a larger section, in order to have as little thread in the back as possible. the sheets of any guarded book should be pressed before sewing, in order to reduce the swelling of the back caused by the guards. throwing out [illustration: fig. .] maps or diagrams that are frequently referred to in the text of a book, should be "thrown out" on a guard as wide as the sheet of the book. such maps, &c., should be placed at the end, so that they may lie open for reference while the book is being read (see fig. ). large folded maps or diagrams should be mounted on linen. to do this take a piece of jaconet and pin it out flat on the board, then evenly paste the back of the map with thin paste in which there are no lumps, and lay it on the linen, rub down through blotting-paper, and leave to dry. unless the pasting is done evenly the marks of the paste-brush will show through the linen. if a folded map is printed on very thick paper each fold must be cut up, and the separate pieces mounted on the linen, with a slight space between them to form a flexible joint. [illustration: fig. .] a folded map must have in the back of the book sufficient guards to equal it in thickness at its thickest part when folded, or the book will not shut properly (see fig. ). paring paper for paring the edge of paper for mending or guarding, take a very sharp knife, and holding the blade at right angles to the covering-board, draw the edge once or twice along it from left to right. this should turn up enough of the edge to form a "burr," which causes the knife to cut while being held almost flat on the paper. the plate or paper should be laid face downwards on the glass with the edge to be pared away from the workman, the knife held in the right hand, with the burr downwards. the angle at which to hold the knife will depend on its shape and on the thickness and character of the paper to be pared, and can only be learned by practice. if the knife is in order, and is held at the proper angle, the shaving removed from a straight edge of paper should come off in a long spiral. if the knife is not in proper order, the paper may be badly jagged or creased. soaking off india proofs place a piece of well-sized paper in a pan of warm water, then lay the mounted india proof, face downwards, upon it and leave it to soak until the proof floats off. then carefully take out the old mount, and the india proof can be readily removed from the water on the under paper, and dried between sheets of blotting-paper. mounting very thin paper very thin paper, such as that of some "india" proofs, may be safely mounted as follows:--the mount, ready for use, is laid on a pad of blotting-paper. the thin paper to be mounted is laid face downwards on a piece of glass and very carefully pasted with thin, white paste. any paste on the glass beyond the edges of the paper is carefully wiped off with a clean cloth. the glass may then be turned over, and the pasted plate laid on the mount, its exact position being seen through the glass. splitting paper it is sometimes desirable to split pieces of paper when the matter on one side only is needed, or when the matter printed on each side is to be used in different places. the paper to be split should be well pasted on both sides with a thickish paste, and fine linen or jaconet placed on each side. it is then nipped in the press to make the linen stick all over, and left to dry. if the two pieces of jaconet are carefully pulled apart when dry, half the paper should be attached to each, unless at any point the paste has failed to stick, when the paper will tear. the jaconet and paper attached must be put into warm water until the split paper floats off. inlaying leaves or plates [illustration: fig. .] when a small plate or leaf has to be inserted into a larger book, it is best to "inlay it"; that is to say, the plate or leaf is let into a sheet of paper the size of the page of the book. to do this, a piece of paper as thick as the plate to be inlaid, or a little thicker, is selected, and on this is laid the plate, which should have been previously squared, and the positions of the corners marked with a folder. a point is made about an eighth of an inch inside each corner mark, and the paper within these points is cut out (see fig. ). this leaves a frame of paper, the inner edges of which will slightly overlap the edges of the plate. the under edge of the plate, and the upper edge of the mount, should then be pared and pasted, and the plate laid in its place (with the corners corresponding to the folder marks). if the edges have been properly pared, the thickness where they overlap should not exceed the thickness of the frame paper. if an irregular fragment is to be inlaid, it is done in the same way, except that the entire outline is traced on the new paper with a folder, and the paper cut away, allowing one eighth of an inch inside the indented line. flattening vellum the leaves of a vellum book that have become cockled from damp or other causes may be flattened by damping them, pulling them out straight, and allowing them to dry under pressure. to do this take the book to pieces, clean out any dirt there may be in the folds of the leaves, and spread out each pair of leaves as flatly as possible. damp some white blotting-paper by interleaving it with common white paper that has been wetted with a sponge. one sheet of wet paper to two of blotting-paper will be enough. the pile of blotting-paper and wet paper is put in the press and left for an hour or two under pressure, then taken out and the common paper removed. the blotting-paper should now be slightly and evenly damp. to flatten the vellum the open pairs of leaves are interleaved with the slightly damp blotting-paper, and are left for an hour under the weight of a pressing-board. after this time the vellum will have become quite soft, and can with care be flattened out and lightly pressed between the blotting-paper, and left for a night. the next day the vellum leaves should be looked at to see that they lie quite flat, and the blotting-paper changed for some that is dry. the vellum must remain under pressure until it is quite dry, or it will cockle up worse than ever when exposed to the air. the blotting-paper should be changed every day or two. the length of time that vellum leaves take to dry will vary with the state of the atmosphere, and the thickness of the vellum, from one to six weeks. almost any manuscript or printed book on vellum can be successfully flattened in this way; miniatures should have pieces of waxed paper laid over them to prevent the chance of any of the fibres of the blotting-paper sticking. the pressure must not be great; only enough is needed to keep the vellum flat as it dries. this process of flattening, although so simple, requires the utmost care. if the blotting-paper is used too damp, a manuscript may be ruined; and if not damp enough, the pressing will have no effect. chapter iv sizing--washing--mending sizing the paper in old books is sometimes soft and woolly. this is generally because the size has perished, and such paper can often be made perfectly sound by resizing. [illustration: fig. .] for size, an ounce of isinglass or good gelatine is dissolved in a quart of water. this should make a clear solution when gently warmed, and should be used at about a temperature of ° f. care must be taken not to heat too quickly, or the solution may burn and turn brown. if the size is not quite clear, it should be strained through fine muslin or linen before being used. when it is ready it should be poured into an open pan (fig. ), so arranged that it can be kept warm by a gas flame or spirit lamp underneath. when this is ready the sheets to be sized can be put in one after another and taken out at once. the hot size will be found to take out a great many stains, and especially those deep brown stains that come from water. if there are only a few sheets, they can be placed between blotting-paper as they are removed from the size; but if there is a whole book, it is best to lay them in a pile one on the other, and when all have been sized to squeeze them in the "lying press" between pressing-boards, a pan being put underneath to catch the liquid squeezed out. when the sheets have been squeezed they can be readily handled, and should be spread out to dry on a table upon clean paper. when they are getting dry and firm they can be hung on strings stretched across the room, slightly overlapping one another. the strings must first be covered with slips of clean paper, and the sized sheets should have more paper over them to keep them clean. before sizing it will be necessary to go through a book and take out any pencil or dust marks that can be removed with indiarubber or bread crumbs, or the size will fix them, and it will be found exceedingly difficult to remove them afterwards. when the sheets are dry they should be carefully mended in any places that may be torn, and folded up into sections and pressed. a long, comparatively light pressure will be found to flatten them better and with less injury to the surface of the paper than a short, very heavy pressure, such as that of the rolling-machine. in some cases it will be found that sheets of old books are so far damaged as to be hardly strong enough to handle. such sheets must be sized in rather a stronger size in the following way:--take a sheet of heavily-sized paper, such as notepaper, and carefully lay your damaged sheet on that. then put another sheet of strong paper on the top, and put all three sheets into the size. it will be found that the top sheet can then be easily lifted off, and the size be made to flow over the face of the damaged sheet. then, if the top sheet be put on again, the three sheets, if handled as one, can be turned over and the operation repeated, and size induced to cover the back of the damaged leaf. the three sheets must then be taken out and laid between blotting-paper to take up the surplus moisture. the top sheet must then be carefully peeled off, and the damaged page laid face downwards on clean blotting-paper. then the back sheet can be peeled off as well, leaving the damaged sheet to dry. the following is quoted from "chambers' encyclopædia" on gelatine:-- "gelatine should never be judged by the eye alone. "its purity may be very easily tested thus: soak it in cold water, then pour upon it a small quantity of boiling water. if pure, it will form a thickish, clear straw-coloured solution, free from smell; but if made of impure materials, it will give off a very offensive odour, and have a yellow, gluey consistency." washing when there are stains or ink marks on books that cannot be removed by the use of hot size or hot water, stronger measures may sometimes have to be taken. many stains will be found to yield readily to hot water with a little alum in it, and others can be got out by a judicious application of curd soap with a very soft brush and plenty of warm water. but some, and especially ink stains, require further treatment. there are many ways of washing paper, and most of those in common use are extremely dangerous, and have in many cases resulted in the absolute destruction of fine books. if it is thought to be absolutely necessary that the sheets of a book should be washed, the safest method is as follows:--take an ounce of permanganate of potash dissolved in a quart of water, and warmed slightly. in this put the sheets to be washed, and leave them until they turn a dark brown. this will usually take about an hour, but may take longer for some papers. then turn the sheets out and wash them in running water until all trace of purple stain disappears from the water as it comes away. then transfer them to a bath of sulphurous (not sulphuric) acid and water in the proportion of one ounce of acid to one pint of water. the sheets in this solution will rapidly turn white, and if left for some time nearly all stains will be removed. in case any stains refuse to come out, the sheets should be put in clear water for a short time, and then placed in the permanganate of potash solution again, and left there for a longer time than before; then after washing in clear water, again transferred to the sulphurous acid. when sheets are removed from the sulphurous acid they should be well washed for an hour or two in running water, and then may be blotted or squeezed off and hung up on lines to dry. any sheets treated in this way will require sizing afterwards. and if, as is often the case, only a few sheets at the beginning or end of the book have to be washed, it will be necessary to tone down the washed sheets to match the rest of the book by putting some stain in the size. for staining there are many things used. a weak solution of permanganate of potash gives a yellowish stain that will be found to match many papers. other stains are used, such as coffee, chicory, tea, liquorice, &c. whatever is used should be put in the size. to ascertain that the right depth of colour has been obtained, a piece of unsized paper, such as white blotting-paper, is dipped in the stained size and blotted off and dried before the fire. it is impossible to judge of the depth of colour in a stain unless the test piece is thoroughly dried. if the stain is not right, add more water or more stain as is needed. experience will tell what stain to use to match the paper of any given book. to remove grease or oil stains, ether may be used. pour it freely in a circle round the spot, narrowing the circle gradually until the stain is covered. then apply a warm iron through a piece of blotting-paper. ether should only be used in a draught in a well-ventilated room on account of its well-known inflammable and anæsthetical properties. a very dilute (about one per cent.) solution of pure hydrochloric acid in cold water will be found to take out some stains if the paper is left in it for some hours. when the paper is removed from the solution, it must be thoroughly washed in running water. it is important that the hydrochloric acid used should be pure, as the commercial quality (spirits of salts) often contains sulphuric acid. the following recipes are quoted from _de l'organisation et de l'administration des bibliothèques, par jules cusin_:-- to remove stains from paper:--"_mud stains._--to take away these kinds of stains, spread some soap jelly very evenly over the stained places, and leave it there for thirty or forty minutes, according to the depth of the stain. then dip the sheet in clean water, and then having spread it on a perfectly clean table, remove the soap lightly with a hog's hair brush or a fine sponge; all the mud will disappear at the same time. put the sheet into the clear water again, to get rid of the last trace of soap. let it drain a little, press it lightly between two sheets of blotting-paper, and finish by letting it dry slowly in a dry place in the shade. "_stains of tallow, stearine, or fat._--to take away these stains cover them with blotting-paper and pass over them a warm flat-iron. when the paper has soaked up the grease, change it and repeat the operation until the stains have been sufficiently removed. after that, touch both sides of the sheets where they have been stained with a brush dipped in essence of turpentine heated to boiling-point. then to restore the whiteness of the paper, touch the places which were stained with a piece of fine linen soaked in purified spirits of wine warmed in the water-bath. this method may also be employed to get rid of sealing-wax stains. "_oil stains._--make a mixture of gr. of soap, gr. of clay, gr. of quicklime, and sufficient water to make it of the right consistency, spread a thin layer of this on the stain, and leave it there about a quarter of an hour. then dip the sheet in a bath of hot water; take it out, and let it dry slowly. "you can also use the following method, generally employed for finger-marks:-- "_finger-marks._--these stains are sometimes very obstinate. still they can generally be mastered by the following method:--spread over them a layer of white soap jelly (_savon blanc en gelée_), and leave it there for some hours. then remove this with a fine sponge dipped in hot water, and more often than not all the dirt disappears at the same time. if this treatment is not sufficient, you might replace the soap jelly by soft soap (_savon noir_), but you must be careful not to leave it long on the printing, which might decompose and run, and that would do more harm than good." sheets of very old books are best left with the stains of age upon them, excepting, perhaps, such as can be removed with hot water or size. nearly all stains _can_ be removed, but in the process old paper is apt to lose more in character than it gains in appearance. mending for mending torn sheets of an old book, some paper that matches as nearly as possible must be found. for this purpose it is the custom for bookbinders to collect quantities of old paper. if a piece of the same tone cannot be found, paper of similar texture and substance may be stained to match. supposing a corner to be missing, and a piece of paper to have been found that matches it, the torn page is laid over the new paper in such a way that the wire marks on both papers correspond. then the point of a folder should be drawn along the edge of the torn sheet, leaving an indented line on the new paper. the new paper should then be cut off about an eighth of an inch beyond the indented line, and the edge carefully pared up to the line. the edge of the old paper must be similarly pared, so that the two edges when laid together will not exceed the thickness of the rest of the page. it is well to leave a little greater overlap at the edges of the page. both cut edges must then be well pasted with white paste and rubbed down between blotting-paper. to ensure a perfectly clean joint the pasted edge should not be touched with the hand, and pasting-paper, brushes, and paste must be perfectly clean. in the case of a tear across the page, if there are any overlapping edges, they may merely be pasted together and the end of the tear at the edge of the paper strengthened by a small piece of pared paper. if the tear crosses print, and there are no overlapping edges, either tiny pieces of pared paper may be cut and laid across the tear between the lines of print, or else a piece of the thinnest japanese paper, which is nearly transparent, may be pasted right along the tear over the print; in either case the mend should be strengthened at the edge of the page by an additional thickness of paper. in cases where the backs of the sections have been much damaged, it will be necessary to put a guard the entire length, or in the case of small holes, to fill them in with pieces of torn paper. the edges of any mend may, with great care, be scraped with a sharp knife having a slight burr on the under side, and then rubbed lightly with a piece of worn fine sand-paper, or a fragment of cuttle-fish bone. care must be taken not to pare away too much, and especially not to weaken the mend at the edges of the sheet. as a general rule, the new mending paper should go on the back of a sheet. sometimes it is thought necessary to fill up worm-holes in the paper. this may be done by boiling down some paper in size until it is of a pulpy consistency, and a little of this filled into the worm-holes will re-make the paper in those places. it is a very tedious operation, and seldom worth doing. mending vellum is done in much the same way as mending paper, excepting that a little greater overlap must be left. it is well to put a stitch of silk at each end of a vellum patch, as you cannot depend on paste alone holding vellum securely. the overlapping edges must be well roughed up with a knife to make sure that the paste will stick. a cut in a vellum page is best mended with fine silk with a lacing stitch (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] mending is most easily done on a sheet of plate-glass, of which the edges and corners have been rubbed down. chapter v end papers--leather joints--pressing end papers if an old book that has had much wear is examined, it will generally be found that the leaves at the beginning and the end have suffered more than the rest of the book. on this ground, and also to enable people who must write notes in books to do so with the least injury to the book, it is advisable to put a good number of blank papers at each end. as these papers are part of the binding, and have an important protective function to perform, they should be of good quality. at all times difficulty has been found in preventing the first and last section of the book, whether end papers or not, from dragging away when the cover is opened, and various devices have been tried to overcome this defect. in the fifteenth century strips of vellum (usually cut from manuscripts) were pasted on to the back of the book and on the inside of the boards, or in some cases were merely folded round the first and last section and pasted on to the covers. the modern, and far less efficient, practice is to "overcast" the first and last sections. this is objectionable, because it prevents the leaves from opening right to the back, and it fails in the object aimed at, by merely transferring the strain to the back of the overcast section. in order to make provision for any strain there may be in opening the cover, it is better to adopt some such arrangement as shown in fig. . in this end paper the zigzag opens slightly in response to any strain. the way to make this end paper is to take a folded sheet of paper a little larger than the book. then with dividers mark two points an eighth of an inch from the back for the fold, and paste your paste-down paper, b b, up to these points (see fig. , ii). when the paste is dry, fold back the sheet (a ) over the paste-down paper, and a the reverse way, leaving the form seen in fig. , iii. a folded sheet of paper similar to a is inserted at c (fig. , v, h), and the sewing passes through this. when the book is pasted down the leaf a is torn off, and b pasted down on the board. if marbled paper is desired, the marble should be "made," that is, pasted on to b . [illustration: fig. .] there are considerable disadvantages in using marbled papers, as if they are of thick enough paper to help the strength of the binding, the "made" sheet is very stiff, and in a small book is troublesome. on no account should any marble paper be used, unless it is tough and durable. the quality of the paper of which most marbled papers are made is so poor, that it is unsuitable for use as end papers. for most books a self-coloured paper of good quality answers well for the paste-down sheets. it is a mistake to leave end papers to be pasted on after the book has been forwarded, as in that case they have little constructive value. every leaf of such an end paper as is described above will open right to the back, and the zigzag allows play for the drag of the board. paper with a conventional pattern painted or printed on it may be used for end papers. if such a design is simple, such as a sprig repeated all over, or an arrangement of stars or dots, it may look very well; but over elaborate end papers, and especially those that aim at pictorial effect, are seldom successful. ends may be made of thin vellum. if so, unless the board is very heavy, it is best to have leather joints. a single leaf of vellum (in the place of b and , ii, fig. ) should have an edge turned up into the zigzag with the leather joint, and sewn through. vellum ends must always be sewn, as it is not safe to rely upon paste to hold them. they look well, and may be enriched by tooling. the disadvantage of vellum is, that it has a tendency to curl up if subjected to heat, and when it contracts it unduly draws the boards of the book. for large manuscripts, or printed books on vellum, which are bound in wooden or other thick boards and are clasped, thicker vellum may be used for the ends; that with a slightly brown surface looks best. the part that will come into the joint should be scraped thin with a knife, and a zigzag made of japanese paper. silk or other fine woven material may be used for ends. it is best used with a leather joint, and may be stuck on to the first paper of the end papers (b , no. , fig. ), and cut with the book. the glaire of the edge gilding will help to stop the edges fraying out. in attaching silk to paper, thin glue is the best thing to use; the paper, not the silk, being glued. some little practice is needed to get sufficient glue on the paper to make the silk stick all over, and yet not to soil it. when the silk has been glued to the paper, it should be left under a light weight to dry. if put in the press, the glue may be squeezed through and the silk soiled. if the silk is very thin, or delicate in colour, or if it seems likely that it will fray out at the edges, it is better to turn the edges in over a piece of paper cut a little smaller than the page of the book and stick them down. this forms a pad, which may be attached to the first leaf of the end papers; a similar pad may be made for filling in the board. before using, the silk should be damped and ironed flat on the wrong side. silk ends give a book a rich finish, but seldom look altogether satisfactory. if the silk is merely stuck on to the first end paper, the edges will generally fray out if the book is much used. if the edges are turned in, an unpleasantly thick end is made. leather joints leather joints are pieces of thin leather that are used to cover the joints on the inside (for paring, see page ). they add very little strength to the book, but give a pleasant finish to the inside of the board. if there are to be leather joints, the end papers are made up without a , and the edge of the leather pasted and inserted at d, with a piece of common paper as a protection (see fig. , iv). when the paste is dry, the leather is folded over at e. a piece of blotting-paper may be pasted on to the inside of the waste leaf, leaving enough of it loose to go between the leather joint and the first sheet of the end paper. this will avoid any chance of the leather joint staining or marking the ends while the book is being bound. the blotting-paper, of course, is taken out with the waste sheet before the joint is pasted down. joints may also be made of linen or cloth inserted in the same way. a cloth joint has greater strength than a leather one, as the latter has to be very thin in order that the board may shut properly. with leather or cloth joints, the sewing should go through both e and f. pressing [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--standing press] while the end papers are being made, the sections of the book should be pressed. to do this a pressing-board is taken which is a little larger than the book, and a tin, covered with common paper, placed on that, then a few sections of the book, then another tin covered with paper, and then more sections, and so on, taking care that the sections are exactly over one another (see fig. ). a second pressing-board having been placed on the last tin, the pile of sections, tins, and pressing-boards can be put into the standing-press and left under pressure till next day. newly printed plates should be protected by thin tissue paper while being pressed. any folded plates or maps, &c., or inserted letters, must either not be pressed, or have tins placed on each side of them to prevent them from indenting the adjoining leaves. [illustration: fig. .--french standing press] hand-printed books, such as the publications of the kelmscott press, should have very little pressure, or the "impression" of the print and the surface of the paper may be injured. books newly printed on vellum or heavily coloured illustrations should not be pressed at all, or the print may "set off." the protecting tissues on the plates of a book that has been printed for more than a year can generally be left out, unless the titles of the plates are printed on them, as they are a nuisance to readers and often get crumpled up and mark the book. in order to make books solid, that is, to make the leaves lie evenly and closely to one another, it was formerly the custom to beat books on a "stone" with a heavy hammer. this process has been superseded by the rolling-press; but with the admirable presses that are now to be had, simple pressing will be found to be sufficient for the "extra" binder. at fig. is shown an iron standing-press. this is screwed down first with a short bar, and finally with a long bar. this form of press is effective and simple, but needs a good deal of room for the long bar, and must have very firm supports, or it may be pulled over. at fig. is shown a french standing-press, in which the pressure is applied by a weighted wheel, which will, in the first place, by being spun round, turn the screw until it is tight, and give additional pressure by a hammering action. this press i have found to answer for all ordinary purposes, and to give as great pressure as can be got by the iron standing-press, without any undue strain on supports or workmen. there are many other forms of press by which great pressure can be applied, some working by various arrangements of cog-wheels, screws, and levers, others by hydraulic pressure. chapter vi trimming edges before sewing--edge gilding trimming before sewing when the sheets come from the press the treatment of the edges must be decided upon, that is, whether they are to be entirely uncut, trimmed before sewing, or cut in boards. early printed books and manuscripts should on no account have their edges cut at all, and any modern books of value are better only slightly trimmed and gilt before sewing. but for books of reference that need good bindings, on account of the wear they have to withstand, cutting in boards is best, as the smooth edge so obtained makes the leaves easier to turn over. gilt tops and rough edges give a book a look of unequal finish. if the edges are to remain uncut, or be cut "in boards" with the plough, the book will be ready for "marking up" as soon as it comes from the press; but if it is to be gilt before sewing, it must be first trimmed. [illustration: fig. .] the sheets for trimming with end papers and all plates inserted must first be cut square at the head against a carpenter's square (see fig. ). then a piece of mill-board may be cut to the size, it is desired to leave the leaves, and the sections trimmed to it. to do this three nails should be put into the covering board through a piece of straw-board, and the back of the section slid along nails and until it touches no. (see fig. ). the board is slid in the same way, and anything projecting beyond it cut off. when the under straw-board has become inconveniently scored in the first position, by shifting the lower nail ( ) a fresh surface will receive the cuts. fig. is a representation of a simple machine that i use in my workshop for trimming. the slides a a are adjustable to any width required, and are fixed by the screws b b. the brass-bound straight edge c fits on to slots in a a, and as this, by the adjustment of the slides, can be fixed at any distance from b b, all sizes of books can be trimmed. as by this machine several sections can be cut at once, the time taken is not very much greater than if the book were cut in the plough. [illustration: fig. .] considerable judgment is required in trimming. the edges of the larger pages only, on a previously uncut book, should be cut, leaving the smaller pages untouched. such uncut pages are called "proof," and the existence of proof in a bound book is evidence that it has not been unduly cut. before gilding the edges of the trimmed sections, any uncut folds that may remain should be opened with a folder, as if opened after gilding, they will show a ragged white edge. [illustration: fig. .] edge gilding to gild the edges of trimmed sections, the book must be "knocked up" to the fore-edge, getting as many of the short leaves as possible to the front. it is then put into the "lying press," with gilding boards on each side (see fig. no. ), and screwed up tightly. very little scraping will be necessary, and usually if well rubbed with fine sand-paper, to remove any chance finger-marks or loose fragments of paper, the edge will be smooth enough to gild. if the paper is very absorbent, the edges must be washed over with vellum size and left to dry. the next process is an application of red chalk. for this a piece of gilder's red chalk is rubbed down on a stone with water, making a thickish paste, and the edges are well brushed with a hard brush dipped in this mixture, care being taken not to have it wet enough to run between the leaves. some gilders prefer to use blacklead or a mixture of chalk and blacklead. a further brushing with a dry brush will to some extent polish the leaves. it will then be ready for an application of glaire. before glairing, the gold must be cut on the cushion to the width required (see p. ), and may be either taken up on very slightly greased paper, a gilder's tip, or with a piece of net stretched on a little frame (see fig. ). the gold leaf will adhere sufficiently to the net, and can be readily released by a light breath when it is exactly over the proper place on the edge. when the gold is ready, the glaire should be floated on to the edge with a soft brush, and the gold spread evenly over it and left until dry; that is, in a workshop of ordinary temperature, for about an hour. the edge is then lightly rubbed with a piece of leather that has been previously rubbed on beeswax, and is ready for burnishing. it is best to commence burnishing through a piece of thin slightly waxed paper to set the gold, and afterwards the burnisher can be used directly on the edge. a piece of bloodstone ground so as to have no sharp edges (see fig. ) makes a good burnisher. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. .] there are several different preparations used for gilding edges. one part of beaten up white of egg with four parts of water left to stand for a day and strained will be found to answer well. after the fore-edge is gilt the same operation is repeated at the head and tail. as it is desirable to have the gilding at the head as solid as possible, rather more scraping is advisable here, or the head may be left to be cut with a plough and gilt in boards. chapter vii marking up--sewing--materials for sewing marking up this is drawing lines across the back of the sections to show the sewer the position of the sewing cords. marking up for flexible sewing needs care and judgment, as on it depends the position of the bands on the back of the bound book. nearly all books look best with five bands, but very large, thinnish folios may have six, and a very small, thick book may look better with four. generally speaking, five is the best number. in marking up trimmed sheets for flexible sewing, the length of the back should be divided from the head into six portions, five equal, and one at the tail slightly longer. from the points so arrived at, strong pencil lines should be made across the back with a carpenter's square as guide, the book having been previously knocked up between pressing-boards, and placed in the lying press. it is important that the head should be knocked up exactly square, as otherwise the bands will be found to slope when the book is bound. in the case of a book which is to be cut and gilt in boards, before marking up it will be necessary to decide how much is to be cut off, and allowance made, or the head and tail division of the back will, when cut, be too small. it must also be remembered that to the height of the pages the amount of the "squares" will be added. about a quarter of an inch from either end of the back of a trimmed book, and a little more in the case of one that is to be cut in boards, a mark should be made for the "kettle" or "catch" stitch. this may be slightly sawn in, but before using the saw, the end papers are removed. if these were sawn, the holes would show in the joint when the ends are pasted down. if the book is to be sewn on double cords, or on slips of vellum or tape, two lines will be necessary for each band. it has become the custom to saw in the backs of books, and to sink the bands into the saw cuts, using "hollow backs," and putting false bands to appear when bound. this is a degenerate form, to which is due much of the want of durability of modern bindings. if the bands are not to show on the back, it is better to sew on tapes or strips of vellum than to use sawn-in string bands. sewing the sewing-frame need by bookbinders is practically the same now as is shown in prints of the early sixteenth century, and probably dates from still earlier times. it consists of a bed with two uprights and a crossbar, which can be heightened or lowered by the turning of wooden nuts working on a screw thread cut in the uprights (see fig. ). to set up for sewing, as many loops of cord, called "lay cords," as there are to be bands, are threaded on to the cross piece, and to these, by a simple knot, shown at fig. , cords are fastened to form the bands. the "lay cords" can be used again and again until worn out. [illustration: fig. .] to fasten the cord below, a key is taken (see fig. ) and held below the press by the right hand; the cord is then pulled up round it by the left, and held in position on the key by the first finger of the right hand. the key is then turned over, winding up a little of the string, and the prongs slipped over the main cord. it is then put through the slit in the bed of the sewing-press, with the prongs away from the front. the cord is then cut off, and the same operation repeated for each band. when all the bands have been set up, the book is laid against them, and they are moved to correspond with the marks previously made on the back of the book, care being taken that they are quite perpendicular. if they are of the same length and evenly set up, on screwing up the crossbar they should all tighten equally. it will be found to be convenient to set up the cords as far to the right hand of the press as possible, as then there will be room for the sewer's left arm on the inner side of the left hand upright. a roll of paper that will exactly fill the slot in the sewing-frame is pushed in in front of the upright cords to steady them and ensure that they are all in the same plane. when the sewing-frame is ready, with the cords set up and adjusted, the book must be collated to make sure that neither sheets nor plates have been lost or misplaced during the previous operations. plates need special care to see that the guards go properly round the sheets next them. [illustration: fig. .] the top back corner, on front and back waste end paper, should be marked. when this has been done, and all is found to be in order, the book is laid on a pressing-board behind the sewing-frame, the fore-edge towards the sewer, and the front end paper uppermost. as it is difficult to insert the needle into a section placed on the bed of the sewing-frame, it will be found convenient to sew upon a largish pressing-board, which will lie on the bed of the frame, and may have small catches to prevent it from shifting. when the board is in place, the first section (end paper) is taken in the left hand and turned over, so that the marks on the back come in the proper places against the strings. the left hand is inserted into the place where the sewing is to be, and with the right hand a needle and thread is passed through the kettle stitch mark (see fig. ). it is grasped by the fingers of the left hand, is passed out through the back at the first mark on the left-hand side of the first upright cord, and pulled tight, leaving a loose end of thread at the kettle stitch. then with the right hand it is inserted again in the same place, but from the other side of the cord, and so on round all five bands, and out again at the kettle stitch mark at the tail, using right and left hands alternately. the centre of the next section is then found, and it is sewn in the same way from tail to head, the thread being tied to the loose end hanging from the first kettle stitch. another section is laid on and sewn, but when the kettle stitch is reached, the under thread is caught up in the way shown in fig. . these operations are repeated throughout the whole book. if the back seems likely to swell too much, the sections can be lightly tapped down with a loaded stick made for the purpose, care being taken not to drive the sections inwards, as it is difficult to get such sections out again. when all the sheets and the last end paper have been sewn on, a double catch stitch is made, and the end cut off. this method is known as flexible sewing "all along." [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] when one needle full of thread is exhausted, another is tied on, making practically a continuous length of thread going all along each section and round every band. the weaver's knot is the best for joining the lengths of thread. a simple way of tying it is shown at fig. . a simple slip knot is made in the end of the new thread and put over the end of the old, and, on being pulled tight, the old thread should slip through, as shewn at b. the convenience of this knot is, that by its use a firm attachment can be made quite close up to the back of the book. this is a great advantage, as if the knot is made at some distance from the back, it will have to be dragged through the section two or three times, instead of only once. the knot, after having been made, must be pulled inside the section, and remain there. considerable judgment is required in sewing. if a book is sewn too loosely, it is almost impossible to bind it firmly; and if too tightly, especially if the kettle stitches have been drawn too tight, the thread may break in "backing," and the book have to be resewn. one way to avoid having too much swelling in the back of a book consisting of a great many very thin sections is to sew "two sheets on." in this form of sewing two sections at a time are laid on the sewing-frame. the thread is inserted at the "kettle stitch" of the lower section, and brought out as usual at the first cord, but instead of being reinserted into the lower section, it is passed into the upper one, and so on, alternately passing into the upper and lower sections. this will give, if there are five bands, three stitches in each section instead of six, as there would be if the sewing were "all along," lessening the thread, consequently the swelling by half. it is usual to sew the first and last few sections "all along." the common method of sewing is to make saw cuts in the back, in which thin cords can be sunk, and the thread merely passes behind them and not round them, as in flexible sewing. this method, although very quick and cheap, is not to be recommended, on account of the injury done to the backs of the sections by the saw, and because the glue running into the saw cuts is apt to make the back stiff, and to prevent the book from opening right to the back. indeed, were a sawn-in book to open right to the back, as it is expected a flexibly-sewn book will do, showing the sewing along the centre of each section, the saw marks with the band inserted would show, and be a serious disfigurement. mediæval books were usually sewn on double cords or strips of leather, and the headband was often sewn at the same time, as shown at fig. , a. this is an excellent method for very large books with heavy sections, and is specially suitable for large vellum manuscripts, in many of which the sections are very thick. an advantage of this method is, that the twist round the double cord virtually makes a knot at every band, and should a thread at any place break, there is no danger of the rest of the thread coming loose. this is the only mode of sewing by which a thread runs absolutely from end to end of the sections. the headband sewn at the same time, and so tied down in every section, is firmer and stronger than if worked on in the way now usual. in the fifteenth century it was the custom to lace the ends of the headbands into the boards in the same way as the other bands. this method, while giving additional strength at the head and tail, and avoiding the somewhat unfinished look of the cut-off ends of the modern headband, is, on the whole, of doubtful advantage, as it is necessary to cut the "turn in" at the point where strength in the leather is much wanted. at fig. is shown in section the three methods of sewing mentioned. a is the old sewing round double bands; with the headbands worked at the same time with the same thread; b is the modern flexible sewing, and c the common sawn-in method. [illustration: fig. .] books that are very thin or are to be bound in vellum, are best sewn on tapes or vellum slips. the easiest way to set up the sewing-frame for such sewing is to sling a piece of wood through two of the lay cords, and to pin one end of the vellum or tape band round this, pull the other end tight, and secure it with a drawing-pin underneath the frame. the sewing, in the case of such flat bands, would not go round, but only across them. to avoid undue looseness, every three or four threads may be caught up at the back of the band, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] materials for sewing the cord used should be of the best hemp, specially made with only two strands of very long fibres to facilitate fraying out. for very large books where a double cord is to be used, the best water line will be found to answer, care being taken to select that which can be frayed out. if tape is used it should be unbleached, such as the sailmakers use. thread should also be unbleached, as the unnecessary bleaching of most bookbinder's sewing-thread seems to cause it to rot in a comparatively short time. silk of the best quality is better than any thread. the ligature silk, undyed, as used by surgeons, is perhaps the strongest material, and can be had in various thicknesses. it is impossible to pay too great attention to the selection of sewing materials, as the permanency of the binding depends on their durability. the rebinding of valuable books is at best a necessary evil, and anything that makes frequent rebinding necessary, is not only objectionable on account of the cost involved, but because it seriously shortens the life of the book. experience is required to judge what thickness of thread to use for any given book. if the sections are very thin, a thin thread must be used, or the "swelling" of the back caused by the additional thickness of the thread in that part will be excessive, and make the book unmanageable in "backing." on the other hand, if the sections are large, and a too thin thread is used, there will not be enough swelling to make a firm "joint." broadly speaking, when there are a great many very thin sections, the thinnest thread may be used; and coarser thread may be used when the sections are thicker, or fewer in number. in the case of large manuscripts on vellum it is best to use very thick silk, or even catgut. vellum is so tough and durable, that any binding of a vellum book should be made as if it were expected to last for hundreds of years. in selecting the thickness of cord for a book, some judgment is required. on an old book the bands are best made rather prominent by the use of thick cord, but the exact thickness to be used is a matter for taste and experience to decide. a very thick band on a small book is clumsy, while a very thin band on the back of a heavy book suggests weakness, and is therefore unsightly. in bindings of early printed books and manuscripts an appearance of great strength is better than extreme neatness. when the sewing is completed, the cords are cut off close to the lay cords, and then the keys will be loose enough to be easily removed. the knots remaining on the lay bands are removed, and the keys slung through one of them. chapter viii fraying out slips--glueing up--rounding and backing fraying out slips and glueing up after sewing, the book should be looked through to see that all sheets and plates have been caught by the thread, and special attention should be given to end papers to see that the sewing lies evenly. the ends of the cords should next be cut off to within about two inches of the book on each side, and the free portions frayed out. if proper sewing cord is used, this will be found to be very easily done, if a binder's bodkin is first inserted between the two strands, separating them, and then again in the centre of each separated strand to still further straighten the fibres (see fig. ). the fraying out of the thick cord recommended for heavy books is a more difficult operation, but with a little trouble the fibres of any good cord can be frayed out. vellum or tape bands will only require cutting off, leaving about two inches free on each side. the free parts of the bands are called slips. [illustration: fig. .] the book is now ready for glueing up. a piece of waste mill-board or an old cloth cover is put on each side over the slips, and the book knocked up squarely at the back and head. then it is lowered into the lying press and screwed up, leaving the back with the protecting boards projecting about three-quarters of an inch. if the back has too much swelling in it or is spongy, it is better to leave the slips on one side free and to pull them as tight as possible while the book is held in the press, or a knocking-down iron may be placed on one side of the projecting back and the other side tapped with the backing hammer to make the sections lie close to one another, and then the slips pulled straight (fig. ). the back must now be glued. the glue for this operation must be hot, and not too thick. it is very important that it should be worked well between the sections with the brush, and it is well after it has been applied to rub the back with a finger or folder to make quite sure that the glue goes between every section for its entire length. if the book is too tightly screwed up in the press, the glue is apt to remain too much on the surface; and if not tightly enough, it may penetrate too deeply between the sections. if the glue is thick, or stringy, it may be diluted with hot water and the glue-brush rapidly spun round in the glue-pot to break it up and to make it work freely. [illustration: fig. .] very great care is needed to see that the head of a previously trimmed book is knocked up exactly square before the back is glued, for if it is not, it will be very difficult to get it even afterwards. rounding and backing the amount of rounding on the back of a book should be determined by the necessities of the case; that is to say, a back that has, through guarding, or excess of sewing, a tendency to be round, is best not forced to be flat, and a back that would naturally be flat, is best not forced to be unduly round. a very round back is objectionable where it can be avoided, because it takes up so much of the back margins of the sheets, and is apt to make the book stiff in opening. on the other hand, a back that is quite flat has to be lined up stiffly, or it may become concave with use. [illustration: fig. .] the method of rounding is to place the book with the back projecting a little over the edge of the press or table, then to draw the back over towards the workman, and, while in this position, to tap it carefully with a hammer (see fig. ). this is repeated on the other side of the book, and, if properly done, will give the back an even, convex form that should be in section, a portion of a circle. rounding and backing are best done after the glue has ceased to be tacky, but before it has set hard. [illustration: fig. .] backing is perhaps the most difficult and important operation in forwarding. the sewing threads in the back cause that part to be thicker than the rest of the book. thus in a book with twenty sections there will be in the back, in addition to the thickness of the paper, twenty thicknesses of thread. if the boards were laced on to the book without rounding or backing, and the book were pressed, the additional thickness of the back, having to go somewhere, would cause it to go either convex or concave, or else perhaps to crease up (see fig. ). the object of rounding is to control the distribution of this swelling, and to make the back take an even and permanently convex form. [illustration: fig. .] if the boards were merely laced on after rounding, there would be a gap between the square ends of the board and the edge of the back (see fig. ), though the convexity and even curve of the back would be to some extent assured. what is done in backing is to make a groove, into which the edges of the board will fit neatly, and to hammer the backs of the sections over one another from the centre outwards on both sides to form the "groove," to ensure that the back shall return to the same form after the book has been opened. [illustration: fig. .] to back the book, backing boards are placed on each side (leaving the slips outside) a short distance below the edge of the back (fig. ). the amount to leave here must be decided by the thickness of the boards to be used. when the backing boards are in position, the book and boards must be carefully lowered into the lying press and screwed up very tight, great care being taken to see that the boards do not slip, and that the book is put in evenly. even the most experienced forwarder will sometimes have to take a book out of the press two or three times before he gets it in quite evenly and without allowing the boards to slip. unless the back has a perfectly even curve when put in the press for backing, no amount of subsequent hammering will put it permanently right. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the backs of the sections should be evenly fanned out one over the other from the centre outwards on both sides. this is done by side strokes of the hammer, in fact by a sort of "riveting" blow, and not by a directly crushing blow (see fig. , in which the arrows show the direction of the hammer strokes). if the sections are not evenly fanned out from the centre, but are either zigzagged by being crushed by direct blows of the hammer, as shown in fig. , a, or are unevenly fanned over more to one side than the other, as shown in fig. , b, the back, although it may be even enough when first done, will probably become uneven with use. a book in which the sections have been crushed down, as at fig. , a, will be disfigured inside by creases in the paper. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] it is a mistake to suppose that a very heavy hammer is necessary for backing any but the largest books. for flexible books a hammer with a comparatively small face should be used, as by its use the book can be backed without flattening the bands. it is well to have a hammer head of the shape shown in fig. . by using the thin end, the force of a comparatively light blow, because concentrated on a small surface, is effective. at fig. is shown an ordinary backing hammer. chapter ix cutting and attaching boards--cleaning off back--pressing cutting and attaching boards the first quality of the best black board made from old rope is the best to use for "extra" binding. it will be found to be very hard, and not easily broken or bent at the corners. in selecting the thickness suitable for any given book, the size and thickness of the volume should be taken into account. the tendency of most modern binders is to use a rather over thick board, perhaps with a view to bulk out the volume. for manuscripts, or other books on vellum, it is best to use wooden boards, which should be clasped. from their stability they form a kind of permanent press, in which the vellum leaves are kept flat. in a damp climate like that of england, vellum, absorbing moisture from the atmosphere, soon cockles up unless it is held tightly in some way; and when it is once cockled, the book cannot be made to shut properly, except with very special treatment. then also dust and damp have ready access to the interstices of the crinkled pages, resulting in the disfigurement so well known and so deplored by all lovers of fine books. for large books a "made" board, that is, two boards pasted together, is better than a single board of the same thickness. in making boards a thin and a thick board should be pasted together, the thin board to go nearest the book. it will not be necessary to put a double lining on the inside of such boards, as a thin board will always draw a thick one. [illustration: fig. .] if mill-boards are used they are first cut roughly to size with the mill-board shears, screwed up in the "lying" press. the straight arm of the shears is the one to fix in the press, for if the bent arm be undermost, the knuckles are apt to be severely bruised against the end. a better way of fixing the shears is shown at fig. . any blacksmith will bend the arm of the shears and make the necessary clips. this method saves trouble and considerable wear and tear to the "lying" press. where a great many boards are needed, they may be quickly cut in a board machine, but for "extra" work they should be further trimmed in the plough, in the same way as those cut by the shears. after the boards have been roughly cut to size, they should have one edge cut straight with the plough. to do this one or two pairs of boards are knocked up to the back and inserted in the cutting side of the press, with those edges projecting which are to be cut off, and behind them, as a "cut against," a board protected by a waste piece of mill-board. the plough, held by the screw and handle, and guided by the runners on the press, is moved backwards and forwards. a slight turn of the screw at each movement brings the knife forward. in cutting mill-boards which are very hard, the screw should be turned very little each time. if press and plough are in proper order, that part of the board which projects above the cheek of the press should be cut off, leaving the edges perfectly square and straight. if the edge of the press has been damaged, or is out of "truth," a cutting board may be used between the cheek of the press and the board to be cut, making a true edge for the knife to run on. [illustration: fig. .--lying or cutting press] the position of the plough on the press is shown at fig. . the side of the press with runners should be reserved for cutting, the other side used for all other work. [illustration: fig. .] the plough knife for mill-boards should not be ground at too acute an angle, or the edge will most likely break away at the first cut. the shape shown at fig. is suitable. the knife should be very frequently ground, as it soon gets blunt, which adds greatly to the labour of cutting. after an edge has been cut, each side should be well rubbed with a folder to smooth down any burr left by the plough knife. then a piece of common paper with one edge cut straight is pasted on to one side of the board, with the straight edge exactly up to the cut edge of the board. then a piece of paper large enough to cover both sides of the board is pasted round it, and well rubbed down at the cut edge. after having been lined, the boards are nipped in the press to ensure that the lining paper shall stick. they are stood up to dry, with the doubly lined side outwards. the double paper is intended to warp the board slightly to that side, to compensate for the pull of the leather when the book is covered. if the board is a double one, a single lining paper will be sufficient, the thinner board helping to draw the thicker. the paste for lining boards must be fairly thin, and very well beaten up so as to be free from lumps. it is of the utmost importance that the lining papers should stick properly, for unless they stick, no subsequent covering of leather or paper can be made to lie flat. when the lined boards are quite dry, they should be paired with the doubly lined sides together, and the top back corner marked to correspond with the marks on the top back corners of the book. then near the top edge, with the aid of a carpenter's square, two points are marked in a line at right angles to the cut edge. the pair of boards is then knocked up to the back and lowered into the press as before, so that the plough knife will exactly cut through the points. the same operation is repeated on the two remaining uncut edges. in marking out those for the fore-edge, the measurement is taken with a pair of compasses (fig. ) from the joint of the book to the fore-edge of the first section. if the book has been trimmed, or is to remain uncut, a little more must be allowed for the "squares," and if it is to be cut in the plough, it must be now decided how much is to be cut off, remembering that it is much better to have the boards a little too large, and so have to reduce them after the book is cut, than to have them too small, and either be obliged to get out a new pair of boards, or unduly cut down the book. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the height of the boards for a book that has been trimmed, or is to remain uncut, will be the height of the page with a small allowance at each end for the squares. when a pair of boards has been cut all round, it can be tested for squareness by reversing one board, when any inequality that there may be will appear doubled. if the boards are out of truth they should generally be put on one side, to be used for a smaller book, and new boards got out. to correct a badly cut pair of boards, it is necessary to reduce them in size, and the book consequently suffers in proportion. if the boards have been found to be truly cut, they are laid on the book, and the position of the slips marked on them by lines at right angles to the back. a line is then made parallel to the back, about half an inch in (see fig. ). at the points where the lines cross, a series of holes is punched from the front with a binder's bodkin on a lead plate, then the board is turned over, and a second series is punched from the back about half an inch from the first. if the groove of the back is shallower than the thickness of the board, the top back edge of the board should be bevelled off with a file. this will not be necessary if the groove is the exact depth. when the holes have been punched, it is well to cut a series of v-shaped depressions from the first series of holes to the back to receive the slips, or they may be too prominent when the book is bound. it will now be necessary to considerably reduce the slips that were frayed out after sewing, and to remove all glue or any other matter attached to them. the extent to which they may be reduced is a matter of nice judgment. in the desire to ensure absolute neatness in the covering, modern binders often reduce the slips to almost nothing. on the other hand, some go to the other extreme, and leave the cord entire, making great ridges on the sides of the book where it is laced in. it should be possible with the aid of the depressions, cut as described, to use slips with sufficient margin of strength, and yet to have no undue projection on the cover. a slight projection is not unsightly, as it gives an assurance of sound construction and strength, and, moreover, makes an excellent starting-point for any pattern that may be used. when the slips have been scraped and reduced, the portion left should consist of long straight silky fibres. these must be well pasted, and the ends very slightly twisted. the pointed ends are then threaded through the first series of holes in the front of the board, and back again through the second (fig. ). in lacing-in the slips must not be pulled so tight as to prevent the board from shutting freely, nor left so loose as to make a perceptible interval in the joint of the book. the pasted slips having been laced in, their ends are cut off with a sharp knife, flush with the surface of the board. the laced-in slips are then well hammered on a knocking-down iron (see fig. ), first from the front and then from the back, care being taken that the hammer face should fall squarely, or the slips may be cut. this should rivet them into the board, leaving little or no projection. if in lacing in the fibres should get twisted, no amount of hammering will make them flat, so that it is important in pointing the ends for lacing in, that only the points are twisted just sufficiently to facilitate the threading through the holes, and not enough to twist the whole slip. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] to lace slips into wooden boards, holes are made with a brace and fine twist bit, and the ends of the frayed out slips may be secured with a wooden plug (see fig. ). old books were sometimes sewn on bands of leather, but as those sewn on cord seem to have lasted on the whole much better, and as, moreover, modern cord is a far more trustworthy material than modern leather, it is better to use cord for any books bound now. [illustration: fig. .] cleaning off the back and pressing [illustration: fig. .] when the boards have been laced on and the slips hammered down, the book should be pressed. before pressing, a tin is put on each side of both boards, one being pushed right up into the joint on the inside, and the other up to the joint, or a little over it, on the outside. while in the press, the back should be covered with paste and left to soak for a few minutes. when the glue is soft the surplus on the surface can be scraped off with a piece of wood shaped as shown in fig. . for important books it is best to do this in the lying press, but some binders prefer first to build up the books in the standing press, and then to paste the backs and clean them off there. this has the advantage of being a quicker method, and will, in many cases, answer quite well. but for books that require nice adjustment it will be found better to clean off each volume separately in the lying press, and afterwards to build up the books and boards in the standing press, putting the larger books at the bottom. it must be seen that the entire pile is exactly in the centre under the screw, or the pressure will be uneven. to ascertain if the books are built up truly, the pile must be examined from both the front and side of the press. each volume must also be looked at carefully to see that it lies evenly, and that the back is not twisted or out of shape. this is important, as any form given to the book when it is pressed at this stage will be permanent. any coloured or newly printed plates will need tissues, as in the former pressing; and any folded plates or diagrams or inserted letters will need a thin tin on each side of them to prevent them from marking the book. again, the pressure on hand-printed books must not be excessive. the books should be left in the press at least a night. when taken out they will be ready for headbanding, unless the edges are to be cut in boards. chapter x cutting in boards--gilding and colouring edges cutting in boards the knife for cutting edges may be ground more acutely than for cutting boards, and should be very sharp, or the paper may be torn. the plough knife should never be ground on the under side, as if the under side is not quite flat, it will tend to run up instead of cutting straight across. before beginning to cut edges, the position of the knife should be tested carefully by screwing the plough up, with the press a little open, and noting whereabouts on the left-hand cheek the point of the knife comes. in a press that is true the knife should just clear the edge of the press. if there is too much packing the knife will cut below the edge of the press, and if too little, it will cut above. "packing" is paper inserted between the knife and the metal plate on the plough, to correct the position of the knife. when by experiment the exact thickness of paper necessary for any given knife is found, the packing should be carefully kept when the knife is taken out for grinding, and put back with it into the plough. the first edge to be cut is the top, and the first thing to do is to place the boards in the position they will hold when the book is bound. the front board is then dropped the depth of the square required, care being taken that the back edge of the board remains evenly in the joint. a piece of cardboard, or two or three thicknesses of paper, are then slipped in between the end paper and the back board to prevent the latter from being cut by the knife. the book is then carefully lowered into the press, with the back towards the workman, until the top edge of the front board is exactly even with the right-hand cheek, and the press screwed up evenly. the back board should show the depth of the square above the left-hand cheek. it is very important that the edge of the back board should be exactly parallel with the press, and if at first it is not so, the book must be twisted until it is right. the edges can now be cut with the plough as in cutting mill-boards. the tail of the book is cut in the same way, still keeping the back of the book towards the workman, but cutting from the back board. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] cutting the fore-edge is more difficult. the waste sheets at each end of the book should be cut off flush with the edge of the board, and marks made on them below the edge showing the amount of the square, and consequently how much is to be cut off. the curve of the back, and consequent curve of the fore-edge, must first be got rid of, by inserting a pair of pieces of flat steel called "trindles" (fig. ) across the back, from the inside of the boards. when these are inserted the back must be knocked quite flat, and, in the case of a heavy book, a piece of tape may be tied round the leaves (see fig. ) to keep them in position. a pair of cutting boards is placed one on each side of the leaves, the back one exactly up to the point that the edge of the board came to, and the front one as much below that point as it is desired the square of the fore-edge should be. the trindles are removed while the book is held firmly between the cutting boards by the finger and thumb; book and boards are then lowered very carefully into the press. the top edge of the front cutting board should be flush with the right-hand cheek of the press, and that of the back a square above the left-hand cheek (see fig. ). a further test is to look along the surface of the right-hand cheek, when, if the book has been inserted truly, the amount of the back cutting board in sight should exactly correspond with the amount of the paper to be cut showing above the front board. it will also be necessary before cutting to look at the back, and to see that it has remained flat. if it has gone back to its old curve, or the book has been put into the press crookedly, it must be taken right out again and the trindles inserted afresh, as it is usually a waste of time to try to adjust the book when it is in the press. the leaves are cut in the same way as those of the head and tail. [illustration: fig. .] gilding or colouring the edges of a cut book gilding the edges of a book cut in boards is much the same process as that described for the trimmed book, excepting that when gilt in boards the edges can be scraped and slightly sand-papered. it is the custom to admire a perfectly solid gilt edge, looking more like a solid sheet of metal, than the leaves of a book. as the essential characteristic of a book is, that it is composed of leaves, this fact is better accepted and emphasised by leaving the edges a little rough, so that even when gilt they are evidently the edges of leaves of paper, and not the sides of a block, or of something solid. to gild the edges of a cut book the boards should be turned back, and cutting boards put on each side of the book flush with the edge to be gilt. for the fore-edge the book must be thrown up with trindles first, unless it is desired to gild in the round, a process which gives the objectionable solid metallic edge. after the edges have been gilt they may be decorated by tooling, called "gauffering." this may be done, either by tooling with hot tools directly on the gold while the leaves are screwed up tightly in the press, or by laying another coloured gold on the top of the first and tooling over that, leaving the pattern in the new gold on the original colour. but, to my mind, edges are best left undecorated, except for plain gold or colour. if the edges are to be coloured, they should be slightly scraped, and the colour put on with a sponge, commencing with the fore-edge, which should be slightly fanned out, and held firmly, by placing a pressing-board above it, and pressing with the hand on this. the colour must be put on very thinly, commencing from the centre of the fore-edge and working to either end, and as many coats put on as are necessary to get the depth of colour required. the head and tail are treated in the same way, excepting that they cannot be fanned out, and the colour should be applied from the back to the fore-edge. if in the fore-edge an attempt is made to colour from one end to the other, and if in the head or tail from the fore-edge to the back, the result will almost certainly be that the sponge will leave a thick deposit of colour round the corner from which it starts. for colouring edges almost any stain will answer, or ordinary water-colours may be used if moistened with size. when the colour is dry the edge should be lightly rubbed over with a little beeswax, and burnished with a tooth burnisher (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] in addition to plain colour and gilding, the edges of a book may be decorated in a variety of ways. the fore-edge may be fanned out and painted in any device in water-colour and afterwards gilded; the painting will only show when the book is open. the fore-edge for this must be cut very solid, and if the paper is at all absorbent, must be sized with vellum size before being painted. the paints used must be simple water-colour, and the edge must not be touched with the hand before gilding, as if there is any grease or finger-mark on it, the gold will not stick evenly. painting on the fore-edge should only be attempted when the paper of the book is thin and of good quality. more common methods of decorating edges are by marbling and sprinkling, but they are both inferior to plain colouring. some pleasant effects are sometimes obtained by marbling edges and then gilding over the marbling. chapter xi headbanding headbands modern headbands are small pieces of vellum, gut, or cord sewn on to the head and tail of a book with silk or thread. they resist the strain on the book when it is taken from the shelf. the vellum slip or cord must be of such a depth, that when covered with silk it will be slightly lower than the square of the boards. the cut edge of the vellum always slants, and the slip must be placed in position so that it tilts back rather than forward on the book. to start, ease the boards slightly on the slips and pull them down with the top edges flush with the top edge of the leaves. if this is not done the silk catches on the projecting edges as the band is worked. stand the book in a finishing press, fore-edge to the worker, and tilted forward so as to give a good view of the headband as it is worked. the light must come from the left, and well on to the work. a needle threaded with silk is put in at the head of the book, and through the centre of the first section after the end papers, and drawn out at the back below the kettle stitch with about two-thirds of the silk. the needle is again inserted in the same place, and drawn through until a loop of silk is left. the vellum slip is placed in the loop, with the end projecting slightly to the left. it must be held steady by a needle placed vertically behind it, with its point between the leaves of the first section. the needle end of silk is then behind the headband, and the shorter end in front. the needle end is brought over from the back with the right hand, passed into the left hand, and held taut. the short end is picked up with the right hand, brought over the needle end under the vellum, and pulled tight from the back. this is repeated; the back thread is again drawn up and over the band to the front, the needle end crosses it, and is drawn behind under the vellum slip, and so on. the crossing of the threads form a "bead," which must be watched, and kept as tight as possible, and well down on the leaves of the book. whenever the vellum or string begins to shift in position, it must be tied down. this is done when the needle end of silk is at the back. a finger of the left hand is placed on the thread of silk at the back, and holds it firmly just below the slip. the needle end is then brought up and over the slip, but instead of crossing it with the front thread, the needle is passed between the leaves and out at the back of the book, below the kettle stitch, and the thread gradually drawn tight, and from under the left-hand finger. the loop so made will hold the band firmly, and the silk can then be brought up and over the slip and crossed in the usual way. the band should be worked as far as the end papers, and should be finished with a double "tie down," after which the front thread is drawn under the slip to the back. both the ends of silk are then cut off to about half an inch, frayed out, and pasted down as flatly as possible on the back of the book. the band should be tied down frequently. it is not too much to tie down every third time the needle end of the silk comes to the back. to make good headbands the pull on the silk must be even throughout. when the ends of the silk are pasted down, the ends of the vellum slip are cut off as near the silk as possible. the correct length of the headband is best judged by pressing the boards together with thumb and finger at the opposite ends of the band, so as to compress the sections into their final compass. if the band then buckles in the least, it is too long and must be shortened. the mediæval headbands were sewn with the other bands (see fig. ), and were very strong, as they were tied down at every section. modern worked headbands, although not so strong, are, if frequently tied down, strong enough to resist any reasonable strain. there are many other ways of headbanding, but if the one described is mastered, the various other patterns will suggest themselves if variety is needed. for very large books a double headband may be worked on two pieces of gut or string--a thick piece with a thin piece in front. the string should first be soaked in thin glue and left to dry. such a band is worked with a figure of eight stitch. headbands may also be worked with two or three shades of silk. as vellum is apt to get hard and to break when it is used for headbanding, it is well to paste two pieces together with linen in between, and to cut into strips as required. machine-made headbands can be bought by the yard. such bands are merely glued on, but as they have but little strength, should not be used. where leather joints are used, the headbands may be worked on pieces of soft leather sized and screwed up. if the ends are left long and tied in front while the book is being covered, they may be conveniently let into grooves in the boards before the leather joint is pasted down. this method, i think, has little constructive value, but it certainly avoids the rather unfinished look of the cut-off headband. chapter xii preparing for covering--paring leather--covering--mitring corners--filling-in boards preparing for covering after the headband is worked, a piece of brown or other stout paper should be well glued on at the head and tail, care being taken that it is firmly attached to the back and the headband. when dry, the part projecting above the headband is neatly cut off, and the part on the back well sand-papered, to remove any irregularity caused by the tie-downs attaching the headband. for most books this will be quite sufficient lining up, but very heavy books are best further lined up between the bands with linen, or thin leather. this can be put on by pasting the linen or leather and giving the back a very thin coat of glue. the only thing now left to do before covering will be to set the squares and to cut off a small piece of the back corner of each board at the head and tail, to make it possible for the boards to open and shut without dragging the head-cap out of place. the form of the little piece to be cut off varies with each individual binder, but i have found for an octavo book that a cut slightly sloping from the inside cutting off the corner about an eighth of an inch each way, gives the best result (see fig. ). when the corner has been cut off, the boards should be thrown back, and the slips between the book and the board well pasted. when these have soaked a little, the squares of the boards are set; that is, the boards are fixed so that exactly the same square shows on each board above head and tail. a little larger square is sometimes an advantage at the tail to keep the head-cap well off the shelf, the essential thing being that both head and both tail squares should be the same. in the case of an old book that has not been recut, the edges will often be found to be uneven. in such cases the boards must be made square, and so set that the book stands up straight. [illustration: fig. .] when the slips have been pasted and the squares set, tins can be put inside and outside the boards, and the book given a slight nip in the press to flatten the slips. only a comparatively light pressure should be given, or the lining up of the headbands or back will become cockled and detached. paring leather while the slips are being set in the press the cover can be got out. judgment is necessary in cutting out covers. one workman will be able, by careful cutting, to get six covers out of a skin where another will only get four. the firm part of the skin is the back and sides, and this only should be used for the best books. the fleshy parts on the flanks and belly will not wear sufficiently well to be suitable for good bookbinding. the skin should be cut out leaving about an inch all round for turning in when the book is covered, and when cut out it must be pared. if the leather is of european manufacture most of the paring will have been done before it is sold, and the leather manufacturer will have shaved it to any thickness required. this is a convenience that is partly responsible for the unduly thin leather that is commonly used. the better plan is to get the leather rather thick, and for the binder to pare it down where necessary. for small books it is essential, in order that the covers may open freely, and the boards not look clumsy, that the leather should be very thin at the joint and round the edges of the boards. for such books it is very important that a small, naturally thin skin should be used that will not have to be unduly pared down, and that the large and thicker skins should be kept for large books. binders like using large skins because there is much less waste, but if these skins are used for small books, so much of the leather substance has to be pared away, that only the comparatively brittle grained surface remains. by the modern process of dyeing this surface is often to some extent injured, and its strength sometimes totally destroyed. when the cover has been cut to size the book is laid on it with the boards open, and a pencil line drawn round them, a mark being made to show where the back comes. the skin is then pared, making it thin where the edge of the boards will come. great care must be taken that the thinning does not commence too abruptly, or a ridge will be apparent when the leather is on the book. the paring must be done quite smoothly and evenly. every unevenness shows when the cover is polished and pressed. care is needed in estimating the amount that will have to be pared off that part of the leather that covers the back and joints. the object of the binder should be to leave these portions as thick as he can consistently with the free opening of the boards. the leather at the head-caps must be pared quite thin, as the double thickness on the top of the headband is apt to make this part project above the edges of the board. this is a great trouble, especially at the tail, where, if the head-cap projects beyond the boards, the whole weight of the book rests on it, and it is certain to be rubbed off when the book is put on the shelf. [illustration: fig. .] the method of paring with a french knife (fig. , a)--the only form of knife in use by binders that gives sufficient control over the leather--is shown at fig. . to use this knife properly, practice is required. the main thing to learn is that the knife must be used quite flat, and made to cut by having a very slight burr on the under side. this burr is got by rubbing the knife on the lithographic stone on which the paring is done. the handle of the knife should never be raised to such a height above the surface of the stone that it is possible to get the under fingers of the right hand over the edge of the stone. another form of knife suitable for paring the edges of leather is shown at fig. , b. [illustration: fig. .] to test if the leather has been sufficiently pared, fold it over where the edge of the board will come, and run the finger along the folded leather. if the paring has been done properly it will feel quite even the whole length of the fold; but if there are any irregularities, they will be very apparent, and the paring must be gone over again till they have disappeared. when even, the book must be again laid on the leather with the boards open, and a pencil line drawn round as before. if there are leather joints they will have been pared before the book was sewn, and care must be taken in paring the turn-in of the cover that it is of the same thickness as the leather joint, or it will be impossible to make a neat mitre at the back corners. covering before covering, the book must be looked at to see that the bands are quite square and at equal distances apart. any slight errors in this respect can be corrected by holding the book in the lying press between backing boards and gently tapping the bands from one side or the other with a piece of wood struck with a hammer. this is best done when the back is cleaned off, but by damping the bands slightly it may be done just before covering. the squares must be looked to, and the edges of the board well rubbed with a folder, or tapped with a hammer, to remove any burr that may have been caused by the plough knife, or any chance blow. the back is then moistened with paste, or, in the case of a very large book, with thin glue, and left to soak. the cover can then be well pasted with thickish paste, that has been previously well beaten up. when the cover is pasted, it can be folded with the pasted sides together and left to soak for a few minutes while the back is again looked to, and any roughness smoothed down with the folder. before covering, the bands should be nipped up with band nippers (see fig. ) to make sure that they are sharp. the coverer should have ready before covering a clean paring stone, one or two folders, a pair of nickeled-band nippers, a clean sponge, a little water in a saucer, a piece of thread, and a strip of smooth wood (boxwood for preference), called a band stick, used for smoothing the leather between the bands, a pair of scissors, and a small sharp knife, a pair of waterproof sheets the size of the book, and, if the book is a large one, a pair of tying up boards, with tying up string, and two strips of wood covered in blotting-paper or leather. it is best to have the band nippers for covering nickeled to prevent the iron from staining the leather. the waterproof sheets recommended are thin sheets of celluloid, such as are used by photographers. [illustration: fig. .] when these things are ready, the pasted cover should be examined and repasted if it has dried in any place. the amount of paste to be used for covering can only be learned by experience. a thick leather will take more than a thin one, but, provided the cover sticks tight at every point, the less paste used the better. if there is too much, it will rub up and make very ugly, uneven places under the leather; and if there is too little, the cover will not stick. [illustration: fig. .] take the pasted cover and look to see which is the better side of the leather. lay the front of the book down on this exactly up to the marks that show the beginning of the turn-in. then draw the leather over the back and on to the other side, pulling it slightly, but not dragging it. then stand the book on its fore-edge on a piece of waste paper, with the leather turned out on either side, as shown at fig. , and nip up the bands with nickeled band nippers (see fig. ). after this is done there will probably be a good deal of loose leather on the back. this can be got rid of by dragging the leather on to the side; but by far the better plan, when the back is large enough to allow it, is to work up the surplus leather on to the back between the panels. this requires a good deal of practice, and is very seldom done; but it can be done with most satisfactory results. the book should now have the leather on the back stretched lengthways to make it cover the bands, but not stretched the other way, and the leather on the boards should lie perfectly flat and not be stretched at all. the leather on the fore-edge of the board is then rubbed with the hand on the outside, and then on to the edge, and then on the inside. the edge and the inside are smoothed down with a folder, and any excessive paste on the inside squeezed out and removed. when the fore-edge of both boards has been turned in, the head and tail must also be turned in. a little paste is put on to that part of the leather that will turn in below the headband, and this portion is neatly tucked in between the boards and the back. the turned-in edge must lie quite evenly, or it will result in a ridge on the back. the leather is turned in on the two boards in the same way as described for the fore-edge, and the edge rubbed square with a folder. at fig. is shown a convenient form of folder for covering. at the corners the leather must be pulled over as far as possible with two folders meeting at the extreme point, the object being to avoid a cut in the leather at the corner of the board. the folds so formed must be cut off with the scissors (see fig. , a), then one edge tucked neatly under the other, (b). care must be taken throughout not to soil the edges of the leaves. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] at the headband the fold of leather, pared thin for the purpose, must be squeezed together with a folder and pulled out a little to leave an even projection that can be turned over to form a head-cap. when both ends have been turned in, in this way, the boards must each be opened and pressed against a straight-edge held in the joint (fig. ) to ensure that there is enough leather in the turn-in of the joint to allow the cover to open freely; and the leather of the turn-in at the head and tail must be carefully smoothed down with a folder. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the book may now be shut up if a waterproof sheet is put at each end to prevent the damp of the cover from cockling the paper. it must then be stood on its fore-edge and the bands again nipped up with a pair of nickeled band nippers, and the panels between the bands well pressed down with the band stick to cause the leather to stick at every point. a piece of thread is tied round the back from head to tail, squeezing the leather in the gap caused by the corners of the board having been cut off. the book is then turned up on end, resting the tail on a folder or anything that will keep the projecting leather for the head-cap from being prematurely flattened. the head-caps (fig. ) must now be set. to do this the first finger of the left hand is placed behind it, and a sharp folder is pressed into the corners of the head-cap between the headband and the thread. the leather is then tapped over the headband, and the whole turned over on the stone and rubbed at the back with a folder. this operation requires great nicety. the shape of head-cap is shown at fig. . the nice adjustment of head-caps and corners, although of no constructional value, are the points by which the forwarding of a book is generally valued. [illustration: fig. .] if the book is a large one, it will be best to tie it up. the method of tying up is shown in fig. . the tying up cords will make marks at the side of the bands, that are not unpleasant on a large book. if they are objected to, it is best to tie the book up for about half-an-hour, and then to untie it, and smooth out the marks with the band stick. even with small books, if the leather seems inclined to give trouble, it is well to tie them up for a short time, then to untie them, to smooth out any marks or inequalities, and to tie them up again. mitring corners and filling in a book that has been covered should be left under a light weight until the next day, with waterproof sheets between the damp cover and the end paper to prevent the sheets of the book from cockling through the damp. when the cover is thoroughly set the boards should be carefully opened, pressing them slightly to the joint to ensure a square and even joint. if, as is sometimes the case, the turn-in of the leather over the joint seems to be inclined to bind, the cover should be merely opened half-way, and the leather of the turns-in of the joint damped with a sponge, and left to soak for a short time, and then the cover can usually be opened without any dragging. a section of a good joint is shown at fig. , a, and a bad one at b. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the next operation will be to fill in the board and mitre the corners. to fill in the boards, a piece of paper as thick as the turn-in of the leather (engineer's cartridge paper answers very well) should be cut a little smaller than the board, with one edge cut straight; then with the straight edge adjusted to the back of the board, and a weight placed on the centre, the paper is marked round with dividers set to the intended width of the turn-in of the leather. then with a sharp knife, paper and leather may be cut through together. the paper should then be marked to show its position on the board, and the ragged edges of the leather trimmed off. this will leave an even margin of leather on three sides of the inside of the board, and a piece of paper that will exactly fit the remaining space. the corners must next be mitred. to do this, both thicknesses of leather are cut through from the corner of the board to the corner of the inside margin. the knife should be held slightly slanting to make a cut, as shown at fig. . the corners should then be thoroughly damped, and the overlapping leather from both sides removed, leaving what should be a neat and straight join. if the leather at the extreme corner should prove to be, as is often the case, too thick to turn in neatly, the corners should be opened out and the leather pared against the thumb nail, and then well pasted and turned back again. the extreme corner may be slightly tapped on the stone with a hammer, and the sides rubbed with a folder, to ensure squareness and sharpness. when all four corners have been mitred, the filling in papers can be pasted in. as they will probably stretch a little with the paste, it will be well to cut off a slight shaving, and they should then fit exactly. when the boards have been filled in and well rubbed down, the book should be left for some hours with the boards standing open to enable the filling-in papers to draw the boards slightly inwards to overcome the pull of the leather. in cases where there are leather joints the operation is as follows: the waste end paper is removed, and the edge of the board and joint carefully cleaned from glue and all irregularities, and if, as is most likely, it is curved from the pull of the leather, the board must be tapped or ironed down until it is perfectly straight. if there is difficulty in making the board lie straight along the joint before pasting down, it will be well first to fill in with a well pasted and stretched thin paper, which, if the boards are left open, will draw them inwards. if the leather joint is pasted down while the board is curved, the result will be a most unsightly projection on the outside. when the joint has been cleaned out, and the board made to lie flat, the leather should be pasted down and mitred. the whole depth of the turn-in of the covering leather in the joint must not be removed, or it will be unduly weakened. the mitring line should not come from the extreme corner, but rather farther down, and there it is well to leave a certain amount of overlap in the joint, for which purpose the edge of the turn-in leather and the edge of the leather joint should be pared thin. after pasting down the leather joints the boards should be left open till they are dry (see fig. ). the turn-in and leather joint are then trimmed out, leaving an even margin of leather all round the inside of the board, and the panel in the centre filled in with a piece of thick paper. [illustration: fig. .] when corners and filling in are dry, the boards may be shut up, and the book is ready for finishing. it is a common practice to wash up the covers of books that have become stained with a solution of oxalic acid in water. this is a dangerous thing to do, and is likely to seriously injure the leather. leather, when damp, must not be brought in contact with iron or steel tools, or it may be badly stained. chapter xiii library binding--binding very thin books--scrap-books--binding on vellum--books covered with embroidery library binding _specifications iii and iv_ to produce cheaper bindings, as must be done in the case of large libraries, some alteration of design is necessary. appearance must to some extent be sacrificed to strength and durability, and not, as is too often the case, strength and durability sacrificed to appearance. the essentials of any good binding are, that the sections should be sound in themselves, and that there should be no plates or odd sheets "pasted on," or anything that would prevent any leaf from opening right to the back; the sewing must be thoroughly sound; the sewing materials of good quality; the slips firmly attached to the boards; and the leather fairly thick and of a durable kind, although for the sake of cheapness it may be necessary to use skins with flaws on the surface. such flawed skins cost half, or less than half, the price of perfect skins, and surface flaws do not injure the strength of the leather. by sewing on tape, great flexibility of the back is obtained, and much time, and consequent expense, in covering is saved. by using a french joint much thicker leather than usual can be used, with corresponding gain in strength. to bind an octavo or smaller book according to the specification given (iii, page ); first make all sections sound, and guard all plates or maps. make end papers with zigzags. after the sections have been thoroughly pressed, the book will be ready for marking up and sewing. in marking up for sewing on tapes, two marks will be necessary for each tape. when there are several books of the same size to be sewn, they may be placed one above the other in the sewing press, and sewn on to the same tapes. it will be found that the volumes when sewn can easily be slid along the tapes, which must be long enough to provide sufficient for the slips of each. the split boards may be "made" of a thin black mill-board with a thicker straw-board. to "make" a pair of split boards the pieces of straw-and mill-board large enough to make the two are got out, and the straw-board well glued, except in the centre, which should previously be covered with a strip of thin mill-board or tin about four inches wide. the strip is then removed, and the thin black board laid on the glued straw-board and nipped in the press. when dry, the made board is cut down the centre, which will leave two boards glued together all over except for two inches on one side of each. the boards then are squared to the book in a mill-board machine. the back of the book is glued up, and in the ordinary way rounded and backed. the edges may be cut with a guillotine. the ends of the tapes are glued on the waste end paper, which should be cut off about an inch and a half from the back. the split boards are then opened and glued, and the waste end papers with slips attached are placed in them (see fig. ), and the book nipped in the press. to form a "french joint" the boards should be kept about an eighth of an inch from the back of the book. the book is then ready for covering. the leather must not be pared too thin, as the french joint will give plenty of play and allow the use of much thicker leather than usual. if time and money can be spared, headbands can be worked, but they are not absolutely necessary, and a piece of string may be inserted into the turning of the leather at head and tail in the place of them. when the book is covered, a piece of string should be tied round the joints, and the whole given a nip in the press. the corners of the boards should be protected by small tips of vellum or parchment. the sides may be covered with good paper, which will wear quite as well as cloth, look better, and cost less. [illustration: fig. .] the lettering of library books is very important (see chapter xv). binding very thin books books consisting of only one section may be bound as follows:--a sheet of paper to match the book, and two coloured sheets for end papers, are folded round the section, and a "waste" paper put over all. a strip of linen is pasted to the back of the waste, and the whole sewn together by stitching through the fold. the waste may be cut off and inserted with the linen in a split board, as for library bindings. the back edges of the board should be filed thin, and should not be placed quite up to the back, to allow for a little play in the joints. the leather is put on in the ordinary way, except that the linen at the head and tail must be slit a little to allow for the turn in. if waterproof sheets are first inserted, the ends may be pasted, the boards shut, and the book nipped in the press. by substituting a piece of thin leather for the outside coloured paper, a leather joint can be made. scrap-books scrap-books, into which autograph letters, sketches, or other papers can be pasted, may be made as follows:--enough paper of good quality is folded up to the size desired, and pieces of the same paper, of the same height, and about two inches wide, are folded down the centre and inserted between the backs of the larger sheets, as shown at fig. . it is best not to insert these smaller pieces in the centre of the section, as they would be troublesome in sewing. if, after sewing, the book is filled up with waste paper laid between the leaves, it will make it manageable while being forwarded. it is best to use a rather darkly-toned or coloured paper, as, if a quite white paper is used, any letters or papers that have become soiled, will look unduly dirty. [illustration: fig. .] autograph letters may be mounted in the following ways:--if the letter is written upon both sides of a single leaf, it may be either "inlaid," or guarded, as shown at fig. , a. a letter on a folded sheet of notepaper should have the folds strengthened with a guard of strong thin paper, and be attached by a guard made, as shown at fig. , b; or if on very heavy paper, by a double guard, as shown at fig. , c. torn edges of letters may be strengthened with thin japanese paper. [illustration: fig. .] thin paper, written or printed only on one side, may be mounted on a page of the book. it is better to attach these by their extreme edges only, as if pasted down all over they may cause the leaves to curl up. letters or any writing or drawing in lead pencil should be fixed with size before being inserted. silver prints of photographs are best mounted with some very quick-drying paste, such as that sold for the purpose by the photographic dealers. if the leaf on which they are mounted is slightly damped before the photograph is pasted down, it will be less likely to cockle. if this is done, waterproof sheets should be put on each side of the leaf while it dries. if photographs are attached by the edges only, they will not be so liable to draw the paper on which they are mounted; but sometimes they will not lie flat themselves. in cases where very thick letters or papers have to be pasted in, a few more leaves of the book should be cut out, to make a corresponding thickness at the back. vellum bindings vellum covers may be limp without boards, and merely held in place by the slips being laced through them, or they may be pasted down on boards in much the same way as leather. if the edges of a book for limp vellum binding are to be trimmed or gilt, that should be done before sewing. for the ends a folded piece of thin vellum may replace the paste-down paper. the sewing should be on strips of vellum. the back is left square after glueing, and headbands are worked as for leather binding, or may be worked on strips of leather, with ends left long enough to lace into the vellum (see p. ). the back and headbands are lined with leather, and the book is ready for the cover. a piece of vellum should be cut out large enough to cover the book, and to leave a margin of an inch and a half all round. this is marked with a folder on the under side, as shown at fig. , a. spaces and are the size of the sides of the book with surrounding squares; space is the width of the back, and space the width for the overlaps on the fore-edge. the corners are cut, as shown at , and the edges are folded over, as at b. the overlap is then turned over, and the back folded, as at c. the slips are now laced through slits made in the vellum. [illustration: fig. .] a piece of loose, toned paper may be put inside the cover to prevent any marks on the book from showing through; and pieces of silk ribbon of good quality are laced in as shown, going through both cover and vellum ends, if there are any, and are left with ends long enough to tie (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] if paper ends are used, the silk tape need only be laced through the cover, and the end paper pasted over it on the inside. another simple way of keeping a vellum book shut is shown at fig. . a bead is attached to a piece of gut laced into the vellum, and a loop of catgut is laced in the other side, and looped over the bead as shown. if the book is to have stiff boards, and the vellum is to be pasted to them, it is best to sew the sections on tapes or vellum slips, to back the book as for leather, and to insert the ends of the slips in a split board, leaving a french joint, as described for library bindings. vellum is very stiff, and, if it is pasted directly to the back, the book would be hard to open. it is best in this case to use what is known as a hollow back. [illustration: fig. .] to make a hollow back, a piece of stout paper is taken which measures once the length of the back and three times the width. this is folded in three. the centre portion is glued to the back and well rubbed down, and the overlapping edges turned back and glued one to the other (fig. ). this will leave a flat, hollow casing, formed by the single paper glued to the back of the book and the double paper to which the vellum may be attached. or it is better to line up the back with leather, and to place a piece of thick paper the size of the back on to the pasted vellum where the back will be when the book is covered. when the book is ready for covering, the vellum should be cut out and lined with paper. in lining vellum the paste must be free from lumps, and great care must be taken not to leave brush marks. to avoid this, when the lining paper has been pasted it can be laid, paste downwards, on a piece of waste paper and quickly pulled up again; this should remove surplus paste and get rid of any marks left by the brush. when the vellum has been lined with paper, it should be given a light nip in the press between blotting-paper, and while still damp it is pasted, the book covered, and the corners mitred. a piece of thin string is tied round the head-caps and pressed into the french joint. [illustration: fig. .] waterproof sheets are placed inside the covers, and the book then nipped in the press and left to dry under a light weight. if the vellum is very stiff and difficult to turn in, it may be moistened with a little warm water to soften it. books with raised bands have sometimes been covered with vellum, but the back becomes so stiff and hard, that this method, though it looks well enough, cannot be recommended. vellum is a durable material, and can be had of good quality, but it is so easily influenced by changes of temperature, that it is rather an unsuitable material for most bindings. books covered with embroidery and woven material to cover a book with embroidered material bind it with split boards, a french joint, and a hollow back, as described for vellum (see fig. ). glue the back of the book with thin glue well worked up, and turning in the head and tail of the embroidery, put the book down on it so that the back will come exactly in the right place. press down the embroidery with the hand to make sure that it sticks. when it is firmly attached to the back, first one board and then the other should be glued, and the embroidery laid down on it. lastly, the edges are glued and stuck down on the inside of the board, and the corners mitred. velvet or any other thick material can be put down in the same way. for very thin material that the glue would penetrate and soil, the cover should be left loose, and only attached where it turns in. a loose lining of good paper may be put between the book and the cover. the inside corners where the cover has been cut should be neatly sewn up. the edges of the boards and head-caps may be protected all round with some edging worked in metal thread. it is well in embroidering book covers to arrange for some portion of the pattern to be of raised metal stitches, forming bosses that will protect the surface from wear. should any glue chance to get on the surface, the cover should be held in the steam of a kettle and the glue wiped off, and the cover again steamed. chapter xiv decoration--tools--finishing--tooling on vellum--inlaying on leather decoration of binding--tools the most usual, and perhaps the most characteristic, way of decorating book covers is by "tooling." tooling is the impression of heated (finishing) tools. finishing tools are stamps of metal that have a device cut on the face, and are held in wooden handles (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] tooling may either be blind tooling, that is, a simple impression of the hot tools, or gold tooling, in which the impression of the tool is left in gold on the leather. tools for blind tooling are best "die-sunk," that is, cut like a seal. the "sunk" part of the face of the tool, which may be more or less modelled, forms the pattern, and the higher part depresses the leather to form a ground. in tools for gold tooling, the surface of the tool gives the pattern. tools may be either complex or simple in design, that is to say, each tool may form a complete design with enclosing border, as the lower ones on page , or it may be only one element of a design, as at fig. . lines may be run with a fillet (see fig. ), or made with gouges or pallets. gouges are curved line tools. they are made in sets of arcs of concentric circles (see fig. , a). the portion of the curves cut off by the dotted line c will make a second set with flatter curves. gouges are used for tooling curved lines. [illustration: fig. .] a "pallet" may be described as a segment of a roll or fillet set in a handle, and used chiefly for putting lines or other ornaments across the backs of books (see fig. ). a set of one-line pallets is shown at fig. , b. fillets are cut with two or more lines on the edge. although the use of double-line fillets saves time, i have found that a few single-line fillets with edges of different gauges are sufficient for running all straight lines, and that the advantage of being able to alter the distances between any parallel lines is ample compensation for the extra trouble involved by their use. in addition to the rigid stamps, an endless pattern for either blind or gold tooling may be engraved on the circumference of a roll, and impressed on the leather by wheeling. [illustration: fig. .] the use of a roll in finishing dates from the end of the fifteenth century, and some satisfactory bindings were decorated with its aid. the ease with which it can be used has led in modern times to its abuse, and i hardly know of a single instance of a modern binding on which rolls have been used for the decoration with satisfactory results. the gain in time and trouble is at the expense of freedom and life in the design; and for extra binding it is better to build up a pattern out of small tools of simple design, which can be arranged in endless variety, than to use rolls. tools for hand-tooling must not be too large, or it will be impossible to obtain clear impressions. one inch square for blind tools, or three-quarters of an inch for gold tools, is about the maximum size for use with any certainty and comfort. tools much larger than this have to be worked with the aid of a press, and are called blocks. finishing the first thing the finisher does to a book is to go over the back with a polisher and smooth out any irregularities. two forms of polisher are shown at fig. . the lower one is suitable for polishing backs and inside margins, and the upper for sides. polishers must be used warm, but not too hot, or the leather may be scorched, and they must be kept moving on the leather. before using they should be rubbed bright on a piece of the finest emery paper, and polished on a piece of leather. new polishers often have sharp edges that would mark the leather. these must be rubbed down with files and emery-paper. leathers with a prominent grained surface, such as morocco, seal or pig skin, may either have the grain rough or crushed flat. if there is to be much finishing, the grain had better be crushed, but for large books that are to have only a small amount of finishing, the grain is best left unflattened. [illustration: fig. .] if the grain of the leather is to be "crushed," it may be done at this stage. to do this, one board at a time is damped with a sponge and put in the standing-press, with a pressing plate on the grained side, and a pad of blotting-paper, or some such yielding substance, on the other (see fig. ). the press is then screwed up tight, and the board left for a short time. for some leathers this operation is best done after the binding has been finished and varnished, in which case, of course, the boards cannot be damped before pressing. no flexibly sewn book should be subject to great pressure after it has been covered, or the leather on the back may crinkle up and become detached. the next thing will be to decide what lettering and what decoration, if any, is to be put on the volume. the lettering should be made out first (see page ). if the book is to be at all elaborately decorated, paper patterns must be made out, as described in chapter xvi. [illustration: fig. .] for tooling the back, the book is held in the finishing press between a pair of backing boards lined with leather (see fig. ), and the paper pattern put across the back, with the ends either slightly pasted to the backing boards, or caught between them and the book. for the sides, the pattern is very slightly pasted on to the leather at the four corners. the book is then put in the finishing press, with the board to be tooled open and flat on the cheek of the press, unless the book is a large one, when it is easier to tool the sides out of the press. [illustration: fig. .] the selected tools, which should be ready on the stove (see fig. ), are one at a time cooled on a wet pad, and then pressed in their former impressions upon the paper. the degree of heat required varies a good deal with the leather used, and will only be learned by experience. it is better to have the tool too cool than too hot, as it is easy to deepen impressions after the paper is removed; but if they are already too deep, or are burnt, it will be impossible to finish clearly. generally speaking, tools should hiss very slightly when put on the cooling pad. in cooling, care must be taken to put the shank of the tools on to the wet pad, as, if the end only is cooled, the heat is apt to run down again, and the tool will still be too hot. [illustration: fig. .--finishing stove] before removing the paper, one corner at a time should be lifted up, and the leather examined to see that no part of the pattern has been missed. in some patterns where the design is close, or in which the background is dotted in, it will not be necessary to blind in every leaf and dot through the paper. if the lines with perhaps the terminal leaves are blinded in, the rest can be better worked directly through the gold. this method implies the "glairing in" of the whole surface. it is not suitable for open patterns, where the glaire might show on the surface of the leather. if the book is only to have lines, or some simple straight line pattern, it is often easier to mark it up without the paper, with a straight-edge and folder. in panelling a back, the side lines of all the panels should be marked in at the same time with a folder, working against the straight-edge, held firmly at the side of the back. if the panels are worked separately, it is difficult to get the side lines squarely above each other. the lines at the top and bottom of the panel may be marked in with a folder, guided by a piece of stiff vellum held squarely across the back. if there are lines to be run round the board, they can be marked in with a pair of dividers guided by the edge of the board, except those at the back. these must be measured from the fore-edge of the board and run in with straight-edge and folder. when straight lines occur in patterns that are blinded through the paper, it will be enough if the ends only are marked through with a small piece of straight line, and the lines completed with straight-edge and folder, after the paper has been removed. unless the finisher has had considerable experience, it is best to deepen all folder lines by going over them in blind with a fillet or piece of straight line. when the pattern has been worked in blind, either through a paper pattern or directly on to the leather with the tools, and any inlays stuck on (see page ), the cover should be well washed with clean water. some finishers prefer to use common vinegar or diluted acetic acid for washing up books. if vinegar is used it must be of the best quality, and must not contain any sulphuric acid. cheap, crude vinegar is certain to be injurious to the leather. porous leather, such as calf or sheep skin, will need to be washed over with paste-water, and then sized. paste-water is paste and water well beaten up to form a milky liquid, and is applied to the leather as evenly as possible with a sponge. when the paste-water is dry, the leather should be washed with size. size can be made by boiling down vellum cuttings, or by dissolving gelatine or isinglass in warm water. for the less porous leathers, such as morocco, seal, or pig skin, no paste-water or size is necessary, unless the skin happens to be a specially open one, or the cover has been cut from the flank or belly. then it is best to put a little paste in the vinegar or water used for washing up. when the leather is nearly, but not quite, dry the impressions of the tools must be painted with glaire. finishers' glaire may be made from the white of eggs well beaten up, diluted with about half as much vinegar, and allowed to settle. some finishers prefer to use old, evil-smelling glaire, but provided it is a day old, and has been well beaten up, fresh glaire will work quite well. the impressions of any heavy or solid tools should be given a second coat of glaire when the first has ceased to be "tacky," and if the leather is at all porous, all impressions had better have a second coat. as glaire is apt to show and disfigure the leather when dry, it is best to use it as sparingly as possible, and, excepting where the pattern is very close, to confine it to the impressions of the tools. it is not at all an uncommon thing to see the effect of an otherwise admirably tooled binding spoilt by a dark margin round the tools, caused by the careless use of glaire. glaire should not be used unless it is quite liquid and clean. directly it begins to get thick it should be strained or thrown away. the finisher should not glaire in more than he can tool the same day. when the glaire has ceased to be "tacky," the gold is laid on. [illustration: fig. .] at first it will be found difficult to manage gold leaf. the essential conditions are, that there should be no draught, and that the cushion and knife should be quite free from grease. the gold cushion and knife are shown at fig. . a little powdered bath-brick rubbed into the cushion will make it easier to cut the gold cleanly. the blade of the gold knife should never be touched with the hand, and before using it, both sides should be rubbed on the cushion. a book of gold is laid open on the cushion, and a leaf of gold is lifted up on the gold knife, which is slipped under it, and turned over on to the cushion. a light breath exactly in the centre of the sheet should make it lie flat, when it may be cut into pieces of any size with a slightly sawing motion of the knife. the book with the pattern ready prepared, and the glaire sufficiently dry (not sticky), is rubbed lightly with a small piece of cotton-wool greased with a little cocoanut oil. the back of the hand is greased in the same way, and a pad of clean cotton-wool is held in the right hand, and having been made as flat as possible by being pressed on the table, is drawn over the back of the hand. this should make it just greasy enough to pick up the gold, but not too greasy to part with it readily when pressed on the book. as little grease as possible should be used on the book, as an excess is apt to stain the leather and to make the gold dull. after experiment it has been found that cocoanut oil stains the leather less than any other grease in common use by bookbinders, and is more readily washed out by benzine. [illustration: fig. .] if the gold cracks, or is not solid when pressed on the book, a second thickness should be used. this will stay down if the under piece is lightly breathed upon. for narrow strips of gold for lines, a little pad covered with soft leather may be made, as in fig. . it will be found of advantage to first use the bottom leaf of gold in the book and then to begin at the top and work through, or else the bottom leaf will almost certainly be found to be damaged by the time it is reached. the gold used should be as nearly pure as it can be got. the gold-beaters say that they are unable to beat pure gold as thin as is usual for gold leaf; but the quite pure gold is a better colour than when alloyed, and the additional thickness, although costly, results in a more solid impression of the tools. the cost of a book of twenty-four leaves three and a half inches square of english gold leaf of good ordinary quality is from s. d. to s. d., whereas the cost of a book of double thick pure gold leaf is s. to s. d. for tooled work it is worth paying the increased price for the sake of the advantages in colour and solidity; but for lines and edges, which use up an immense amount of gold, the thinner and cheaper gold may quite well be used. besides pure gold leaf, gold alloyed with various metals to change its colour can be had. none of the alloys keep their colour as well as pure gold, and some of them, such as those alloyed with copper for red gold, and with silver for pale gold, tarnish very quickly. these last are not to be recommended. for silver tooling aluminium leaf may be used, as silver leaf tarnishes very quickly. when the gold is pressed into the impressions of the tools with the pad of cotton-wool, they should be plainly visible through it. the pattern must now be worked through the gold with the hot tools. the tools are taken from the stove, and if too hot cooled on a pad as for blinding-in. the heat required to leave the gold tooling solid and bright and the impressions clear will vary for different leathers, and even for different skins of the same leather. for trial a tool may be laid on the pad until it ceases to hiss, and one or two impressions worked with it. if the gold fails to stick, the heat may be slightly increased. if the leather is slightly damp from the preparation the tools will usually work better, and less heat is required than if it has been prepared for some time and has got dry. before using, the faces of all tools must be rubbed bright on the flesh side of a piece of leather. it is impossible to tool brightly with dirty tools. a tool should be held in the right hand, with the thumb on the top of the handle, and steadied with the thumb or first finger of the left hand. the shoulder should be brought well over the tool, and the upper part of the body used as a press. if the weight of the body is used in finishing, the tools can be worked with far greater firmness and certainty, and with less fatigue, than if the whole work is done with the muscles of the arms. large and solid tools will require all the weight that can be put on them, and even then the gold will often fail to stick with one impression. tools with small surfaces, such as gouges and dots, must not be worked too heavily, or the surface of the leather may be cut. to strike a large or solid tool, it should first be put down flat, and then slightly rocked from side to side and from top to bottom, but must not be twisted on the gold. a tool may be struck from whichever side the best "sight" can be got, and press and book turned round to the most convenient position. it is difficult to impress some tools, such as circular flower tools, twice in exactly the same place. such tools should have a mark on one side as a guide. this should always be kept in the same position when blinding-in and tooling, and so make it possible to impress a second time without "doubling." an impression is said to be "doubled" when the tool has been twisted in striking, or one impression does not fall exactly over the other. the hot tool should not be held hovering over the impression long, or the preparation will be dried up before the tool is struck. tooling will generally be brighter if the tools are struck fairly sharply, and at once removed from the leather, than if they are kept down a long time. to "strike" dots, the book should be turned with the head to the worker, and the tool held with the handle inclining slightly towards him. this will make them appear bright when the book is held the right way up. gouges must be "sighted" from the inside of the curve, and struck evenly, or the points may cut into the leather. short straight lines may be put in with pieces of line, and longer ones with a fillet. a one line fillet is shown at fig. ; the space filed out of the circumference is to enable lines to be joined neatly at the corners. that the lines may be clearly visible through the gold, the book should be placed so that the light comes from the left hand of the worker and across the line. it is well to have a basin of water in which to cool fillets, as there is so much metal in them, that the damp sponge or cotton used for cooling tools would very rapidly be dried up. when the fillet has been cooled, the edge should be rubbed on the cleaning pad, and the point exactly adjusted to the corner of the line to be run (see fig. ). the fillet is then run along the line with even pressure. [illustration: fig. .] for slightly curved lines, a very small fillet may be used. when all the prepared part of a pattern has been tooled, it is well rubbed to remove the loose gold with a slightly greasy rag, or with a piece of bottle indiarubber which has been softened in paraffin. after a time the rubber or rag may be sold to the gold-beater, who recovers the gold. to prepare indiarubber for cleaning off gold, a piece of bottle rubber is cut into small pieces and soaked in paraffin for some hours. this should cause the pieces to reunite into a soft lump. this can be used until it is yellow with gold throughout. when all free gold is rubbed off, the finisher can see where the tooling is imperfect. impressions which are not "solid" must be reglaired, have fresh gold laid on, and be retooled. but if, as will sometimes happen with the best finishers, the gold has failed to stick properly anywhere, it is best to wash the whole with water or vinegar, and prepare afresh. as an excess of grease is apt to dull the gold and soil the leather, it is better to use it very sparingly when laying on fresh gold for mending. for patching, benzine may be used instead of grease. when the gold is picked up on the cotton-wool pad, rapidly go over the leather with wool soaked in benzine, and at once lay down the gold. benzine will not hold the gold long enough for much tooling, but it will answer for about half-an-hour, and give plenty of time for patching. imperfect tooling arises from a variety of causes. if an impression is clear, but the gold not solid, it is probably because the tool was not hot enough, or was not put down firmly. if only one side of an impression fails to stick, it is usually because the tool was unevenly impressed. if an impression is blurred, and the gold has a frosted look, it is because the leather has been burned, either because the tool was too hot, or kept down too long, or the preparation was too fresh. to mend double or burnt impressions the leather should be wetted and left to soak a short time, and the gold can be picked out with a wooden point. when nearly dry the impressions should be put in again with a cool tool, reglaired and retooled. it is very difficult to mend neatly if the leather is badly burnt. sometimes it may be advisable to paste a piece of new leather over a burnt impression before retooling. if a tool is put down in the wrong place by mistake, it is difficult to get the impression out entirely. the best thing to do is to damp the leather thoroughly, leave it to soak for a little while, and pick up the impression with the point of a pin. it is best not to use an iron point for this, as iron is apt to blacken the leather. leather is difficult to tool if it has not a firm surface, or if it is too thin to give a little when the tool is struck. when the tooling is finished, and the loose gold removed with the rubber, the leather should be washed with benzine, to remove any grease and any fragments of gold that may be adhering by the grease only. the inside margins of the boards are next polished and varnished, and the end papers pasted down. or if there is a leather joint, the panel left on the board may be filled in (see chapter xvii). when the end papers are dry, the sides and back may be polished and varnished. it is important that the varnish should be of good quality, and not too thick, or it will in time turn brown and cause the gold to look dirty. some of the light french spirit varnishes prepared for bookbinders answer well. varnish must be used sparingly, and is best applied with a pad of cotton-wool. a little varnish is poured on to the pad, which is rubbed on a piece of paper until it is seen that the varnish comes out thinly and evenly. it is then rubbed on the book with a spiral motion. the quicker the surface is gone over, provided every part is covered, the better. varnish will not work well if it is very cold, and in cold weather both the book and varnish bottle should be slightly warmed before use. should an excess of varnish be put on in error, or should it be necessary to retool part of the book after it has been varnished, the varnish can be removed with spirits of wine. varnish acts as a preservative to the leather, but has the disadvantage, if used in excess, of making it rather brittle on the surface. it must, therefore, be used very sparingly at the joints. it is to be hoped that a perfectly elastic varnish, that will not tarnish the gold, will soon be discovered. as soon as the varnish is dry the boards may be pressed, one at a time, to give the leather a smooth surface (see fig. ), leaving each board in the press for some hours. [illustration: fig. .] after each board has been pressed separately the book should be shut, and pressed again with pressing plates on each side of it, and with tins covered with paper placed inside each board. light pressure should be given to books with tight backs, or the leather may become detached. if, on removing from the press, the boards will not keep shut, the book should be pressed again with a folded sheet of blotting-paper in each end. the blotting-paper should have the folded edge turned up, and be placed so that this turned-up edge will be in the joint behind the back edge of the board when the book is shut. a small nipping-press suitable for giving comparatively light pressure, is shown at fig. . tooling on vellum most covering vellum has a sticky surface, that marks if it is handled. this should be washed off with clean water before tooling. the pattern is blinded in through the paper as for leather, excepting that the paper must not be pasted directly to the vellum, but may be held with a band going right round the board or book. it is best to glaire twice, and to lay on a small portion of gold at a time with benzine. as vellum burns very readily, the tools must not be too hot, and some skill is needed to prevent them from slipping on the hard surface. vellum must not be polished or varnished. inlaying on leather inlaying or onlaying is adding a different leather from that of the cover, as decoration. thus on a red book, a panel or a border, or other portion, may be covered with thin green leather, or only flowers or leaves may be inlaid, while a jewel-like effect may be obtained by dots, leaves, and flowers, tooled over inlays of various colours. leather for inlaying should be pared very thin. to do this the leather is cut into strips, wetted, and pared on a stone with a knife shaped somewhat as at fig. , b. when the thin leather is dry the inlays of the leaves and flowers, &c., may be stamped out with steel punches cut to the shape of the tools; or if only a few inlays are needed, the tools may be impressed on the thin leather, and the inlays cut out with a sharp knife. the edges of the larger inlays should be pared round carefully. for inlaying a panel or other large surface, the leather is pared very thin and evenly with a french knife, and a piece of paper pasted on to the grained side and left to dry. when dry, the shape of the panel, or other space to be inlaid, is marked on it through the paper pattern, and leather and paper cut through to the shape required. the edges must then be carefully pared, and the piece attached with paste, and nipped in the press to make it stick. when the paste is dry, the paper may be damped and washed off. the object of the paper is to prevent the thin leather from stretching when it is pasted. for white inlays it is better to use japanese paper than leather, as white leather, when pared very thin, will show the colours of the under leather through, and look dirty. if paper is used, it should be sized with vellum size before tooling. when many dots or leaves are to be inlaid, the pieces of leather, cut out with the punch, may be laid face downwards on a paring stone, and a piece of paper, thickly covered with paste, laid on it. this, on being taken up, will carry with it the "inlays," and they can be picked up one at a time on the point of a fine folder, and stuck on the book. "inlays" of tools are attached after the pattern has been "blinded" in, and must be again worked over with the tool, in blind, when the paste is nearly dry. on vellum an effect, similar to that of inlays on leather, can be obtained by the use of stains. chapter xv lettering--blind tooling--heraldic ornament lettering on the back lettering may be done either with separate letters, each on its own handle, or with type set in a type-holder and worked across the back as a pallet. although by the use of type great regularity is ensured, and some time saved, the use of handle letters gives so much more freedom of arrangement, that their use is advocated for extra binding. where a great many copies of the same work have to be lettered, the use of type has obvious advantages. a great deal depends on the design of the letters used. nearly all bookbinders' letters are made too narrow, and with too great difference between the thick and thin strokes. at fig. is shown an alphabet, for which i am indebted to the kindness of mr. emery walker. the long tail of the q is meant to go under the u. it might be well to have a second r cut, with a shorter tail, to avoid the great space left when an a happens to follow it. i have found that four sizes of letters are sufficient for all books. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] to make out a lettering paper for the back of a book, cut a strip of good thin paper as wide as the height of the panel to be lettered. fold it near the centre, and mark the fold with a pencil. this should give a line exactly at right angles to the top and bottom of the strip. then make another fold the distance from the first of the width of the back; then bring the two folds together, and make a third fold in the exact centre. the paper should then be as shown at fig. . supposing the lettering to be the works of robert louis stevenson, select the size of letter you desire to use, and take an e and mark on a piece of spare paper a line of e's, and laying your folded paper against it, see how many letters will go in comfortably. supposing you find that four lines of five letters of the selected size can be put in, you must see if your title can be conveniently cut up into four lines of five letters, or less. it might be done as shown at fig. . but if you prefer not to split the name stevenson, a smaller letter must be employed, and then the lettering may be as at fig. . to find out the position of the lines of lettering on a panel, the letter e is again taken and impressed five times at the side of the panel, as shown at fig. , leaving a little greater distance between the lowest letter and the bottom of the panel, than between the letters. the paper is then folded on the centre fold, and, with dividers set to the average distance between the head of one letter and the head of the next, five points are made through the folded paper. the paper is opened, turned over, and the points joined with a fine folder worked against the straight-edge. it should leave on the front five raised lines, up to which the head of the letters must be put. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the letters in the top line are counted, and the centre letter marked. spaces between words are counted as a letter; thus in "the works," "w" will be the centre letter, and should be put on the paper first, and the others added on each side of it. some thought is needed in judging where to put the centre, as the difference in the width of such letters as "m" and "w" and "i" and "j" have to be taken into account. as a general rule, lettering looks best if it comfortably fills the panel, but of course it cannot always be made to do this. the greatest difficulty will be found in making titles of books that consist of a single word, look well. thus if you have "coriolanus" to place on a back which is not more than / -inch wide, if it is put across as one word, as at fig. ( ), it will be illegible from the smallness of the type, and will tell merely as a gold line at a little distance. if a reasonably large type is used, the word must be broken up somewhat, as at ( ), which is perhaps better, but still not at all satisfactory. the word may be put straight along the back, as at fig. ( ), but this hardly looks well on a book with raised bands, and should be avoided unless necessary. [illustration: fig. .] the use of type of different sizes in lettering a book should be avoided when possible, and on no account whatever should letters of different design be introduced. occasionally, when the reason for it is obvious, it may be allowable to make a word shorter by putting in a small letter, supposing that only thus could reasonably large type be used. it is especially allowable in cases where, in a set of volumes, there is one much thinner than the others. it is generally better to make some compromise with the lettering of the thin volume, than to spoil the lettering of the whole set by using too small a letter throughout (see fig. ). on very thin books it is sometimes hardly possible to get any lettering at all on the back. in such cases the lettering is best put on the side. in the case of some special books that are to have elaborately decorated bindings, and are on that account sufficiently distinct from their neighbours, a certain amount of freedom is permissible with the lettering, and a little mystery is not perhaps out of place. but in most cases books have to be recognised by their titles, and it is of the utmost importance that the lettering should be as clear as possible, and should fully identify the volume. for lettering half-bindings and other books on which much time cannot be spared, it would take too long to make out a paper, as described for extra bindings, nor is there on such work much occasion for it. for such books the lettering should be written out carefully, the whole panel prepared and glaired in, and the gold laid on. then with a piece of fine silk or thread lines may be marked across the gold as a guide to the finisher, and the letters worked from the centre outward, as described for making out the paper pattern. of course this method does not allow of such nice calculation and adjustment as when a paper pattern is made out; but if a general principle of clear lettering is recognised and accepted, very good results may be obtained. blind tooling [illustration: fig. .] at the end of the book characteristic examples of blind-tooled books are given (pages - ). it will be seen that most of the tools form complete designs in themselves. although the use of detached die-sunk tools was general, there were also simple tools used, which, when combined, made up more or less organic designs, and allowed more freedom to the finisher (see figs. and ). [illustration: fig. .] some use may also be made of interlaced strap-work designs, either worked with gouges, or a small fillet. a book bound in oaken boards, with a leather back with knotted decoration, is shown at page . i have found that such binding and decoration is more satisfactory in scheme for old books, than most forms of modern binding. if a design is simple, the cover is marked up with dividers, and the tools impressed direct upon the leather; or, if it is elaborate, a paper pattern is made out, and the tools blinded through the paper, as described for gold tooling. the leather is then damped with water, and the impressions retooled. [illustration: fig. .] the panel lines on most of the bindings before show evidence of having been put in with a tool which has been pushed along the leather, and not with a wheel. i have found that a tool guided by a straight-edge, and "jiggered" backwards and forwards, makes by far the best lines for blind-tool work. it should be borne in mind that the line is formed by the raised portion of leather, and so the tool should be cut somewhat as at fig. . this should leave three ridges on the leather. blind tooling may be gone over and over until it is deep enough, and may be combined with various other methods of working. for instance, in tooling such a spray as is shown at fig. , the leaf would be formed by five impressions of the second tool, shown at a, the extremity of the impressions could be joined with gouges, the stalk and veining could either be run in with a fillet or worked with gouges. the grapes would best be worked with a tool cut for the purpose. one edge of all gouge or fillet impressions can be smoothed down with some such tool as shown in section at b. this has to be worked round the gouge lines with a steady hand, and may be fairly hot if it is kept moving. at c is shown a section of a gouge impression before and after the use of this tool. the ground can be dotted in, or otherwise gone over with some small tool to throw up the pattern. blind tooling can sometimes be used in combination with gold tooling. [illustration: fig. .] in the fifteenth century the venetian binders used little roundels of some gesso-like substance, that were brightly coloured or gilt, in combination with blind tooling (see p. ). this is a method that might be revived. what is known as "leather work" is a further development of blind tooling. this method of decoration has been revived lately, but not generally with success. "leather work" may be divided into two branches; in one the surface of the leather is cut to outline the pattern, and in the other the leather is embossed from the back, while wet, and the pattern outlined by an indented line. sometimes the two methods are combined. as embossing from the back necessitates the work being done before the leather is on the book, it is not very suitable for decorating books. leather first decorated and then stuck on the book, never looks as if it was an integral part of the binding. the cut leather work, which may be done after the book is bound, and leaves the surface comparatively flat, is a better method to employ for books, provided the cuts are not too deep, and are restricted to the boards, so as not to weaken the leather at the back and joints. much of the leather used for "leather work" is of very poor quality, and will not last; for modelling it must be thick on the side of the book, and for the book to open it must be pared thin at the joint, thus making it necessary to use a thick skin very much pared down, and consequently weakened (see p. ). another very common fault in modelled "leather work" is, that the two sides and the back are often worked separately and stuck together on the book, necessitating a join, and consequently a weak place in the hinge, where strength is most wanted. again, in most modern "leather work," those who do the decoration do not, as a rule, do the binding, and often do not understand enough of the craft to do suitable work. all those engaged in leather work are advised to learn to bind their own books, and to only use such methods of decoration, as can be carried out on the bound book. heraldry on book covers it is an old and good custom to put the arms of the owner of a library on the covers of the books he has bound. the traditional, and certainly one of the best ways to do this, is to have an arms block designed and cut. to design an arms block, knowledge of heraldry is needed, and also some clear idea of the effect to be aimed at. a very common mistake in designing blocks is to try and get the effect of hand tooling. blocks should be and look something entirely different. in hand tooling much of the effect is got from the impressions of small tools reflecting the light at slightly different angles, giving the work life and interest. blocked gold being all in one plane, has no such lights in it, and depends entirely on its design for its effect. provided the heraldry identifies the owner, it should be as simply drawn as it can be; the custom of indicating the tinctures by lines and dots on the charges, generally makes a design confused, obscuring the coat it is intended to make clear. in designing heraldic blocks it is well to get a good deal of solid flat surface of gold to make the blocked design stand out from any gold-tooled work on the cover. another way of putting armorial bearings on covers, is to paint them in oil paint. in the early sixteenth century the venetians copied the eastern custom of sinking panels in their book covers, and painted coats of arms on these sunk portions very successfully. the groundwork of the shield itself was usually raised a little, either by something under the leather, or by some gesso-like substance on its surface. arms blocks should be placed a little above the centre of the cover. generally, if the centre of the block is in a line with the centre band of a book with five bands, it will look right. blocks are struck with the aid of an arming or blocking press. the block is attached to the movable plate of the press called the "platen." to do this some stout brown paper is first glued to the platen, and the block glued to this, and the platen fixed in its place at the bottom of the heating-box. in blocking arms on a number of books of different sizes, some nice adjustment of the movable bed is needed to get the blocks to fall in exactly the right place. for blocking, one coat of glaire will be enough for most leathers. the gold is laid on as for hand tooling. the block should be brought down and up again fairly sharply. the heat needed is about the same as for hand tooling. chapter xvi designing for gold-tooled decoration designing tools for gold tooling, such tools as gouges, dots, pieces of straight line, and fillets are to be had ready-made at most dealers. other tools are best designed and cut to order. at first only a few simple forms will be needed, such as one or two flowers of different sizes, and one or two sets of leaves (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. (reduced)] in designing tools, it must be borne in mind that they may appear on the book many times repeated, and so must be simple in outline and much conventionalised. a more or less naturalistic drawing of a flower, showing the natural irregularities, may look charming, but if a tool is cut from it, any marked irregularity becomes extremely annoying when repeated several times on a cover. so with leaves, unless they are perfectly symmetrical, there should be three of each shape cut, two curving in different directions, and the third quite straight (see fig. ). to have only one leaf, and to have that curved, produces very restless patterns. the essence of gold-tool design, is that patterns are made up of repeats of impressions of tools, and that being so, the tools must be so designed that they will repeat pleasantly, and in practice it will be found that any but simple forms will become aggressive in repetition. [illustration: fig. .] designs for tools should be made out with indian ink on white paper, and they may be larger than the size of the required tool. the tool-cutter will reduce any drawing to any desired size, and will, from one drawing, cut any number of tools of different sizes. thus, if a set of five leaves of the same shape is wanted, it will only be necessary to draw one, and to indicate the sizes the others are to be in some such way as shown at fig. . it is not suggested that special tools should be cut for each pattern, but the need of new tools will naturally arise from time to time, and so the stock be gradually increased. it is better to begin with a very few, and add a tool or two as occasion arises, than to try to design a complete set when starting. [illustration: fig. .] tools may be solid or in outline. if in outline they may be used as "inlay" tools, and in ordering them the tool-cutter should be asked to provide steel punches for cutting the inlays. combining tools to form patterns it is well for the student to begin with patterns arranged on some very simple plan, making slight changes in each succeeding pattern. in this way an individual style may be established. the usual plan of studying the perfected styles of the old binders, and trying to begin where they left off, in practice only leads to the production of exact imitations, or poor lifeless parodies, of the old designs. whereas a pattern developed by the student by slow degrees, through a series of designs, each slightly different from the one before it, will, if eccentricities are avoided, probably have life and individual interest. perhaps the easiest way to decorate a binding is to cover it with some small repeating pattern. a simple form of diaper as a beginning is shown at fig. . to make such a pattern cut a piece of good, thin paper to the size of the board of a book, and with a pencil rule a line about an eighth of an inch inside the margin all round. then with the point of a fine folder that will indent, but not cut the paper, mark up as shown in fig. . the position of the lines a a and b b are found by simply folding the paper, first side to side, and then head to tail. the other lines can be put in without any measurement by simply joining all points where lines cross. by continual re-crossing, the spaces into which the paper is divided can be reduced to any desired size. if the construction lines are accurately put in, the spaces will all be of the same size and shape. it is then evident that a repeating design to fill any one of the spaces can be made to cover the whole surface. [illustration: fig. .] in fig. , it is the diagonal lines only that are utilised for the pattern. to avoid confusion, the cross lines that helped to determine the position of the diagonals are not shown. [illustration: fig. (reduced)] the advantage of using the point of a folder to mark up the constructional lines of a pattern instead of a pencil, is that the lines so made are much finer, do not rub out, and do not cause confusion by interfering with the pattern. any lines that will appear on the book, such as the marginal lines, may be put in with a pencil to distinguish them. having marked up the paper, select a flower tool and impress it at the points where the diagonal lines cross, holding it in the smoke of a candle between every two or three impressions. when the flower has been impressed all over, select a small piece of straight line, and put a stalk in below each flower; then a leaf put in on each side of the straight line will complete the pattern. [illustration: fig. (reduced)] a development of the same principle is shown at fig. , in which some gouges are introduced. any number of other combinations will occur to any one using the tools. frequently questions will arise as to whether a tool is to be put this way or that way, and whether a line is to curve up or down. whenever there is such an alternative open, there is the germ of another pattern. all-over diaper patterns may be varied in any number of ways. one way is to vary the design in alternate spaces. if this is done one of the designs should be such that it will divide down the centre both ways and so finish off the pattern comfortably at the edges. the pattern may be based on the upright and the cross-lines of the marking up, or the marking up may be on a different principle altogether. the designer, after a little practice, will be bewildered by the infinite number of combinations that occur to him. [illustration: fig. (reduced)] the diaper is selected for a beginning, because it is the easiest form of pattern to make, as there is no question of getting round corners, and very little of studying proportion. it is selected also because it teaches the student the decorative value of simple forms repeated on some orderly system. when he has grasped this, he has grasped the underlying principle of nearly all successful tooled ornament. diapers are good practice, because in a close, all-over pattern the tools must be put down in definite places, or an appalling muddle will result. in tooling; a repeat of the same few tools, is the best possible practice, giving as it does the same work over and over again under precisely the same conditions, and concentrating, on one book cover, the practice that might be spread over several backs and sides more sparingly decorated, when variety of conditions would confuse the student. [illustration: fig. .] when the principles of the diaper have been mastered, and the student has become familiar with the limitations of his tools, other schemes of decoration may be attempted, such as borders, centres, or panels. a form of border connected with cross-lines is shown at fig. . this is made up of a repeat of the spray built up of three tools and four gouges shown at fig. , with slight modification at the corners. other schemes for borders are those in which flowers grow inwards from the edge of the boards, or outwards from a panel at the centre, or on both sides of a line about half an inch from the edge. a pattern may also be made to grow all round the centre panel. borders will be found more difficult to manage than simple diapers, and at first, are best built up on the same principle--the repeat of some simple element. [illustration: fig. (reduced)] the decoration may be concentrated on parts of the cover, such as the centre or corners. a design for a centre is shown at fig. , and below is shown the way to construct it. a piece of paper is folded, as shown by the dotted lines, and an eighth of the pattern drawn with a soft pencil and folded over on the line a, and transferred by being rubbed at the back with a folder. this is lined in with a pencil, and folded over on the line b and rubbed off. this is lined in and folded over on a and c, rubbed off as before, and the whole lined in. the overs and unders of the lines are then marked, and gouges selected to fit. of course it will take several trials before the lines will interlace pleasantly, and the tools fit in. another centre, in which a spray is repeated three times, is shown at fig. , and any number of others will occur to the student after a little practice. a change of tools, or the slight alteration of a line, will give an entirely new aspect to a pattern. at page is shown an all-over pattern growing from the bottom centre of the board. in this design the leather was dark green, with a lighter green panel in the centre. the berries were inlaid in bright red. although at first glance it seems an intricate design, it is made up like the others of repetitions of simple forms. [illustration: fig. (reduced)] when the student has become proficient in the arrangement of tools in combination with lines, a design consisting entirely, or almost entirely, of lines may be tried. this is more difficult, because the limitations are not so obvious; but here again the principle of repetition, and even distribution, should be followed. at fig. is shown a design almost entirely composed of lines, built up on the same principle as the centre at fig. . [illustration: fig. (reduced)] the ends of the bands form a very pleasant starting-place for patterns. at pp. , - are shown ways of utilising this method. to look right, a pattern must be consistent throughout. the tools and their arrangement must have about the same amount of convention. gold tooling, dealing, as it does, with flat forms in silhouette only, necessitates very considerable formality in the design of the tools and of their arrangement on the cover. modern finishers have become so skilful, that they are able to produce in gold tooling almost any design that can be drawn in lines with a pencil, and some truly marvellous results are obtained by the use of inlays, and specially cut gouges. as a rule, such patterns simply serve to show the skill of the finisher, and to make one wonder who could have been foolish enough to select so limited and laborious a method as gold tooling for carrying them out. generally speaking, successful gold-tooled patterns show evidence of having been designed with the tools; of being, in fact, mere arrangements of the tools, and not of having been first designed with a pencil, and then worked with tools cut to fit the drawing. this does not of course apply to patterns composed entirely of lines, or to patterns composed of lines of dots. if artists wish to design for gold tooling without first mastering the details, probably the safest way will be for them to design in lines of gold dots. some successful patterns carried out in this way were shown at the arts and crafts exhibition some years ago. designs for gold-tooled binding should always be constructed on some geometrical plan, and whatever pattern there is, symmetrically distributed over the cover. if lettering can be introduced, it will be found to be most useful when arranging a pattern. it gives dignity and purpose to a design, and is also highly decorative. lettering may be arranged in panels, as at page , or in a border round the edge of the board, and in many other ways. it may either consist of the title of the book, or some line or verse from it or connected with it, or may refer to its history, or to the owner. anything that gives a personal interest to a book, such as the arms of the owner, the initials or name of the giver or receiver of a present, with perhaps the date of the gift, is of value. the use of the small fillet makes it possible to employ long, slightly-curved lines. gold-tooled lines have in themselves such great beauty, that designers are often tempted to make them meander about the cover in a weak and aimless way. as the limitations enforced by the use of gouges tend to keep the curves strong and small, and as the use of the small fillet tends to the production of long, weak curves, students are advised at first to restrict the curved lines in their patterns to such as can be readily worked with gouges. [illustration: fig. .] it must be remembered that a gouge or fillet line is very thin, and will look weak if it goes far without support. for this reason interlaced lines are advocated. gouge lines are easier to work, and look better, if a small space is left where the gouges end. this is especially the case where lines bearing leaves or flowers branch from the main stem (see fig. ). gouges and fillets need not always be of the same thickness of line, and two or three sets of different gauges may be kept. a finisher can always alter the thickness of a gouge with emery paper. one method of arranging gold-tooled lines is to treat them in design as if they were wires in tension, and knot and twist them together. provided the idea is consistently adhered to throughout, such a pattern is often very successful. [illustration: fig. .] a simple arrangement of straight lines will be sufficient ornamentation for most books. three schemes for such ornamentation are shown. in fig. the "tie-downs" may be in "blind" and the lines in gold. the arrangement shown at fig. leaves a panel at the top which may be utilised for lettering. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] designing for backs the decoration of the back of a book is difficult owing to the very small space usually available in the panels. the first consideration must be the lettering, and when that has been arranged, as described in chapter xv, a second paper is got out for the pattern. the back panel should generally be treated in the same style and, if possible, with the same tools as the sides, if they are decorated. it will often be found far easier to design a full-gilt side than a satisfactory back. a design may be made to fit one panel of the book and repeated on all those not required for lettering (see pages - ), or it may be made to grow up from panel to panel (see fig. ). in the case of sets of books in which the volumes vary very much in thickness, some pattern must be made that can be contracted and expanded without altering the general look of the back (see fig. ). designing for inside of boards the inside margins of the board permit of a little delicate decoration. at fig. are shown two ways of treating this part of the binding. the inside of the board is sometimes covered all over with leather, and tooled as elaborately, or more elaborately, than the outside. if there are vellum ends, they may be enriched with a little tooling. [illustration: fig. .] the edges of the boards may have a gold line run on them, and the head-cap may be decorated with a few dots. chapter xvii pasting down end papers--opening books pasting down end papers when the finishing is done, the end papers should be pasted down on to the board; or if there is a leather joint, the panel left should be filled in to match the end paper. to paste down end papers, the book is placed on the block with the board open (see fig. , a), the waste sheets are torn off, the joints cleared of any glue or paste, and the boards flattened, as described at page for pasting down leather joints. one of the paste-down papers is then stretched over the board and rubbed down in the joint, and the amount to be cut off to make it fit into the space left by the turn-in of the leather is marked on it with dividers, measuring from the edge of the board. a cutting tin is then placed on the book, the paste-down paper turned over it, and the edges trimmed off to the divider points with a knife and straight-edge, leaving small pieces to cover the ends of the joint (fig. , a, c). the cutting and pasting down of these small pieces in the joint are rather difficult; they should come exactly to the edges of the board. [illustration: fig. .] when both paste-down papers are trimmed to size, one of them is well pasted with thin paste in which there are no lumps, with a piece of waste paper under it to protect the book. the joints should also be pasted, and the paste rubbed in with the finger and any surplus removed. the pasted paper is then brought over on to the board, the edges adjusted exactly to their places, and rubbed down. the joint must next be rubbed down through paper. it is difficult to get the paper to stick evenly in the joint, and great nicety is needed here. all rubbing down must be done through paper, or the "paste-down" will be soiled or made shiny. some papers stretch very much when pasted, and will need to be cut a little smaller than needed, and put down promptly after pasting. thin vellum may be put down with paste in which there is a very little glue, but thicker vellum is better put down with thin glue. in pasting vellum, very great care is needed to prevent the brush-marks from showing through. if the vellum is thin, the board must be lined with white or toned paper with a smooth surface. this paper must be quite clean, as any marks will show through the vellum, and make it look dirty. when one side is pasted down the book can be turned over without shutting the board, and the other board opened and pasted down in the same way (see fig. , b). in turning over a book, a piece of white paper should be put under the newly-pasted side, as, being damp, it will soil very readily. when both ends have been pasted down the joints should be examined and rubbed down again, and the book stood up on end with the boards open until the end papers are dry. the boards may be held open with a piece of cardboard cut as shown at fig. . if there are cloth joints they are put down with glue, and the board paper is placed nearly to the edge of the joint, leaving very little cloth visible. in the process of finishing, the boards of a book will nearly always be warped a little outward, but the pasted end papers should draw the boards a little as they dry, causing them to curve slightly towards the book. with vellum ends there is a danger that the boards will be warped too much. opening newly bound books before sending out a newly bound book the binder should go through it, opening it here and there to ease the back. the volume is laid on a table, and the leaves opened a short distance from the front, and then at an equal distance from the back, and then in one or two places nearer the centre of the book, the leaves being pressed down with the hand at each opening. if the book is a valuable one, every leaf should then be turned over separately and each opening pressed down, beginning from the centre and working first one way and then the other. in this way the back will be bent evenly at all points. when a book has been opened, it should be lightly pressed for a short time without anything in the joints. if a book is sent out unopened, the first person into whose hand it falls will probably open it somewhere in the centre, bending the covers back and "breaking" the back; and if any leaves chance to have been stuck together in edge-gilding, they are likely to be torn if carelessly opened. a book with a "broken" back will always have a tendency to open in the same place, and will not keep its shape. it would be worth while for librarians to have newly bound books carefully opened. an assistant could "open" a large number of books in a day, and the benefit to the bindings would amply compensate for the small trouble and cost involved. chapter xviii clasps and ties--metal on bindings clasps and ties some books need to be clasped to keep the leaves flat. all books written or printed on vellum should have clasps. vellum unless kept flat is apt to cockle, and this in a book will force the leaves apart and admit dust. if a book is tightly wedged in a shelf the leaves will be kept flat, but as the chance removal of any other book from the row will remove the pressure, it is much better to provide clasps for vellum books. very thick books, and those with a great many folded plates, are better for having clasps to prevent the leaves from sagging. as nearly all books are now kept in bookshelves, and as any projection on the side of a book is likely to injure the neighbouring volume, a form of clasp should be used that has no raised parts on the boards. [illustration: fig. .] at fig. is shown a simple clasp suitable for small books with mill-board sides, with details of the metal parts, made of thick silver wire below. double boards must be "made," and the flattened ends of the silver catch inserted between the two thicknesses, and glued in place. about one-eighth of an inch of the end should project. in covering, the leather must be pierced and carefully worked round the catch. to make the plait, three strips of thin leather are slipped through the ring, and the ends of each strip pasted together. the three doubled strips are then plaited and the end of the plait put through a hole in the lower board of the book about half an inch from the edge, and glued down inside. a groove may be cut in the mill-board from the hole to the edge before covering, to make a depression in which the plait will lie, and a depression may be scooped out of the inner surface of the board to receive the ends. at fig. is a somewhat similar clasp with three plaits suitable for large books. the metal end and the method of inserting it into wooden boards are shown below. the turned-down end should go right through the board, and be riveted on the inside. when the three plaits are worked, a little band of silver may be riveted on just below the ring. [illustration: fig. .] a very simple fastening that is sometimes useful is shown at fig. . a very small bead is threaded on to a piece of catgut, and the two ends of the gut brought together and put through a larger bead. the ends of the gut with the beads on them are laced into the top board of the book, with the bead projecting over the edge, and a loop of gut is laced into the bottom board. if the loop can be made exactly the right length, this is a serviceable method. silk or leather ties may be used to keep books shut, but they are apt to be in the way when the book is read, and as hardly anybody troubles to tie them, they are generally of very little use. metal on bindings metal corners and bosses are a great protection to bindings, but if the books are to go into shelves, the metal must be quite smooth and flat. a metal shoe on the lower edge of the boards is an excellent thing for preserving the binding of heavy books. bosses and other raised metal work should be restricted to books that will be used on lecterns or reading desks. the frontispiece is from a drawing of an early sixteenth-century book, bound in white pigskin, and ornamented with brass corners, centres, and clasps; and at page is shown a fifteenth-century binding with plain protecting bosses. on this book there were originally five bosses on each board, but the centre ones have been lost. bindings may be entirely covered with metal, but the connection between the binding and the book is in that case seldom quite satisfactory. the most satisfactory metal-covered bindings that i have seen are those in which the metal is restricted to the boards. the book is bound in wooden boards, with thick leather at the back, and plaques of metal nailed to the wood. the metal may be set with jewels or decorated with enamel, and embossed or chased in various ways. jewels are sometimes set in invisible settings below the leather of bindings, giving them the appearance of being set in the leather. this gives them an insecure look, and it is better to frankly show the metal settings and make a decorative feature of them. chapter xix leather leather of all the materials used by the bookbinders, leather is the most important and the most difficult to select wisely. it is extremely difficult to judge a leather by its appearance. "we find now, that instead of leather made from sheep, calf, goat, and pigskins, each having, when finished, its own characteristic surface, that sheepskins are got up to look like calf, morocco, or pigskin; that calf is grained to resemble morocco, or so polished and flattened as to have but little character left; while goatskins are grained in any number of ways, and pigskin is often grained like levant morocco. so clever are some of these imitations, that it takes a skilled expert to identify a leather when it is on a book." there have been complaints for a long time of the want of durability of modern bookbinding leather, but there has not been until lately any systematic investigation into the causes of its premature decay. by permission, i shall quote largely from the report of the committee appointed by the society of arts to inquire into the subject. there are on this special committee leather manufacturers, bookbinders, librarians, and owners of libraries. the report issued is the result of an immense amount of work done. many libraries were visited, and hundreds of experiments and tests were carried out by the sub-committees. there is much useful information in the report that all bookbinders and librarians should read. the work of the committee is not yet finished, but its findings may be accepted as conclusive as far as they go. the committee first set themselves to ascertain if the complaints of the premature decay of modern bookbinding leather are justified by facts, and on this point report that:-- "as regards the common belief that modern binding leather does decay prematurely, the sub-committee satisfied themselves that books bound during the last eighty or hundred years showed far greater evidence of deterioration than those of an earlier date. many recent bindings showed evidence of decay after so short a period as ten, or even five years. the sub-committee came to the conclusion that there is ample justification for the general complaint that modern leather is not so durable as that formerly used. to fix the date of the commencement of this deterioration was a difficult matter; but they came to the conclusion that while leather of all periods showed some signs of decay, the deterioration becomes more general on books bound after , while some leathers seem to be generally good until about , after which date nearly all leathers seem to get worse. the deterioration of calf bindings at the latter end of the th century may be attributed as much to the excessive thinness as to the poor quality of the material." the committee endeavoured to ascertain the relative durability of the leathers used for bookbinding, and after visiting many libraries, and comparing bindings, they report as follows:-- "as to the suitability of various leathers, the sub-committee came to the conclusion that of the old leathers ( th and th century), white pigskin, probably alum 'tanned,' is the most durable, but its excessive hardness and want of flexibility renders this leather unsuitable for most modern work. old brown calf has lasted fairly well, but loses its flexibility, and becomes stiff and brittle when exposed to light and air. some of the white tawed skins of the th and th century, other than white pigskin, and probably deerskin, have lasted very well. some th and th century sheepskin bindings have remained soft and flexible, but the surface is soft, and usually much damaged by friction. vellum seems to have lasted fairly well, but is easily influenced by atmospheric changes, and is much affected by light. early specimens of red morocco from the th to the end of the th century were found in good condition, and of all the leathers noticed, this seems to be the least affected by the various conditions to which it had been subjected. in the opinion of the committee, most of this leather has been tanned with sumach or some closely allied tanning material. morocco bindings earlier than were generally found to be in fairly good condition, but morocco after that date seems to be much less reliable, and in many cases has become utterly rotten. during the latter part of the th century it became customary to pare down calf until it was as thin as paper. since about hardly any really sound calf seems to have been used, as, whether thick or thin, it appears generally to have perished. sheepskin bindings of the early part of the century are many of them still in good condition. since about sheepskin as sheepskin is hardly to be found. sheepskins are grained in imitation of other leathers, and these imitation-grained leathers are generally found to be in a worse condition than any of the other bindings, except, perhaps, some of the very thin calfskin. undyed modern pigskin seems to last well, but some coloured pigskin bindings had entirely perished. modern leathers dyed with the aid of sulphuric acid are all to be condemned. in nearly every case russia leather was found to have become rotten, at least in bindings of the last fifty years." on the question of the causes of the decay noticed and the best methods of preparing leather in the future, i may quote the following:-- "the work of a sub-committee, which was composed of chemists specially conversant with the treatment of leather, was directed specially to the elucidation of the following points: an investigation of the nature of the decay of leather used for bookbinding; an examination of the causes which produced this decay; a research into the best methods of preparing leather for bookbinding; and a consideration of the points required to be dealt with in the preservation of books. "taking these points in order, the first one dealt with is the question of the nature of the decay of leather. to arrive at their conclusions on this subject, the sub-committee made a number of tests and analyses of samples of decayed leather bookbindings, as well as of leathers used for binding. the committee found that the most prevalent decay was what they term a red decay, and this they think may be differentiated into old and new, the old red decay being noticeable up to about , and the new decay since that date. in the old decay, the leather becomes hard and brittle, the surface not being easily abraded by friction. the older form is specially noticeable in calf-bound books, tanned presumably with oak bark. the new form affects nearly all leathers, and in extreme cases seems absolutely to destroy the fibres. another form of deterioration, more noticeable in the newer books, renders the grain of the leather liable to peel off when exposed to the slightest friction. this is the most common form of decay noted in the more recent leathers. in nearly all samples of russia leather a very violent form of red decay was noticed. in many cases the leather was found to be absolutely rotten in all parts exposed to light and air, so that on the very slightest rubbing with a blunt instrument the leather fell into fine dust.... "the second point is the cause of the decay. an extensive series of experiments was carried out with a view of determining the causes of the decay of bindings. the sub-committee find that this is caused by both mechanical and by chemical influences. of the latter, some are due to mistakes of the leather manufacturer and the bookbinder, others to the want of ventilation, and to improper heating and lighting of libraries. in some cases inferior leathers are finished (by methods in themselves injurious) so as to imitate the better class leathers, and of course where these are used durability cannot be expected. but in the main the injury for which the manufacturer and bookbinder are responsible must be attributed rather to ignorance of the effect of the means employed to give the leather the outward qualities required for binding, than to the intentional production of an inferior article.... leathers produced by different tanning materials, although they may be equally sound and durable mechanically, vary very much in their resistance to other influences, such as light, heat, and gas fumes. "for bookbinding purposes, the sub-committee generally condemn the use of tanning materials belonging to the catechol group, although the leathers produced by the use of these materials are for many purposes excellent, and indeed superior. the class of tanning materials which produce the most suitable leather for this particular purpose belong to the pyrogallol group, of which a well known and important example is sumach. east indian or 'persian' tanned sheep and goat skins, which are suitable for many purposes, and are now used largely for cheap bookbinding purposes, are considered extremely bad. books bound in these materials have been found to show signs of decay in less than twelve months, and the sub-committee are inclined to believe that no book bound in these leathers, exposed on a shelf to sunlight or gas fumes, can ever be expected to last more than five or six years. embossing leather under heavy pressure to imitate a grain has a very injurious effect, while the shaving of thick skins greatly reduces the strength of the leather by cutting away the tough fibres of the inner part of the skin. the use of mineral acids in brightening the colour of leather, and in the process of dyeing, has a serious effect in lessening its resistance to decay. a good deal yet remains to be learned about the relative permanency of the different dyes." on analysis free sulphuric acid was found to be present in nearly all bookbinding leather, and it is the opinion of the committee that even a small quantity of this acid materially lessens the durability of the leather. "it has been shown by careful experiment, that even a minute quantity of sulphuric acid used in the dye bath to liberate the colour is at once absorbed by the leather, and that no amount of subsequent washing will remove it. in a very large proportion of cases the decay of modern sumach-tanned leather has been due to the sulphuric acid used in the dye bath, and retained in the skin. we have examined very many samples of leather manufactured and sold specially for bookbinding purposes, from different factories, bought from different dealers, or kindly supplied by bookbinders and by librarians, and have found them to contain, in a large number of cases, free sulphuric acid, from . up to . per cent." the publication of the report should tend to fix a standard for bookbinding leather. hitherto there has been no recognised standard. bookbinders have selected leather almost entirely by its appearance. it has now been shown that appearance is no test of durability, and the mechanical test of tearing the leather is insufficient. sound leather should tear with difficulty, and the torn edges should be fringed with long, silky fibres, and any leather which tears very easily, and shows short, curled-up fibres at the torn edges, should be discarded. but though good bookbinding leather will tear with difficulty, and show long fibres where torn, that is in itself not a sufficient test; because it has been shown that the leather that is mechanically the strongest, is not necessarily the most durable and the best able to resist the adverse influences to which books are subject in libraries. the report shows that bookbinders and librarians are not, as a general rule, qualified to select leather for bookbinding. in the old days, when the manufacture of leather was comparatively simple, a bookbinder might reasonably be expected to know enough of the processes employed to be able to select his leather. but now so complicated is the manufacture, and so many are the factors to be considered, that an expert should be employed. "the committee have satisfied themselves that it is possible to test any leather in such a way as to guarantee its suitability for bookbinding. they have not come to any decision as to the desirability of establishing any formal or official standard, though they consider that this is a point which well deserves future consideration." it is to be hoped that some system of examining and hall-marking leather by some recognised body, may be instituted. if librarians will specify that the leather to be employed must be certified to be manufactured according to the recommendations of the society of arts committee, there is no reason why leathers should not be obtained as durable as any ever produced. this would necessitate the examining and testing of batches of leather by experts. at present this can be done more or less privately at various places, such as the yorkshire college, leeds, or the herolds' institute, bermondsey. in the near future it is to be hoped that some recognised public body, such as one of the great city companies interested in leather, may be induced to establish a standard, and to test such leathers as are submitted to them, hall-marking those that come up to the standard. this would enable bookbinders and librarians, in ordering leather, to be sure that it had not been injured in its manufacture. the testing, if done by batches, should not add greatly to the cost of the leather. on the question of the qualities of an ideal bookbinding leather the committee report:-- "it is the opinion of the committee, that the ideal bookbinding leather must have, and retain, great flexibility.... (it) must have a firm grain surface, not easily damaged by friction, and should not be artificially grained.... the committee is of opinion that a pure sumach tannage will answer all these conditions, and that leather can, and will, be now produced that will prove to be as durable as any made in the past." the committee has so far only dealt with vegetable-tanned leather. i have used, with some success, chrome-tanned calfskin. chrome leather is difficult to pare, and to work, as it does not become soft when wet, like vegetable-tanned leather. it will stand any reasonable degree of heat, and so might perhaps be useful for top-shelf bindings and for shelf edging. it is extremely strong mechanically, but without further tests i cannot positively recommend it except for trial. while the strength and probable durability of leather can only be judged by a trained leather chemist, there remains for the binders selection, the kind of leather to use, and its colour. most of the leather prepared for bookbinding is too highly finished. the finishing processes add a good deal to the cost of the leather, and are apt to be injurious to it, and as much of the high finish is lost in covering, it would be better for the bookbinder to get rougher leather and finish it himself when it is on the book. the leathers in common use for bookbinding are:-- goatskin, known as morocco. calf, known as calf and russia. sheepskin, known as roan, basil, skiver, &c. pigskin, known as pigskin. sealskin, known as seal. _morocco_ is probably the best leather for extra binding if properly prepared, but experiment has shown that the expensive levant moroccos are nearly always ruined in their manufacture. a great many samples of the most expensive levant morocco were tested, with the result that they were all found to contain free sulphuric acid. _calf._--modern vegetable-tanned calf has become a highly unsatisfactory material, and until some radical changes are made in the methods of manufacturing it, it should not be used for bookbinding. _sheepskin._--a properly tanned sheepskin makes a very durable, though rather soft and woolly, leather. much of the bookbinding leather now made from sheepskin is quite worthless. bookbinders should refuse to have anything to do with any leather that has been artificially grained, as the process is apt to be highly injurious to the skin. _pigskin._--pigskin is a thoroughly good leather naturally, and very strong, especially the alumed skins; but many of the dyed pigskins are found to be improperly tanned and dyed, and worthless for bookbinding. _sealskin_ is highly recommended by one eminent librarian, but i have not yet had any experience of its use for bookbinding. the leather that i have found most useful is the niger goatskin, brought from africa by the royal niger company; it is a very beautiful colour and texture, and has stood all the tests tried, without serious deterioration. the difficulty with this leather is that, being a native production, it is somewhat carelessly prepared, and is much spoiled by flaws and stains on the surface, and many skins are quite worthless. it is to be hoped that before long some of the manufacturers interested will produce skins as good in quality and colour as the best niger morocco, and with fewer flaws. much leather is ruined in order to obtain an absolutely even colour. a slight unevenness of colours is very pleasing, and should rather be encouraged than objected to. that the want of interest in absolutely flat colours has been felt, is shown by the frequency with which the binders get rid of flat, even colours by sprinkling and marbling. on this point i may quote from the committee: "the sprinkling of leather, either for the production of 'sprinkled' calf or 'tree' calf, with ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) must be most strongly condemned, as the iron combines with and destroys the tan in the leather, and free sulphuric acid is liberated, which is still more destructive. iron acetate or lactate is somewhat less objectionable, but probably the same effects may be obtained with aniline colours without risk to the leather." chapter xx paper--pastes--glue paper paper may be made by hand or machinery, and either "laid" or "wove." "laid" papers are distinguished by wire marks, which are absent in "wove" paper. a sheet of hand-made paper has all round it a rough uneven edge called the "deckle," that is a necessary result of its method of manufacture. the early printers looked upon this ragged edge as a defect, and almost invariably trimmed most of it off before putting books into permanent bindings. book-lovers quite rightly like to find traces of the "deckle" edge, as evidence that a volume has not been unduly reduced by the binder. but it has now become the fashion to admire the "deckle" for its own sake, and to leave books on hand-made paper absolutely untrimmed, with ragged edges that collect the dirt, are unsightly, and troublesome to turn over. so far has this craze gone, that machine-made paper is often put through an extra process to give it a sham deckle edge. roughly speaking, paper varies in quality according to the proportion of fibrous material, such as rag, used in the manufacture. to make paper satisfactorily by hand, a large proportion of such fibrous material is necessary, so that the fact that the paper is hand-made is to some extent a guarantee of its quality. there are various qualities of hand-made paper, made from different materials, chiefly linen and cotton rags. the best paper is made from pure linen rag, and poorer hand-made paper from cotton rag, while other qualities contain a mixture of the two or other substances. it is possible to make a thoroughly good paper by machinery if good materials are used. some excellent papers are made by machinery; but the enormous demand for paper, together with the fact that now almost any fibrous material can be made into paper, has resulted in the production, in recent years, of, perhaps, the worst papers that have ever been seen. this would not matter if the use of the poor papers were restricted to newspapers and other ephemeral literature, but when, as is often the case, paper of very poor quality is used for books of permanent literary interest, the matter is serious enough. among the worst papers made are the heavily loaded "art" papers that are prepared for the printing of half-toned process blocks. it is to be hoped that before long the paper makers will produce a paper that, while suitable for printing half-toned blocks, will be more serviceable, and will have a less unpleasant surface. several makers produce coloured handmade papers suitable for end papers. machine-made papers can be had in endless variety from any number of makers. the paper known as "japanese vellum" is a very tough material, and will be found useful for repairing vellum books; the thinnest variety of it is very suitable for mending the backs of broken sections, or for strengthening weak places in paper. the following delightful account of paper making by hand is quoted from "evelyn's diary, - ." "i went to see my lord of st. alban's house at byflete, an old large building. thence to the paper mills, where i found them making a coarse white paper. they cull the raggs, which are linnen, for white paper, woollen for brown, then they stamp them in troughs to a papp with pestles or hammers like the powder-mills, then put it into a vessell of water, in which they dip a frame closely wyred with a wyre as small as a haire, and as close as a weaver's reede; on this they take up the papp, the superfluous water draining thro' the wyre; this they dextrously turning, shake out like a pancake on a smooth board between two pieces of flannell, then press it between a greate presse, the flannell sucking out the moisture; then taking it out they ply and dry it on strings, as they dry linnen in the laundry; then dip it in alum-water, lastly polish and make it up in quires. they put some gum in the water in which they macerate the raggs. the mark we find on the sheets is formed in the wyre." the following are the more usual sizes of printing papers-- inches. foolscap Ã� ½ crown Ã� post ¼ Ã� ½ demy ½ Ã� ½ medium Ã� royal Ã� double pott Ã� " foolscap Ã� super royal Ã� double crown Ã� imperial Ã� double post ½ Ã� ½ the corresponding sizes of hand-made papers may differ slightly from the above. although the above are the principal sizes named, almost any size can be made to order. the following is an extract from the report of the committee of the society of arts on the deterioration of paper, published in : "the committee find that the paper-making fibres may be ranged into four classes:-- a. cotton, flax, and hemp. b. wood, celluloses (_a_) sulphite process, and (_b_) soda and sulphate process. c. esparto and straw celluloses. d. mechanical wood pulp. in regard, therefore, to papers for books and documents of permanent value, the selection must be taken in this order, and always with due regard to the fulfilment of the conditions of normal treatment above dealt with as common to all papers." "the committee have been desirous of bringing their investigations to a practical conclusion in specific terms, viz. by the suggestion of standards of quality. it is evident that in the majority of cases, there is little fault to find with the practical adjustments which rule the trade. they are, therefore, satisfied to limit their specific findings to the following, viz., _normal standard of quality for book papers required for publications of permanent value._ for such papers they would specify as follows:-- "_fibres._ not less than per cent. of fibres of class a. "_sizing._ not more than per cent. rosin, and finished with the normal acidity of pure alum. "_loading._ not more than per cent. total mineral matter (ash). "with regard to written documents, it must be evident that the proper materials are those of class a, and that the paper should be pure, and sized with gelatine, and not with rosin. all imitations of high-class writing papers, which are, in fact, merely disguised printing papers, should be carefully avoided." pastes to make paste for covering books, &c., take oz. of flour, and ¼ oz. of powdered alum, and well mix with enough water to form a thin paste, taking care to break up any lumps. add a pint of cold water, and heat gently in an enamelled saucepan. as it becomes warm, it should be stirred from time to time, and when it begins to boil it should be continually stirred for about five minutes. it should then form a thick paste that can be thinned with warm water. of course any quantity can be made if the proportions are the same. paste for use is best kept in a wooden trough, called a "paste tub." the paste tub will need to be cleaned out from time to time, and all fragments of dry paste removed. this can easily be done if it is left, overnight, filled with water. before using, the paste should be well beaten up with a flat stick. for pasting paper, it should have about the consistency and smoothness of cream; for leather, it can be thicker. for very thick leather a little thin glue may be added. paste made with alum will keep about a fortnight, but can be kept longer by the addition of corrosive sublimate in the proportion of one part of corrosive sublimate to a thousand parts of paste. corrosive sublimate, being a deadly poison, will prevent the attack of bookworms or other insects, but for the same reason must only be used by responsible people, and paste in which it is used must be kept out of the way of domestic animals. several makes of excellent prepared paste can be bought in london. these pastes are as cheap as can be made, and keep good a long time. paste that has become sour should never be used, as there is danger that the products of its acid fermentation may injure the leather. paste tubs as sold often have an iron bar across them to wipe the brush on. this should be removed, and replaced by a piece of twisted cord. paste brushes should be bound with string or zinc; copper or iron will stain the paste. white paste for mending a good paste for mending is made from a teaspoonful of ordinary flour, two teaspoonsful of cornflour, half a teaspoonful of alum, and three ounces of water. these should be carefully mixed, breaking up all lumps, and then should be heated in a clean saucepan, and stirred all the time with a wooden or bone spoon. the paste should boil for about five minutes, but not too fast, or it will burn and turn brown. rice-flour or starch may be substituted for cornflour, and for very white paper the wheaten flour may be omitted. ordinary paste is not nearly white enough for mending, and is apt to leave unsightly stains. cornflour paste may be used directly after it is made, and will keep good under ordinary circumstances for about a week. directly it gets hard or goes watery, a new batch must be made. glue it is important for bookbinders that the glue used should be of good quality, and the best hide glue will be found to answer well. to prepare it for use, the glue should be broken up into small pieces and left to soak overnight in water. in the morning it should be soft and greatly swollen, but not melted, and can then be put in the glue-pot and gently simmered until it is fluid. it is then ready for use. glue loses in quality by being frequently heated, so that it is well not to make a great quantity at a time. the glue-pot should be thoroughly cleaned out before new glue is put into it, and the old glue sticking round the sides taken out. glue should be used hot and not too thick. if it is stringy and difficult to work, it can be broken up by rapidly twisting the brush in the glue-pot. for paper the glue should be very thin and well worked up with the brush before using. the following is quoted from "chambers' encyclopædia" article on glue:-- "while england does not excel in the manufacture, it is a recognised fact that scottish glue ... ranks in the front of the glues of all countries. a light-coloured glue is not necessarily good, nor a dark-coloured glue necessarily bad. a bright, clear, claret colour is the natural colour of hide glue, which is the best and most economical. "light-coloured glues (as distinguished from gelatine) are made either from bones or sheepskins. the glue yielded by these materials cannot compare with the strength of that yielded by hides. "a great quantity is now made in france and germany from bones. it is got as a by-product in the manufacture of animal charcoal. although beautiful to look at, it is found when used to be far inferior to scottish hide glue." part ii care of books when bound chapter xxi injurious influences to which books are subjected _gas fumes._--the investigation of the society of arts committee shows that-- "of all the influences to which books are exposed in libraries, gas fumes--no doubt because of the sulphuric and sulphurous acid which they contain--are shown to be the most injurious." the injurious effects of gas fumes on leather have been recognised for a long time, and gas is being, very generally, given up in libraries in consequence. if books must be kept where gas is used, they should not be put high up in the room, and great attention should be paid to ventilation. it is far better, where possible, to avoid the use of gas at all in libraries. _light._--the committee also report that "light, and especially direct sunlight and hot air, are shown to possess deleterious influences which had scarcely been suspected previously, and the importance of moderate temperature and thorough ventilation of libraries cannot be too much insisted on." the action of light on leather has a disintegrating effect, very plainly seen when books have stood for long periods on shelves placed at right angles to windows. at oxford and cambridge and at the british museum library the same thing was noticed. the leather on that side, of the backs of books, next to the light, was absolutely rotten, crumbling to dust at the slightest friction, while at the side away from the light it was comparatively sound. vellum bindings were even more affected than those of leather. the committee advise that library windows exposed to the direct sunlight should be glazed with tinted glass. "some attempts have been made to determine the effect of light transmitted through glasses of different colours, and they point to the fact that blue and violet glass pass light of nearly as deleterious quality as white glass; while leathers under red, green, and yellow glasses were almost completely protected. there can be no doubt that the use of pale yellow or olive-green glass in library windows exposed to direct sunlight is desirable. a large number of experiments have been made on the tinted 'cathedral' glasses of messrs. pilkington bros., limited, with the result that nos. and afforded almost complete protection during two months' exposure to sunlight, while nos. and may be recommended where only very pale shades are permissible. the glasses employed were subjected to careful spectroscopic examination, and to colour-measurement by the tintometer, but neither were found to give precise indications as to the protective power of the glasses, which is no doubt due to the absorption of the violet, and especially of the invisible ultra-violet rays. an easy method of comparing glasses is to expose under them to sunlight the ordinary sensitised albumenised photographic paper. those glasses under which this is least darkened are also most protective to leather." _tobacco._--smoking was found to be injurious, and it is certainly a mistake to allow it in libraries. "the effect of ammonia vapour, and tobacco fumes, of which ammonia is one of the active ingredients, was also examined. the effect of ammonia fumes was very marked, darkening every description of leather, and it is known that in extreme cases it causes a rapid form of decay. tobacco smoke had a very similar darkening and deleterious effect (least marked in the case of sumach tanned leathers), and there can be no doubt that the deterioration of bindings in a library where smoking was permitted and the rooms much used, must have been partly due to this cause." _damp._--books kept in damp places will develop mildew, and both leather and paper will be ruined. where possible, naturally dry rooms should be used for libraries, and if not naturally dry, every means possible should be taken to render them so. it will sometimes be found that the only way to keep the walls of an old house dry is to put in a proper dampcourse. there are various other methods employed, such as lining the walls with thin lead, or painting them inside and out with some waterproofing preparation: but as long as a wall remains in itself damp, it is doubtful if any of these things will permanently keep the damp from penetrating. bookshelves should never be put against the wall, nor the books on the floor. there should always be space for air to circulate on all sides of the bookshelves. damp is specially injurious if books are kept behind closely-fitting doors. the doors of bookcases should be left open from time to time on warm days. should mildew make its appearance, the books should be taken out, dried and aired, and the bookshelves thoroughly cleaned. the cause of the damp should be sought for, and measures taken to remedy it. library windows should not be left open at night, nor during damp weather, but in warm fine weather the more ventilation there is, the better. _heat._--while damp is very injurious to books on account of the development of mildew, unduly hot dry air is almost as bad, causing leather to dry up and lose its flexibility. on this point the chairman of the society of arts committee says:-- "rooms in which books are kept should not be subject to extremes, whether of heat or cold, of moisture or dryness. it may be said that the better adapted a room is for human occupation, the better for the books it contains. damp is, of course, most mischievous, but over-dryness induced by heated air, especially when the pipes are in close proximity to the bookcases, is also very injurious." _dust._--books should be taken from the shelves at least once a year, dusted and aired, and the bindings rubbed with a preservative. to dust a book, it should be removed from the shelf, and without being opened, turned upside down and flicked with a feather duster. if a book with the dust on the top is held loosely in the hand, and dusted right way up, dust may fall between the leaves. dusting should be done in warm, dry weather; and afterwards, the books may be stood on the table slightly open, to air, with their leaves loose. before being returned to the shelves, the bindings should be lightly rubbed with some preservative preparation (see chap. xxii). any bindings that are broken, or any leaves that are loose should be noted, and the books put on one side to be sent to the binder. it would be best when the library is large enough to warrant it, to employ a working bookbinder to do this work; such a man would be useful in many ways. he could stick on labels, repair bindings, and do many other odd jobs to keep the books in good repair. a bookbinder could be kept fully employed, binding and repairing the books of a comparatively small library under the direction of the librarian. bookworms the insects known as bookworms are the larvæ of several sorts of beetles, most commonly perhaps of _antobium domesticum_ and _niptus hololencus_. they are not in any way peculiar to books and will infest the wood of bookshelves, walls, or floors. a good deal can be done to keep "worms" away by using such substances as camphor or naphthaline in the bookcase. bookworms do not attack modern books very much; probably they dislike the alum put in the paste and the mill-boards made of old tarred rope. in old books, especially such as come from italy, it is often found that the ravages of the bookworms are almost entirely confined to the glue on the backs of the books, and it generally seems that the glue and paste attract them. probably if corrosive sublimate were put in the glue and paste used it would stop their attacks. alum is said to be a preventive, but i have known bookworms to eat their way through leather pasted on with paste containing alum, when, in recovering, the old wooden boards containing bookworms have been utilised in error. when on shaking the boards of an old book dust flies out, or when little heaps of dust are found on the shelf on which an old book has been standing, it may be considered likely that there are bookworms present. it is easy to kill any that may be hatched, by putting the book in an air-tight box surrounded with cotton wool soaked in ether; but that will not kill the eggs, and the treatment must be repeated from time to time at intervals of a few weeks. any book that is found to contain bookworms should be isolated and at once treated. tins may be put inside the boards to prevent the "worms" eating into the leaves. speaking of bookworms, jules cousin says:-- "one of the simplest means to be employed (to get rid of bookworms) is to place behind the books, especially in the place where the insects show their presence most, pieces of linen soaked with essence of turpentine, camphor, or an infusion of tobacco, and to renew them when the smell goes off. a little fine pepper might also be scattered on the shelf, the penetrating smell of which would produce the same effect." possibly keating's insect powder would answer as well or better than pepper. rats and mice rats and mice will gnaw the backs of books to get at the glue, so, means should be taken to get rid of these vermin if they should appear. mice especially will nibble vellum binding or the edges of vellum books that have become greasy with much handling. cockroaches cockroaches are very troublesome in libraries, eating the bindings. keating's insect powder will keep them away from books, but only so long as it is renewed at short intervals. placing the books in the shelves the chairman of the society of arts special committee says on this point:-- "it is important that a just medium should be observed between the close and loose disposition of books in the shelves. tight packing causes the pulling off of the tops of book-backs, injurious friction between their sides, and undue pressure, which tends to force off their backs. but books should not stand loosely on the shelves. they require support and moderate lateral pressure, otherwise the leaves are apt to open and admit dust, damp, and mildew. the weight of the leaves also in good-sized volumes loosely placed will often be found to be resting on the shelf, making the backs concave, and spoiling the shape and cohesion of the books. "in libraries where classification is attempted there must be a certain number of partially filled shelves. the books in these should be kept in place by some such device as that in use in the british museum, namely, a simple flat angle piece of galvanised iron, on the lower flange of which the end books rest, keeping it down, the upright flange keeping the books close and preventing them from spreading." he also speaks of the danger to bindings of rough or badly-painted bookshelves:-- "great care should be exercised when bookcases are painted or varnished that the surface should be left hard, smooth, and dry. bindings, especially those of delicate texture, may be irreparably rubbed if brought in contact with rough or coarsely-painted surfaces, while the paint itself, years after its original application, is liable to come off upon the books, leaving indelible marks. in such cases pasteboard guards against the ends of the shelves are the only remedy." chapter xxii to preserve old bindings--re-backing to preserve old bindings it is a well-known fact that the leather of bindings that are much handled lasts very much better than that on books which remain untouched on the shelves. there is little doubt that the reason for this is that the slight amount of grease the leather receives from the hands nourishes it and keeps it flexible. a coating of glair or varnish is found to some extent to protect leather from adverse outside influences, but, unfortunately, both glair and varnish tend rather to harden leather than to keep it flexible, and they fail just where failure is most serious, that is at the joints. in opening and shutting, any coat of glair or varnish that has become hard will crack, and expose the leather of the joint and back. flexibility is an essential quality in bookbinding leather, for as soon as the leather at the joint of a binding becomes stiff it breaks away when the boards are opened. it would add immensely to the life of old leather bindings if librarians would have them treated, say once a year, with some preservative. the consequent expense would be saved many times over by the reduction of the cost of rebinding. such a preservative must not stain, must not evaporate, must not become hard, and must not be sticky. vaseline has been recommended, and answers fairly well, but will evaporate, although slowly. i have found that a solution of paraffin wax in castor oil answers well. it is cheap and very simple to prepare. to prepare it, some castor oil is put into an earthenware jar, and about half its weight of paraffin wax shredded into it. on warming, the wax will melt, and the preparation is ready for use. a little of the preparation is well worked into a piece of flannel, and the books rubbed with it, special attention being paid to the back and joints. they may be further rubbed with the hand, and finally gone over with a clean, soft cloth. very little of the preparation need be used on each book. if bindings have projecting metal corners or clasps that are likely to scratch the neighbouring books, pieces of mill-board, which may be lined with leather or good paper, should be placed next them, or they may have a cover made of a piece of mill-board bent round as shown at fig. , and strengthened at the folds with linen. this may be slipped into the shelf with the book with the open end outwards, and will then hardly be seen. [illustration: fig. .] bindings which have previously had metal clasps, &c., often have projecting fragments of the old nails. these should be sought for and carefully removed or driven in, as they may seriously damage any bindings with which they come in contact. to protect valuable old bindings, cases may be made and lettered on the back with the title of the book. loose covers that necessitate the bending back of the boards for their removal are not recommended. re-backing bindings that have broken joints may be re-backed. any of the leather of the back that remains should be carefully removed and preserved. it is impossible to get some leathers off tight backs without destroying them, but with care and by the use of a thin folder, many backs can be saved. the leather on the boards is cut a little back from the joint with a slanting cut, that will leave a thin edge, and is then lifted up with a folder. new leather, of the same colour is pasted on the back, and tucked in under the old leather on the board. the leather from the old back should have its edges pared and any lumps of glue or paper removed and be pasted on to the new leather and bound tightly with tape to make sure that it sticks. when the leather at the corners of the board needs repairing, the corner is glued and tapped with a hammer to make it hard and square, and when it is dry a little piece of new leather is slipped under the old and the corner covered. when the sewing cords or thread of a book have perished it should be rebound, but if there are any remains of the original binding they should be preserved and utilised. if the old boards have quite perished, new boards of the same nature and thickness should be got out and the old cover pasted over them. such places as the old leather will not cover, must first be covered with new of the same colour. generally speaking, it is desirable that the characteristics of an old book should be preserved, and that the new work should be as little in evidence as possible. it is far more pleasant to see an old book in a patched contemporary binding, than smug and tidy in the most immaculate modern cover. part of the interest of any old book is its individual history, which can be gathered from the binding, book-plates, marginal notes, names of former owners, &c., and anything that tends to obliterate these signs is to be deplored. specifications specifications for bookbinding these specifications will require modification in special cases, and are only intended to be a general guide. ------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- | sheets. | end papers. | pressing.| edges. | sewing. | back. ------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- |to be |to be sewn |books on |to be |to be with|to be i. |carefully|on. to be of |handmade |trimmed |ligature |kept for extra |folded, |good paper |paper not |and gilt|silk, |as binding |or, if |made with |to be |before |flexible, |flat suitable |an old |zigzag, with |pressed |sewing. |round five|as it for valuable|book, all|board papers |unduly. |to be |bands of |can be books. whole|damaged |of self- | |uncut. |best |without leather. |leaves to|coloured | | |sewing |forcing |be |paper of good| | |cord. |it and |carefully|quality, or | | | |without |mended, |vellum. or to| | | |danger |the backs|be made with | | | |of its |where |leather | | | |becom- |damaged |joint. | | | |ing |to be | | | | |concave |made | | | | |in use. |sound. | | | | | |single | | | | | |leaves | | | | | |to be | | | | | |guarded | | | | | |round | | | | | |the | | | | | |sections | | | | | |next | | | | | |them. all| | | | | |plates to| | | | | |be | | | | | |guarded. | | | | | |guards to| | | | | |be sewn | | | | | |through. | | | | | |no past- | | | | | |ing on | | | | | |or over- | | | | | |casting | | | | | |to be | | | | | |allowed. | | | | | ------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- |as no. |to be of good|same as |to be |to be with|same as ii. |i., |paper made |no. i. |cut and |unbleached|for no. for good |excepting|with zigzag, | |gilt in |thread, |i. binding for |that any |with board | |boards |flexible, | books of |mending |papers of | |or |round five| reference, |may be |self-coloured| |coloured|bands of | catalogues, |done |paper of good| |or to be|best | &c., and |rather |quality. | |uncut. |sewing | other heavy |with a |large or | | |cord. | books that |view to |heavy books | | | | may have a |strength |to have a | | | | great deal |than |cloth joint. | | | | of use. |extreme |to be sewn | | | | whole or |neatness.|on. | | | | half | | | | | | leather. | | | | | | ------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- |same as |to be of good|same as |to be |to be with|same as iii. |no. ii. |paper, sewn |no. i. |uncut, |unbleached|for for binding | |on, made with| |or to be|thread |nos. i. for | |zigzag. | |cut in |across not|and ii. libraries, | | | |guillo- |less than | iv. for | | | |tine and|four | books in | | | |gilt or |unbleached| current | | | |coloured|linen | use. half | | | |or to |tapes. | leather. | | | |have top| | | | | |edge | | | | | |only | | | | | |gilt. | | ------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- |any |same as no. | |may be |with |back to iv. |leaves |iii. | |cut |unbleached|be left for library |damaged | | |smooth |thread |square bindings of |at the | | |in |over three|after books of |back or | | |guillo- |unbleached|glueing little |plates | | |tine. |linen |up. interest or |to be | | | |tapes. | value, |overcast | | | | | cloth or |into | | | | | half linen. |sections.| | | | | ------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- specifications for bookbinding--(_continued_). ------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- |boards. |headbands.| covers. |lettering.|decoration.| ------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- |to be of|to be |goatskin |to be |to be as |all work i.	 |the best|worked |(morocco),|legible |much or as |to be for extra |black |with silk |pigskin |and to |little as |done in binding |mill- |on strips |or seal- |identify |the nature |the best suitable |board. |of vellum |skin manu-|the |of the book|manner. for valuable|two |or catgut |factured |volume. |warrants. | books. whole|boards |or cord, |according | | | leather. |to be |with |to the | | | |made |frequent |recommend-| | | |together|tie-downs.|ations of | | | |for |the head- |the | | | |large |bands to |society | | | |books, |be "set" |of arts' | | | |and all |by pieces |committee | | | |five |of good |on leather| | | |bands |paper or |for | | | |laced in|leather |book- | | | |through |glued at |binding. | | | |two |head and |whole | | | |holes. |tail. the |binding; | | | | |back to be|leather | | | | |lined up |to be | | | | |with |attached | | | | |leather |directly | | | | |all over |to the | | | | |if the |back. | | | | |book is | | | | | |large. | | | | ------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- |same as |same as |same as |same as |to be |work may ii. |no. i., |no. i. |no. i., |no. i. |omitted, or|be a for good |or may | |excepting | |only to |little binding for |be of | |that | |consist of |rougher, books of |good | |properly | |a few lines|but not reference, |grey | |prepared | |or dots or |careless catalogues, |board. | |sheepskin | |other |or &c., and | | |may be | |quite |dirty. other heavy | | |added. | |simple | books that | | |half- | |ornament. | may have | | |binding, | | | a great deal| | |leather | | | of use. | | |only at | | | whole or | | |back. | | | half | | |corners | | | leather. | | |to be | | | | | |strength- | | | | | |ened with | | | | | |tips of | | | | | |vellum. | | | | | |sides | | | | | |covered | | | | | |with good | | | | | |paper | | | | | |or linen. | | | ------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- |to be |to be |same as |same as |to be |same as iii. |split |worked |nos. i. |nos. i. |omitted. |no. ii. for binding |grey |with |and ii., |and ii. | | for |boards, |thread |but skins | | | libraries, |or |or vellum |may be | | | for books |straw- |or cord, |used where| | | in current |board |or to be |there are | | | use. half |with |omitted |surface | | | leather. |black |and a |flaws that| | | |board |piece of |do not | | | |liner, |cord |affect the| | | |with |inserted |strength. | | | |ends |into the |leather to| | | |of tapes|turn in |be used | | | |attached|of the |thicker | | | |to |leather at|than is | | | |portion |head and |usual, | | | |of waste|tail in |there | | | |sheet, |their |being | | | |inserted|place. |french | | | |between | |joints. | | | |them. | |leather at| | | |boards | |back only;| | | |to be | |paper | | | |left a | |sides; | | | |short | |vellum | | | |distance| |tips. | | | |from the| | | | | |joint | | | | | |to form | | | | | |a french| | | | | |joint. | | | | | ------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- |to be |no |whole |same as |to be |same as iv. |split |headbands.|buckram |nos. i. |omitted. |no. ii. for library |boards, | |or half |ii. and | | bindings of |two | |linen and |iii. | | books of |straw- | |paper | | | little |boards | |sides. | | | interest or |made | | | | | value, cloth|together| | | | | or half |and ends| | | | | linen. |of slips| | | | | |insert- | | | | | |ed. | | | | | |french | | | | | |joint to| | | | | |be left.| | | | | ------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- glossary _arming press_, a small blocking press used for striking arms-blocks on the sides of books. _backing boards_, wedge-shaped bevelled boards used in backing (see fig. ). _backing machine_, used for backing cheap work in large quantities; it often crushes and damages the backs of the sections. _bands_, ( ) the cords on which a book is sewn. ( ) the ridges on the back caused by the bands showing through the leather. _band nippers_, pincers with flat jaws, used for straightening the bands (see fig. ). for nipping up the leather after covering, they should be nickelled to prevent the iron staining the leather. _beating stone_, the "stone" on which books were formerly beaten; now generally superseded by the rolling machine and standing press. _blind tooling_, the impression of finishing tools without gold. _blocking press_, a press used for impressing blocks such as those used in decorating cloth cases. _board papers_, the part of the end papers pasted on to the boards. _bodkin_, an awl used for making the holes in the boards for the slips. _bolt_, folded edge of the sheets in an unopened book. _cancels_, leaves containing errors, which have to be discarded and replaced by corrected sheets. such leaves are marked by the printer with a star. _catch-word_, a word printed at the foot of one page indicating the first word of the page following, as a guide in collating. _cutting boards_, wedge-shaped boards somewhat like backing boards, but with the top edge square; used in cutting the edge of a book and in edge-gilding. _cutting in boards_, cutting the edges of a book after the boards are laced on. _cutting press_, when the lying press is turned, so that the side with the runners is uppermost, it is called a cutting press (see fig. ). _diaper_, a term applied to a small repeating all-over pattern. from woven material decorated in this way. _doublure_, the inside face of the boards, especially applied to them when lined with leather and decorated. _end papers_, papers added at the beginning and end of a book by the binder. _extra binding_, a trade term for the best work. _finishing_, comprises lettering, tooling, and polishing, &c. _finishing press_, a small press used for holding books when they are being tooled (see fig. ). _finishing stove_, used for heating finishing tools. _folder_, a flat piece of ivory or bone, like a paper knife, used in folding sheets and in various other operations. _foredge_ (fore edge), the front edge of the leaves. pronounced "forrege." _forwarding_, comprises all the operations between sewing and finishing, excepting headbanding. _gathering_, collecting one sheet from each pile in a printer's warehouse to make up a volume. _glaire_, white of eggs beaten up, and used in finishing and edge gilding. _half binding_, when the leather covers the back and only part of the sides, a book is said to be half bound. _head band_, a fillet of silk or thread, worked at the head and tail of the back. _head cap_, the fold of leather over the head band (see fig. ). _head and tail_, the top and bottom of a book. _imperfections_, sheets rejected by the binder and returned to the printer to be replaced. _india proofs_, strictly first proofs only of an illustration pulled on "india paper," but used indiscriminately for all illustrations printed on india paper. _inset_, the portion of a sheet cut off and inserted in folding certain sizes, such as duodecimo, &c. (see fig. ). _inside margins_, the border made by the turn in of the leather on the inside face of the boards (see fig. ). _joints_, ( ) the groove formed in backing to receive the ends of the mill-boards. ( ) the part of the binding that bends when the boards are opened. ( ) strips of leather or cloth used to strengthen the end papers. "_kettle stitch_," catch stitch formed in sewing at the head and tail. _lacing in_, lacing the slips through holes in the boards to attach them. _lying press_, the term applied to the under side of the cutting press used for backing, usually ungrammatically called "laying press." _marbling_, colouring the edges and end papers in various patterns, obtained by floating colours on a gum solution. _millboard machine_, machine used for squaring boards; should only be used for cheap work, as an edge cut by it will not be as square as if cut by the plough. _mitring_, ( ) lines meeting at a right angle without overrunning are said to be mitred. ( ) a join at ° as in the leather on the inside of the boards. _overcasting_, over-sewing the back edges of single leaves or weak sections. _peel_, a thin board on a handle used for hanging up sheets for drying. _plate_, an illustration printed from a plate. term often incorrectly applied to illustrations printed from woodcuts. any full-page illustration printed on different paper to the book is usually called a "plate." _pressing plates_, plates of metal japanned or nickelled, used for giving finish to the leather on a book. _press pin_, an iron bar used for turning the screws of presses. _proof_, edges left uncut as "proof" that the book has not been unduly cut down. _register_, (i.) when the print on one side of a leaf falls exactly over that on the other it is said to register. (ii.) ribbon placed in a book as a marker. _rolling machine_, a machine in which the sheets of a book are subject to heavy pressure by being passed between rollers. _sawing in_, when grooves are made in the back with a saw to receive the bands. _section_, the folded sheet. _semée_ or _semis_, an heraldic term signifying sprinkled. _set off_, print is said to "set off" when part of the ink from a page comes off on an opposite page. this will happen if a book is pressed too soon after printing. _sheet_, the full size of the paper as printed, forming a section when folded. _signature_, the letter or figure placed on the first page of each sheet. _slips_, the ends of the sewing cord or tape that are attached to the boards. _squares_, the portion of the boards projecting beyond the edges of the book. _start_, when, after cutting, one or more sections of the book come forward, making the fore edge irregular, they are said to have started. _straight edge_, a flat ruler. _tacky_, sticky. _t. e. g._, top-edge gilt. _trimmed._ the edges of a book are said to be trimmed when the edges of the larger (or projecting) leaves only have been cut. _tub_, the stand which supports the lying press. originally an actual tub to catch the shavings. _uncut_, a book is said to be uncut when the edges of the paper have not been cut with the plough or guillotine. _unopened_, the book is said to be unopened if the bolts of the sheets have not been cut. _waterproof sheets_, sheets of celluloid, such as are used by photographers. _whole binding_, when the leather covers the back and sides of a volume. _wire staples_ are used by certain machines in the place of thread for securing the sections. _groove_, that part of the sections which is turned over in backing to receive the board. reproductions of bindings i., ii., and iii. fifteenth century blind-tooled bindings iv. sixteenth century binding with simple gold-tooling v., vi., vii., and viii. modern bindings designed by the author [illustration: i.--german fifteenth century. pigskin. actual size, ¾" Ã� ¼".] [illustration: ii.--german fifteenth century. calf. actual size ½" Ã� ½".] [illustration: iii.--italian fifteenth century. sheepskin, with coloured roundels. actual size, ½" Ã� ¼".] [illustration: iv.--italian sixteenth century. actual size, ½" Ã� ½". goatskin.] [illustration: v.--half niger morocco, with sides of english oak. actual size, " Ã� ½".] [illustration: vi.--niger morocco, inlaid green leaves. actual size, ¼" Ã� ½".] [illustration: vii.--green levant, inlaid with lighter green panel and red dots. actual size, ¾" Ã� ½".] [illustration: viii.--niger morocco, executed by a student of the central school of arts and crafts. actual size, ¾" Ã� ¼".] index arming press, , arms blocks, art paper, , autograph letters, backing, backing hammer, back, lining up, band nippers, , bands, bandstick, beating, beating stone, , benzine, , binding, decoration of, , , , binding, collotype reproductions of, - binding, embroidered, binding early printed books, , , binding, extra, binding, jewelled, binding, library, , , binding, manuscripts, , , , , , binding, metal-covered, binding, vellum, binding very thin books, blind tooling, , blocking press, , blocks, striking, boards, boards, attaching, boards, cutting, boards, filling in, boards, lining, boards, pressing, , boards, split, , , bodkin, bookbinding as a profession, books in sheets, bookworms, borders, designing, borders, inside, calf, , cancelled sheets, cased books, , castor oil, catch stitch, catch words, celluloid, sheets of, centres, designing, chrome leather, clasps and ties, , cleaning off back, cloth casing, , cloth joints, , cobden-sanderson, t. j., xii., cockroaches, cocoanut oil, collating, colouring edges, combining tools to form patterns, compasses, cord sewing, corners, mitring, , cousin, jules, , covering, , , , crushing the grain of leather, cutting in boards, cutting mill-boards, cutting press, damp, effect of, on bindings, decoration of bindings, , , , designing tools, diaper patterns, dividers, dots, striking, doubluves, , dressing for old bindings, dust and dusting, early printed books, binding, , , edge colouring, edge gauffering, edge gilding, , edge sizing, , edges, painted, embroidered bindings, end papers, , end, painted, end, vellum, ends, silk, entering, evelyn's diary (quotation), "extra" binding, , false bands, fillet, , fillet, small, , filling in boards, finishing, finishing press, finishing tools, finishing stove, flattening vellum, folder, folding, fraying out slips, french joint, french paring knife, french standing press, gas fumes, effect of, gathering, gauffering edges, gelatine, gilding edges, , gilt top, glaire, , glass, tinted, for libraries, glossary, glue, glueing up, goatskin, gold cushion, gold leaf, gold knife, gold, net for, gold, pad for, gold tooling, , gouges, , , groove (_see_ joint) guarding, , guarding plates, , , hammer, backing, hand-made paper, headbanding, , , headcaps, , heat, effect of, on bindings, heraldry on bindings, hinging plates, hollow backs, , imperfections, india proofs, soaking off, india proofs, mounting, indiarubber for gold, inlaying leather, , , inlaying leaves or plates, inset, , inside margins, jaconet, , japanese paper, japanese vellum, jewelled bindings, joint, , joint, cloth, , joint, french, joint, knocking out, joint, leather, , kettle stitch, , , keys, sewing, knife, mountcutters', knife, french paring, knife, gold, knife, plough, , knocking down iron, , knocking out joints, knot, , lacing in slips, lay cords, laying press (_see_ lying press) leather, , leather, chrome, leather, crushing grain of, leather, inlaying, , , leather joints, , leather, paring, leather, polishing, leather, sprinkling and marbling, , leather, stretching, , leather, testing, leather work, leaves, inlaying, lettering, , , letters, autograph, library binding, , , light, effect of, on leather, lining up back, lithographic stone, , loose covers, lying press, manuscripts, binding of, , , , , , manuscripts, collating, maps, throwing out, marbled paper, margins, inside, marking up, materials for sewing, mending, mending tooling, mending vellum, metal on bindings, millboards, millboard machine, , millboard shears, mitring corners, , morocco, morocco, "persian," mount-cutters' knife, mounting india-proofs, mounting very thin paper, net for gilding edges, niger morocco, nipping press, nippers, band, , oil, cocoanut, opening newly-bound books, overcasting, "overs," oxalic acid, use of, pad for gold, paging, painted edges, painted end papers, pallets, paper, paper, art, , paper, hand-made, paper, japanese, paper, marbled, paper, sizes of, , paper, sizing, paper, splitting, paper, washing, paraffin wax, paring leather, paring paper, paring stone, , pastes, paste water, pasting down end papers, patterns, "peel," permanent binding, "persian" morocco, pigskin, plates, detaching, plates, guarding, plates, hinging, plates, inlaying, plates, trimming, plough, plough knife, , polishing, preserving old bindings, press, arming, , press, blocking, , press, cutting, press, finishing, press, lying, press, nipping, press pin, press, sewing (_see_ sewing frame) press, standing, pressing boards, , pressing in boards, pressing plates, , pressing sections, "proof," publishers' binding, pulling to pieces, quarter sections, quires, books in, rats and mice, re-backing, re-binding, , refolding, register of printing, , representations of bindings, - roll, rounding, sawing in, , , , scrap books, sealskin, sections, pressing, sewing, sewing cord, sewing frame, sewing keys, sewing on tapes, , , sewing on vellum slips, , sewing silk, sewing, tape for, sewing thread, sheepskin, - sheets, books in, sheets, waterproof, signatures, , silk ends, silk sewing, sizes of paper, , sizing, sizing edges, - sizing leather, sizing paper, slips, slips, fraying out, slips, lacing in, soaking off india proofs, society of arts, report of committee on leather for bookbinding, , society of arts, report of committee on paper, specifications, split boards, , , splitting paper, sprinkling leather, , squares, , , standing press, standing press, french, , staples, wire, "starred" sheets, stove, finishing, stone, lithographic, , striking dots, striking tools, tape, sewing on, , , temporary binding, testing leather, thin books, binding, thin paper, mounting, thread, sewing, throwing out maps, ties and clasps, , tobacco smoke, effect of, on binding, tooling, blind, , tooling, gold, , , tooling on vellum, tools, designing, , tools, finishing, , training for bookbinding, trimming before sewing, trimming machine, trimming plates, tub, tying up, varnish, vellum binders, vellum bindings, vellum ends, vellum, flattening, vellum, japanese, vellum, mending, vellum slips, sewing on, , vellum tooling on, walker, emery, washing, waterproof sheets, weaver's knot, wooden boards, , , , worm holes, , the artistic crafts series of technical handbooks. edited by w. r. lethaby. the series will appeal to handicraftsmen in the industrial and mechanic arts. it consists of authoritative statements by experts in every field for the exercise of ingenuity, taste, imagination--the whole sphere of the so-called "dependent arts." bookbinding and the care of books. a handbook for amateurs, bookbinders, and librarians. by douglas cockerell. with illustrations and diagrams by noel rooke, and collotype reproductions of binding. mo. $ . net. silverwork and jewelry. a text-book for students and workers in metal. by h. wilson. with diagrams and full-page illustrations, mo. $ . net. wood carving: design and workmanship. by george jack. with drawings by the author and other illustrations. $ . net. stained-glass work. a text-book for students and workers in glass. by c. w. whall. with diagrams by two of his apprentices, and other illustrations. $ . net; postage, cents additional. d. appleton and company, new york. transcriber's notes obvious typographic errors have been corrected. for the detailed list see below. the tables have been slightly modified to optimize presentation. page --typo fixed: changed 'making' to 'marking' page --spelling normalized: changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding' page --typo fixed: changed 'wook' to 'wood' page --typo fixed: changed 'chapter viii' to 'chapter xiii' page --typo fixed: changed 'isinglas' to 'isinglass' page --spelling normalized: changed 'tie downs' to 'tie-downs' page --spelling normalized: changed 'headcap' to 'head-cap' page --spelling normalized: changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board' page --spelling normalized: changed 're-binding' to 'rebinding' page --spelling normalized: changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board' page --spelling normalized: changed 'goat-skin' to 'goatskin' page --spelling normalized: changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding' page --spelling normalized: changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards' page --spelling normalized: changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards' page --spelling normalized: changed 're-folding' to 'refolding' available by internet archive (http://www.archive.org) note: images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see http://www.archive.org/details/repairmendingofb browrich transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). small capital letters were replaced with all capitals. mending and repair of books compiled by margaret wright brown fourth edition revised by gertrude stiles supervisor of binding, cleveland public library american library association publishing board chicago contents page introductory note when to bind or when to mend the mending table: its supplies paste, the mending medium ways to mend ways to clean binding record temporary binders introductory note the task of mending demands so much of the time and energy of library workers and is a factor of such economic importance in every public library that it cannot be put aside as incidental. it is hoped that these suggestions may give definite aid in this homely task which is ever present in all libraries. no attempt has been made to give instruction in the advanced processes of mending, as this at once encroaches on the art of binding. the best mending can be done only where an acquaintance with the construction of the book has been acquired through a study of the various processes of binding. librarians are urged to visit binderies to see the various processes; and to study the art of binding under personal instruction of experienced binders whenever this is feasible. it is not probable that any one librarian will use all of the processes suggested, and some of these will apply only to exceptional cases; but the directions cover diversified conditions in order that the librarian may have the necessary information whenever required. the experienced mender. this handbook has not been prepared for the use of the larger libraries where a bindery is a part of the equipment, or where there are members of the staff trained in binding and hence experienced menders. the inexperienced mender. the purpose of this handbook is to give practical aid and guidance to librarians who are entirely inexperienced in the work of mending and repair of books and whose knowledge must be gained through self-instruction. the compilers have drawn upon many sources and have endeavored to make available the suggestions received and methods used by many librarians and practical binders, and grateful acknowledgment is herewith made for the co-operation and helpful suggestions received from them. mending and repair of books * * * * * when to bind or when to mend the question when to bind or when to mend is of daily recurrence, and a decision must be made upon the examination of every circulating book returned, before placing it on the shelves. the answer will depend largely on the policy of the library regarding the binding question. no library can afford to circulate shabby, soiled or ragged books, because: ( ) from an economic standpoint, a book's ultimate usefulness, or life, is materially shortened by neglect to bind at first sign of need. ( ) when books are given proper care by the library, standards are set which insure a like treatment on the part of the reading public. ( ) the reading public has a right to expect that its books shall be clean and whole, and that its property shall be in proper condition for satisfactory use. when to bind when the stitches break and a section or a few leaves fall out, the book should be sent to the bindery immediately. this is happening daily with the original publishers' bindings. if the book is removed from the shelves the librarian is at once confronted by the problem of being unable to answer the unceasing cry for the last new novel, as it is the fiction which is usually in this condition. however, if the book is allowed to circulate a few more times there are "pages missing" and the book has become valueless. no book should be rebound with pages missing. when the stitches have not broken, but either a few or all the sections have become loose: there is no excuse for the librarian to leave upon her shelves or permit to circulate books that are held together only by the slender threads with which they are sewed and threatening at any moment to come tumbling forth from the cover. such books speak in no uncertain terms for rebinding or permanent withdrawal from the shelves. _shall books be sent to the bindery when in greatest demand?_ yes, when they cannot be circulated further without permanent injury to them. such books should be hastened through the bindery by statement to binder regarding immediate need. if your present binder cannot bind promptly, find one who will. the prompt rebinding of a book more than doubles its life. if the book has been reinforced at first sign of giving way (see page ) all the temporary assistance that can safely be given has been rendered and if the book is of permanent value to the library it must be rebound. when to mend when the stitches are not broken or loosened, and still hold sections firmly together. when the joints are loose. when the book has once been rebound. the tendency among librarians is to mend too much before rebinding. mending makes rebinding more difficult and jeopardizes the life of the book. it is only in rare cases, as for example when a book is out of print, and yet valuable to the library, that a second rebinding is justified. when to replace _will it be cheaper to mend a book and, when its short life is done, withdraw and replace with a new copy?_ yes, when the original cost is less than rebinding. note--in the decision to replace, the labor of accessioning and withdrawal must always be taken into account. the fresh, clean copies of the "easy books" and other good, inexpensive juvenile books are to be preferred to rebound copies. if the original binding is so poor that a second copy would shortly be in the same condition as the first, it is then advisable to send the book promptly to the bindery for recasing, preferably before circulating. greater durability is thus insured. if the book has an attractive original cover it is preserved and the value of the book enhanced thereby. yes, when the paper is of such poor quality that the leaves break away from the stitching. yes, when the book is extremely soiled; replace, even if it costs more than rebinding. yes, when a new edition, or better books on the same subject have been published. in replacing fiction, inexpensive editions are available for many popular titles in the grosset & dunlap edition, burt home library, everyman's library, etc. some inexpensive editions rebind and wear as well as the first editions. others because of narrow margins or quality of paper do not pay to rebind. a little observation and experience will soon prove what titles can be rebound to advantage. the mending table: its supplies a piece of glass or white oil cloth, cut to fit the size of the table, will be found most conducive to cleanliness, as it can be quickly and easily washed. paste. mixed paste or powder form. see page . cloth. white outing flannel, cheese cloth and cheap grade of canton flannel, purchased by the yard at any dry goods store. art vellum in assorted colors, cut in strips. muslin cut in strips. paper. onion skin bond, cockle finish, lb. weight cut into strips for use; tissue paper. brushes. flat, rubber-set photographer's brush, about inch wide; also artist's round bristle / inch thick. scissors. slender, six-inch blade, good quality. knife. shoemaker's long blade, square at end, or common paring-knife purchased at hardware store. folder. bone, purchased at stationer's. needles. sharps, no. , or any strong and not too coarse darning needle. thread. hayes' linen, no. ; barbour's linen, no. . pressing tins. × in., obtained at tin shop. zinc is pleasanter to use and will not rust. cleansers. wash for pages; wash for book covers; powdered pumice stone; art gum, sponge rubber. shellac. consult local druggist or paint dealer regarding the best white shellac. press. an old letter-press can usually be purchased locally for a small sum. prices on new copying press × in. obtained of local stationer. if press is not secured, old pieces of marble can be used. bricks covered with paper make good pressing weights. a local bindery or any binder's supply house will furnish mending materials; also price list and samples of materials may be obtained from the following: democrat printing co., madison, wisconsin. gaylord bros., syracuse, new york. paste, the mending medium paste may be used with less danger of injury to the book than glue, and is the only mending medium which should be used on books that are to be rebound. under no condition should mucilage be used on any book which is to be rebound. some librarians persist in doing this and then expect the binder to do good work. glue should be used only by experienced menders. use. paste for small surfaces is more evenly spread with the finger, and there is less waste than with a brush. spread thinly, using only enough paste to make paper stick securely. thick paste spreads more smoothly than thin and is not taken up quickly by the paper. this is an important point, for if the paper stretches or expands the work can not be done in a satisfactory way. provide cheese cloth cut in small pieces for use in rubbing down the pasted parts, and for keeping the fingers clean, etc. these should be used only a few times. cleanliness and neatness are absolutely essential to good mending. there are various powdered pastes on the market used by book-binders, bill-posters, paper-hangers and others. spon tem or steko, manufactured by clark paper & twine co., rochester, n. y., and rex dry paste, geneva, n. y., are both excellent in adhesive qualities and easily prepared, mixing with either hot or cold water and without cooking. an excellent mixed paste is made by the commercial paste co., columbus, ohio, called gleich's "gluey" paste. this, as its name implies, has some glue mixed with it and is quick drying and strongly adhesive. arabol book glue, arabol mnfg. co., william st., n. y. city, is highly recommended. purchase in large or small quantities. the various pastes used in the school "hand work" are good, and come under the general name of school pastes. recipe for flour paste. mix a thin batter of flour and water, cook and as it thickens add hot water until right consistency and until thoroughly cooked. it will be well cooked when all milky appearance of the flour and water has disappeared and when bubbles of air begin to explode through the mixture. after taking from the fire a preservative may be added if desired, such as a half teaspoonful of oil of wintergreen to a pint of paste. at times it is desirable to do some simple pasting, such as tipping in a single leaf or label, and for such work any good library paste is a great convenience. ways to mend avoid too much mending. paper used for mending should be cut lengthwise with the grain of the paper. cloth should be cut the long way of the material. in mending always use paper of lighter weight than the book. for books printed on heavily coated paper, tissue or bond is too light, but paper cut from margins of advertising pages of magazines is a suitable weight. pages torn through the printing may be mended as follows: ( ) use ungummed, transparent mending paper, cutting it the size and shape of the tear, and about one-half inch wide. apply a thin coat of paste to the strip and fit it carefully over the tear, having first placed a strip of waste paper under the torn leaf to absorb extra paste. ( ) for finer or better class of books, upon which more time and care may profitably be spent, rub a very little paste on the torn edges, place torn edges together, then take a rather large piece of ordinary tissue paper and rub it gently along the tear so that the tissue paper will adhere to the torn edges. put under press, and when dry the superfluous tissue paper should be torn off, using care to pull always toward the tear and from both sides at the same time. the delicate fibre of the tissue paper acts as an adhesive and it is almost impossible to discern the way in which the mending has been done. torn in the margin use thin, firm mending paper, preferably a tint to match paper of the book. cut a strip one-half inch wide corresponding to the size and shape of the tear, apply paste and trim even with the edge of the leaf. when these processes are used, place books in press or under a weight, until thoroughly dry. there are gummed papers for this purpose but care should be taken in their selection as some are likely to darken and discolor. leaves when loose leaves are replaced the greatest care should be taken to make sure that they do not extend beyond the edge of the book. if this occurs, it shows careless or inexperienced mending. loose leaves may be inserted in several ways: ( ) if the leaf fits exactly into the book, it may be tipped in by applying paste to one-eighth inch of its inner margin. place the loose leaf in the book, the outer edge even with the book, and rub down the pasted inner margin against the next leaf with bone folder. put the book in press until dry. illustrations may be tipped-in in this way when it is desirable to preserve them. ( ) if it is found by measuring that the leaf when inserted, will extend beyond the edge of the book, fold the leaf at the inner margin over a ruler edge, or other straight edge, slightly more than one-eighth of an inch, thus making a hinge. apply paste to this hinge with the finger. place leaf in the book and push well back; rub the little pasted hinge down with bone folder, being careful to leave no free paste. ( ) in case the quality of the paper of the leaf to be inserted will not stand the tipping-in process, or is badly worn at the inner margin, it may be inserted by a guard. fold a half-inch strip of onion skin paper, lengthwise. apply a thin coat of paste to the outside of this strip. attach half of the strip to the inner edge of the loose leaf, and the other half to the adjoining page in the book, close in by the fold. trim edge of leaf if it projects. put in press until dry. do not use gummed muslin for this work. it destroys the chance of proper rebinding and detracts from the appearance of the rebound book. sections when _more_ than one section, sometimes called signature, is loose in a book which is worth rebinding, it should be rebound at once. when the thread in one section only is broken, or one section only is loose in a rebound book and the rest of the binding is intact, the section should be inserted. to avoid further ravelling, it is necessary to secure the broken threads of the book either by fastening them together, or attaching to new threads; also that the loose section is sewed or tied through the super on the back of the book. loose sections may be inserted as follows: if the folds of the leaves in the loose section are torn or thin, they should be mended before replacing the section. take a half-inch strip of thin, firm paper, the length of the page; fold through the middle lengthwise and paste down through the center fold of the leaves. a touch of paste along the fold of each will hold all the sheets together. open the book at the place where the section is loose. (when the book is open the back of the book separates from the cover.) open the loose section and place it in the proper position in the book. near the top and bottom in the center fold of the section will be seen the holes which were made by the binder. thread a needle with barbour's linen thread no. , or hayes' linen thread no. , and tie new thread to broken end of thread in book. pass the needle through the hole at the top of the loose section and out between the book and its loose back. do not pull the thread clear through. drop the needle and thread down between the back of the book and the loose back to the bottom. run the needle and thread from the outside in through the hole at the bottom of the loose section. pass the needle and thread around again in the same way. draw tight and tie with a hard knot at the point of beginning. joints books in the ordinary case or publishers' binding will, after a short period of use, show signs of weakness in the joints (where the book and cover are attached). the paper cracks and both it and the super on the back of the book loosen and unless immediate attention is given the stitching breaks and the book must go to the bindery. this super is a loosely woven cotton cloth which is glued on the backs of books to help hold the sections together, and extends from the back of the book to the inside of the cover to help hold the book and cover together. in the publishers' bindings, this super is usually all that holds a book in the cover. loose joints may be reinforced by tightening and stripping. hold the book open in an upright position on the table. the back will separate in a curve from body of book; with the round brush apply paste between the loose back and the book, along the joints only. if too much paste is used it will spread over the back, causing the cloth cover to become wrinkled and title illegible. close the book, care being taken to push book well back in cover, and with bone folder rub well along the joints, squeezing out any extra paste at head and foot. dry under weight for a half-day at least. then with knife clean off the ragged edges of torn paper along the joint inside the cover. place the book flat upon the table, the front cover open, take book of similar thickness and place under open cover. take a strip of muslin or paper. cut this strip the exact length of the book, and apply thick paste so that the paper or cloth will not stretch. paste one-half of this strip to the fly-leaf and the other half of the strip on the cover of the book. make sure that the strip is smoothly laid, not stretched too tightly from book to cover, or it will pull up first pages when book is used; if too loosely stretched it is unsightly and fails of its purpose; allow the book to remain open until the strip is dry. repeat this process for the back cover. recasing when the stitching has not broken, and the paper is of good quality a book may be removed entirely from its cover and recased. in recasing, painstaking care is required and books must be in condition specified to obtain satisfactory results. take a sharp knife and cut through the super at both joints. this super is easily lifted from the inside of the book cover. pull it off the back of the book, taking great care in this, and remove all particles of dried glue. take white outing flannel, which is light in weight and double-faced, or canton flannel (downy side towards the book), or cheesecloth. cut a strip as long as the back of the book and two inches wider; paste this over the back only, allowing an inch extension on each side. do not, in this first process, put paste on the extensions. draw the cloth over the rounded edges of the back (or joints); rub the back well with bone folder and also over the rounded edges, but do not paste the cloth down beyond the rounded edges. during this process hold the back of the book so that the sections, or signatures, will not separate. after thorough rubbing let dry. apply paste to inside of book covers one inch next to the joints; do not put paste on back of book. place book in cover, pushing well back, making sure that it is correctly placed. paste down the one-inch extension of cloth, laying waste paper between it and book; close book, rub joints well with bone folder and allow to dry thoroughly. strip joints, following instructions for re-inforcing; paste clean paper lining on book covers, press and dry. the book should then be opened as carefully as a new book. pressing this adds greatly to the appearance of the mended or repaired books. do not place weights over the rounded back of a book. place the pressing boards or tins over the covers of the book only, even with, but not extending over, the joints. pressure on the rounded back will weaken a book in the most vital part. do not-- use too much paste. use lepage's glue or any mucilage. use cloth strips in a book except at the joint. paste heavily up the back unless a very old and not valuable book. overmend on a book which will ultimately be bound. allow loose pages to be slipped up in the book above the top of book. use heavier paper for patching than paper of book. always-- handle books carefully. allow sufficient drying. have plenty of waste papers and discard when soiled. wash brushes well each day. pile up books alternating the backs with the foredges. they will stand erect and not slip or slide. missing pages when a page is missing and it is impossible to replace the book with a new copy, the page may be typewritten and tipped in. when it is necessary to rebind the book, the margin of the typewritten page should be left an inch wider on each side than the regular margin. this is for the convenience of the binder, who will trim down the margin in process of rebinding. make typewritten page conform to size and shape of printed page. notation for damages when there is an injury to a book which is allowed to remain in circulation, the reading public should be made aware that the damage is known to the library by a notation, with date, near the injury, e.g., "damage noted mr. ' , free public library." ways to clean the book should be cleaned as well as mended. careful attention should be given to the cleanliness of the books in circulation. there is nothing that more quickly creates a distaste for the use of a public library than the handling of soiled and grimy books. careful study of the paper upon which books are printed is necessary, and in cleaning the fact that different papers and finishes require different treatment must be taken into account. the spongy feather-weight paper upon which much of the fiction is printed is difficult to clean. pencil marks may be erased with art gum used gently; soil of any other kind is almost impossible to remove. heavily clay-coated paper may be cleaned with powdered pumice or a hard eraser. highly calendered paper and any hand made paper may be cleaned with a damp cloth; cleaning but a few pages at a time and allowing book to remain open until dry. pages soiled pages may be cleaned in the following ways: with art gum, rub gently and slowly, holding the page flat with the left hand to prevent tearing. with powdered pumice stone, rub on with a clean cloth. with damp cloth, be careful that cloth is not too wet. rub always from inner margin of the page outward, to prevent crumpling. brush off carefully all particles of rubber, or pumice stone, allowing none to remain in the folds between the leaves. mud stains may be removed by using a soft brush or sponge, with a preparation of the following proportions: one cup water, one teaspoon ammonia, four drops carbolic acid. avoid too much rubbing or print will blur. slip the pressing tin under the page, and after washing, place white blotting paper on each side of the leaf. ink stains may be removed by one of the standard ink eradicators to be obtained of local stationer or druggist. edges of the leaves may be cleaned by sandpapering, holding the leaves of the book very firmly together, or putting book into press. covers soiled covers may be cleaned by using a hard eraser, pumice stone or soap and water. the best results are obtained by the use of the following wash: two parts good vinegar and one part water. apply with a clean cloth and rub hard until dirt is removed, then place upright to dry. this should not be used on leather. the book should then be shellacked. shellacked covers. new books may receive preliminary care by shellacking before placing in circulation. shellacking the covers, especially those in light colors, provides great protection from dirt, and they are then easily washed with the vinegar and water. another coat of shellac is advisable after washing. to shellac, hold the book by the printed matter and apply the shellac, which may be diluted with a little wood alcohol, taking care to shellac the edges well. give two coats; between coats suspend on a cord over night to dry. after the last coat, rub with soft cloth slightly oiled with olive oil. this prevents sticking. if the books are labeled before shellacking, the ink must be allowed to dry thoroughly or it may run; in removing the labels, use wood alcohol first to cut the shellac and then soak off with blotting paper and water. care should be taken in the selection of the shellac; if not, the books will be gummy and hard. the leather on bound magazines and books often becomes very dry and will split and crack. this is especially true of books not greatly used, as the oil of the hands acts as a great preservative. to prevent this cracking and splitting, some oil is necessary. vaseline is good for this, applied with a cotton pad covered with a soft cloth, and should remain on the leather for a day to permit absorption of the oil. some leathers will absorb a second application, after which books may be rubbed down and returned to shelves. the oil or vaseline does not harm the gilding. this may be done once a year, depending upon the condition of heat in library and upon age and condition of leather bound books. worn covers may be replaced on books with leather backs by removing cloth from the boards dry, and using this as a pattern from which to cut new cloth or paper. reline inside of boards with paper. covers split at joint. strips of cloth in assorted colors may be obtained with other mending supplies to reinforce covers split at the joints. this cloth may be obtained gummed or ungummed; if ungummed, use paste; if gummed, moisten with thin paste. binding record preparation of books for the bindery. closely related to the work of mending and repair of books is the preparation of books for the bindery. binders have complained of the careless and unbusiness-like methods of some librarians in this matter. attention should always be given to the following: handle a book to be bound with more care than when the binding is sound. collate every book to make sure that no pages are missing, unless it is ascertained that the binder includes this process in his work. many librarians have ceased to make bindery slips, except in the case of important books requiring complicated titles or for magazines. when slip is not made, an excellent way to indicate the lettering for the back of book is to underscore lightly in lead pencil on title page, the specific words in title desired; for author underscore twice. the material to be used for binding is generally decided upon in advance by conference or correspondence with binder. magazines should be carefully examined to make sure that each volume is complete, including title page and index. the librarian should write to the publisher for these, if they are not received within a reasonable time after the volume is completed. if missing, instruct binder to bind in stubs so that they may be inserted when obtained. in giving directions for magazines to be bound with stubs, state whether stubs are to be at the beginning or end of the volume. look over previous volumes of set that your volumes may be uniform in the placing of the index, and follow the printer's arrangement. send an alphabetical list of the books to the bindery for checking purposes. keep a duplicate copy. file alphabetically in charging tray the book cards that have been removed from the books; charge these to the bindery. magazines should have a bindery slip made and a sample volume already bound sent that each set may be uniform as to color of cover, lettering, etc. a rubbing of a bound volume can easily be made and sent in place of the volume. if the binder has previously bound magazines for you he has doubtless made sample backs for his own convenience. the slip should show definitely the placing and abbreviations of volume numbers, dates, etc. when books are returned from the bindery. examine carefully for flexibility--should not be too stiff and hard to open; evenness of cover; compactness; correct and even lettering; reasonably wide margins. check books with duplicate list. pay no bills until all mistakes are rectified. mistakes in lettering can be corrected, and when this occurs return to the bindery. enter in accession book under "remarks," opposite the entry of each book the date when the book was rebound: e. g., "reb'd jc., ' "; also on inside of lower front cover near the joint. a rubber stamp at small expense may be ordered from any stamp works, with the word "reb'd" to be inserted in the pencil date holder with the date. this saves writing. enter on the monthly report blank the total number of books rebound. (this gives data for yearly total and obviates the necessity of keeping binding book.) temporary binders the gaylord bros.' red rope binder provides an inexpensive magazine binder, both for the current periodicals in use in the reading room and those in circulation. the cover of the magazine may be pasted on the outside of the binder, and after the current month the magazine may be circulated just as a book, without damage for future binding. a good quality of wrapping paper may be used in place of the red rope paper. it is less expensive and wears fairly well. information as to terms used in binding and mending and illustrations of the structure of a book may be found in the following: a. l. a. committee--binding for libraries a. l. a. publishing board bailey, a. l.--library bookbinding wilson co. cockrell, douglass--book binding and the care of books appleton coutts, h. t., and stephens, g. a.--manual of library book binding libraco, london dana, j. c.--book binding for libraries library bureau * * * * * transcriber's note: errors in punctuations and inconsistent hyphenation were not corrected unless otherwise noted. on page , "next the" was replaced with "next to the". on page , a period was added after "crumpling". produced from images generously made available by the internet archive.) [illustration: passionale, etc., ms., _circa_ a.d. henry i.] royal english bookbindings _by_ cyril davenport, f.s.a. _of the department of printed books, british museum_ london seeley and co. limited, great russell street new york: the macmillan co. list of illustrations _coloured plates_ page i. passionale, etc., ms., _circa_ a.d. henry i. _frontispiece_ ii. penitential psalms, etc., ms., sixteenth century henry viii. novum testamentum græce. lutetiæ, (gold centres) queen elizabeth iii. deloenus. libellus de tribus hierarchiis, etc., ms. henry viii. iv. [greek: basilikon dÔron.] written for prince henry, by king james vi. of scotland. ms james i. v. ortelius. theatre of the world. london, do. vi. new testament, etc. london, charles i. vii. gil. [greek: parerga], etc. londini, do. viii. order of the coronation of george iii. and queen charlotte. london, george iii. _illustrations in the text_ indentures between henry vii. and john islippe, abbot of westminster, concerning the foundation of the chantrey, etc., ms. henry vii. opus eximium de vera differentia regiæ potestatis et ecclesiasticæ. londini, henry viii. description of the holy land, in french. by martin brion. ms. do. le chappellet de ihesus, ms., sixteenth century margaret tudor, queen of james iv. of scotland il petrarcha. venetia, queen katharine parr prayers, etc. malborow, (doublure) edward vi. queen mary's psalter, ms. queen mary prayers, etc. london, - queen elizabeth christian meditations, in latin, do. parker. de antiqvitate britannicæ ecclesiæ. london, do. orationis dominicæ explicatio, per l. danaeum. genevae, do. la saincte bible. lyon, do. gospels in anglo-saxon and english. london, do. trogi pompeii historiarum philippicarum epitoma. parisiis, do. livius. romana historia. avreliæ allobrogvm, henry prince of wales collection of miscellaneous tracts in ms. do. dallington. aphorismes, civill and militarie. london, charles prince of wales common prayer. london, charles ii. a short view of the late troubles in england, etc. oxford, do. bible. cambridge, james ii. euclide. oxford, queen anne Ælfric. an english-saxon homily on the birthday of st. gregory. london, queen anne account of what passed in a conference concerning the succession to the crown, ms. george i. le nouveau testament. amsterdam, george ii. chandler. a vindication of the defence of christianity. london, do. common prayer. cambridge, queen charlotte portfolio containing the royal letter concerning the king's library george iv. _the coloured plates are printed by edmund evans._ royal english bookbindings prologue it is curious that twice in english history the royal libraries have been given to the nation. the ancient royal collection, containing manuscripts from the reign of richard iii., was added to by each sovereign in turn; but it seems to have been brought into notice and taken special care of by prince henry, the eldest son of james i. out of his own private income, this prince added largely to the old collection, and purchased the important libraries of lord lumley, of a welshman named maurice, and that of isaac casaubon. on his death the library became the property of james i., and after some other changes, both the old library and that of prince henry were deposited at ashburnham house, where in there was a fire which damaged some of it. it was then removed to the old dormitory at westminster, and in it was presented by george ii. to the nation, and was handed over to the trustees of the sloane and cottonian libraries, and placed in montagu house, then newly purchased as a national museum. there were at this time in the old royal library about , volumes altogether, and very many of them were still in their ancient and beautiful bindings. george iii., finding on his accession to the throne that there was no royal library, very energetically set to work to form a new collection. he chose his agents very carefully, and appointed sir frederick barnard to be his librarian. sir frederick travelled widely in search of books, and, acting partly under the advice of dr. samuel johnson, eventually brought together perhaps the finest collection of books ever made by one man. on the king's death the library contained upwards of , volumes, besides more than , separate tracts and some manuscripts. generally speaking, the bindings in the "king's library"--the name by which george iii.'s collection is now known in the british museum--are modern; but among them are a considerable number of old bindings in good condition, and it is possible that those which were rebound were mostly in a bad state. unfortunately the crowned monogram of george iii. is generally impressed in a prominent place, even on such old bindings as have been otherwise preserved intact; and although valuable as a record it is often a great disfigurement. there is little doubt that george iii.'s intention was to create a new royal library to remain in the possession of the kings themselves, but there seems to have been some idea that it would eventually become national property, as dr. frederick wendeborn, a german preacher, well known at court, wrote: "the king's private library ... can boast very valuable and magnificent books, which, as it is said, will at one time or another be joined to those of the british museum." this prediction was fulfilled in , when george iv. presented it to the nation, and the fine room now known as the king's library in the british museum was built for its reception, the removal being completed in . william iv. does not seem to have been altogether pleased that the royal libraries should have been twice given away, as he added a codicil to his will in , bequeathing to the crown "all his additions to the libraries in the several royal palaces," with an autograph confirmation dated from brighton, november , , signed and sealed by himself, declaring "that all the books, drawings, and plans collected in all the palaces shall for ever continue heirlooms to the crown, and on no pretence whatever to be alienated from the crown." the royal library at windsor now contains the greatest number of royal bindings now existing in any one collection, except those at the british museum, but it possesses very few that belonged to tudor sovereigns. from the time of james i. it has a very fine collection. where i have not specifically mentioned otherwise, the books described in the following pages are in the british museum. they should be to the english people especially interesting, for not only are they national property, but any of them can be seen with little trouble, and a considerable number are actually exhibited in the binding show-cases in the king's library, or in the grenville library. chapter i henry i.--edward vi.--henry vii.--henry viii.--katharine of arragon--anne boleyn--margaret tudor--mary tudor--katharine parr the rulers of england and of france have, ever since the introduction of printing into europe, been great patrons of books, and moreover have by their individual tastes, both literary and artistic, largely influenced the styles of bookbinding prevalent during their reigns. in england from the time of henry vii. onwards, and in france from louis xii., a noble series of royal bookbindings exists at the present time, and may be considered with justice to be typical of the best work done at the different periods. although there are a few great binders who do not appear, as far as is at present known, to have worked for royalty, there is no doubt that most of the great masters of this most fascinating art were at some time or other privileged to work for the sovereign houses of their time, if indeed they were not actually royal binders. before printing was introduced into england in the fifteenth century by william caxton, there is little or no record of any special collection of books made by any english sovereign. it is possible no such collection ever was made, but if it were, all trace and record of it is now lost. rich mediæval bindings of a decorative character, such as are not uncommon in other countries, are unknown in england, and it is supposed that, for the sake of the valuable metal and gems which were commonly used on such bindings, they were destroyed under the early tudor kings. at the same time, it seems unlikely that henry viii. or edward vi. would have pulled to pieces any fine bindings, if they had already formed part of a royal library. it is difficult in the case of antiquities, the full record of which is not forthcoming, to be sure of statements which may be made concerning them; but so many antiquaries and men of mark have already borne testimony at all events to the probable truth of the legend that the coronation book of henry i. still exists, that i feel any record of english royal bookbindings would be imperfect, not only without mention of it, but even without a detailed description. i think, however, that without exception every other book i shall describe or mention has upon it, or in it, some absolute mark of royal ownership, but on the other hand they are all much later. indeed, as far as i know, no book of the twelfth century has any mark of ownership upon it, although the makers' name does rarely occur. the book in question (plate i.) is quite small, measuring × - / inches. it is a manuscript on vellum of lessons from the four gospels in latin, written in the twelfth century; it also contains the whole of the gospel of st. john except a small portion missing, and some other mss. the binding is of thick wooden boards, covered probably with deer-skin. the lower cover has a sunk panel, and bears a crucified figure of our lord cast in bronze, finely chased and formerly gilt. the corners are guarded with bossed pieces of brass, stamped with a device of a fleur-de-lis within a circle, and there is a clasp of leather and brass. the figure of our lord appears distinctly old, but the rest of the metal work has not such evidence of antiquity, and it seems likely that it is much more recent. inside the book are several manuscript notes by various owners, the most interesting of which is signed by john ives, at "yarmouth, st. luke's day, ." he says this "appears to be the original book on which our kings and queens took their coronation oaths before the reformation." in powell's _repertoire of records_, , at p. , he mentions "a little booke with a crucifix" as being preserved in the chest of the king's remembrancer at the exchequer. mr. thomas martin of palgrave, owner of the book in the beginning of the eighteenth century, at one time lent it to mr. thomas madox, author of the _history of the exchequer_, and his opinion was that it was the book formerly belonging to the exchequer, mentioned by powell, and which was used to take the coronation oath upon by all our kings and queens till henry viii. it belonged afterwards to mr. thomas astle, f.s.a., keeper of the records in the tower of london, who died in , and whose library was purchased by the marquis of buckingham and kept at stowe in a beautiful gothic room specially built for it. in june the library became the property of lord ashburnham, and from him it was purchased in by the trustees of the british museum, excepting the irish mss., which went to dublin. this collection is now known as the stowe collection. there is a drawing of this book by mr. george vertue, presented by him to the society of antiquaries and still preserved in their library. from the time of henry i. until that of edward iv. there is no trace of any english royal bindings, and then only a small one. there is in the library of westminster abbey a loose leather binding impressed with a panel-stamp of the arms of edward iv., crowned and supported by the two white lions of the earls of march, and, moreover, at the top the two angels which are afterwards often found on the larger panel-stamps of a similar kind used in the time of henry viii. no other binding exists apparently that belonged to edward iv., even if this one did, but in the wardrobe accounts of his reign are found several notices of binding. one reads, "for binding, gilding, and dressing" of books, but does not say what the material is. it was probably leather, calf or goat, as gilding on velvet does not seem to have then been thought of, although the material itself was certainly used, as in another place it is stated that "velvet vj yerdes cremysy figured" were delivered for the covering of the books of our lord the king; and indeed it is curious if the "gilding" was applied even to leather, as certainly no instances are known at so early a date of english origin. actual instances of the use of velvet for bookbinding occur first among the books of henry vii. and henry viii., and the value, beauty, and wonderful durability of it are likely enough to have attracted the notice of royal and learned book lovers. henry vii. was the first of our kings whose literary tastes have left any mark on our existing collections. he acquired a magnificent series of volumes printed on vellum at paris by antoine verard, a celebrated french printer, besides other valuable books. this collection is now at the british museum almost complete, and it is rebound in velvet. it is likely that the original binding was also velvet, but record of it is lost. there is, however, one magnificent volume that fortunately was so splendid and in so fine a condition that the ruthless rebinder has spared it. this is a copy of the indentures made between henry vii. and john islippe, abbot of westminster, for the foundation of the chantrey. it is written on vellum, and its counterpart is preserved in the public record office. it is covered in crimson velvet, edged with gold cord, and having tassels of crimson silk and gold, the velvet projecting broadly over the edges. on each side are centre and corner bosses of silver, gilt and enamelled. the centre bosses bear the royal coat-of-arms wrought in high relief, with the supporters used by the king--the red dragon of his ancestor cadwallader, and the white greyhound he used both by right of his wife through the nevills and his own maternal ancestors the earls of somerset. the corner bosses bear the portcullis, the emblem of the castle of beaufort in anjou, the residence of catherine swinford, and where henry's maternal grandfather was born. each of these portcullises is borne upon a white and green ground, the livery colours of the tudors, and it has been used as a royal badge from the time of henry vii. until the present day. the book is held together by bands of gold braid, and fastened by beautiful clasps of richly-chased silver-gilt, with enamelled red roses. appended to the boards are five impressions of the great seal, each in a silver box, with either a portcullis or a red rose upon it. the seals hang by plaited cords of green and gold. there are similar books of henry vii.'s besides this one. a fine instance was shown at the burlington fine arts club exhibition of binding in . it is a _book of penalties for non-performance of services in the chapel of henry vii. at westminster_, and is bound in red velvet, with tassels and silver-gilt and enamelled bosses like those just described. it has silver clasps, and four silver boxes containing the seals of the parties to the indenture depend from the lower edge. [illustration: fig. .--_indentures between henry vii, and john islippe, abbot of westminster, concerning the foundation of the chantrey, etc., ms._] on one book, probably once the property of henry vii., which somehow became separated from the rest, is found his coat-of-arms impressed on the gilt edges--a curious and early instance of decorative edge-work. a drawing of it was published in _bibliographica_, vol. ii. p. . it is a sarum missal, rouen, , and was given to cardinal pole probably by queen mary, and eventually purchased by the british museum. henry viii. apparently thought much of his library and its proper preservation and extension. he appointed john leland, the antiquary, to be his library keeper, and gave him a special commission under the broad seal to travel and collect all kinds of antiquities and make records of them. leland acquired, under these powers, many valuable manuscripts from the monasteries, then so ruthlessly being despoiled of their treasures; but, unfortunately, he does not seem to have been able to preserve any of the precious bindings in which many of them were doubtless encased. there is a considerable amount of documentary evidence concerning the binding of henry viii.'s books. notices occur in the records of the "privy purse expenses" of payments for velvet and vellum; and these two materials are again largely mentioned in the most interesting account now preserved among the additional manuscripts at the british museum of the royal printer and binder, "thomas berthelett." this account, which is very full, refers to work done during the years - ; and although, so far, no actual book has been identified as being one of those mentioned, yet the bindings we still possess of henry viii.'s are so generally of the same kind as those described that there seems little doubt that most, if not all of them, were bound by berthelet. he mentions a psalter "covered with crimosyn satyne," and we possess a collection of tracts bound in this manner, with a delicate tracery of gold cord, and on the edges is written in gold the words "rex in Æternum vive neez." this is probably what berthelet, in an entry a little further on, calls "drawyng in gold on the transfile." there are several mentions of books "gorgiously gilded on the leather," and also others where he says books are bound "backe to backe" none of which seem to have survived, but there are plenty of instances of the "white leather gilt," so often used. "purple velvet" was used to cover "ij primers," which are now lost; but we possess a splendid volume covered in this way with embroidery upon it, and again he says he has bound books after the "venecian fascion" and "italian fascion." truly the italian work of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries is extremely fine, and berthelet may have seen some specimens of it, and, admiring them, have endeavoured to imitate their peculiar and beautiful gilded tooling. to berthelet must be conceded the honour of being the first english binder to use gold stamped work on leather, and he does so with admirable effect. many of his bindings gilded on white leather, sometimes deer-skin, sometimes vellum, are most charming; indeed, the taste for vellum has never died out in england from berthelet's time to the present day, when we have william morris's dainty volumes with their green ties. berthelet's books also generally had ties, but they are now all worn off. a fine instance of this white leather and gold occurs on sir thomas elyot's _image of governance_, printed by berthelet in . it bears the same design on each side. a panel, enclosed by an ornamental fillet, contains a very graceful arrangement of curves forming a central space in which are the words "dieu et mon droit"; and at each side of this the royal initials contained in two semicircles left for them. at each of the inner corners is a large set stamp, and the ground is dotted over with small circles and the daisy--a badge used by the tudors probably as a compliment to their ancestress margaret de beaufort. on the edges are painted in gold the words "rex in Æternum vive." some of the same stamps are used on another book which is probably berthelet's work. it is a manuscript latin commentary on the campaign of the emperor charles v. against the french in , addressed by anthonius de musica to henry viii. it is bound in brown calf, and bears within a broad outer fillet a panel containing in the centre the royal coat-of-arms and initials enclosed in an inner rectangular panel; above and below this are two rectangular cartouches, with titles of the king and various initials which have not yet been interpreted. flanking the long central panel are medallions of plato and dido, favourite stamps afterwards with english binders, but occurring here for the first time. a design which was probably a favourite one of berthelet's is found on a copy of _opus eximium de vera differentia regiæ potestatis et ecclesiasticæ_, printed by him in (fig. ). there is an instance of the same binding in the bodleian library at oxford. the arms of the king, with the supporters of the dragon and the greyhound, occupy the centre of each board. this is enclosed in an oval ribbon bearing the words "rex henricus viii. dieu et mon droit," and the whole is surrounded by an ornamental fillet with decorative corners. above and below the shield are crowned double roses and the initials k. h. a collection of sixteenth-century tracts is covered with crimson satin, and ornamented with an arabesque design outlined in gold cord. this is the earliest english book remaining that is bound in satin, but no doubt many more existed, as they are so often mentioned in accounts of the time. the satin is always crimson, and, curiously enough, long afterwards under the stuarts the use of satin was revived, but of a white colour. this collection of tracts was certainly enough bound for the king, as it has the peculiarity of the motto painted on its edges in gold, "rex in Æternum vive neez," which seems to have been a favourite form of decoration of berthelet's, so very likely this is one of his books. velvet, mentioned also by berthelet, is used to cover a large bible printed at zurich in , but there does not appear very clearly any mark by which it can be identified as his work. it is now of a tawny colour, but was originally probably crimson, and on it is outlined an elaborate design in gold cord. a broad outer border has an arabesque pattern arranged diamond-wise, with large double roses at each corner. within this is a smaller rectangular border, enclosing a circle with the king's initials bound together by a scroll, and above and below the circle a repeating arabesque design. on the edges of this book are very elaborate heraldic paintings. a different kind of work altogether covers the splendid _description de toute la terre sainte_, by martin de brion (fig. ), a beautiful manuscript on vellum dedicated to henry viii., and full of illuminated reference to him and his heraldic attributes. it is bound in purple velvet and richly embroidered, and is the first of a splendid series of embroidered books on velvet executed in england. the design is simple, but it is carried out with such skill and taste that it is altogether most effective. in the centre is the royal coat-of-arms, the coats of france and england quarterly, as borne by our sovereigns from richard ii. to elizabeth, edward iii., who first used the french coat, having originally borne it _semée de fleurs-de-lis_, but the number of these having been reduced to three by charles vi. of france, a corresponding change was made in the english coat by his son-in-law richard. [illustration: fig. .--_opus eximium de vera differentia regiæ potestatis et ecclesiasticæ. londini, . henry viii._] the bearings on these coats are worked in gold thread on a couched groundwork of silk of the proper colours. the coat is ensigned by a large royal crown worked in gold thread, freely adorned with pearls on the arches, the crosses, and the fleurs-de-lis, as also on the rim, which is further ornamented with "jewels" of coloured silks. the blue garter, with its motto in gold, and the spaces between the words marked by small red roses, surrounds the coat. the king's initial h.'s, originally worked in seed pearls, but now only showing the threads, flank the central design, and the corners are filled with raised lancastrian roses of red silk, appliqués, and finished with gold. there is still another kind of binding used for one of the volumes in the british museum that was made for henry viii., and that is of gold. it is a tiny copy of a metrical version of the penitential and other psalms in english by john cheke, clerk in chancery, written on vellum early in the sixteenth century (plate ii.) it has at the beginning a miniature portrait of henry viii., and is bound in gold, worked in open-leaf tracery, with remains of black enamel on many of the leaves and on the border surrounding them. the panels of the back have each a small pattern cut into the metal, and filled with a black enamel. at the top of each cover is a small ring so that the volume could be attached to the girdle. it is said to have been given by queen anne boleyn when on the scaffold to one of her maids of honour, and it now forms part of the stowe collection at the british museum. a book curiously decorated and bound in calf for henry viii. is a bible printed at antwerp in , and in two volumes. these are large books measuring - / × inches, and both of them have been restored at the outer edges. the inner panel, rectangular with large corners, encloses on each side sentences in french, above and below which are crowned double roses and the initials h. a., probably standing for "henry" and "anna." the sentence reads on one side, "ainsi que tous meurent par adam," and on the other, "aussy tous seront vivifies par christ." the borders and corners are very rich and decorative, and it is likely that the outer ornamentation, although it is actually modern, has been carefully copied from the original. [illustration: penitential psalms, etc., ms., sixteenth century. gold binding. henry viii.] [illustration: novum testamentum græce. lutetiæ, . gold centres. queen elizabeth.] a handsome binding in dark brown calf covers an "old royal" manuscript, _jul. claud iguini oratio ad hen. viii._, written probably about . it has blind and gold lines, and the design is an outer border with an arabesque pattern stamped in gold, enclosing the royal coat-of-arms, crowned, and enclosed within a garter. round this again are four greek words, "[greek: plios pantas alienÔn exarkton]," the meaning of which is not clear. on the coat-of-arms it is notable that the three lions of england are crowned. this peculiarity occurs sometimes in other books, but i believe heraldically the lions should not be crowned, and this book is the earliest instance i have met with in which they are so shown. [illustration: fig. .--_description of the holy land, in french. by martin brion. ms. henry viii._] _galteri deloeni libellus de tribus hierarchiis_, a manuscript dedicated to henry and probably bound by thomas berthelet, is one of his most decorative bindings on a small book (plate iii.) the design is simple, a rectangle and a diamond fillet interlaced, enclosing the royal coat-of-arms crowned. in the two lower spaces below the shield are the crucifixion and the serpent in the wilderness with their corresponding texts, and the rest of the spaces are very fully filled with small stamps of arabesques, double roses, single and double daisies, stars, and leaves. the execution of the actual gilding is coarse, and the finish generally is not as perfect as it might be, but the general effect is excellent. one of the most interesting bindings of any that were made for henry viii. is that which was, or is supposed to have been, worked for him by his daughter elizabeth. it is part of the old royal library in the british museum, and is written on vellum in the princess's own most careful and precise handwriting. it is a collection of prayers composed by queen katharine parr, and translated by elizabeth into latin, french, and italian, and dated "hereford, december , ." the dedication is, "illustrissimo henrico octavo, anglie, francie, hiberniæq. regi, fidei defensori." the volume is quite small, - / inches by , and is covered in red silk, with a gold thread in it, woven with a very large mesh, or even possibly made by hand. in the centre of each board is a large monogram worked in a thick cord of blue silk, through which runs a silver thread. the monogram, like so many similar arrangements of letters, causes much difference of opinion among the experts who endeavour to interpret it. my solution is that it is composed of the letters "a. f. h. rex," the meaning of which is "anglie, francie, hiberniæque rex," in accordance with the words used by elizabeth in her dedication, and the two h's, worked in a thick red silk cord with a silver thread in it, which are above and below the monogram, supply the needful name. i do not know that this interpretation is by any one considered to be the right one, but it appears to me at all events as plausible as any of the others i have heard. at each corner is a heartsease of purple and gold and small green leaves. this most curious and interesting binding is in many ways nearly allied to that made for queen katharine parr, which is now at the bodleian library at oxford, and which i shall presently describe. this binding is also considered to be the work of the princess elizabeth, and i think that the similarity in the peculiar groundwork, the identity of the pansies in the corners, and the use of braid or very thick thread in each, producing a maximum of effect with a minimum of labour, are all strong reasons for believing that both volumes are the work of the same hand, namely, that, of the princess herself. [illustration: deloenus. libellus de tribus hierarchiis, etc., ms. henry viii.] the bodleian binding is in very fair condition, but the british museum one is, unfortunately, in a very dilapidated state. luckily, however, it has not been restored, so what is left can be safely examined and relied upon. english royal bindings, of old date especially, now rarely come into the open market, but in the latter part of last year a most interesting specimen that belonged to henry viii. was purchased by the british museum. it is a manuscript on the science of geometry, written on paper and dedicated to the king. it is bound in white leather, and has many signs that it is the work of thomas berthelet. there is an outer border of blind and gold lines, with solid arabesques at the outer corners, and stars in the inner corners. the centre of each board bears a geometrical design of triangles and lines filled in with stars and dots. in the upper part of each board is a cartouche bearing the words "vivat rex," and at the lower part a similar cartouche with the word "geometria," followed by an arabesque ornament. written in gold on the white edges are the words "rex in Æternum vive neez." there is no book of berthelet's, except this one, on which the decoration has any reference to the contents of the volume. it is indeed probable that this is actually one of the first books in which there has been any endeavour to make the outside decoration agree with the subject-matter inside. the word "nez," or "neez," which usually occurs after the "rex in Æternum vive" so frequently painted on the edges of henry viii.'s books, has been a puzzle for some time. mr. e. l. scott of the british museum suggests that it may stand for the first letters of the words "[greek: nabouchodonosôr esaei zêthi]," as the king to whom the words are addressed in the book of daniel is nebuchadnezzar. this explanation i have already given in _bibliographica_, part viii. in the sixteenth century in england a great many books were decorated in what is called "blind," that is to say, without the use of gold-leaf, with large panel-stamps. two of these stamps bear the royal coat-of-arms, with supporters ensigned with the crown. the larger of them has above the crown a double rose and two angels bearing scrolls, and dependent from the shield, by chains, are two portcullises. the smaller and inferior stamp has, in the upper portion, representations of the sun and moon, with usually the cross of st. george and the arms of the city of london. the first of these stamps may, i think, have been originally cut for the king's own use; but the second is undoubtedly a trade stamp. the signification of it probably is, that the binder who used it was a freeman of the city of london. i have given figures of these designs in the _queen_ of june , , in illustration of a paper on early london bookbindings. the stamp with the angels is often used in conjunction with the stamps of katharine of arragon and anne boleyn, to be hereafter described; and i mention it here because it is not at all uncommon, and is very generally supposed to be actually royal, but, as far as i have been able to ascertain, there is no instance of its use upon a book which is known to have been so, and now it is generally considered to be only a trade stamp. in judging stamps of this kind, it must not be forgotten that they were cut in hard metal and only used on soft leather, so that they would last a very long time indeed. generally, some other evidence of the ownership of the book should be adduced beyond a mere existence of a single stamp. for katharine of arragon a large panel-stamp was cut bearing her coat-of-arms impaled with that of england, crowned, and having two angels as supporters. an example of this occurs on a copy of _whittington, de octo partibus orationis_, london, . on the other side of the book is the large stamp of the king's arms already described. a similar stamp was used with the substitution of the arms of queen anne boleyn for those of queen katharine. there is now no instance of the use of either of these stamps on a royal book. george vertue, in his notes on the fine arts, says that small gold books were given to queen anne boleyn's maids of honour; and he describes one of these little bindings which is, unfortunately, lost. [illustration: fig. .--_le chappellet de ihesus, ms., sixteenth century. margaret tudor._] there is, however, one exquisite golden binding in existence which may be something like the books mentioned, only this one is recorded as having been given to the queen by one of the ladies of the wyatt family. it is at present the property of lord romney, who is himself a descendant of that family, in whose possession it has always been since the sixteenth century. it is a book of prayers, and measures - / inches in length, - / inch in breadth, and three-quarters of an inch in thickness. the designs upon it are most delicate and beautiful arabesques, very nearly resembling designs made by hans holbein for jewellery. these designs are left in low relief, the groundwork being cut away to a slight degree and filled with black enamel, so that the arabesques show in gold on a black ground. the back is panelled and decorated in the same way, as also are the clasps, of which there are two. there are rings at the two lower edges, for the suspension of the book at the girdle. it resembles much the little gold book described already as having belonged to henry viii., especially the back. it is figured and fully described in vol. xliv. of _archæologia_ at p. . another book which belonged to anne boleyn, and is said to have been with her on the scaffold, is in the british museum. it is a copy of the new testament in vellum, in english, printed at antwerp in by martin emperowre. it has, unfortunately, been rebound for mr. cracherode, but still bears on its gilt and gauffred edges the words "_anna regina angliæ_" written in red. henry viii. made a most unjust will, confirmed nevertheless by parliament and also acted up to by edward vi., by virtue of which the succession to the throne of england was settled upon the descendants of his younger sister mary, instead of those of his elder sister margaret. the three grand-daughters of the princess mary were the ladies jane, katherine, and mary grey. lady jane grey, indeed, did come to the throne, as she was crowned queen of england on the death of edward vi., but she enjoyed the dignity but a short time, as nine days afterwards she was imprisoned in the tower, and on february , , was beheaded, aged only seventeen years. her sisters both died prisoners. edward vi., wishing to secure the protestant succession, had named lady jane grey as his successor, but the roman catholic influence was at the time strong enough to neutralise the king's wishes, and the party of the princess mary prevailed for the present, the succession eventually reverting to its proper channel, the line of the princess margaret, who married james iv., king of scotland. one volume alone remains that bears upon its binding evidence of having belonged to margaret tudor, and this is one of great beauty. it was presented to the british museum in by the earl of home, and is a manuscript of prayers with miniatures of french work called _le chappellet de ihesus et de la vierge marie_ (fig. ). it belonged first to anna, wife of ferdinand, king of the romans in the sixteenth century. it is bound in green velvet and has silver clasps and bosses, partly gilt. the clasps have the letters "i.h.s." upon them, gilded, and the attachments of the clasps to the volume have the letters anna on them, one letter on each, gilded. these were evidently made for the first owner of the book. then when it became the property of queen margaret, she added her name, margverite, on the sides in a very pretty manner, each letter, in silver, forming the centre of a double or tudor rose, gilded. the inner rose has its petals smooth, and the outer one has its petals roughened, as are also the little leaves between each petal. [illustration: fig. .--_il petrarcha. venetia, . queen katharine parr._] henry viii.'s younger sister mary married first louis xii. of france, and afterwards charles brandon, duke of suffolk, and there is one binding in the british museum, purchased in , which belonged to her as duchess of suffolk. it is an herbal printed at frankfort in , and is bound in dark calf, decorated with blind lines and gold stamped work. the broad outer border has at first sight the appearance of a roll stamp, but it is not actually so, the effect being produced by the successive impressions of a long rectangular stamp having engraved upon it a pattern which, on being repeated, gives the appearance of a continuous design. the design on this stamp is original and simple, and has no "italian" origin at all. the inner panel has mitre-lines in blind at each of the angles, the points of junction with the outer border being covered with a fleur-de-lis, and then converging lines meet an inner rectangular line which encloses the royal coat-of-arms of england, crowned, the two upper corner-spaces being occupied by double roses, and the two lower by the portcullis badge and chains, all impressed in gold. at the sides of the inner panel are the initials "m. s.," presumably standing for "mary suffolk." the workmanship of this curious volume is coarse and irregular, but there is a boldness about it that is not without charm, and the design itself is well balanced and effective. queen katharine parr has the reputation of having herself worked the cover of a copy of petrarch printed at venice in , and bound in purple velvet (fig. ). it is embroidered in coloured silks and gold and silver thread. the design is a large coat-of-arms, that of katharine herself, with many quarterings, the first being the coat of augmentation granted to her by the king. the coat is surmounted by a royal crown, but the supporters are those of the families of fitzhugh and parr; so the work was probably done before katharine was married to lord seymour, but after the king's death. the work is somewhat faded, and the scroll-work in gold cord at the corners is pulled out of place, no doubt the result of bad re-covering, but altogether it is in excellent condition, and is a fine specimen of royal workmanship. the princess elizabeth worked the cover of _the miroir or glasse of the synneful soul_ for queen katharine. it is said to have been worked when the princess was only eleven years old, and it is certainly possible as the workmanship is simple, indeed such as a clever girl might easily do. it is braid work of gold and silver on a blue silk ground. this ground is probably woven with a very large mesh, and is similar to that used by the princess on the little book of prayers she worked for her father. the initials of the queen, "k. p.," occupy the place of honour in the centre, and are enclosed in an elaborate interlaced arrangement of lines and knots of braid, and in each corner, in high relief, is a heartsease, elizabeth's favourite flower. the volume is now in the bodleian library at oxford. it is, moreover, an interesting proof of the learning of the princess elizabeth, as she says it was translated by herself "out of frenche ryme into english prose, joyning the sentences together as well as the capacitie of my symple witte and small lerning coulde extende themselves," and it is charmingly dedicated "to our most noble and vertuous quene katherin," to whom elizabeth, "her humble daughter, wisheth perpetuall felicitie and everlasting joye." chapter ii edward vi.--mary and elizabeth there are specimens of books bound for edward vi. in the british museum, both before and after his accession to the throne. most, if not all of these, in leather, are probably the work of thomas berthelet, as they have many points in common, and he continued the "king's printer servaunt," and furnished him also with bindings. the earliest of these is a manuscript by petrus olivarius, _in trogum pompeium et in epistolas familiares ciceronis, chorographica_, presented by the author to prince edward in , and it bears in the centre the prince of wales' feathers within a flamed circle. a somewhat more elaborate binding, with the royal coat-of-arms of england within a flamed circle, occurs on another manuscript, a translation by william thomas of a book of travels, which is also dedicated to the king. a similar design to this last book is found on the binding of _xenophon, la cyropédie_, printed in paris in . it is covered in rich brown calf, and each panel is ornamented with an interlacing fillet, coloured black, enclosing an inner diamond, in the centre of which is the royal coat-of-arms, with "e. r." and a double rose above and below. the spaces are filled with arabesques, cornucopiæ, and small stars. the colouring of the fillets, with black stain on calf, is a characteristic of berthelet's work for edward vi. and mary. this peculiarity does not occur, as far as i know, on any of those he bound for henry viii., so it may be considered that the black fillets, often interlaced in a masterly way, and frequently arranged in semicircular forms, are evidence of the later work of this master of his art. at the same time, many of the smaller stamps used on these later volumes are found also on the earlier examples. but whereas in the earlier style so-called "italian" designs are used, it appears to me that in his later and finer style berthelet has given us a very noble series of books decorated in an original and strikingly effective manner. the contrast of the rich brown calf with the black of the fillets and the rich gold of the stamped lines and designs is often beautiful. the finest example of this style is to be found in the museum copy of cardinal bembo's _historia veneta_, printed at venice in . it is a large book measuring × inches, and the single black fillet is most cleverly interlaced with corners, circles, and semicircles, in such a manner as, in fact, to form a triple border, in the centre of which is the royal coat-of-arms, itself surrounded by a line of curves finished at the ends with double roses and arabesques, and flanked at each side with the crowned initials of the king. in a circle at the upper part of the board is the motto "dieu et mon droyt"; and in a corresponding circle at the lower part is the date "mdlii." the spaces throughout are filled with arabesques, cornucopiæ, double roses, and small stars. the back of the book is curiously arranged so as to look like the front, so that it appears to have no back at all. _gualteri deloeni commentarius in tres prima capitula geneseos_, etc., a manuscript dedicated to edward vi., is bound in a very delightful and simple manner, and one which, for a small book, is nearly perfect in taste. it is covered in rich brown calf, and ornamented with blind lines and gold--a contrast which berthelet uses, especially on small bindings. the "blind" work in these cases appears to be purposely darkened, which can easily be done by using the tools hot, or by the addition of a little printer's ink. in the centre of this binding is the royal coat-of-arms surmounted by a crowned double rose. this is flanked by two cornucopiæ; at the sides of the shield itself are the king's initials, "e. r.," and under each of them the daisy with stalk and leaves. the same cornucopia stamp is used at each of the four inner corners, and each of the four outer corners is ornamented with a conventional floral stamp. king edward vi. not only had his bindings stamped with his royal badges, but the edges also sometimes came in for a share of attention, as on a copy of _la geografia di claudio ptolemeo_, printed at venice in . on the front or fore-edge of the book is the royal coat-of-arms of england, painted on a blue ground; on the upper edge is the coat-of-arms of france, and on the lower the golden harp of ireland. the side space on each of these edges is filled up with a delicate arrangement of interlacing strap-work in black, and further ornamented with fine gold scrolls and the initials "e. s. r.," also in gold. one of edward's books, however, has actually the first instance in an english book of a decorated "doublure," the name by which we understand the inner side of the boards of a book. mr. herbert horne, in his most excellent work on the _binding of books_, mentions, and gives a plate of, an instance of this kind of decoration occurring on a copy of petrarch, printed at venice in . it is an arrangement of interlaced lines of silver with two figured stamps, and is said to be the earliest european example. edward vi.'s doublure (fig. ) is not much later, as it was probably bound about , and, like nearly all doublures, it is in a wonderful state of preservation; in fact, it may be said to be the only instance of a sixteenth-century painted book that is at all in its original state, as the pigment used upon them is extremely delicate, and chips off freely. the book, a small duodecimo, is covered in crimson velvet, much worn, and is a collection of "certeine prayers and godly meditacyons," printed at malborow in . the inner side of each of the boards is covered with calf, and the design is outlined in gold and filled in with colour. this colour is not quite like oil-paint, but resembles closely the "enamel" colours which have of late years been so well known. it has little penetrating quality, lying evenly on the top of the leather, and dries with an even and polished surface. the king's arms, crowned, occupy the centre of the board, the arms in the correct heraldic colours and the crown of gold, silver, blue, and green. the king's initials, stamped in gold, are on each side of the shield. a rectangular border of green encloses the coat-of-arms, and at each of the inner corners is a daisy in gold, and above and below the arms is a semicircular projection from the green border, coloured blue. [illustration: fig. .--_prayers, etc. malborow, (doublure). edward vi._] there is yet another volume which for many years has been by the british museum authorities attributed to edward vi., but mr. w. y. fletcher, in his splendid volume on the _english bookbindings in the british museum_, considers it to be elizabethan. there is no doubt that the volume in some ways fits a description of one that was presented to that queen by the university of oxford at woodstock in , but i think the difference in the dates of printing and presentation is a weak point in the argument. the book was printed in at zurich, and it certainly seems curious that a book printed thirty-one years before should be offered as a present to a reigning sovereign. so for the present i shall adhere to its former description in the show-case in the king's library, and describe it here in its place as having been bound for edward vi. it is covered in green velvet, with a border parallel to the sides stamped in gold and bearing the legends, "esto fidelis usque ad mortem et dabo tibi coronam vitÆ--apoc. " on one side, and on the other "fidem servavi qvod svperest reposita est mihi corona jvstitiÆ-- tim. ." in the centre of each cover is the royal coat-of-arms enclosed within a garter, crowned, appliqué in pieces of coloured silk and stamped in gold, beautifully designed and beautifully executed, and the first instance of velvet or silk stamped in gold that is known to me. on the gilt edges designs are stamped, or "gauffred" as it is called, and painted. on the front edge the arms of the university of oxford. on the upper edge a crowned tudor rose with the initials e. r., and on the lower a portcullis with the same initials. there are other instances where the similarity between the emblems and initials of these two sovereigns, edward vi. and elizabeth, causes considerable doubt as to which of them was actually the owner, and i think that generally the date of the printing of such books must be considered as some authority, although among the arguments for or against the attribution of a binding to any particular owner, or author, it may be said that the date of the printing of the book must generally be esteemed at a small value. a book which has some of the peculiarities of berthelet's work upon it is found in a copy of bude's _commentarii linguæ græcæ_, printed at paris in . it is covered in calf, and has a rectangular border running parallel with the edges of the boards on each side. this border is coloured black, but it has the uncommon addition of stamped arabesques in gold upon this black. at the outer corners are arabesques in outline, and in the inner corners double roses stamped in gold. in the centre a framework of two interlaced squares, stained black, enclose the royal coat-of-arms and initials. the same workman who executed this binding also made one for queen mary, which i shall describe further on. at windsor there is a fine little binding on a copy of _strena galteri deloeni: ex capite geneseos quarto deprompta_, etc. it is bound in white leather, and ornamented with the royal coat-of-arms in the centre, flanked by the letters "e. r.," and surrounded by a scattered arrangement of double roses, daisies, cornucopiæ, and stars, all enclosed in a small decorated border. it is probably by berthelet, and is in excellent condition. in the british museum there are instances of bindings in white leather made for henry viii. and for mary, but there is no instance of one made for edward vi., so that this windsor binding is of considerable interest apart from its beauty. a copy of herodotus' and thucydides' works, bound together in one cover, belonged most likely to edward vi. it is part of the old royal library, and is bound in brown calf, with a broad outer border of italian character enclosing the royal coat-of-arms, crowned, within a flamed circle. the flamed circle first occurs, as may have been noted, on the volumes bound for edward when prince of wales, and it is afterwards used on several of his later volumes, and also on many that were bound for queen mary. what the meaning of this flamed circle is i have not been able to conjecture, it may possibly only be intended for ornament. berthelet, doubtless, liked to use circles or parts of circles on his bindings, and in this taste he was following the lead of much more ancient english binders, as the circle is characteristic of the splendid blind stamped english work of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. thomas berthelet died, according to an entry in the stationers' company register, in . so that it is just possible he bound books for queen mary. but i think that berthelet was quickly copied, and it is very easy to copy the style or even the actual stamps of any binder; and if the binding of cardinal bembo's _history of venice_ be taken as a test example of berthelet's best work, which i think it fairly may be, it will be seen that although mary's bindings have some points of resemblance there are also many wide differences. berthelet avowedly acknowledged the beauty of italian originals, but i do not find that he actually copied any one of them, and he, moreover, very soon left them behind. there is a certain recrudescence of this italian manner distinctly apparent in many of the books bound for queen mary, and i imagine this to be the work, not of berthelet himself, but of one of his imitators or successors, or perhaps one of his own workmen. a good example of this italian-english style is found on the binding of the _epitome omnium operum divi aurelii augusti_, etc., printed at cologne in . a very handsome broad border containing an elaborate arabesque is parallel to the edges of the boards. this encloses an inner black fillet interlaced with a diamond, in the middle of which is the royal coat-of-arms within a flamed circle, and at each side, in the angles formed by the intersection of the diamond points and the inner rectangular lines, are the initials m. r. the spaces throughout are filled in with arabesques, single roses, and circles. a very similar design occurs on the binding of a manuscript poem by myles haggard, addressed to the queen, and another on a copy of bonner's _profitable doctrine_, printed in london in . entirely different in manner of decoration is the binding of the _commentary on the new testament_, in latin, by aurelius augustinus, printed at basle in , and which came to the british museum as part of the old royal library. it is covered in white leather, and ornamented with gold tooling of a very elaborate kind. a broad inner rectangular panel, broken outwards at each side, contains a diamond, and the spaces in and about these leading lines are filled with arabesques, royal arms, and royal emblems, roses, fleurs-de-lis, and portcullises. although the general design of the original decoration of this book has doubtless been preserved, it has been grievously tampered with, and no reliance can be put on any of the small detail work now existing upon it--a most unlucky circumstance, as it is unlike any other royal book in the general arrangement of its ornamentation, and so of special interest. so again different, but in a much less important manner, is the little calf binding of a _livre faisant mention de sept parolles que n. s. jesuchrist dit en l'arbre de la croix_, printed at paris in , and bound for queen mary. it is decorated with blind and gold lines, and dotted all about in the most reckless manner with m's and i's, meaning doubtless mary the first. in the centre of each cover there is a knot, the same knot exactly as is used in the sculptures on our houses of parliament to tie together the initials v. r. of our present most gracious queen, and surrounding the knot are four m's. the i's are down the edge of the boards nearest to the back. the little book is of great interest, as it never could have been in any way a state copy, but was most likely a favourite book of the queen's, and so decorated with her initials only--leaving heraldry for once out of the scheme. the most splendid of the books that queen mary has left for us to admire is a manuscript of psalms and hymns in latin and french of very beautiful workmanship, known as queen mary's psalter. it came to the british museum with the old royal library. it is bound in crimson velvet and has gilt clasps and corners, and on each side a large piece of embroidery appliqué. this embroidery is much worn; it is on canvas, and some of it is actually gone, but it seems to have been a conventional pomegranate, and this is all the more likely as such a design would have been a probable one for queen mary to use, as she had an excuse to do so by virtue of her mother's right to the emblem of arragon. the clasps are engraved with the dragon, lion, portcullis, and fleur-de-lis, and in spite of the damage done to the volume by time and wear, it is still a splendid specimen of magnificent binding. by an inscription at the end of the volume we are informed that it was rescued from the hands of some seamen who were preparing to carry it abroad by "baldwin smith," who presented it to queen mary in . [illustration: fig. .--_queen mary's psalter, ms._] a book of hours in illuminated manuscript is beautifully bound for queen mary, and is finished in an unusually delicate manner. it is in calf, and has blind and gold lines. an outer border has stamps within it at intervals, in a similar style to one already described as having belonged to edward vi. in the centre of the book is a delicate stamp of the royal coat-of-arms with the letters m. r. at stonyhurst college is preserved queen mary's own _horæ in laudeum beatissimæ virginis marie_, lugduni, . it is covered in figured red velvet projecting over the boards at the lower edges, and with small tassels at each corner. on the lower cover is the crowned coat-of-arms in silver, enamelled in the proper colours. single ornamental letters r.e.g.i.n.a. are arranged in couples in three lines round it. on the upper board are the letters m.a.r.i.a., also in silver. the first two at the two top corners, the r crowned in the middle, and the two last letters in the two lower corners. the r in the centre is flanked by a double rose and the pomegranate of arragon, both in silver. there are two silver clasps of ornamental pattern. it was shown at the burlington fine arts club exhibition on bookbindings in , and there is a fine plate of it in their illustrated catalogue. the bindings of edward vi. and mary, having as a chief ornament the english coat-of-arms, nevertheless bear with them no supporters. henry vii. and henry viii., until , used the same supporters, the dragon on the dexter side and the white greyhound on the sinister; and when henry viii. made a change and adopted the crowned lion as one of his supporters, he omitted the greyhound and changed the side of the dragon, so that his successors bore as their supporters a lion crowned on the dexter side and the red dragon on the sinister, and so they occur on several elizabethan bindings. [illustration: fig. .--_prayers, etc. london, - . queen elizabeth._] the bindings executed for queen elizabeth may be conveniently divided into three classes--those bound in, or ornamented with, gold; those bound in velvet or embroidered; and those bound in leather. in this order i shall describe them. the gold, as far as i know it, is always enamelled, the velvet is generally embroidered, and the leather is frequently inlaid with other and differently coloured leathers. the peculiarity of sunken panels, borrowed apparently through the early italian bindings from oriental originals, is a remarkable speciality of elizabethan work; as is also the first use of large corner-stamps to any extent. there certainly are instances of corner-stamps on henry viii. bindings, but they are rare; whereas with elizabeth and her immediate successors the use of such stamps is very usual. the finest, as well as the most interesting, of the golden books made for elizabeth is one containing prayers and devotional pieces by lady elizabeth tyrwhitt, printed for chris barker, london, . it also contains the queen's prayers, a collection out of other works, and part of an almanack for - (fig. ). in it belonged to the rev. mr. ashley, and it was presented to the british museum in by sir wollaston franks. it measures - / inches by - / . on each side is a sunken panel, round which is a flat border containing texts from scripture, engraved and run in with black enamel. the upper cover of the book has a representation in gold of the serpent in the wilderness and the stricken israelites. the serpent on the tree and others on the ground, and the figures of the people, are all carved in very high relief, and enamelled in colours; the flesh being represented by white. the serpents are in blue. round this design are the words "make · the · afyrye · serpent · an · setit · vp · fora · sygne · thatas · many · asare · bytte · mayeloke · vponit · an · lyve+." on the lower cover a similar panel contains a representation of the judgment of solomon, worked in a similar way. round this runs the legend, "then · the · kyng · ansvered · an · sayd · gyve · her · the · lyvyng · child · an · slayetnot · for · sheis · themother · therof-- k. c+." the back is divided into four panels, each of which has a delicate and graceful arabesque engraved and run in with black enamel, as also have the two clasps. there are two rings at the top, in order that the book might be worn at the girdle. there is no real record as to who worked this enamel, but it is credited to george heriot, afterwards goldsmith and banker to james i., and founder of the george heriot hospital at edinburgh. it is in very good condition, and but little of the enamel has chipped off. it is now preserved in the gold room at the british museum. it is the only one of elizabeth's golden books that is worked in high relief, and such work is undoubtedly of the greatest rarity. for actual beauty of workmanship, it would be difficult to find any specimen of finer execution than that which occurs on the binding of a little volume of christian meditations in latin printed in , and bound in rose-coloured velvet, with clasps, centre-pieces, and corners all bearing delicate champlevé enamel-work on gold (fig. ). the book is quite a small one, measuring × - / inches, and the workmanship on the gold is of corresponding delicacy. in the centre of each cover a thin diamond of gold is fixed, the outline being broken in each case by a series of small decorative curves. each diamond is further ornamented with the tudor rose, ensigned with the royal crown, and flanked by the initials e. r. the rose is red with small green leaves, the cup of the crown is blue, and the initials are in black enamel. the whole of the vandyked edge of the diamond is bordered with a thin line of blue enamel, and the remaining spaces are filled up with small floral sprays having green leaves and red and blue flowers. the corner-pieces are ornamented in a similar way with set patterns of arabesques and flowers in red, blue, green, and yellow enamels, as also are the clasps. these enamels are all what is called translucent, and many of the colours are remarkable for their brilliancy and beauty, as well as for the skill with which they are used. the engraving of the gold plate, which is filled by these enamels, is also of remarkable beauty. george heriot again is credited with this work, with perhaps some show of probability. [illustration: fig. .--_christian meditations, in latin, . queen elizabeth._] one more book in the british museum has champlevé enamels upon it, evidently by the same workman. it is a new testament in greek printed at paris in . it is now bound in green velvet,--but this probably was the original material in which it was covered,--and in the centre of each of the boards is a diamond-shaped panel of gold, - / inches in length and - / in breadth (plate ii.) judging from the analogy of the smaller book just described, there probably were originally corners and clasps to this book, but they are now gone. each of the diamonds has originally borne rich-coloured enamels, but by far the greater part of this has chipped off, only small pieces remaining here and there in corners. on the upper cover the diamond contains the royal coat-of-arms of england, surrounded with floral sprays, roses, and flies. the diamond on the lower cover of the book has a red rose, crowned, contained in a circular border, the spaces within and without the circle being filled with similar sprays to those upon the other side. among them are acorns and flies again. the delicate engraving on the gold of both these diamonds can be very well studied, as the marks of the engraving are easily apparent. paul heutzner visited england in , and examined the royal library at whitehall. in his _itinerarium_ he says: "the books were all bound in velvet of different colours, chiefly red, with clasps of gold and silver, some having pearls and precious stones set in their bindings." it is rather curious he should have mentioned red, because, although there are many books in velvet that were bound for queen elizabeth, the only one i know of in red is the little volume described above, all the rest being in green, black, or purple. dibdin, in his _bibliomania_, says that princess elizabeth, when she was a prisoner at woodstock in , worked a cover of a little book which is now in the bodleian library at oxford. it now contains a small copy of the epistles of st. paul printed by barker in , so that, if dibdin is right in saying that elizabeth worked it when she was at woodstock, it cannot have been worked for the book it now covers. certainly, the embroidered portion has been at some time or other relaid in its present position, and considerable damage has resulted from the operation. inside is a note in elizabeth's handwriting, in which she says: "i walke manie times into the pleasant fieldes of the holye scriptures, where i plucke up the goodlie green herbes of sentences by pruning, eate them by reading, chawe them by musing, and laie them up at length in the hie seat of memorie by gathering them together, so that having tasted thy swetenes, i may the less perceave the bitterness of this miserable life." the material is, or was, black velvet, but the pile is entirely gone, except in a few protected corners. the design is outlined in silver cord, and the raised portions are worked with silver guimp. an outer border, with lettering, encloses in each case a central design. the motto on the border of the upper cover reads, "celum patria scopus vitÆ x p v s. christus via, christo vive." that round the lower cover, "beatus qui divitias scripturÆ legens verba vertit in opera." within the border, on the upper cover, is a ribbon arranged in a long oval bearing the words "eleva cor sursum ibi ubi e. c. (_i.e._ est christus)." the e and the c are in larger type, and between them is a heart in raised work, through which passes a stem, the lower end of which has two small leaves and the top a flower. on the lower cover a similar ribbon bears the words "vicit omnia pertinax virtus e. c." these two last letters, dibdin says, means "elizabetha captiva," in support of his theory that it was worked by her at woodstock. in the centre of the oval on this lower cover is an eight-petalled flower with stem and two leaves. the record of this book is remarkably clear. but, besides this, there is little doubt, judging it by other work of queen elizabeth, that it was executed and probably designed by herself. all the books credited to her with any show of probability are worked in braid or thick cord, and the designs on each are of a simple character. the most decorative of all the embroidered books worked for queen elizabeth is now, unfortunately, in the worst condition of any of them. it is a copy of bishop christopherson's _historia ecclesiastica_, louvanii, , divided into three volumes, each measuring about inches by - / . it is covered in green velvet, and each side is ornamented in the same way. in the centre a long oval shield, appliqué, in silks of the proper colour. the bearings, worked in gold thread, are enclosed in an oval of pink satin studded with a row of small pearls. surrounding this is a decorative elizabethan border worked in gold thread and pearls. the rest of the board is closely covered with a rich design of arabesques and roses in gold cord and guimp, the roses being "tudor," with red silk centres and pearl outer petals, and "york," worked entirely with small seed pearls. the narrow outer border, formed by an interlacing ribbon outlined in gold cord, has an inner row of seed pearls along its entire length; and many of the spaces all over the side of the book have small single seed pearls in them. the back is divided into five panels, bearing alternately white and tudor roses of the same kind of work as those on the sides of the book, only on a larger scale. there have also been many supplementary pearls on the back of the book. a large majority of the pearls are unfortunately now missing, as is also a great part of the gold cord, so that the above description is in fact a restoration. but every pearl and every piece of cord that is wanting has left a distinct impression on the velvet. one of the most celebrated of all embroidered books done in england was executed for queen elizabeth. it is a large book measuring inches by , and is an account by matthew parker, archbishop of canterbury, _de antiqvitate britannicæ ecclesiæ_, etc. it was privately printed by john day at lambeth palace in for the archbishop, being the first book of the kind issued in england. it is supposed to have been a presentation copy to the queen. it is covered in deep green velvet. on both covers the outer border is worked in gold, in a pattern resembling a wooden park paling, and it is probable that each side is meant to represent a park, thereby indicating the author's name of parker. within this paling on the upper cover is a design of a large rose-tree with tudor roses, and yorkist and lancastrian roses, all growing upon it. besides these flowers there are heartsease, daisies, carnations, and others whose species is difficult to determine. in the four corners of the "park" are four deer, their eyes being indicated with little black beads, some gambolling, some feeding, and on the groundwork are many grass-tufts of gold thread. the central design on the under cover is not by any means so fine. it has several plants scattered about it. there are two snakes brilliantly worked in gold and silver cord and coloured silks, and five deer like those on the other side. originally there were red silk ribbons to tie the book together at the front edges, but there is only a trace of them now left. the back is divided into five panels, bearing alternately white and tudor roses, with leaves, stems, and buds. it is said that archbishop parker kept in his own house "painters ... writers, and bookbinders," so it is very likely that this book was bound under his own eyes. it is said that only twenty copies of it were printed, and that no two were alike. it contains the biographies of sixty-nine archbishops, but not parker's own. this omission was afterwards supplied by the publication of a little satirical tract, in , entitled _histriola, a little storye of the actes and life of matthew, now archbishop of canterbury_. the two title-pages and the leaf with the archbishops' coats-of-arms are vellum, and the woodcuts, borders, and arms throughout the volume are emblazoned in gold and colours. it is now part of the old royal collection in the british museum. [illustration: fig. .--_parker. de antiqvitate britannicæ ecclesiæ. london, . queen elizabeth._] a small copy of the new testament in greek, printed at leyden in , is covered in white ribbed silk, and embroidered in gold, for queen elizabeth. each board has the same pattern upon it; in the centre the royal arms of england, ensigned with the crown, and surrounded by the garter, in both of which are inserted several seed pearls. this is surrounded by an irregular border of thick gold cord, interlaced, in which are leafy sprays of single and double roses. the arrangement of this border is admirably designed. the colours of the arms, the garter, and the red roses are painted, probably in water-colours, on the silk itself--the earliest specimen of such work that is known to me. from the delicacy of the material on which the embroidery is done, and the high projection of many of the threads, the book has evidently got into very bad condition at a remote period; and it has been entrusted to some one to repair, who has removed all the original binding and re-inlaid it on new boards, the result being that he has increased the damage already existing. a little book, _orationis dominicæ explicatio, per lambertum danaeum_, printed at geneva in , is covered in black velvet, and ornamented with a very effective design, worked with broad gold cord (fig. ). an outer arabesque border, having also flowers of silver guimp, encloses an inner panel which has two white roses in the centre, and a red rose in each of the inner corners. each of these roses has a little green leaf at the junction of the petals, and they are apparently outlined with silver thread. it is, however, often difficult with old books to say for certain whether a thread has been gold or silver, as the gold cord has a tendency to wear white, and the silver cord often turns yellow. the contrast of colour on this little book is very charming even now, and it must have been particularly beautiful when it was first done. it has the remains of ties at the front edges of red silk and gold cord. there is another embroidered book belonging to the old royal collection in the british museum that seems to have been bound for queen elizabeth. it is a copy of _the common places of dr. peter martyr_, translated by anthonie marten, printed in london in , and dedicated to the queen. it is covered in blue purple velvet, and ornamented with silver wire and guimp. there is an outer border formed of double lines, made easily and effectively by means of a spiral wire flattened down, giving the appearance of small overlaid rings. this border encloses a series of clusters, formed with stitches of silver guimp, arranged in a basket-work pattern. in the centre is an ornament of diamond shape, outlined with the same silver-wire edge and enclosing again the basket-work design, and the four inner corners are filled up with quarter circles of the same work. the book has been rebacked, and it is not in very good condition; but the effect of the silver on the deep purple ground still has a very admirable effect. the broad gilt edges are very handsomely and elaborately decorated with gauffred work of elizabethan character. a bible, printed in london in , was embroidered and bound for queen elizabeth, and presented to her in , and is now in the bodleian library at oxford. it is a folio book, measuring almost × inches, and is bound in crimson velvet. upon each board is a very graceful design of rose-branches, intertwined. there are four large roses and two smaller ones, all embroidered in silver and gold braid and coloured threads, with here and there a few small pearls. a narrow border runs round the edge, embroidered in gold thread and coloured silk. [illustration: fig. .--_orationis dominicæ explicatio, per l. danaeum. genevae, . queen elizabeth._] a remarkable binding on calf, executed for queen elizabeth, is on a large bible printed at lyons, measuring - / inches by , each board being double (fig. ). the upper board is pierced in several places, showing underneath it a lower level covered with green calf, and decorated with small stars and arabesques. the upper boards on both sides of the book are elaborately stamped in gold and painted in enamel colours, and in each case an oval, painted panel occupies the centre. the upper cover of the book has in the central oval a charming sunk miniature portrait of elizabeth as a young woman, dressed in jewelled robes and head-dress, and carrying a sword or sceptre. the portrait is enclosed in a very delicately painted frame of jewelled goldsmith's work. this painting is unfortunately damaged, especially in the face, and it seems to be executed in opaque water-colours, varnished, on vellum. immediately round the miniature, on the leather, is a very elaborately painted and gilded oval ribbon with the words "elizabeth dei gratia ang. fran. hib. regina." the broad, irregular, oval border itself has a design of interlacing fillets and floral emblems of considerable beauty, winged horses and cupids, all picked out in colours. this very large stamp, measuring inches in length, which is now and then found on books other than royal, is the largest english stamp known to me. there are cartouches left in the upper leather above and below this central arrangement, and they are of a similar ornamentation and colour, as are also the very handsome corners. the other side of the book is similarly decorated, with the differences that the centre painting, by the same hand, is the royal coat-of-arms of england in an egg-shaped, oval form, surrounded by the garter, within an elizabethan scroll. over the crown is a canopy of green and red, and the supporters of the lion and red dragon are in their proper places. underneath the coat is the motto "dieu et mon droit" on an ornamental panel, and the legend lettered on the leather immediately surrounding the painting reads "posui deum adivtorem meum." on the lower cartouche on this side is the date of the binding, "mdlxviii." this binding, when new, must have been one of the finest and most elaborately decorated of any of the leather bindings made for an english sovereign. the back of the volume, nearly inches in width, is also very finely ornamented with an elizabethan pattern outlined in gold and coloured in keeping with the rest of the ornamental work. its present condition is unfortunate. the restorations, which have been largely added, have, however, the merit of being at once apparent, as little or no trouble has been in this case taken to reproduce the old stamps. the gilt edges are beautifully gauffred, and are picked out here and there with colour. the design is a complicated arabesque with masks, and on the lower edge a curious design of an animal resembling a unicorn. [illustration: fig. .--_la saincte bible. lyon, . queen elizabeth._] one more beautiful book in the old royal collection that belonged to elizabeth has double boards. the outer edges on this instance are interesting, as there is, in fact, an elongated head-band running along their entire length and joining the edges of the two boards. it is covered in very dark morocco, and decorated in blind and gold stamped work. in the centre of each cover is a sunk oval medallion, on which is painted the royal coat-of-arms of england, surrounded by the garter; the two supporters holding up the crown in their paws. flanking the crown are the letters e. r. the motto "dieu et mon droit" is on a red panel with a blue border at the lower portion of the oval, and the groundwork of the whole is silver. the medallion is enclosed in a richly designed broad border of strap-work, enriched with dots and arabesques, all in gold. towards the upper and lower corners are four silver double roses with gold crowns. in each corner is a quarter circle of vellum, pierced and richly gilded in a pattern of strap-work and floral sprays. all the foregoing is enclosed in a border of blind work, and an outer edging ornamented with a succession of small set stamps. there are traces of green ribbons, both on the front edges of the book and at the upper and lower edges. it is a copy of _les qvatre premiers livres des navigations et peregrinations orientales de n. de nicolay_, printed at lyons in , and probably bound at the same time. the book is especially remarkable for its vellum corners, which are actually inlaid; that is to say, a corresponding piece of morocco is cut out and replaced by the vellum. this process, which, of course, adds immensely to the power of a binder in decorating the outside of a book, is one which, so far as i am aware, does not occur before on any english binding. it is a fashion that was much followed in the next century both by french and english binders. in the great majority of instances, however, the added leather is not actually inlaid, but only scraped or cut very thin, and superimposed. the remarkable manner in which the two last books described are made up with double boards is worthy of special notice, and has not, i think, ever been used since on any sumptuous binding. the fashion is one, nevertheless, which was much used with great effect on fine italian bindings made towards the end of the fifteenth century, and there are two books of this kind that belonged to elizabeth, and were bound for her in italy after the "italian fashion," now in the british museum. vellum inlays for queen elizabeth occur in their finest form on a presentation copy from matthew parker, archbishop of canterbury, of _hores historiarvm, per matthævm westmonasteriensem collecti_, etc., printed in london in . it is probable that this volume was bound in archbishop parker's own house. it is covered in calf, and the centre, border, angles, and side-pieces are inlaid in white vellum, and richly stamped in gold. the actual centre of the boards has the royal coat-of-arms of england, with crown and garter stamped in gold, enclosed in a vellum oval of strap-work and arabesques, with the letters e. r. at the sides. the inner parallelogram has large corners stamped in gold, and is edged with a black fillet, the entire field on the calf being decorated with a semée of triple dots. the book has two gilded clasps, and the edges of the leaves are gilt, gauffred, and painted. a small panel on each of the angle-pieces, which are otherwise ornamented with designs of military trophies, drums, trumpets, shields, swords, and cuirasses, bears the initials "j. d. p." these letters are supposed to mean john day, printer. john day printed books at lambeth for archbishop parker; and these corner-pieces do occur on books printed by him and bound in a very similar way to the volume now described, so there is some show of probability in the interpretation. a field covered with a succession of impressions from the same stamp has no name in english, but in france it is known as a "semée," its use having come into fashion in that country a little earlier than the date of this book. [illustration: fig. .--_gospels in anglo-saxon and english. london, . queen elizabeth._] a smaller example, with centre-piece and angle inlays only, in all other ways exactly resembling the book just described, was printed in london, (fig. ). it is a copy of the gospels printed by john day, and is the dedication copy, as is stated in a ms. note on the title-page--"presented to the queen's own hands by mr. fox." a copy, printed in london in , of grant's _græcæ linguæ spicilegium_ is covered in brown calf, and was bound for the queen. it has large corners stamped in gold from set stamps. in the centre it bears a fine stamp of the royal coat-of-arms, crowned, and surrounded by the garter, and decorated with elizabethan scrolls. the remainder of the groundwork is covered with a semée of small roses. among the old royal manuscripts is a curious book, _scholarum etonensis ovatio de adventu reginæ elizabethæ_, , covered in white vellum and stamped in gold. it bears in the centre the royal coat-of-arms enclosed in an oval ornamented border, and has large corner-pieces impressed from a set stamp, the field having a semée of small stars. the work upon this binding is of a curiously unfinished character, and it is probably the work of some unskilled local workman. the gilt edges are gauffred in a floral design, with some white colour here and there. anne boleyn bore, as one of her many devices, a very decorative one of a crowned falcon holding a sceptre, standing on a pedestal, out of which is growing a rose-bush bearing white and red blossoms (fig. ). this badge occurs first in an illuminated initial letter to her patent of the marquisate of pembroke, and at her coronation, in a pageant at whitehall, an image of the falcon played a prominent part. the origin of it is not very clear, but it may have been derived from the crest of ormond, a white falcon, which is placed under the head of the earl of wiltshire, queen anne's father, on his tomb. it was in turn adopted by queen elizabeth, and was exhibited on the occasion of her visit to norwich, in , as her own badge; and it occurs also on the iron railing on her tomb in henry vii.'s chapel. the queen bore it on several of her simpler bindings impressed in the centre of each board, with usually a small acorn spray at each corner. there are several books ornamented like this in the library of westminster abbey, and there are examples at windsor. the british museum possesses few, the best example being a copy of justinus' _trogi pompeii historiarum philippicarum epitoma_, etc., printed at paris in . it originally had two ties at the front edge. at windsor a few bindings of elizabeth's are still preserved; among them, a copy of paynell's _conspiracie of catiline_ is bound in white leather, and bears the royal arms within a decorative border. it has large corners impressed by a set stamp, and has a semée of small flowers. a copy of spenser's _faerie queene_, printed in london in , also in the windsor library, bears in the centre a crowned double rose, in the centre of which is a portcullis, and e. b. at each side of it. the crowned rose was a favourite design with elizabethan bookbinders; but unless there be corroborative evidence of royal possession, i do not think that the existence of this stamp is of itself a sufficient proof of such exalted ownership. mr. andrew tuer, in his admirable _history of the horn-book_, gives a figure of one which was exhibited in the tudor exhibition in , where it was described as the _horn-book of queen elizabeth_. it is said to have been given by the queen to lord chancellor egerton of tatton, and it has been preserved in his family ever since. the letterpress is covered with a sheet of talc, and the back and handle are ornamented with graceful silver filigree work, that on the back being underlaid with red silk. mr. tuer thinks that the type used on this _horn-book_ resembles some used by john day, the printer already mentioned; and if so, it is not altogether unlikely that archbishop parker himself may have presented this beautiful toy to the queen, as well as the more serious works in velvet and inlaid leather. [illustration: fig. .--_centre stamp from trogi pompeii historiarum philippicarum epitoma. parisiis, ._] although mary queen of scots was not directly one of the sovereigns of england, yet she is so intimately connected with them, both by her ancestry, her own history, and her descendants, that the few bindings remaining that belonged to her may well be included among these i am now describing. the bindings that were done for her when she was dauphiness, or queen, of france, are, like the scottish ones, of great rarity. these french bindings are always bound in black, and very often have black edges; and the only two bindings known to me that belonged to her when queen of scotland are in such dark calf that it is almost black also. the first and finest of these volumes is a copy of the _black acts_, printed at edinburgh, . it is called _black acts_ from the character of the type, and is a collection of the acts and constitutions of scotland in force during the reigns of the jameses and mary herself. the outer border on each side of the book is impressed in gold, and consists of a broad arabesque design. within this border is a representation of the full coat-of-arms of scotland--a lion rampant, within a tressure flory counter-flory. the tressure should be double, but in this instance it is single. the lion and the tressure are coloured red. dependent from the shield is the collar and badge of the order of st. andrew. a royal helmet, crowned, is placed above the shield, and has a handsome mantling, coloured yellow. on the crown is the crest of scotland--a crowned lion sejant, holding in one paw a sceptre and in the other a sword. the lion is coloured red. the ancient supporters of scotland, two white unicorns, are at each side of the shield; each bears a collar shaped like a coronet, with a long chain. two standards are supported behind the shield; one bears the coat-of-arms of scotland, and the other st. andrew's cross, both being in their proper colours. across the top of these standards is a white scroll bearing the words "in defense," and on similar scrolls just above the heads of the unicorns are the words "maria regina." there are a few thistles in outline scattered about. the workmanship of this piece of decoration is unlike that on any other book i know. it is what is called all "made up" by a series of impressions from small stamps, curves, and lines, and in places it seems to be done by hand by means of some sort of style drawn along on the leather, the mark being afterwards gilded. the appearance, indeed, is that of a drawing in gold-outline on the leather. the colour, which is freely used, is some sort of enamel, most of which has now chipped off, but enough of it is left to show what it has been originally. the book came to the museum by gift from george iv. the edges are gauffred, with a little colour upon them. the other book that belonged to mary queen of scots was, in , in the library of sir james gibson craig. it is a folio copy of paradin's _chronique de savoye_, printed at lyons in , and in edinburgh castle there is a list of treasures belonging to james vi., and "his hienes deerest moder," dated , in which this book is mentioned. it is bound in dark calf, decorated in blind and gold. each board has a broad border in blind nearly resembling that on the _black acts_. in the centre of each side is the royal coat-of-arms of scotland in gold, crowned. above, below, and on each side of it is a crowned "m." the crowned "m" is also impressed in gold at the outer corners of each board, and it is also in each of the seven panels of the back. [illustration: [greek: basilikon dÔron]. m.s. written for prince henry, by king james vi. of scotland.] james vi. of scotland, whatever may have been his faults, certainly had the merit of knowing how to advise his son. in he wrote the curious _basilicon doron_ for his "dearest son henry, the prince." he writes as for a prince of scotland, and about the scottish people, and when it was first issued there were many doubts as to its authorship. the original manuscript of this work is now part of the old royal library in the british museum; and although a study of this most interesting manuscript will amply repay anybody who cares to read it, it is as well specially interesting because of the beautiful binding with which it is covered (plate iv.) we know from documents that in john gibson had been appointed binder to the king of scotland, and that when he came to london this office was granted to john and abraham bateman; and, although no binding is certainly known to have been executed by either of these, i think it very probable that the binding of the _basilicon doron_ may, for the present at all events, be attributed to john gibson. it is covered in deep purple velvet, and the ornaments upon it are cut out in thin gold, and finished with engraved work. the design on each board is the royal coat-of-arms of scotland, with supporters, crowned, and enclosed within the collar of the order of the thistle, dependent from which is the badge with st. andrew. the supporters are the two unicorns standing upon a ribbon, on which is the legend, "in my defense. god me defend." above the crown are two large letters, j. r. the corners and two clasps of the book are made in the form of thistles, with leaves and scrolls. unluckily much of this gold work is gone, but in the figure i have restored it where necessary. the decoration altogether has a most rich and beautiful effect, and i know of no other book decorated in the same way. indeed, books of any sort bound for james when he was king of scotland are of the greatest rarity, and it is quite possible that this is the only existing specimen; although when he came to england a very large quantity of books were bound for him, the majority of which still remain. chapter iii james i.--henry prince of wales--charles i.--charles ii.--james ii.--william and mary--anne up to the present, as far as bookbinding is concerned, i have only recorded one change in the royal coat of england, when henry viii., in , altered his supporters, but on the accession of james i. to the throne of england a much greater and more important change took place. not only was the shield of scotland added, but also that of ireland, which, although elizabeth seems to have used it sometimes, was never before officially adopted. the harp of "apollo grian" has, equally with the scottish coat, remained an integral part of our royal shield ever since. the coats of france and england were now quartered and placed in the first and fourth quarters, the coat of scotland in the second quarter, and the coat of ireland in the third. with minor changes and additions, this coat remained the same until the reign of george iii., who, in , finally omitted the coat of france. as to the supporters, james i. retained the crowned lion of henry viii., and substituted one of his white unicorns for the red dragon of cadwallader; and these supporters remain unaltered to the present day. the fashion of stamping in gold on velvet, one example of which i have already described as having been done for edward vi. or elizabeth, was practised to a considerable extent for james i., and there are several examples of it. james evidently thought much of the tudor descent, by virtue of which he held his english throne; and he used the tudor emblems freely. one large stamp was cut for him with the coat-of-arms just described within a crowned garter, all enclosed in an ornamental oval border, in which are included the falcon badge of queen elizabeth, the double rose, portcullis, and fleur-de-lis of the tudors, and the plume of the prince of wales. this stamp commonly occurs on leather bindings, but it also occurs, used with great effect, stamped in gold or velvet. a very charming specimen of this is on a copy of _bogusz_, [greek: diaskepsis] _metaphysica_, printed on satin at sedan, , which is bound in crimson velvet, and has two blue silk ties at the front edge. at each of the four corners of the large stamp are four small decorative stamps. it is a presentation copy to james i., and has an autograph of henry prince of wales inside the cover. in the manuscript department of the british museum, belonging also to the old royal library, is a small book bound in dark green velvet, in the centre of which is stamped, in gold, the royal coat-of-arms within an ornamental border, into which is introduced the design of a thistle. an outer border of gold lines has decorative stamps at each corner. the manuscript is about the introduction of christianity into england. these two designs, or amplifications of them, are the only ones that i have met with on stamped velvet bindings done for james. there are a considerable number of books still remaining that belonged to james, bearing the royal coat-of-arms with supporters and initials, bound in leather. they often bear upon them rich semées, which form of ornamentation was used for james i. more than for any other sovereign. the semées generally consist of small lions passant, thistles, tridents, fleurs-de-lis, stars, or flowers. books of this kind, with heavy corner-pieces, are so widely known that detailed description of them is hardly necessary; but there are modifications, some of which render the bindings of greater interest. one of these is a calf binding on _ortelius, theatrum orbis terrarum_, printed in london in (plate v.) it measures inches by , and when in its original state, was doubtless one of the finest bindings done for james i. the full coat-of-arms, with small inlays of red leather, is further coloured by hand, and is enclosed within a rectangular border. between this and the corner-pieces is a very elaborate and graceful design of twining stems, leaves, and arabesques. the binding has been largely repaired, but the new stamps have been accurately copied from the old ones; and, except the outer border which is new, the design upon it is probably in all material points the same as it was originally. another instance of a departure from king james's stereotyped pattern occurs on thevet's _vies des hommes illustres_, printed at paris, . the crowned coat-of-arms in the centre, with the initials j. r., have inlays of red leather in the proper places, and the remainder of the board is so closely and intricately, with an ornamental design of dotted strap-work, interlaced with arabesques that no description can give much idea of it. the volume measures - / × - / inches, and it is in perfect condition. some doubt has been thrown upon the nationality of this most beautiful work, but mr. fletcher, in his splendid volume of _english bookbindings in the british museum_, has included it in his list. so perhaps in the future we may claim it as our own. there is one little point about it which, i think, may be considered as a reason for thinking it english work, and that is that the lions on the english coats are full face. on all the french bindings i know that were done for english sovereigns the lions are always shown side face. a volume in the manuscript department of the british museum, containing english and italian songs with music, is bound in dark blue morocco, with unusually good corners, and the field adorned with large and beautiful stars. large stars used in the field also occur on a vellum binding of the abbot of salisbury's _de gratia et perve verantia sanctorum_, printed in london, . it is without the usual corner-stamps, and is in a most wonderful brilliant condition. a little volume of king james's _meditations on the lord's prayer_, london, , is covered in deep purple velvet, with silver centre-piece, corners, and clasps. on the corners are engraved designs of the cross patée, thistle, harp, and fleurs-de-lis, all crowned. the corner with the crowned harp is, i believe, the first instance of this badge occurring on a book. the clasps are in the form of portcullises. the centre oval medallion has the royal coat-of-arms, garter, and crown engraved upon it. at the burlington fine arts club a fine specimen of binding for king james i. was exhibited by mr. james toovey. it is bound in white vellum, stamped in gold. in the centre are the royal arms, and it has large corner-stamps of unusual design, containing a sun with rays and an eagle, the ground being thickly covered with a semée of ermine spots. the border seems to be imitated from one of the old rolls of sporting subjects, which are mostly found on blind-tooled books at a much earlier period. it has squirrels, birds, snails, dogs, and insects. at windsor there are a good many specimens of jacobean bindings, all of them similar in character to one or other of the british museum specimens that i have described at length. [illustration: ortelius. theatre of the world. london, . james i.] anne of denmark, the queen of james i., does not appear to have possessed many books. there are only two in the british museum that belonged to her, both of which are bound in vellum. the larger of the two, _tansillo, le lagrime di san pietro_, vinegia, , has a gold-line border with small floral corners, and in the centre the queen's paternal arms with many quarterings, the most important of which are denmark, norway, and sweden. the coat is crowned, and above it are the letters "a. r."; and the queen's own motto, "la mia grandezza viene dal eccelso," is contained on a ribbon half enclosing the coat. prince henry, the eldest son of james i., showed more taste for literary matters than any of his predecessors, although he was much addicted to all manly exercises. he not only took great interest in the books he already found in his father's library, but he materially added to it by further collections of his own. in he purchased the library of lord lumley, who had been his tutor, and which was the finest then in england, except that of sir robert cotton. this library had originally belonged to henry fitz-alan, earl of arundel, lord lumley's father-in-law, and it had been largely increased since his death. prince henry only possessed the library for three years, as he died in , but during this time he made many important additions to it. not many of the original bindings remain upon the earl of arundel's books, and those that do are usually simple. there is one specimen in the british museum that is especially good; it bears a "cameo" of a white horse, galloping, with an oak spray in his mouth, in an oval medallion, and if there were many others like it, prince henry destroyed much beautiful work when he had them rebound. it must be supposed that the bindings of both lord arundel's and lord lumley's collection were in a bad state when prince henry acquired them, as they now are almost invariably in bindings that were made for him after , when he was made prince of wales. on the prince's death, his library, which was then kept at st. james's, reverted to the king, and served largely to augment the old royal library, which had not been very carefully kept up to the present time, and which, even afterwards, suffered various losses. the majority of prince henry's rebindings are designed in a fashion which has been very adversely criticised, but nevertheless they are not all without interest. the commonest decoration found upon them consists of a large royal coat-of-arms of england within a scroll border with thistles, stamped in gold, having the label of the eldest son in silver. at the corners are very large stamps, either crowned double roses, fleurs-de-lis, lions rampant, all in gold, or the prince of wales' feathers in silver. books bearing this design are more frequently met with outside the large royal collections than any others, as at one time or another many examples have become separated from the rest. but there are other books bound for the prince the designs on which are often original and effective. perhaps the best of these is on a copy of livy's _romana historia_, avreliæ allobrogvm, (fig. ). in this instance the prince of wales' feathers form the central design, impressed in silver and gold, and with the initials h. p. at the sides of it, all enclosed in a border composed of a dotted ribbon arranged in right angles and segments of circles, enriched at the corners with ornamental arabesques. this design is particularly pleasing, and it is likely that it was executed by the same binder who bound the edition of thevet's _vies des hommes illustres_, described above, for james i., the peculiar design of the dotted ribbon appearing in both instances. _petrus de crescentiis, de omnibus agriculturæ partibus_, basileæ, , has the prince of wales' feathers in silver, with h. p. at the sides, and on two upright labels the words "o et presidium | dulce decus meum." it has very heavy corner-stamps. a little book of _commentaries_ of messer. blaise de monluc, bordeaux, , has a small prince of wales' feathers in the centre, and very pretty angle-stamps of sprays of foliage, the feathers still being in silver. _rivault, les clemens d' artillery_, paris, , is remarkably pretty. it is a small book bound in olive morocco, and has a tiny prince of wales' feathers in an oval in the centre, stamped in gold and silver, within a broad border of sprays of foliage. there are large angle-pieces of the same sprays, all enclosed in a border stamped in gold. a common design is the coat-of-arms, with label within an ornamental border, ensigned with a prince's crown, enclosed in a single line rectangle, at the corners of which are small stamps of the prince of wales' feathers, crowned roses, crowned fleurs-de-lis, and crowned thistles. there are several examples of this design, both in the british museum and at windsor. [illustration: fig. .--_livius. romana historia. avreliæ allobrogvm, . henry, prince of wales._] _pandulphi collenucii pisaurensis apologus cui titulus agenoria_ and other tracts in one collection was dedicated to henry viii., and originally his property (fig. ). it afterwards belonged to magdalen college, oxford, and they presented it to prince henry, for whom it was enclosed in a magnificent cover of crimson velvet, thickly embroidered with an elaborate design in gold and pearls. the edges of the cover project freely beyond the boards of the book, and have a rich gold fringe. the prince of wales' feathers, thickly worked in pearls, forms the centre of the design. the coronet is of gold, and the motto is in gold letters on a blue silk ground. the very beautiful broad border contains a rich arabesque design with flowers thickly worked in seed pearls, and the inner angles have sprays in gold and pearls. there are innumerable single pearls dotted about. both for beauty of design and richness of execution, this cover is certainly one of the finest specimens of late embroidery work in england. with the exception of a few pearls missing, and some gold braid about the motto, it may be considered to be in a very fair condition. another crimson velvet book, _becano baculus salcolbrigiensis_, oppenheim, , was bound for prince henry. it has the prince of wales' feathers in the centre, impressed in gold and silver, with a simple gold line round the edge. it is much faded, and the velvet is now more orange than crimson, but it is interesting as being the only instance in the british museum of a stamped velvet book done for prince henry. prince charles used two of the stamps which were first used by his brother henry--the large coat-of-arms, with silver label, and the prince of wales' feathers. each of these is usually flanked by the letters c. p., and the prince of wales' feathers are always stamped in gold instead of silver. in cases where charles has used the coat-of-arms, the corners are filled with a full arrangement of leaf sprays and arabesques. a fine example of this style, bound in olive morocco, occurs on a binding of dallington's _aphorismes, civill and militarie_, london, , now in the british museum. an example of the prince of wales' feathers used alone on dark blue morocco is in the library at windsor. during the reign of charles i. several small, thin books were bound in vellum, stamped in gold (plate vii.). some of them were done for him both as prince and as king. a very good example covers a collection of almanacks, dated . in the centre is an ornament composed of four prince of wales' feathers arranged as a star, the corners are filled with large stamps, the remainder of the boards are filled with semées of flaming hearts. this particular book was probably a favourite one of the prince's, as it contains his signature and other writings. [illustration: fig. .--_collection of miscellaneous tracts in ms. henry prince of wales._] the styles of ornamentation used on large books for james i. were generally followed by his son, but often the outer borders are of a broader and more decorative kind. an instance of this is found on the dark morocco binding of raderus's _theological biography_, printed at munich in , a large book with a broad decorative border, corner-pieces, coat-of-arms, and semée of thistles, roses, and fleurs-de-lis. a small book with coat-of-arms in the centre, within the garter, crowned, and bearing on each cover the legend "tibi soli o rex charissime," is in the manuscript department of the british museum, on a collection of treatises presented to the king. there is a handsome border round the book, the ground of which is covered with a semée of crosses, and the letters c. r. are on either side of the coat-of-arms. the book has two silver clasps, on one of which is engraved the scottish crest, and on the other three crowns. the panels joining the clasps to the book are engraved with emblematic figures. a copy of _hippocratis et galeni opera_, paris, , in several volumes, bears in the centre of each board the full royal coat-of-arms and supporters, enclosed in an octagonal border, within a rectangle, in the inner corners of which is a handsome stamp of floral sprays, and at the outer corners the crowned monogram of king charles and his wife henrietta maria. they are large books, measuring × inches. a very decorative little book is covered in red velvet, with silver mounts. it is a copy of the new testament, printed in london, . on each side, in the centre, are medallion portraits of the king and his queen, in pierced and repoussé silver, within ornamental borders. on the panels of the clasps are engraved figures emblematic of the elements, and on the corner clasps emblematic figures of charity, justice, hope, fortitude, prudence, patience, faith, and temperance. although embroidered books were largely produced during the reign of charles i., not many of them were made for himself. one exists in the british museum, on a manuscript of montenay's _emblemes chrestiens_, which is written by esther inglis, who was a calligraphist of great repute from the time of queen elizabeth to that of prince charles. she is said to have been nurse to prince henry; and it is probable that she worked the binding of the manuscript. it is covered in crimson satin, and embroidered in gold and silver cord with a few pearls. in the centre is the prince of wales' feathers enclosed in a laurel wreath, and round it a very handsome border, with arabesques at the inner corners. a copy of the psalms, printed in london in , is covered in white satin and embroidered. it may have belonged to king charles, and was purchased by the british museum in . in the centre, in an oval medallion, is a minute portrait of the king, wearing a crown with miniver cape and red robe, with the jewel of the garter flanked by the letters c. r. enclosing this is an arrangement of arabesques and flowers, worked respectively in silver or gold guimp and coloured silks. there is no record with the book, but it is quite possible that it was worked for the king. it is one of the smallest embroidered books existing, measuring little more than inches by . at windsor there is a copy of the book of common prayer, printed in . it is bound in blue velvet, and richly embroidered in silver guimp. in the centre are the prince of wales' feathers, enclosed within a circular garter, and surmounted by a prince's coronet, with c. p. on either side of it. below are the rose and the thistle. a rich outer border of arabesques encloses the central design. her majesty lent this book to the burlington fine arts club in . it was figured in the _queen_ of august , in the same year. there are several other bindings at windsor that belonged to charles; among them a particularly charming specimen covers a copy of _ecphrasis paraphraseos, g. buchanani in psalmos_, . it is a small book, and bears the prince of wales' feathers in the centre, within a border of crosses, patée, and fleurs-de-lis, surrounded by the garter. it has large corner-stamps and a semée of fleurs-de-lis. the other bindings made for charles i. in the same library generally bear the royal coat-of-arms and large corner-stamps, and dates often occur upon them. [illustration: new testament, etc. london, . charles i.] [illustration: fig. .--_dallington. aphorismes, civill and militarie. london, . charles prince of wales._] charles himself certainly took very considerable interest in bookbinding, and abundant evidence of this is found in the history of nicholas ferrar's establishment at little gidding, in huntingdonshire, the beginning and ending of which was synchronous with charles's reign. the king visited little gidding more than once, and always evinced the liveliest interest in its work, a very important part of which was bookbinding. the most remarkable feature about these little gidding bindings, which were the work of amateur hands, was the stamped work on velvet, which actually reached its highest development under the auspices, and probably by the hands, of some of the collet family, nieces of nicholas ferrar. they bound books for charles and for both his sons; but, unfortunately, no specimen of their finer stamped work done for either of these princes is in the british museum. the copy of the _harmony of the four gospels_, known as "[greek: monotessaron]," which was given to charles when prince of wales in , is now in the library of the earl of normanton. it measures - / × inches, and is bound in green velvet, stamped elaborately in gold. a _concordance of the four evangelists_, which was probably made for james, duke of york, about , is now the property of the marquis of salisbury, and is kept at hatfield. it measures × inches, and is bound in purple velvet. among the small stamps upon it is one of a fleur-de-lis. _the whole law of god, as it is delivered in the five books of moses_, is another little gidding harmony, which was probably made for prince charles. it measures × inches, and is bound in purple velvet, and decorated with gold stamp-work of a similar kind. it was probably made about , and now belongs to captain gaussen. the whole history of little gidding is most interesting; and, from a binding point of view, its existence during the reign of charles i., and his kindly appreciation and patronage of it in the midst of all his own troubles, will always mark his reign as an important epoch in english bookbinding. illustrations of many of the little gidding bindings are given in _bibliographica_, part vi. no particular binding seems to have been made during the period of the commonwealth, at all events i have never been able to discover one in any of our large libraries; but, to make up for this, during the reign of charles ii. we have a profusion of royal bindings, many of which are of considerable beauty. the appointment of samuel mearne as royal bookbinder to charles ii. was in force from to , and no doubt long before this mearne was well known as a fine binder. there is a good deal of documentary evidence concerning mearne, chiefly relating to bindings of bibles and prayer books bound for the royal chapels, and others for the royal library at st. james's. he decorated his bindings in three styles, easily distinguishable from each other. books bound in the first, or simplest, style are always covered with red morocco, and have a rectangular panel of gold lines stamped on each side, having at the outer corners fleurons, or the device of two c's, adossés, crowned, and partly enclosed within two laurel sprays. this device occurs commonly on mearne's books. the backs of these volumes are often richly stamped with masses of small floral designs, and the lettering is remarkably clear and good. there are numbers of examples, both in our royal libraries and in the hands of private owners. although they cannot be called very ornamental, they nevertheless are of excellent workmanship, and are always in good taste. [illustration: gil. [greek: parerga], etc. londini, . charles i.] [illustration: fig. .--_common prayer. london, . charles ii._] the second division are bound in red or dark morocco, the boards being decorated with what is known as the "cottage" design, usually having the crowned monogram in the centre, the remaining spaces being more or less filled with masses of small stamped work. the fillets and many of the flowers and ornaments are often picked out with black stain. the third division are bound in red or black morocco, ornamented with mosaic work of coloured leathers--red, yellow, green, and white. many of these books are so intricate in their design that they deserve special mention; but it may be said, generally, that the leading motive upon them is a modification or elaboration of the cottage design, so called because its leading motive is in the shape of the gable of a cottage roof. one of the earliest bindings done for charles is a copy of the bible and prayer book, printed at cambridge, . it is a large book covered in red morocco, and has a rectangular panel and border, with the royal coat-of-arms in the centre, all richly decorated with small gold stamp-work. the binding is not very characteristic of mearne, although it is often considered to be his work, and bears some of his stamps. neither the crowned monogram which is used upon it, nor the crowned dove bearing an olive branch, is found on any other bindings by mearne. the stamp of the dove with the olive branch is of course symbolical of charles's return to the throne of his ancestors. the book may have been bound for special presentation to charles on his accession to the throne. in the royal library at windsor are several specimens of charles ii. bindings. among them are three copies of charles i.'s _eikon basilike_. one of them is bound in dark blue morocco, with large royal coat-of-arms and supporters, crest and crown. another in olive morocco is delicately stamped with arabesques, and the crowned initials c. r.; it has two silver clasps, with medallion portraits of charles i. another is bound in calf, having in the centre of each board a decorative portrait medallion of charles i. in silver, within an ornamental border of figures and arabesques, having also engraved silver corner-pieces on the two front corners. in the same library a copy of the bible, , and taylor's _rule of conscience_, , are bound respectively in black and red morocco, and are brilliant specimens of samuel mearne's work. the boards are covered with many irregular small panels, each closely filled with small stamped work. the bible was lent to the burlington fine arts club in , and is figured both in their catalogue and in mr. holmes's book of the bookbindings at windsor. a copy of the works of charles i., , now at windsor, is a beautiful example of samuel mearne's inlaid work. it is bound in deep red morocco, with an inner panel marked with white leather. in the centre is the royal coat, with supporters and crest; and the remainder of the boards, especially the corners, are ornamented with elaborate inlays of green and yellow leather, and richly stamped in gold. the british museum is also rich in charles ii. bindings. the common prayer, printed in london in , measuring - / × - / inches, was bound for him in black morocco, elaborately inlaid, and stamped in gold (fig. ). a broad, yellow, rectangular panel encloses at the present time a stamp of the coat-of-arms of one of the georges. this, of course, is a subsequent addition, and it is impossible to say for certain whether there was originally any stamp in the centre of the book or not; but probably there was a crowned initial. the inner sides and corners of this panel are ornamented with mosaics of white, red, and yellow leather, with gilded sprays and small stamps. the outer edges of the panel have at the top and bottom a cottage arrangement, filled in with small dotted scale ornament, and further decorated with red mosaic inlays, having gold stamps and sprays. a somewhat similar arrangement at the sides has scale patterns and red mosaics, and the crowned initials of the king are impressed at the roof angles. the gilt front edges of this volume are decorated with paintings of incidents chosen from the life of christ, executed under the gold, and only visible when held in a certain position. [illustration: fig. .--_a short view of the late troubles in england, etc. oxford, . charles ii._] a copy of the book of common prayer, printed in london, , is covered in red morocco, and bears upon each board a modification of the roofed pattern, stained black, and broken by curves at the upper and lower points and at the sides. in the centre, the crowned c's are enclosed in a small inner fillet, coloured black, and supplemented with very delicate arabesque stamped work in gold. the inner angles of the roof and sides are filled with scale patterns in dots. above and below the centre-piece are bold leaf sprays. the corners and spaces throughout are filled with very close gold stamped arabesques, circles, and small flowers. it has an elaborate outer border of an enlarged scaled pattern filled with small stamps. the book is a very beautiful one, and is, in some ways, the finest specimen of mearne's work existing. it has frequently been figured. under the gilding on the front edges is a painting, having as its centre motive the design of the crowned c's and the laurel branches already mentioned. this method of painting under the gold, which appears to have been first done by an artist of the name of fletcher, is frequently found on mearne's bindings. the custom dropped into disuse after his time, until it was revived by edwards of halifax about a hundred years later. a copy of the scottish laws and acts of james i., edinburgh, , is covered in red morocco. it has in the centre a large irregular panel, inlaid in black morocco, bearing the royal coat-of-arms, crowned, within the garter, and the initials c. ii. r., the rest of the black panel being thickly gilded with ornamental sprays. there are large angle-pieces of yellow leather, richly stamped, and at the sides, upper, and lower edges of each board are urns carrying large branching sprays, with flowers inlaid in yellow and black leathers. _a short view of the late troubles in england_, oxford, (fig. ), is bound in red morocco, and ornamented all over the boards with small, irregular panels, outlined by broad gold lines, and filled with mosaics of black and yellow leather, all ornamented thickly with small gold stamp-work. in the centre, on a black panel, are large ornamental initials, "c. r.," crowned. although this binding has many points in common with samuel mearne's work, it is lacking in finish, and it is probably the work of his son charles, who afterwards succeeded him as royal binder. a copy of fox's _book of martyrs_, london, , also bound in mearne's fashion, bears upon its front edges, under the gilding, a portrait of the king in his coronation robes. it is figured in _bibliographica_, part viii., and is signed "fletcher." [illustration: fig. .--_bible. cambridge, . james ii._] there are in the british museum two large volumes of an english atlas, measuring × inches. the first of them bears the large ornamental initials c. r. crowned. it has a modification of the cottage design, arranged in an interlacing fillet of yellow leather, within which is a symmetrical arrangement of irregular panels, inlaid with black and yellow morocco, all richly edged and filled in with small gold stamped work, picked out with silver. the second volume is ornamented in a similar manner with inlays, but has not the outer border or the initials. although there are many of mearne's bindings to be found in the large private libraries throughout england, probably the finest is that which belongs to the earl of crewe, at crewe hall. it covers a folio book of common prayer, , and bears the cottage design, outlined in yellow leather, with scale pattern. there are fine mosaics of red, yellow, and green leathers in the corners of the inner panel, covered with close gold stamp-work and floral sprays. the crowned c's are in the centre within an ornamental border, and outside the yellow panel are red and green mosaics, thickly covered with small gold work. mr. almack, in his valuable _bibliography of the king's book_ or _eikon basilike_, gives a plate of a binding that covers an edition of , but which was bound for charles ii. by samuel mearne. it bears the royal coat-of-arms, with garter and crest, within a rectangular panel enriched with small gold stamps. it is in red morocco. several of the editions of the _eikon_ bear the initials c. r. upon their covers, with other emblems, but it is most likely that these letters refer to the author rather than to the owner. mr. e. h. lawrence lent to the burlington fine arts club exhibition of bookbindings an exquisite specimen of samuel mearne's work. it is a collection of anthems, with music, bound in dark blue morocco. it is elaborately stamped in gold, with a curved adaptation of the cottage design, closely filled in with masses of small gold work along the inner and outer edges. the crowned monogram, with laurel sprays, is in the centre of each of the sides, and it has a rich double border of scale patterns filled with gold stamped work. in the library at windsor are several bindings that were done for james ii., but they are generally of a simple kind, bearing heraldic devices in the centre enclosed in rectangular panels of more or less elaboration. at the british museum are some jacobean bindings of a more ornamental kind. one of these, a cambridge bible of , is bound in crimson velvet, and has rich silk ties with bullion fringe (fig. ). it is heavily embroidered in gold, silver, and coloured silks, and bears in the centre the crowned initials "j. r." enclosed in a strap border intertwined with rose sprays and other floral designs. in each of the corners is a cherub's head with wings. there are two volumes, each measuring × inches. although, from the size of these books and the splendid colour, they are undoubtedly of imposing appearance, neither the design nor the workmanship can be considered of a high quality. belonging to the king's library in the british museum are two specimens, almost exactly alike except for their size, which may, for the present, be considered the finest that were done for james ii. one of these is a common prayer, printed at oxford in . it is bound in red morocco, and has a black "cottage" fillet, broken at the angles and at each side. the crowned monogram "j. r.," with laurel spray, occurs in several places on the boards. the remaining spaces are closely filled with small gold stamped work, similar to that used by samuel mearne. the book is an unusually fat one, and bears upon its broad front edges, under the gold, the most elaborate painting i have found in such a position. it has the full coat-of-arms of england, with supporters, crown, and crest, enclosed in an elaborate border of flowers, cherubs, and ribbons. this painting is in remarkably fine condition, but, like all this class of work, the appearance of it depends very largely upon the manner in which it is displayed. the companion volume is a bible of . it is bound in an almost identical way; but the painting on the edge, although brighter, is not to be compared with it, either for size or excellence. [illustration: fig. .--_euclide. oxford, . queen anne._] a note at the beginning, signed _g. sarum_, says that this was the book which "lay before his majesty above two years in the closet of his chappell," and afterwards it was the property of the archbishop of canterbury, and then of the bishop himself. at windsor there is a small book bound for mary of modena in red morocco, with the royal coats of england and este, crowned, and enclosed within a cordelière des veuves, the rest, with the field, being occupied with small panels ornamented in the mearne fashion. at the british museum is a copy of walter's poems, printed in , that was dedicated by him to the duchess of york, with an autograph poem. it is bound in black morocco, and bears the arms of england, with a label, impaled with those of este, with supporters, and surmounted with a prince's coronet. above and below the coat-of-arms are curves and arabesques in dotted gold work, picked out with silver, all enclosed in a rectangular border of a mearne pattern. the bindings of william and mary are not remarkable in any way, except for their peculiar arrangement of the quarterings of the royal coat. a fine copy of _veues des belles maisons de france_, bound in red morocco, has in the centre a crowned shield within a garter, the bearings being--first, the coat of england; second, the coat of scotland; third, the coat of france; fourth, the coat of ireland; over all the scutcheon of nassau. in each corner is a handsome crowned monogram, "w. m." the volume is at windsor. in the same library is a copy of the statutes of the order of the garter, bound in dark blue morocco, and bearing in the centre, within a mearne border, the royal coat-of-arms, crowned, with garter. on the dexter side is the cross of st. george; on the sinister side, the coat of england with the quarterings in their proper order. in the british museum are other bindings of william and mary, but they are also of small importance from a decorative point of view. they often bear the crowned initials "w. r." enclosed in laurel sprays, and are ornamented with lines and small sprays in gold, mostly after the mearne fashion. a copy of the _memoirs of the earl of castlehaven_, london, , has the coat arranged in the following curious manner: first, england; second, scotland; third, ireland; fourth, france, with scutcheon of nassau over all. it almost seemed as if william considered that the coat of france had been borne long enough by english sovereigns, and it occupied the place of honour until he deposed it from that proud position; but i believe it was only upon his bookbindings that he took these liberties with the fleurs-de-lis. [illustration: fig. .--_Ælfric. an english-saxon homily on the birthday of st. gregory. london, . queen anne._] the finest of queen anne's bindings at windsor is a copy of flamsteed, _historia coelestis_, . it is bound in red morocco, and has in the centre the full arms of england with supporters. the arms are quartered as follows: first and fourth, england and scotland impaled; second, france; and third, ireland; all within mitred panels, ornamented with small arabesques and floral sprays at the angles and sides. in the same library is also a binding with the monogram of william, duke of gloucester, son of queen anne, with a prince's coronet enclosed in a triple-bordered panel, with sprays and acorns. in the british museum the richest binding done for queen anne is on a copy of the english _euclide_, oxford, (fig. ). it is a large book, and the centre is occupied by a cottage design divided into four panels, each of which is thickly filled with small gold stamped work. at the upper and lower edges of the boards are the words "anna d. g.," under a royal crown, upheld by two cherubs; above which is a scroll bearing the words "vivat regina." the outer corners and the sides are filled with scale ornaments and floral sprays of a branching character. another volume bound for queen anne, in the british museum, is _an english-saxon homily on the birthday of st. gregory_, by Ælfric, archbishop of canterbury, london, (fig. ). it is covered in red morocco, and stamped in gold with a cottage design, and bears the crowned monogram "a. r.," with laurel sprays and other small stamps scattered about. the designs on all these volumes of the later stuart sovereigns have no very distinctive character, and, except where they are frank imitations of mearne's work, they show little inventive power. on the legislative union of england and scotland in , the first and fourth quarters of the royal coat bore the coats of england and scotland impaled, the second quarter the coat of france, and the third that of ireland. it is important to remember this change, as the first quarter continued to be used in the same way on queen anne's books and on those of her successors until . chapter iv george i.--george ii.--george iii.--george iv.--william iv. on the succession to the english crown passing to the hanoverian line, another important change was made in the royal coat of england. george i. substituted for the fourth quarter, which had been hitherto a repetition of the first, the arms of his family, brunswick, impaling luneburg, and in the base point the coat of saxony, over all an escutcheon, charged with the crown of charlemagne, as a badge of the office of high treasurer of the holy roman empire. george ii. bore the same coat as did george iii. up to , when, on the legislative union of great britain and ireland, the coat was officially altered to first and fourth england; second, scotland; third, ireland, with over all an escutcheon, bearing the arms of the royal dominions in germany, ensigned with the electoral bonnet, which was again changed to the hanoverian royal crown when hanover was elevated to the rank of a kingdom in . this last coat was used by george iv. and william iv., and, without the hanoverian escutcheon, it is the present royal coat of england. the bindings of george i. and george ii. are generally much alike. there are good specimens of each at windsor. they are generally in red morocco, with either coats-of-arms in the centre or monograms. at windsor there is one bound in vellum, it is a manuscript _report on states of traytors_, , and bears the full royal coat in the centre, enclosed in rectangular mitred borders, with delicate gold stamped work at the sides. in the british museum is a finely stamped _account of conference concerning the succession to the crown_, , very delicately and tastefully ornamented, having the coat-of-arms in the centre, with crowned initials at the corners, and delicate gold work of floral sprays and curves borrowed from le gascon, a great french binder. [illustration: fig. .--_account of what passed in a conference concerning the succession to the crown, ms. george i._] [illustration: fig. .--_le nouveau testament. amsterdam, . george ii._] there are several of george ii. bindings at windsor, made for him when he was prince of wales. these generally bear the prince of wales' feathers as a chief motive, and they often have broad borders, much of the ornamentation of which contains stamps of crowns, sceptres, and birds, which are attributed to eliot and chapman. there are other inlaid bindings made for george ii. which often have doublures. some of these are figured in mr. holmes's _bookbindings at windsor_. bindings of a similar kind that were made for frederick prince of wales, and for his wife, the princess augusta, are also preserved at windsor. these have always heraldic centres, and generally the broad eliot and chapman outer borders. [illustration: fig. .--_chandler. a vindication of the defence of christianity. london, . george ii._] [illustration: fig. .--_common prayer. cambridge, . queen charlotte._] for george iii., both when prince of wales and king, books were bound with coloured inlays by andreas lande. there are specimens of his work both in the british museum and at windsor, they are not in particularly good taste. during the reign of george iii. a remarkable english bookbinder worked in london. this was roger payne; and, although he himself does not seem to have bound any royal books, he strongly influenced many who did, more particularly kalthoeber, who bound many of the books in the king's library at the british museum. although these bindings are by no means so good as their originals, they are a very great advance upon their immediate predecessors; and a delicately worked and effective instance covers a copy of the gutenburg bible now at the british museum. another english binder of note, james edwards of halifax, also flourished in the reign of george iii. this binder has not, i think, received sufficient appreciation, as he discovered an entirely new way of treating vellum by which it was rendered transparent. he painted designs on the under side of the vellum and bound his books with it, the result being that, if the vellum is clean on the outside, the protected painting underneath it is as fresh as when it was first done. a fine example of this curious work is on a copy of a prayer book, printed at cambridge, , which belonged to charlotte of mecklenburg, queen of george iii. (fig. ). her arms, in proper heraldic colours, are in the centre of the upper cover, enclosed by a blue and gold border of etruscan design. at the lower edge is a miniature of a ruin in monotone, and at each side of the coat and above it are ornamental scrolls, with conventional flowers, birds, animals, and figures. on the lower cover is a central oval, with an allegorical figure in monotone, enclosed in a similar border to that on the upper cover, at each side of which are flowering trees in urns, birds, etc., and in each panel of the back is also a decorative design. altogether this is the prettiest royal binding done at this period. it has the crowned initials "c. r." painted in silver inside the upper cover, and on the front edge, in an oval, is a painting of the resurrection under the gold. between this and the edges, painted for james ii., there were no books adorned in this way for royal owners. [illustration: fig. .--_portfolio containing the royal letter concerning the king's library. george iv._] the bindings done for george iv., at windsor, are generally bound in red morocco, with heraldic centres and broad borders, sometimes inlaid with coloured leathers. the borders are sometimes like those used by eliot and chapman, and sometimes conventional patterns. a good example in the british museum is on the cover of the letter written to lord liverpool by the king in , concerning the gift of his father's library to the nation. a copy of the book of common prayer, which belonged to william iv., and is now at windsor, is bound in blue morocco. it bears in the centre the star of the order of the garter, within a crowned garter, dependent from which is an anchor, and at the sides "g. r. iii." there are anchors in the corners, and a decorative outer border. the generality of the books belonging to him have the usual heraldic centres, within borders designed in more or less good taste. the king presented to the british museum, and signed with his own name, an _inventory of the crown plate_, . it is bound by william clark, and bears in the centre the full royal coat-of-arms, and has a handsome rectangular border of triple gold lines, broken at each side by bold arabesque ornaments. epilogue in the foregoing detailed descriptions i have included only the work of english binders. there are, however, many books existing that have been bound for english royal personages abroad. instances of these occur notably for henry viii., elizabeth, james i., henrietta maria, henrietta anna, charles ii., the chevalier st. george, and cardinal york. it will be noticed that generally the ornamentation of english royal books is heraldic, and that crowned initials are constantly used from the time of henry viii. to william iv. to understand the royal coat-of-arms of england it is necessary, at all events, to note the larger rearrangements of the various quarterings, which on the tudor bindings were simply france and england, quarterly. the two great changes took place on the accession of the stuart line, when the coats of scotland and england were introduced; and on the accession of the hanoverian line, when the family coat of the guelphs was introduced. there are several minor alterations and additions, but these i have mentioned as they have occurred, and the only other important change to remember is concerning the supporters. from the time of henry vii. until these were a dragon and a greyhound, and from that time until elizabeth they were a lion and a dragon. since the time of james i. they have been a lion and unicorn. badges are constantly found on tudor and early stuart bindings. they are the well-known ones of tudor origin--the double rose, portcullis, pomegranate, fleur-de-lis, and falcon. the fleur-de-lis remains longest of these. the prince of wales' feathers is commonly found on books from the time of edward vi. the styles of bindings used by these great royal houses have also characteristics common to each of them. the bindings of the tudor period are most diversified in styles, and the majority of the leather books are either bound by thomas berthelet, royal binder to henry viii., and his successors, or in his style. under elizabeth, the italian fashion of double boards, the upper of which is pierced, was used for very choice work. berthelet took his inspiration originally from italian models, but shortly developed a style of his own. vellum was much used in connection with gold stamped work, the first use of which in england is credited to this binder. [illustration: order of the coronation of george iii. and queen charlotte. london, . george iii.] the bindings of the early stuart period may be considered remarkable for the extensive use of what are called semées, successive and symmetrical impressions from small stamps powdered over the sides of the book; and the stamped velvet work done at little gidding is one of the glories of the reign of charles i. samuel mearne was royal binder to charles ii., and many of his bindings are of great beauty. his influence on english bookbinding remained for a very long time, weakening gradually, until superseded by the newer style introduced by roger payne. in the time of george iii. there was some improvement in royal bindings due to the imitators of roger payne, another binder, whose influence was strongly felt after his death. eliot and chapman, during the eighteenth century, introduced the use of broad borders with small stamps, among which are frequently found crowns and sceptres; and many of these are found on royal bindings. names of many royal binders, from early times, are preserved in various records, but there is considerable uncertainty about the work of most of them; and, although many lists exist of books bound for certain kings by certain workmen, very few of them have been identified. from the constant appearance of personal badges of different kinds, it may be considered likely that, especially among the earlier sovereigns, considerable personal interest has been taken in the covering of their books. we even find the livery colours of the tudors--green and white--duly used on some of their bindings; and the prevalence of red and blue, the livery colours of the hanoverian line, is common enough among the georgian bindings. list of most important works consulted almack. a bibliography of the king's book. london, . burlington fine arts club. catalogue of bookbindings. . edwards. lives of the founders of the british museum. london, . fletcher. english bookbindings in the british museum. london, . holmes. specimens of bookbinding selected from the royal library, windsor castle. london, . horne. the binding of books. london, . prideaux. an historical sketch of bookbinding. london, . tuer. history of the horn-book. london, . willement. regal heraldry. london, . and various articles on bookbinding in _archæologia_, _bibliographica_, _the gentleman's magazine_, and _the queen_ newspaper. transcriber's notes: passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. the original text includes greek characters. for this text version these letters have been replaced with transliterations. library bookbinding library bookbinding by arthur l. bailey _librarian wilmington_ (_delaware_) _institute free library_ illustration the h. w. wilson company white plains, n. y., and new york city published may, copyright, by the h. w. wilson company preface it has been the purpose of the writer in these chapters on library bookbinding to set forth as clearly as possible the best information relating to processes, materials, routine and various other lesser matters pertaining to bookbinding which must be taken into consideration by librarians, or by assistants in charge of binding departments. although much of this information exists elsewhere in printed form, it is scattered through various books and articles. in some respects, therefore, this book is a gathering together of scattered material. it is hoped, however, that there is enough new material to make the book of interest to those who deal daily with binding problems, and that the book as a whole may help to solve some of the questions relating to binding in libraries both large and small. most books on binding and all books on library binding have devoted some space to paper, its composition, manufacture, finish and use. as the subject is so fully dealt with elsewhere it has not been included here. those who are interested will find full information in the technical books on paper, in mr. dana's "notes on book binding for libraries," and in messrs. coutts and stephen's "manual of library binding." there is also an excellent article on wood pulp paper in the scientific american of october , . nor has it seemed desirable to include chapters on commercial binding nor on historical bindings. both of these subjects are treated adequately in coutts and stephen's "manual." the present writer has limited his discussion to matters dealing directly with the binding of books for libraries. in one or two cases the same subject has been treated in two different chapters because the subject matter belonged in both places, and in neither case would the discussion be complete without it. a. l. b. december , . table of contents chapter i. introduction ii. selection of a binder iii. processes iv. materials v. specifications vi. binding before purchase and reinforcing vii. cost viii. preparing for the bindery ix. binding records and routine x. repairing, recasing, recovering etc. xi. magazine binders xii. pamphlets xiii. bindery in the library building appendix a. specifications of the u. s. bureau of standards for book cloths b. reading list on binding c. list of technical terms index library bookbinding library bookbinding chapter i introduction an examination of the annual reports of libraries in the united states shows that from four to eight per cent of the total income is spent for binding; the amounts ranging from $ , to over $ , a year for this one item. it must be admitted that these are large sums and that a knowledge of binding materials and processes is necessary in order to spend this money wisely. in many libraries the appropriation for books includes binding and periodicals. it is evident, therefore, that every dollar saved on binding can be devoted to the purchase of books. and what librarian does not desire more money for new books? in spite of the importance of the subject a great deal of ignorance has prevailed in years past, and far too many librarians of the present day fail to realize that here is one place where money can be easily wasted. possibly one reason for the ignorance about binding is that, except in a minor degree, it does not directly affect the public, for librarians are quick to make changes which will increase the interest of the public in the library. another reason is that experiments are necessary; and since it takes time to draw conclusions from experiments, definite rules have not been formulated. in fact, experiments are still being tried. but while in the past they were along the line of making books stronger, the experiments of the present are rather along the line of adapting different methods to different books, according to the paper on which they are printed, or according to the kind of use they will receive. it is reasonably safe to say that present methods of the best library binders make a book as strong as it is possible to make it. progress no longer lies along the line of strength. in order to administer a binding department wisely, the librarian or assistant in charge of binding must know materials, processes, and books; and especially must he know how books should be bound to meet the use they are to receive. for example, fiction that is very popular should be bound differently from fiction which must be kept on the shelves, but which is not popular; it is easily apparent that mccutcheon's "graustark" should be bound differently from henry james' "golden bowl." heavy reference books constantly consulted should be bound differently from reference books used only occasionally, while it may be wise to bind magazines differently from either. a librarian of a reference library will adopt methods differing from those which are used in public libraries. a good working knowledge of materials and processes can be easily obtained. the saving of expense comes in applying them to use. a recent advertisement of a binder stated that his books were rebound more times than the books of any other binder. this statement is a sad commentary on the serviceability of his books and calls to mind a practice of twenty years ago which is too prevalent even at the present time. at that time it was the recognized custom to bind as cheaply as possible books which circulated rapidly and wore out quickly. those who favor this custom fail to realize that in the case of books which are constantly used the actual cost of binding does not depend on the initial cost per volume, but on the ratio of cost to circulation. this is a point first brought out by mr. j. c. dana in his "notes on bookbinding for libraries," and one on which it is impossible to lay too much emphasis. a book which costs c. to bind and which circulates times has cost one cent for each time it has been issued after rebinding; while a book which has cost c. to bind and has been issued times (a fair average for a c. binding) costs one half cent for each time it has been issued. obviously the c. binding is much cheaper. it is probable that the c. book must either be rebound at an additional expense of c. or else a new copy must be purchased at a cost of $ , while the c. binding may carry the book to a point where it can be discarded absolutely. certainly it should never be rebound again. it is important, therefore, that the librarian who does not know what his binding is costing per issue should keep statistics of circulation for a sufficient length of time to obtain general averages which will be fairly accurate. while a very strong binding is necessary for fiction and juvenile books in public libraries, it is probable that on many books of a serious character some of the strengthening processes which must be used on fiction and juveniles may be omitted. it should be noted that while this is true of public libraries, the reverse would probably be true in college and reference libraries where a much larger proportion of serious books should be bound as strongly as possible. there are three general kinds of binding: (_a_) commercial, or edition binding. (_b_) artistic binding. (_c_) library binding. commercial binding is that in which practically all books come from the publishers. for the most part it is the product of machinery from beginning to end, and the material used is generally poor. apparently the sole object in view of most publishers is to turn out a book that will attract the eye. strength is not an element for which they strive. from their point of view they cannot be severely blamed for making strength a secondary consideration. by far the largest part of their product is sold to individuals, and the strength of the binding is adequate for the amount of use that these books will receive. from the library point of view, however, publishers' bindings are entirely inadequate. one cannot expect, of course, that the publisher will put a popular novel into a binding strong enough to meet the demands of library use. on the other hand, one cannot blame librarians for being exasperated when heavy books of travel, history, or biography part from their covers when they have been in the hands of less than ten readers. the distinguishing characteristics of commercial binding, and at the same time its greatest weaknesses, are the machine sewing and the insecure way in which the book is fastened into the cover. very little extra expense either in material, care, or workmanship, would make most books outside of fiction sufficiently strong to withstand all the wear that they will receive. unfortunately the publishers fail to realize this, and books by the thousands come from the binderies covered on the back with the coarsest kind of super which does not even extend to the head or tail of the book. a stouter cloth, carefully applied, running the entire length of the back would cost very little more per volume, but would strengthen it materially. while practically all commercial binding is lacking in strength, this is due almost wholly to trade conditions, for commercial binding can be made exceedingly strong. one has only to turn to the edition of the century dictionary or to the united states catalog, which are practically machine bound throughout, to realize this fact. however, until librarians are united in their demands for stronger bindings, we can expect to see the present poor work turned out in as large quantities as ever. there is another kind of binding which is, if possible, even more unsuitable for libraries. this is artistic binding which is done exclusively for individuals, beauty of appearance being the chief object in view. it differs from commercial binding in being all hand work instead of machine work. since hand work is used and the main object in view is beauty, it follows, of course, that such books are much stronger than those bound by publishers. but the strength of these books is in many cases not proof against the wear that they would receive in libraries. no special methods of sewing or strengthening the first and last sections are used. practically all artistic books are bound in leather and frequently in full leather. whenever the leather used is anything other than good morocco, it is an element of weakness rather than strength. in addition to these objections, artistic bindings are usually so expensive as to be beyond the reach of any library. in library binding the main consideration is strength. not only is beauty a secondary consideration, it is scarcely taken into consideration at all. for it must be confessed that library bindings are seldom attractive. no library can afford to pay for ornamentation of backs and sides of books. library binding is all hand work. although machine binding can be made exceedingly strong, machines cannot be used on library binding, because the books vary so much in size and lettering. the main reason why commercial binding can be done by machinery is because a large number of books are bound exactly alike. in library binding it seldom happens that more than two volumes, the same in size and lettering, are bound at the same time. library binding also differs from other bindings in that the use the book is to receive is made the basis of selection of materials and methods. chapter ii selection of a binder since library binding differs widely from other kinds of binding, it follows naturally that it is best to have this work done by men who understand its special requirements. unfortunately, there are comparatively few binders who make a specialty of this kind of work. librarians of most of the smaller libraries are forced by local prejudice to give their work to the local binder or to the nearest outside binder in order to save the expense of transportation. if the work is sent to the local binder, it must be sent to one who is doing other kinds of binding and to whom the library work is, in a way, a minor consideration. he would object if the work were sent out of town, but the total amount of the library work is small compared with his other work. such binders usually have one way for binding all books (except those which come under the head of blank-book work) and the library books go through the regular process of being sewed on twine and put into covers with no special reinforcements. the materials used are not the best and the workmanship is generally poor. local binders, realizing that the funds are usually inadequate for the needs of the library, frequently do this work at a price which at first sight seems cheap. when, however, the poor service which the bindings give is taken into consideration the price is really very high. many of these binders have been in business for years; and although they may be good workmen and do honest work, they are very sure that they know more about binding than any librarian, and it is with difficulty that they can be prevailed upon to adopt suggestions. it is only fair, of course, that a library which is supported either in whole or in part by public funds should, when possible, have its work done by residents of the town. for this reason, therefore, the librarian should learn in just what ways good library binding differs from other binding. all the good materials and processes, and all the various methods of strengthening a book should be studied carefully so that the binder can be told exactly how the work should be done. the binder will probably rebel, but perhaps he can be converted and the effort is worth while. if the binder fails to grasp the ideas of the librarian, or refuses to carry them out, the work should be sent out of town to a good binder, for deference to local prejudice does not require that the efficiency of the library be impaired. when work is sent out of town the librarian is somewhat at a disadvantage, for no examination of the work can be made while the books are in process. that the binder chosen should do honest work goes without saying. the work of a dishonest or incompetent binder always shows in the poor service which the books give, but inasmuch as dishonest work is generally covered up, it takes time to discover it. therefore, great care must be taken to select a good binder in the first place. librarians who are in doubt should consult the librarians of large libraries, or apply to the binding committee of the american library association for the names of reliable binders. while librarians should be able to give suggestions to binders who are not accustomed to library binding, and failing that should exercise good judgment in selecting a binder at a distance, they should not expect the impossible. the writer has seen books sent to binders which were in such bad condition that no binder could bind them satisfactorily. some librarians expect too much of a binder; others do not realize that they are not demanding all that they should receive. having selected a competent binder the librarian should not insist that unimportant details be done according to his own ideas. if the binder understands that he may have the work only so long as he follows the specifications faithfully, one may safely leave the details to him. it should further be borne in mind that good binding is seldom obtained at low prices. a library book well bound requires good material, good workmanship and special reinforcements which take time. since the largest part of the cost of a book is due to the labor spent on it, it follows that low prices can prevail only in those localities where the cost of labor is below the standard. since workmanship has as much to do with good binding as specifications it is not wise to submit specifications to different binders for bids. it is better to ask binders to submit samples of their work with specifications of the way in which the books are bound. if, however, it seems wise to ask for bids, it is far from wise to choose the lowest bidder unless absolutely assured that the workmanship and material will be satisfactory. chapter iii processes the processes of bookbinding have been so fully covered in the books of messrs. cockerell, zaehnsdorf, crane, and others, that the need of further material of a similar character is not readily apparent. the only excuse the writer has to offer for discussing the matter of processes at any length is that there seems to exist nowhere any description of the processes that are used in the best library binderies. mr. dana in his "notes on bookbinding for libraries" touches only certain points of the processes here and there. mr. stephen in coutts and stephen's "manual of library binding" has a chapter on hand bookbinding, but confines himself closely to the general processes that have been in vogue for years; the modifications used in library binding are not touched upon. in other words the works of cockerell, zaehnsdorf, crane and others are too full, while descriptions in books devoted to library binding are not full enough. it is the purpose of this chapter to cover somewhat in detail the main processes as they are carried out in the best library binderies. explanations of the technical terms used will be found in the list of technical terms at the end of the book. without discussing the composition of paper it is necessary to state that the paper of a book has a very important effect upon its binding. its thickness, tensile strength, firmness, toughness, strength after being sawed or perforated for sewing, and strength after folding, all have an effect on its durability. especial emphasis must be laid upon strength after folding, for it must be remembered that it is through the fold that the book is sewed. if a crease or a fold in a piece of paper weakens that piece of paper, it will be impossible to make a strong book by sewing in the ordinary way. if a fold has very little effect upon the strength of the paper ordinary sewing may be satisfactory. the folding of paper in per cent of fiction and juvenile books weakens it at the fold over per cent. in a good piece of paper the fold weakens it not over per cent. the problem of paper is a modern one, due to the use of wood pulp and other short-fibred materials in paper manufacture. all binders complain bitterly of the impossibility of binding it properly. the librarian, however, should know the way in which it can be bound to give the maximum amount of service and should not allow a binder to blame the paper for faults which are due to his ignorance or to poor workmanship. while the customs of library binders vary somewhat according to the prejudices of the different men, the following description covers the binding processes carried out at most binderies. . taking apart after the books have been checked with the statement of the librarian to see that the correct number has been received, each one is taken apart carefully and all old threads, glue, paste, etc., removed from the back. if the book is in a regular machine sewed publisher's cover it will be comparatively easy to remove old threads and glue from the back. if in an old hand sewed one, it may be a little more difficult. the book is first removed from the cover. the first signature is then turned back and threads cut with a sharp knife. generally this will loosen the signature so that it can be separated easily from the rest of the volume. if it is still held by glue and there is danger of injuring the back of the signature, a bone folder is used. if the book had a tight back and the leather, back-lining paper and glue form a very firm back not easily separated in the manner described, the glue may be softened with paste or warm water, with care necessary to prevent the dampness from penetrating the book. . collation the book should then be collated. the best library binders make themselves responsible for page collation but they do not bother to see that all plates, illustrations, maps, etc., which may be called for by the table of contents, are in proper place. in the case of periodicals they do not always discover the fact that certain parts, not included in the main paging, are missing. their collation is that of main paging only. periodicals must, therefore, have title page, table of contents and index in their proper places. books with two or more main pagings or many unpaged illustrations must be collated at the library. (see preparing for the bindery, p. .) . knocking down (_a_) backs of signatures are then pounded down so that they may be as nearly as possible the same thickness as the front of the signatures. care must be taken to have a clean hammer and to let it fall evenly on the paper. if the backs are not properly pounded down there is likely to be too much swell in the back of the book when it is finally sewed. in all the first processes of binding the question of undue swelling of the back must be taken into consideration. (_b_) if the book must be overcast when it comes to be sewed, the back is not only pounded down at this stage, but it is also put under the knife and entirely cut off, leaving single leaves instead of folded sections. if it is not pounded it cannot be cut properly. the success of overcasting depends largely on the amount of margin at the back, so that care must be taken not to cut more than is absolutely necessary. . mending leaves are mended with thin tough paper. the librarian should not, however, expect binders to mend books which have a large number of torn leaves without making an extra charge. . gluing books which are to be overcast and which have had the backs cut off are slightly glued to hold the leaves together. a sufficient number can then be taken off and handled as a section without coming apart. . fly leaves guarded fly-leaves, made of kraft or manila paper running about pounds to the ream, which have previously been guarded with cloth are added to the book. in guarding, a strip of cloth is pasted around the back of the folded fly-leaf covering about one quarter of an inch on each side. when the book is sewed the needle passes through the cloth as well as the paper. different binders use different materials for guarding fly-leaves, end papers and signatures. it must, however, be a cloth of close weave, strong, and light in weight. the english cloth called jaconet, used by some binders, is probably as satisfactory as any. this is one part of library binding which differs radically from the custom in ordinary hand work. old-fashioned binders, unless properly instructed, will simply fold a piece of paper, and tip it on to the first and last signatures with paste, thus forming an element of weakness instead of strength. when the fly-leaves are guarded and properly sewed they become an integral part of the book and no tipping is necessary. . sections guarded at this point it is also necessary to guard the first and last signatures of books which are to be sewed in the regular way. overcast books do not need such guards. guarding of first and last signatures is another of the distinctive features of library binding. in the case of books bound in the regular fashion the sewing invariably first gives way at the first and last signatures. guarding with jaconet prevents the threads which lie in the middle of the signatures from pulling through the paper. this method is essential if it is supposed that the book will be much used. it is not essential for books which will be used only occasionally. . illustrations guarded illustrations are guarded with a thin, tough paper, not with cloth. the guard folds around an adjoining signature and is sewed through. . sawing if the book is not to be overcast, it is screwed tightly into the backing-press and sawed to make the grooves in which the bands or twines are laid when the book is sewed. grooves for three bands must be made for books eight inches high, four for twelve-inch books and five for fifteen-inch books. for fiction two bands are used. there must also be two additional grooves, much shallower than the others, about one half inch from the head and tail of the book for the kettlestitch. after the grooves for kettlestitch have been sawed the two grooves for bands will divide the rest of the back into three equal parts. for fine work it is necessary to measure the book carefully and mark with a pencil; but in most library work measurement by the eye alone is sufficient. in sawing, care must be taken not to saw too deeply, since too deep a cut allows the signature to play back and forth and is plainly visible inside. there are some good library binders who overcast books in the modern way, and yet who sew on bands. such binders will at this point saw all books. there are also some good library binders who use no bands when overcasting and who sew all other books on tapes. these binders omit sawing. . end papers added at this point it is best to add end papers. these are always guarded on the outside of the fold and sometimes on the inside. they should be made of good, strong paper somewhat heavier than that used for fly-leaves. some binders have special papers made to order with a design which serves as a trade mark. end papers, in the same way as fly-leaves, are prepared with guards in quantity and simply need to be trimmed to the size of the book. they are not added at the same time as fly-leaves because they must not be sawed. if this is done the holes show through after the end paper is pasted down. . sewing _regular or bench sewing._ when the signatures are ready for sewing, twines (or "bands" as they are commonly called) are stretched taut on the sewing bench and adjusted so that they will fit into the saw-cuts in signatures. (fig. .) figure .--sewing bench showing bands adjusted. figure .--sewing on sunken cords. based on illustration in report of the committee on bookbinding. edited for society of arts, london, . the book is placed back of the sewing bench with the fore-edge toward the sewer and with the first section on top. the first section (i. e. the end paper) to be sewed is then turned over, opened in the middle by the left hand, and placed on the sewing bench. the sewer, as she faces toward the right, with the right hand passes the needle from the outside through the sawcut for the kettlestitch, where it is taken by the left hand along the inside of the section and passed out on the near side of the first band, then in again on the far side of the first band, along the inside of the section to the second band, where the process is repeated; and so on, bringing the needle out in the far kettlestitch. (fig. .) the thread is pulled tight at each stitch and about two inches of thread is allowed to hang from the first kettlestitch. in some few cases it may be advisable to bring the needle out on the far side of the band and in again on the near side, thus entirely encircling the band with the thread. the next section (i. e. the fly-leaves) is then laid on and the process repeated, except that the sewing proceeds from the far end to the near end. when the thread is brought out of the kettle stitch of the second section the end of the thread left projecting from the first section is securely tied to it, and the sewer proceeds with the third section. this will be the first signature of the book. on reaching the last sawcut at the far end in the third section the needle is put between the second and first sections carrying the thread down in such a way as to form a buttonhole stitch. (fig. .) figure .--kettle stitch. all other signatures are sewed in the same way, the last section sewed being securely fastened to the others. it is possible to sew a number of books one after another without removing them from the sewing-bench. if the back swells unduly the sections can be pounded down with a piece of wood, care being taken not to drive them inward. the sewing should be neither too loose nor too tight. if too loose a firm, compact book cannot be made; if too tight the threads may break in the process of backing. bands are allowed to project about an inch on each side of the book. formerly it was the practice of some binders to sew in a way technically called "two-on." this simply means that the sewer when reaching the middle of the signature, passes the needle into the corresponding sawcut of the signature above and sews through to the other end. this always leaves an end of a signature unsewed. this way of sewing is permissible on books which have a large number of thin signatures, in order to prevent the thread from unduly swelling the back. it is never permissible on other books. the foregoing account gives a very brief description of ordinary sewing. it is easily understood when once seen. librarians who have charge of binding should keep the process thoroughly in mind for it is the most important single process in the making of a book. such sewing will be used on a large number of books which have to be rebound, but a still larger number, practically all fiction and juvenile books, should be sewed in a different manner; that is, with some kind of an overcast stitch. _overcasting._ the modern overcasting stitch resembles in principle the old-fashioned whipstitching, but differs radically in actual performance. it is exceedingly strong, while the old-fashioned whipstitching is not. it has been objected that modern overcasting takes away much of the flexibility of a book and that books once sewed in this way can never be rebound. it is true that an oversewed book is not as flexible as one sewed through the signatures, yet most of them are more flexible than one might suppose. it is also true that the book can never be rebound, but if the overcasting is properly done, the sewing will last until the book is discarded. it is for this reason that it is used on practically all fiction and juvenile books. according to the old-fashioned method of whipstitching it was the custom to cut off the backs of signatures, glue them slightly, take a few leaves and sew them over and over making five or six stitches to a section, as shown in figure . the next section was then sewed in the same way, but it was not joined in any way to the section beneath except by the kettlestitch and occasionally by a little paste. when sewed in this way the leaves inside of each arbitrary section would open only as far back as the threads of the stitches, while between the sections the book would open to the back of the section. if paste had been used the strain of opening tended to pull the leaves apart. if the book was subjected to hard wear the thread cut into the paper. figure .--old-fashioned whipstitching. each section is sewed separately. today every progressive library binder has a special method of overcasting and each claims that his method is the best. librarians, however, can see many points of resemblance between them, and few points of difference. in actual wearing qualities the sewing of one seems as good as that of another. when properly done the sewing prescribed by all of the methods is still in good condition when the books have to be withdrawn from circulation. in overcasting, as in old-fashioned whipstitching, the sewer selects a certain number of sheets for sewing. bands are placed on the sewing-bench as in regular sewing, though some binders claim that it is not necessary to sew either on bands or tapes. the sections are first perforated by a machine to facilitate the work of the sewer and to insure that all stitches shall be equidistant from the back of the book. so far as is known no machine for this purpose is on the market. it is certain, however, that the best binders have machines for this purpose. they have either designed their own machines or have adapted those made for other purposes. if the book is printed on thick, spongy paper it will increase flexibility if the paper is creased along the line of perforation. figure .--one kind of modern overcast stitch. there are others equally good. note that each stitch extends through two sections. it is difficult to give a description of modern overcasting which can be easily understood by one unfamiliar with sewing processes. the reader will be helped by looking closely at figure while reading the following description, but one can understand it best by seeing it done or by tearing a book apart and examining the sewing. the first section of the book is sewed over and over in the same way as in the old-fashioned method of whipstitching, except that a great many more stitches are taken. the second section, when placed on the first, is also sewed over and over but a certain number of stitches are also made which connect the second section with the first. in the same way the third section is sewed to the second and so on through the book, so that when the book is finally sewed it is tight and compact; its weakness lies in the paper itself, not in the sewing. some binders add three kettlestitches at the end of the book instead of one, believing that when all kettlestitches are placed in one sawcut the swell at the head and tail of the book is too great. figure .--from "about public library books and their binding" by cedric chivers. figure .--sewing on tapes. sawcuts made only for kettle stitches. based on illustration in report of the committee on leather for bookbinding. edited for society of arts, london, . overcasting is the most expensive way of sewing a book, so that it is advantageous to binders to place as large a number of leaves as possible in a section. the more careful binders, however, regulate the number of leaves in a section according to the kind of paper in the book. a larger number of leaves can be taken in books printed on thin paper than in those printed on thick, spongy or heavy papers. figure .--stitching. in deciding how a book ought to be sewed one must consider: (_a_) the use the book is to receive. if it will not receive hard usage sew through the signatures; otherwise overcast. (_b_) paper on which the book is printed. poor paper should be oversewed. (fig. .) _tapes._ when it does not seem necessary to overcast it may be advantageous to sew on tapes instead of bands. this method eliminates saw-cuts since the narrow tapes are simply laid against the back of the book and the needle passed around them, as indicated in figure . sewing on tapes makes a book much more flexible than it can be made any other way except by sewing on raised bands. music should always be sewed in this way. until recently it was supposed that tapes added strength, but it is certain that they do not if the book is properly bound in other respects. if used at all, tapes should be narrow. wide ones take up a great deal of surface and when glue is applied this surface remains untouched, unless the sewer has sewed through them instead of around them. _stitching._ stitching is the process of sewing loose leaves lengthwise on a sewing machine, after which the stitched sections are sewed in the regular way on bands. (fig. .) the objection made to old-fashioned whipstitching, that between the sections the book opens all the way to the back while inside the section it opens only as far as the threads, is equally applicable to a stitched book. any one who has read a book sewed in this way will remember how difficult it was to hold in the hands. stitching makes a stronger book than the old-fashioned whipstitching but cannot compare in strength with the modern overcasting. in some few cases it may be used advantageously on the first and last signatures of a book, but its use on the entire book cannot be too strongly condemned. it may be inferred by what has been said about sewing that it is a comparatively simple matter to sew books properly. it is right at this point, however, that the librarian and the binder who does not understand the requirements of library work will come into conflict. the binder will insist that all books must be sewed on bands. when the backs of sections are very badly worn he will agree to whipstitch, but will use the old method. the librarian will insist not only that nine-tenths of fiction and juvenile books must be overcast, but that a special kind of overcasting must be used. the binders who make a specialty of library work do all this as a matter of course. at least one binder tests the thickness, tensile strength and other qualities of the paper and sews each book in the way that experience has shown to be the best. forwarding after the book is sewed it goes to the forwarder who has charge of the book during all processes which the book passes through between sewing and finishing. forwarding includes trimming, gluing, rounding, backing, putting on back-lining, making the case (or lacing-in, see page ), casing-in, pressing. . fly leaves pasted the end papers and fly-leaves which lie together are pasted together, making one thick fly-leaf. when it is remembered that both end papers and fly-leaves are guarded with cloth, it will be seen that pasting the two together adds materially to the strength of the book. . bands frayed the bands which project about an inch and a half on each side of the book are frayed out at the end and pasted to the end papers. the fraying is done so that they will paste down flat, and the pasting so that they will be out of the way during succeeding processes. . trimming the book is squared up by tapping on a flat surface, and trimmed at the head, fore-edge and tail. as little as possible must be trimmed, but binders find that if less than an eighth of an inch is cut the cutting machine does not work well. trimming makes the edges even and what is more important in rebound books, removes much dirt. . sprinkling at this point edges are sprinkled. this process is not essential either for strength or beauty, but it helps to keep the book from becoming soiled, or at least from showing dirt. it cannot be expected on cheap work. the process was formerly done by hand, using a brush and shaking the coloring matter on the book. it can now be done with a machine operated by hand which sprays the coloring matter on the book. occasionally the top of the book is burnished with an agate or blood stone. occasionally also it may be desirable to gild the top of a book which is being rebound. when this occurs it is not a process to which the librarian need give much attention, except to be sure that good gold is used. . gluing the back of the book is then slightly glued. the glue must be very hot and quite thin, and must be thoroughly worked into the back. by placing books in a pile a number can be done at a time. . rounding as soon as the glue has stiffened but before it is hard the book is rounded. this must be done by experts and is a process which must be seen to be understood. the book is placed on the table with the fore edge toward the workman who then hammers the part of the back lying uppermost in such a way as to force the upper part of the book toward the workman. the book is then turned over and the process repeated. after a few operations like this the back of the book becomes rounded and the fore edge concave. . backing the book is then placed in a backing press allowing about an eighth of an inch to project, and screwed very tight. with a backing hammer the rounding process is continued and the sides of the book forced down over the edge of the press to form a projection against which the edge of the board for the side rests, forming the joint. in hammering, the workman begins at the proper distance from the center of the back so that he can force the backs of the other signatures over on each side toward the edge. (fig. .) figure .--a book rounded and backed. this process is the most important one in forwarding, calling for skilled labor. if the hammer is not used in exactly the right way the backs of the signatures may be crushed in, the stitches broken, or the paper or bands cut. in any case the book is materially weakened. a good workman will make a sharp joint and round the book perfectly without injuring its strength in any way. . back lining all books have a lining of one kind or another on the back. machine-bound books are generally lined with a coarse "super," as it is called in this country, or "mull" as it is called in england. some library binders use a thin muslin, but the best material is canton flannel cut in strips wide enough to cover the back of the book and also to project about one inch on each side. the back of the book is glued, while the nap or fuzzy side of the canton flannel is pasted and then put on the back and well rubbed down. it is very important that both the glue and the paste be used. experience has proved that when only one is used the canton flannel will come off, but when both are used, it becomes an integral part of the book. the flannel which projects on the sides must be pasted to the end papers. when the paste and the glue have dried, the canton flannel shrinks tight to the back and adds materially to the strength of the book. after drying the flannel is trimmed at the head and tail close to the back. if the book is a valuable one that will receive hard usage and therefore should be as strong as possible, the flesh side of a piece of split goat skin can be used for back-lining, covering the back from joint to joint. it will seldom be necessary, however, to employ this method. perhaps nothing better shows the difference between old methods of library binding and new than this one item of back-lining. in the old methods the binders depended for strength largely upon the bands. in the new the bands are practically immaterial when the book is fastened into the cover. . rebacking at this point some binders reback to make a sharp joint, and to make the book open more easily. when the canton flannel dries it may pull the back somewhat out of shape. it is doubtful, however, if rebacking is always necessary. . boards cut the book is then measured for boards which are cut to the proper size. in measuring it must be remembered that the boards must project an eighth of an inch on all edges (except the back) forming what is called the "squares." it will also make a difference in measuring if the book is to have a french joint. (see page .) . cloth cut if the book is to be bound in cloth, this is cut the proper size. if leather backs are to be used the covering material consists of two pieces of cloth and one of leather, all of which must be cut to the proper size. . loose back if the book is to be made a loose back, a piece of coarse paper is cut the size of the book from joint to joint and the length of the back. this is placed in the book. . making the case (_a_) the cloth for a full cloth book is now glued all over on the inside. the boards are adjusted on the book ("setting the square," as the binders call it) as they ought to be when the book is finally bound, and the book is placed on the right-hand side of the glued cloth, with the back toward the middle of the case, leaving enough cloth projecting on all sides to turn in. the other side of the case is then drawn up over the board on top and pressed down firmly enough so that when it is laid back again, the board which has been uppermost goes with it. the book itself is laid aside. the paper which is to prevent the glued cloth from sticking to the back of the book is then placed in the space between the two boards, and all edges of the cloth turned in on the boards. this forms the complete cover or case. (_b_) if the book is to have a leather back, the boards are tipped lightly with paste to the end papers, allowing for the french joint. the leather is pasted and the book is then laid on the leather in the right position so that the rest of the leather can be pulled up over the back on the top board. the top cover is then laid back, the paper forming a loose back inserted, the leather turned in, and cloth sides put on and turned in. . making of a french joint the book is now set back in the cover just described and the space between the boards and the back is creased with a bone folder while the cloth or leather is damp. this forms the french joint. . pasting down end papers end papers are then pasted down to the boards and the book, so far as strength is concerned, is finished. it will be remembered that the end papers were guarded with muslin, or jaconet, that the bands projected beyond the sides and were pasted to the end papers, and that the canton flannel also projected beyond the sides and was pasted to the end papers. therefore, when the end paper is pasted to the board it carries with it first the canton flannel, then the bands and lastly the jaconet guard. this is as true of leather-backed books as of full cloth. strictly speaking, this makes what is technically known as a "cased" book, i. e., the case is made in one whole piece and the book fastened into it. because leather bound books have always been considered stronger than others, and because they have always been laced-in to the boards (see page ) before the leather has been put on, a prejudice against cased books has arisen. if the prejudice be directed against the usual commercial binding it is justified, but if directed against library books properly cased it is not justified. . pressing at this stage the book is put under heavy pressure in the standing press until dry. a number of books are placed in the press at one time, separated by backing boards having metal projections which fit into the french joints. they should be left twelve hours at least, longer if necessary. after pressing, the book goes through a general cleaning process. in applying the glue or paste there are many chances of soiling the book. the great pressure which is applied also squeezes out glue at the head and tail. this must all be cleaned off before the book goes to the finisher. finishing . gilding the gilding of a library book is a simple matter compared with that of books bound for individuals. such books are usually meant to be artistic and their covers bear elaborate designs in gold, generally limited only by the size of the owner's pocketbook or by his taste.[ ] in library binding gilding is confined to the furnishing of necessary information. tooling of all kinds, with the possible exception of that which divides the back into panels, is unnecessary. a description of finishing processes is unnecessary here since they add nothing to the strength of a book. a description of the method of gilding call numbers will be found on page . there are three different ways of lettering books bound in light colored cloths on which gold cannot be used: (_a_) in gold on leather labels pasted to the back. (_b_) in gold on panels which have been stained black. (_c_) in black ink directly on the back. the first two methods make more attractive-looking books but the process adds to the expense, and in the first case the labels have a tendency to peel off. the last method is the one generally used. in this description of processes numerous details have been omitted, because they would add little, if anything, to the librarian's ability to criticize properly the work being done by his binder.[ ] in some respects the order here outlined may differ in different binderies, but the majority follow it closely. the processes as outlined are those which should be used in library binding. there are, however, several additional points relating to binding processes with which it is well to be familiar. footnote : finishing from the artistic point of view with an excellent description of tools, materials and processes will be found in cockerell's "binding and the care of books," chapter . footnote : for instructions to the binder about type, space, lettering, etc., see under lettering, page . raised bands in looking at many old books bound in the eighteenth or early part of the nineteenth century, or at books bound within recent years for individuals, one will find many that have the back divided by ridges. these are known as "raised bands." they are formed by sewing the book differently from either of the methods described up to this point. according to this method the bands are not placed in grooves which sink them below the surface of the back, but are simply laid against the back. in sewing the thread may come out at the near side of the band and in at the far side, thus going around the band on the back of the book; or it may come out at the far side and in at the near side, thus entirely encircling the band. in either case the sewing is exceedingly strong. since the bands are entirely on the surface, the leaves open all the way to the back of the signatures and greater flexibility can be obtained thereby. (fig. .) figure .--sewing on raised bands. no saw cuts except for kettle stitches. based on illustration in report of the committee on leather for bookbinding. edited for society of arts, london, . as it is much more difficult to sew and forward books with raised bands, they are not used in ordinary library work. it may be advisable, however, to use them occasionally on a few large reference books such as dictionaries, where great flexibility combined with strength is essential. in fact the merits of binding in this way are not recognized as generally as they should be. many books look as if they were sewed on raised bands when in reality they are sewed in the ordinary way, with false raised bands pasted on the back. they add nothing to strength and have no place in library binding. lacing-in lacing-in is a method of attaching the bands to the book, which is in general use for all leather books bound by hand. this method requires that the boards which have been cut to the proper size be laid against the grooves formed in backing and marks be made about half an inch in from the back, opposite each band. at these points holes are punched through the board which is then turned over and other holes are punched about half an inch from the first ones. it is generally desirable to cut a groove in the board from the first holes to the edge of the board, for the bands to lie in, so that there will not be an unsightly protuberance when the book is bound. the bands which have been frayed out are then threaded through the first holes from the outside of the board inward and again through the second holes. they are drawn up tightly enough so that the board will fit close to the joint, but not enough to prevent it from lying flat. the ends of the bands are spread out fan-wise, pasted, and hammered down smooth on the board. before any back-lining has been put on, the boards are attached to the book simply by these bands. (fig. .) figure .--bands laced in, and ends frayed out. based on illustration in report of the committee on leather for bookbinding. edited for society of arts, london, . when bands are laced-in it is not customary to use anything stronger than paper for back lining; the strength of the book lies in the bands and the leather which covers the back. as long as the leather remains strong and the book does not receive hard usage this method is satisfactory. as soon, however, as the leather begins to disintegrate more strain is placed upon the bands. when the leather breaks completely the bands bear the entire burden at the joint, and eventually break. with the process as outlined in the preceding pages one need never fear that the book will come out of the cover, or that the sides will break at the joint. even if the leather should break the canton flannel will hold. the best library binders do no lacing-in at the present time. figure .--split boards. in actual work the back-lining would cover the entire back. split boards while the old method of lacing-in is not desirable in library binding, the method of using split boards makes a very strong book. instead of making a case of cloth, or cloth and leather, the back lining and the bands (or tapes) are inserted in boards which have been split, or between two thin boards glued together with a space left unglued for this purpose. the covering material is put on after the book is in boards and the book is made tight backed. this is probably the strongest method of attaching a book to the boards. in fact it is stronger than is necessary for any except very heavy books which receive hard wear. (fig. .) tight and loose backs for years there has been a certain mild controversy regarding the relative merits of tight and loose backs for leather bound books. tight backs are those in which the material used for covering the book is pasted or glued to the back. loose backs are those which, by means of folded paper or a piece of paper put in as described on page , are prevented from adhering to the back. when the book is opened the back springs out. (fig. .) the tight back book always forms a hinge at the place where the book is opened. since the place of the hinge is constantly changing the back of the book after much use becomes concave instead of convex, and the appearance of the book is seriously marred. also the constant creasing of the back tends to erase the gold lettering, so that it becomes indistinct. if labels are put on they speedily come off. it is customary to use tight backs on very heavy books, though there are cases where such books have been put in loose backs. figure .--tight back and loose back. the loose-back book always preserves its shape and good appearance, even when the paper on the inside may be so badly worn that the book should be withdrawn. the strain, however, always comes at the joint; therefore if poor leather is used it will quickly wear out at this point. each method has its advocates, but so far as the present writer can learn, there seems to be little to choose from the standpoint of strength. it might seem that the tight-back book would be the stronger, but as a matter of fact in actual wear loose-back books seem to hold their own with the others. in fact when the soft, spongy papers are used the loose backs are obviously stronger. it seems clear that there is little choice one way or the other, and the question must be decided by the personal preference of the librarian. joints in library binding french joints are now used in place of regular joints. figure shows plainly the difference between the two. in the regular joint it will be noticed that when the book is opened there is a sharp crease in one line from head to tail. in the french joint the strain is distributed over a much greater area. in regular joints the leather is sometimes pared at the joints to permit of easier opening of the book. in french joints the full thickness of the leather can be used. french joints are made by setting the boards away from the back about one-eighth of an inch. when the cover is put on it is necessary to crease between the board and the back while the leather is still damp. an excellent illustration showing the anatomy of a joint may be found on page of dana's "notes on bookbinding for libraries," ed. . illustration: a section of an ordinary joint with the board open shows that the creasing of the leather is concentrated on one line. illustration: a section of a "french joint" shows how this creasing is distributed over a great surface, and so enables sufficient flexibility to be obtained with much thicker leather than can be used with an ordinary joint. figure .--french joint. from report of the committee on leathers for bookbinding. edited for society of arts, london, . corners corners on library books should be rounded to prevent the board from breaking if the book falls and to prevent the cloth from wearing through at this point. rounded corners are peculiar to library binding. as a rule they are not made by cutting off a corner of the board, but by turning in the cloth diagonally from the corner and then from the side and end. sometimes both methods are adopted. if government specification cloth is used it is probable that "library corners" will not be necessary. in some libraries pieces of leather or vellum are put on corners. leather is put on in order to raise the bottom of the boards from the shelf, while vellum is used to make the corners hard and prevent them from breaking or showing signs of wear. while both serve the purpose for which they are intended, the process of putting them on adds materially to the expense, and in most cases this is not warranted by the increased use of the book. trimming binders should be instructed to trim as little as possible. this is important for all books, but most of all for periodicals. in fiction and juvenile books it is important to have wide margins, because the text will remain legible for a longer period of time if protected by a margin from the contact of hands. non-fiction books which are likely to remain in use for a longer period of years may need to be rebound and trimmed again. therefore wide margins are essential to good wear as well as to good appearance. it is customary to bind front covers of periodicals. sometimes it is desirable to bind advertising pages, and it is necessary to do so when the publishers follow the pernicious practice of continuing regular articles on advertising pages. covers and advertising pages are generally printed with much narrower margins than the body of the magazine and unless great care is taken in trimming parts of the printed matter will be cut off. headbands cotton headbands can be added during the forwarding but inasmuch as they are simply pasted on they add nothing to the strength and very little to the beauty of the book. when silk headbands are carefully sewed on they add both strength and beauty. an excellent description of the process of putting on headbands will be found in cockerell's "binding and the care of books," page . how to recognize a well bound book the ability to recognize a well bound book is necessary when comparing the work of different binders. a book should be bound in material suitable for the use which the book is to receive and in such a way as to give the maximum amount of service. it should also be as attractive in appearance as is compatible with these two requirements. in deciding whether a book is suitably bound for library use the following points should be kept in mind: . a volume must show evidence of neat and careful workmanship. . if the book is to be used constantly leather is essential; if occasionally only, leather is an element of weakness. . all books that receive hard usage should have end papers and fly-leaves guarded with cloth. if sewed regularly the first and last signatures also should be guarded. . saw cuts should not be deep. . the book should be flexible and stay flat wherever opened. (this is not always possible in the case of overcast books or books printed on stiff, brittle paper.) . when the book is lying flat the top should remain flat. when standing on end the sections should not separate slightly at the back. . the book should feel firm and compact to the hand. . when opened the volume should not make a crackling noise due to too much glue on the back. . the book should have a well rounded back and the cover should fit well at the joint. flat backs are not desirable. . margins should be wide and cut straight. periodicals should not be trimmed so that printing on covers or advertisements is cut off. . the book should have french joints. . the cover should not separate easily from the book when pressure is applied. . lettering on the back should be legible and put on straight. . on opening the book sections at the back should be perfectly smooth, showing that they have not been crushed in backing. . guards for plates, maps, sections, etc., should be so applied as to leave the paper unwrinkled. chapter iv materials in a recent pamphlet issued by the government printing office, containing a list of materials and articles used in the printing and binding of public documents, the number of items for binding alone reaches the surprising total of . many of these are materials used in marbling, others indicate slight variations of color and weight in standard leathers and cloths. but exclusive of all these the number of materials called for is over forty. it is not the writer's purpose to discuss all of these forty or more materials, but it seems necessary to mention that many materials other than those used in covering books (always some kind of cloth or leather) are used in binding. furthermore, the strength of the book after it is bound will depend almost as much upon the materials used in its inner construction as upon those used in covering it. the inner materials, if not wisely selected as to quality or in reference to the kind of service which the book is to receive, may cause an otherwise excellently bound book to give poor service. in general, however, a reference to binding materials means those which are used in covering books. it is the cover which renders a book attractive or unattractive, and which contributes more than any other one item, except possibly sewing, to the long life of the book. we should therefore know the initial cost of different covering materials and the length of service which each material will give under different conditions. when they are not imitations we should be able to recognize the best-known materials, either on or off the books. an unscrupulous binder can easily take advantage of ignorance of these matters. so far as the librarian is concerned only two classes of materials need be considered for the covers of books--leathers and book cloths. this does not indicate a restriction of choice, for when we consider that leather comes from a large number of animals, that there are a great many different kinds of cloth, that cloths and leathers can be obtained in a great variety of colors, there seems to be an embarrassment of riches. as a matter of fact most librarians confine themselves to four kinds of leather and four or five kinds of cloth, each in three or four different shades. leather the most expensive materials used in covering books and those which vary most in quality are leathers, the skins of animals which have been tanned and made flexible. the best bookbinding leathers are those which are flexible both in the skin and on books, and the surface of which is not easily damaged by friction. owing to the many kinds of leathers and their variation in quality, it is difficult to learn to know them well. the skins of all sorts of animals have been used for covering books. certain ones, not suitable for library binding, are still used for the purpose in various parts of the country, so that librarians need to become expert in their knowledge of which leathers may be employed and which ought to be rejected. variations in the same kinds of leathers are caused by: (_a_) _age._ skins of animals which have not reached full growth should not be used for binding library books. since they are immature, the fibres have not become tough, and they have not reached their maximum thickness. if the skins which the binder is using are exceptionally small, it is probable that the animals from which they were obtained were too young. on the other hand, the skins of very old animals should not be used, since the fibres of the skins have lost something of their flexibility and strength. they cannot be readily detected, but they are sure to give poor service. as an illustration of the effect which age has upon leather it will be sufficient to note the well-known fact that calf skin is useless for library purposes, while cowhide within certain well-defined limits is exceedingly useful. (_b_) _the sex of the animal._ it has been proved beyond question that the skin from the female of some animals, notably goats, does not wear as well as that from the male. (_c_) _country from which they come._ it is an interesting fact that the skin of a sheep which comes from persia is not the same kind of a skin as that of a sheep which is raised in the united states. in general, it may be said that skins from animals inhabiting warm countries are more likely to be serviceable than those from the same kind of animals inhabiting cold countries. in the cold countries more of the strength goes into the fur or hair which protects it, while in warm countries a greater amount of strength goes into the skin itself. in addition to variations due to these causes there is likely to be a certain amount of variation in different parts of the same skin. that part of the skin which comes from the back of the animal is tougher than that which comes from the abdomen. the difference is very noticeable in the skins of some animals, less so in others. _decay of leather._ of late years there has been much dissatisfaction expressed over the decay of modern leathers. in many cases leathers years old or more are in a fair state of preservation, while many leathers--perhaps we should say most leathers-- , or even years old, show signs of decay, and some have rotted away almost entirely. in no way is the decay of modern leathers shown more conclusively than in a long file of the sheep-bound set of the united states public documents. the earlier volumes, covering the th congress up to the th, will in general be found to be in a good state of preservation. about the year , however, marked deterioration appears. in some cases it seems as if the backs had entirely disintegrated. while a sheep-bound set is the best example of the decay of modern leathers, many libraries have been greatly annoyed by the decay of other leathers which are supposed to be much stronger than sheepskin. so great was the dissatisfaction with modern leathers that in the year the society of arts in london appointed a committee to investigate modern leathers and to ascertain the best methods for preparing leathers for binding. the report of this committee was published in , and a general knowledge of its contents is necessary for those who wish to know why leathers decay and how they may be preserved. another valuable work which should be carefully studied is entitled "leathers for libraries," published by the sound leather committee of the library association in england. in a chapter of this book j. gordon parker, ph. d., director of the london leather industries research laboratories, tells us that the chief causes of decay are as follows: . the introduction of tanning materials other than oak and sumac, stronger in tannin, and more rapid in their action. many of these tanning materials are unstable, and the leather produced disintegrates on exposure to light and air. tanning is the process of changing hides, which are animal matter subject to decay, into material which is strong and flexible and which is not subject to decay. there are two groups of tanning materials. the one called the pyrogallol group, which includes sumac, gall nuts and oak bark, is commended by the committee of the society of arts. the other is called the catechol group and is strongly condemned. among the materials belonging to the catechol group are hemlock bark and larch, used chiefly in this country, and turwar bark used largely in tanning east indian goat and sheep skins. the united states government printing office proposals call for leathers tanned with a pyrogallol tannin, since it has been proved that such leathers prove most resistant to the evil effects of light, heat and gas. if a skin has been tanned with sumac, or sumac in combination with oak bark, it has received the best possible preparation for its life as a bookbinding leather. it is not possible, neither is it necessary, to have all leathers tanned with sumac. those leathers which are intended to remain on the shelves for many decades, should be in this tannage. those which will be discarded in a few years may be tanned in a less expensive manner. even some of the quick, modern materials, which accomplish in a few hours what once would have taken weeks, are not too poor for leathers which are not to be kept indefinitely. even the expert cannot detect skins which have not been tanned and dyed properly, but leathers which last a short time may be suspected either of being improperly tanned or of having some kind of injurious acid in their composition. . the use of dried and cured skins of variable soundness imported from abroad. goat, calf and sheep skins are imported into this country (england) from all over the world; some are simply dried in the sun, some salted, whilst others are cured with various ingredients. . the use of infusions of acids and other bleaching agents to produce bright and even shades of colour. skins tanned with sumac are light-colored and can be dyed any desired color. most other tanning materials, however, make darker-colored skins, which can be dyed only with dark colors. it has been found possible to scour and bleach skins with sulphuric acid and to re-tan with sumac. . the use of sulphuric or other mineral acids for the purpose of developing the depth of colour during the process of dyeing. sulphuric acid is the cause of decay of over % of modern bookbinding leathers. having once been used, it cannot be wholly removed without the use of other chemicals. . the shaving and splitting of skins for producing an even substance. in splitting and shaving, the long, strongest fibres of the skin are torn or cut off, and the part which remains for binding purposes is the weakest part of the skin. . printing and embossing grains upon leather, together with other methods of finishing now in common use. there are various ways of bringing out the natural grain of leathers which are perfectly legitimate and which do no harm. the danger in graining comes when the grain is embossed by means of a plate, which is heated and pressed on the skin. no good leather should ever be embossed. . the stripping, scouring, souring and re-tanning of east india leathers (persians). some imported skins are only partially tanned, and it is necessary to wash out the tannin with some kind of alkali, which also takes out much of the natural grease of the skin. they are then treated with sulphuric acid and re-tanned. they are always poor and are seldom sold as re-tanned skins. . the removal of the natural grease or nourishment of the skin. the foregoing eight causes of decay are beyond our direct control. the leathers are manufactured and put on the market, and the binder has to use such as he is able to obtain. no matter how much the librarian may insist upon leathers free-from-acid, he is helpless if the binder cannot obtain them. all that he can do is to insist that leathers without acid must be used, if obtainable. although these causes of decay are beyond the librarian's control, there are several causes of decay quite within his power to avoid. they are the following, due to improper methods used in binding, or to physical conditions after the book is on the shelf: . direct sunlight. . gas fumes. this evil is hard to guard against if there are gas pipes in the building. there is sure to be more or less leakage, and even a small amount of gas in the air has a bad effect upon leather. . tobacco smoke. this is not likely to be very detrimental in libraries, since the rules generally forbid smoking. . excessive dampness, which encourages mildew. . extreme dry heat. a temperature much in excess of ° fahrenheit is likely to dry up the oil which gives flexibility to leather. . undue wetting or stretching the leather in covering. some binders soak the leathers and stretch them in placing them on the books. when the leathers dry they shrink, the fibres are strained and the life of the leather shortened. . use of poor paste in binding. this frequently sets up a fermentation that is very harmful to leathers. . dust, especially in conjunction with dampness, is very injurious to leather. doubtless there are other things which have a deleterious effect upon leathers in libraries; but if a library is well ventilated, if leather-covered books are not kept in cellars or basements that are very damp, or where direct sunlight can fall upon them, and if the binder uses good paste and proper care in covering the books, we may reasonably place the responsibility of undue decay of leathers upon the manufacturers. the various reports quoted so far have dealt with qualities of leathers due to tanning, manufacture, method of binding and time in use. natural or mechanical qualities of leathers have not been touched upon. those who are interested in this phase of the question should read the report of mr. cedric chivers on "the relative value of leathers and other binding materials," made at the meeting of the american library association at pasadena in . mr. chivers employed mr. alfred seymour jones, in england, to make tests which would show the tearing and breaking strain of various leathers. these natural qualities of leathers are obviously important, but too much stress must not be laid upon them. it is possible that a leather naturally strong and tough when new would rapidly deteriorate with age. the records as presented in mr. chivers' report must be taken in conjunction with facts determined by the investigation of the society of arts. in the main, however, it will be found that leathers which best stood the tests of the society of arts also showed the greatest resistance to the tearing and breaking strains made by mr. chivers. _preservation of leather._ various attempts have been made both by librarians and others to discover some substance which would preserve leather effectually after the book is bound. some of these attempts have been temporarily successful, but time alone will tell whether leathers are permanently preserved by the treatments used, or whether applications of the preservative must be frequently made. owing to the fact that in law libraries practically all the books published previous to were bound in sheepskin, the lasting qualities of leathers is a question that affects law libraries more than any other. dr. wire, of the worcester (mass.) county law library, who has made a careful study of the problem, advises the use of vaseline or some other similar by-product of petroleum well rubbed into the leather with the bare hand and allowed to dry in the air until the leather has absorbed it. better results were obtained by allowing the volumes to dry in the summer by natural heat instead of artificial heat in the winter. for some books dr. wire makes use of a bookbinder's varnish after the softening product has thoroughly penetrated the leather. a full description of the processes may be obtained from dr. wire's pamphlet, "leather preservation," published in . some of the disadvantages of dr. wire's method are: . the necessity of rubbing in the preservative from three to five times, according to the condition of the leather at the time of first treatment. . the care necessary to prevent the material used from smearing tables, trucks, floor, shelves and clothing at time of application; also when books are back on the shelves the care required to keep from rubbing against them and the necessity of wiping them off when they are handed to readers. . the tendency of books to swell at the back when first treated in this way, demanding extra care lest, in an effort to pull out one book, a whole shelf-full fall to the floor. . the repetition of the process after ten years. it is possible that these drawbacks will be sufficient to dissuade all except the most stout-hearted from using this method of preserving leather. rebinding in cloth seems to be much more simple and, on the whole, not much more expensive. the question of a preservative is discussed in the report of the society of arts, from which the following quotation is taken: enquiries have frequently been made as to the use of preservative pastes upon old bindings. it has been mentioned that the seasonings of white of egg or blood albumen usually employed in finishing leather have some preservative effect, and no harm can arise from the application of very thin coatings of white of egg. the use of ammonia to thin or preserve the solution must be avoided, but the whites, after thorough beating, may be rendered antiseptic by the addition of a small quantity of camphor, thymol, or some essential oil. vaseline has been employed as a dressing, and, if otherwise suitable, will no doubt have a preservative effect upon the leather. a very moderate use of the wax, soap, and turpentine preparations made as shoe pastes, is also likely to be beneficial, and no doubt a special preparation might be made on these lines which would be still more suitable. paraffin wax dissolved in benzine is also harmless, and the surface to which it has been applied takes a good polish with a flannel after drying. professor proctor has experimented with a finish introduced by the berlin aniline company some years ago for coloured leathers, with apparently satisfactory results. the preparation is practically a very hard stearine soap with excess of stearic acid, and is made by boiling parts of stearic acid with part of caustic soda and parts of water until thoroughly dissolved, and then adding parts of cold water and stirring till the material sets to a jelly. it is applied very thinly with a sponge or rag, and after thorough drying is polished with a soft brush or flannel. the alkali present in the soap is useful in neutralising any mineral acids contained in the leather. in very acid leathers it has been noticed that the sodium sulphate so formed will sometimes appear upon the surface as a white film, but this is easily removed with a damp cloth, and the surface, after drying, repolished with flannel. old books which it is desirable to preserve as long as possible in their original bindings and books which will be used very little may be treated with some form of preservative. if the book is to be much used, it would better be rebound. dr. wire's experiments have been carried on exclusively with law books. whether the same processes could be used on books bound in morocco or pigskin is something that has not yet been determined. most leather-bound books break first at the joint. the sheep bindings in a law library would show signs of disintegration long before the leather reached the breaking point, whereas the librarian would first notice that morocco was decaying when the leather actually cracked. once cracked, no amount of preservative would do any good. kinds of leather[ ] the leathers that have been used in binding books have come from all sorts of animals, but so far as the librarian is concerned the skins of four animals only need be taken into consideration--the sheep, the cow, the pig and the goat. in england some experiments have been made with sealskin, but it has not been used long enough to give any definite idea of its resistance to the encroachments of time. footnote : the prices of leathers given in the text are those which prevailed during the summer of . sheepskin sheepskin is a soft, flexible leather with weak fibres, and with a surface easily abraded. it has been used for bindings practically ever since books were put into leathers; and, under the old methods of tanning and manufacturing, proved satisfactory. in many libraries it is possible to see leather books bound in sheep in the th century which are in a good state of preservation. even the sheep of the beginning of the th century is frequently well preserved. since , however, the quality of sheep has greatly deteriorated. this is bad enough, but unfortunately sheep likes to masquerade under the name of morocco and other leathers of a better grade, so that its use is much more extensive than appears at first sight. in the process of imitation the grain of the leather imitated is stamped on the skin. when this is done it generally takes an expert to detect the fact that the leather is not what it pretends to be, and even experts are sometimes deceived after the leather is on a book. the strongest sheepskins are made when tanned with oak bark. sumac, which is such a valuable tanning material with other leathers, is here inferior to oak. there are two kinds of sheepskin, the wool sheep which is known to all, and the hair sheep which is not found in the united states, and which in reality is a cross between a sheep and a goat. the hair sheep comes from india, china, south america and africa, generally from mountainous districts. it has a much tougher fibre and is a better wearing skin than that of the wool sheep. unfortunately most of these skins, which are all imported, are made into shoe leather. when properly tanned they are very suitable for library binding, and their use for that purpose is increasing. the wool sheepskin in its natural color has been used for many years for binding law books. it is seldom used for anything except government documents and law books, and for this reason is known as "law-sheep." _roan._ roans, the term used for sheepskins after they are dyed, can be used advantageously on books which will be handled a great deal, and which in any event will not stay on the shelves indefinitely. properly tanned and dyed, they make a satisfactory leather for a time, but their life under the best of conditions seldom exceeds ten or twelve years. while this is true of good roans, it unfortunately remains true that in the united states, at least, it is difficult to get roans that are properly tanned and dyed. therefore, unless one is sure that the quality of the skin is the best, he should use no sheep under any conditions. _skiver._ skiver is the outside of a sheepskin which has been split, the inner side being known as the flesher. it is a leather much used for commercial binding, but since the splitting process takes away a great part of the strength of the skin, leaving it not much stronger than strong paper, skiver is wholly unfitted for library use. cowhide cowhide, sometimes known as american russia, is a leather which has increased enormously in use in the last twenty-five years. it is a thick, coarse leather, rather unattractive in appearance, strong when new, but with age rapidly deteriorating in quality, even when no deleterious substance has been used in tanning or dyeing. it is a harder leather to work than roan, but the quality is much more uniform and it can be used advantageously for binding fiction and other books which will be much used. in its natural state (undyed) it can be used in place of law-sheep for law books, but has a tendency to become dark. it can be obtained in many colors. since it is too thick a leather to be used in full thickness, practically all skins are split, and the amount of flesh left with the grain determines the weight of the leather. a greater or less amount is taken off according to the purpose for which the leather is intended. bookbinding cowhide costing c to c. a square foot is the lightest weight leather that has the right to be called cow.[ ] the life of cowhide is from five to twelve years. _buffing._ buffing is practically only the grain of cowskin from which almost all the flesh has been split. it is not suitable for library books, since it is very thin and begins to disintegrate in less than five years. after it is on the volume it is hard to detect, so that some library binders have been tempted to use it instead of cow. but as buffing is never sold as cow, the library binder has no excuse for keeping it in stock. footnote : this is the normal price of cow. the european war has had the disastrous effect of raising the price and lowering the quality. until conditions become normal again all cowhide should be shunned. pigskin pigskin is one of the strongest leathers, having a hard, resisting surface and a good, tough fibre. in the grain, the holes which were left when bristles were removed are plainly visible, giving the leather a distinctive appearance, which can be imitated successfully, but which is much less often imitated than the grain of morocco. if there be doubt of the genuineness of pig, soak a piece of the leather until it has absorbed a quantity of water, and then stretch it. if the grain pulls out, it is imitation; if genuine, the bristle holes still show plainly. oak bark tanning is the best for this leather, and, since it is more nearly gristle (less fibrous) than other leathers, dyes and chemicals should not be used which will interfere with its quality of resisting friction. it should be used in its natural color whenever possible. pigskin frequently comes in skins which are too thick for the binder to work easily, or which are very uneven in thickness. in such cases the paring down of the skin is likely to injure its strength. because of its thickness pig is generally supposed to be more suitable for large than for small books, but inasmuch as several binders have used it successfully for years on small books, it may be taken for granted that it can be used with good results on all books, large or small, which are to receive hard usage. it needs constant handling, and the absorption of a certain amount of oil from the hands to keep it pliable. otherwise it dries rapidly and cracks along the joint. this, however, is true of all leathers to a greater or less extent. pig costs from c. to c. a square foot. goat the leather which makes the strongest and most attractive binding comes from the skins of goats and is called morocco, because it originally came from that country. in the course of time goat skins from other countries were tanned with sumac (originally a distinguishing characteristic of a genuine morocco), but the same name was applied so that we now have the paradoxical terms, turkey morocco, levant morocco, etc. moroccos have a beautiful grain, are flexible, soft and pliable to the hand, and resist hard wear; qualities which contribute to their great popularity. morocco varies greatly in quality as well as in appearance. unfortunately the skins which are best in quality, considering the length of time they will wear, are not always those best in appearance. the skins of goats with long hair from the colder countries make beautiful bindings; but the skins of goats from the hot countries, such as the interior of africa, having short hair, while not so attractive in appearance, are tougher and wear longer. in addition to the many grades of genuine morocco there are as many more imitations of it made from sheepskin, cowhide, etc. only the expert can detect some of them in the skin, and even he may be deceived when the leather is on the back of the book. in general it should be said that genuine morocco is the most expensive leather that a library can use, and that it can be used to the greatest advantage only occasionally. it makes an excellent binding for large reference books which are constantly handled, for art books which must be attractively bound, and for some periodicals which are much used in reference work. it is not used nearly so much in libraries to-day as it was ten or fifteen years ago, and it is quite safe to say that it will be used less ten years from to-day than it is now. _levant morocco_, made from the skins of angora goats, is the most expensive and most beautiful leather used in binding. it has a large, prominent grain, but is far too expensive for any library to use, especially when it must be conceded that in its wearing quality it does not equal that of some less expensive moroccos. mr. chivers' test showed that so far as tensile strength goes, this leather is very much weaker than many leathers much less expensive. when the skin has been subjected to pressure until the surface is smooth it is known as "crushed levant." _turkey morocco_, made of skins of goats from turkey, is a very strong, durable leather which all libraries will find occasion to use from time to time. it is very easily imitated. under exposure to atmospheric conditions existing in many libraries its life may not extend beyond thirty years. in one library at least, where conditions of light and heat were poor, the best turkey morocco that the market afforded showed signs of disintegration within twelve years. good turkey morocco can be obtained for c. a square foot. _persian morocco_, which comes from the skin of a persian sheep (not goat), is not particularly attractive in appearance and is very poor in quality. it is used extensively for commercial work, but is absolutely valueless for library binding. _niger morocco_ is a goat skin which comes from the interior of africa, generally by way of tripoli, and is by no means a recent discovery, though we knew little about it five years ago. it is tanned by natives according to some method of vegetable tanning not completely known at this time. while in appearance it is not so attractive as some other moroccos, because of blemishes due to carelessness in handling and to the imperfect removal of some of the hairs, it has been proved by the tests made under the direction of mr. chivers to be stronger than all other moroccos; the inference is that it is more durable. until recently it has been very hard to obtain in the united states. _bock morocco_ is not a morocco but a split persian sheep so poor in quality that it is mentioned only to be condemned. calfskin calfskin in all its various characters, such as divinity, kip, marbled, mottled, smooth, tree, or just plain calf is a very beautiful leather much used in the past for binding books for individuals. for this purpose it has, of late years, been crowded out by levant morocco. it has a soft, smooth surface which disintegrates rapidly under the action of heat and gas and has little strength even for temporary use. for the library it is useless. russia leather this is a brownish-red leather made from the skins of different animals, tanned with willow bark and filled with a preparation of birch oil which gives it its peculiar odor. neither in its genuine form nor in imitation is it a useful leather for libraries. sealskin although experiments have been made with it in some english libraries sealskin has never been much used in the united states for library binding. it is made from the skins of the hair seal, the supply coming from all parts of the north atlantic ocean. according to mr. douglas cockerell and other binding experts in england, the skin is peculiarly suited for library use. it is reported to be a hard-wearing leather, tough and pliable, even in quality so that no part of the skin must be discarded because too thin or too weak, and possessing a beautiful grain. the price ranges from a point somewhat higher than that of the poorer moroccos to one somewhat lower than the higher prices. unfortunately it can be easily imitated. vellum probably no discussion of leather is complete without mentioning vellum, a binding material which does not resemble leather, but which nevertheless is made from calfskin or sometimes from goat skin. it is prepared by the use of lime, and as far as the actual wear on flat surface is concerned, is perhaps better than any leather. it is, however, very susceptible to moisture, which makes it warp; and to light, which makes it hard and brittle. since it is very hard, does not bend easily and is hard to work, its chief use is on the corners of books to protect them and make them less likely to break or rub. large libraries have used it somewhat for this purpose, but the use is dying out. in making a study of leathers it is well to obtain samples of all kinds, including those which are unsuitable for library use, and to examine them carefully, noting the appearance of the grain, thickness of skin, flexibility, and softness of surface. perhaps more money can be wasted through ignorance of the comparative values of different kinds of leather which it is permissible to use in library binding, than in mismanagement of any other part of binding. cloth cloth is fully as important as leather in the economy of binding. several years ago it was the custom to bind periodicals and other books which were used comparatively seldom in leather, while fiction, juvenile and other books which wore out quickly were bound in cloth. recently the opposite course has been more favored. books which receive unusually hard usage and are in the hands of readers constantly are bound in leather; while those which are used seldom, including periodicals, are bound in some kind of cloth. without doubt the change is a wise one. even the best of leather disintegrates in time under the action of heat, gas, light, etc., and to-day many a volume bound in leather ten or fifteen years ago has parted from its sides, necessitating rebinding or recovering. had it been bound in a good quality of cloth it would to-day be in good condition, and probably would remain in good condition for a hundred years. it requires considerable courage to change the binding of a good set of a standard periodical, such as the atlantic or harper's, from an attractive half morocco binding to an unattractive buckram. unquestionably, if economy is an object, the change should be made, except possibly in the case of a library which uses these periodicals daily. every librarian must decide each case for himself strictly according to the use the set is to receive, always bearing in mind the fact that leather disintegrates with time, whereas cloth does not unless exposed to excessive moisture. no cloth which is suitable for library use is perfectly satisfactory because it has not the strength of good leather, cannot be used advantageously on very heavy books, soils easily and with use grows soft and flabby, especially along the joints. but on the other hand even those not suitable for libraries which are used by the publisher on cheap books are much better than poor grades of leathers, such as skiver, bock, buffing, etc. the requisite qualities of a good cloth are: (_a_) endurance when folded back and forth in the same place, so that it may withstand the wear at the joint caused by opening the book. (_b_) smoothness, so that there will be a comparatively small amount of friction when withdrawing a book from between two others on the shelf. (_c_) ability to withstand constant rubbing back and forth on tables. (_d_) color that is fast when exposed to light; if possible it should be fast to water also, though this is less important. (_e_) color should be dyed in the piece, not pressed in by machinery. many cloths have some of these qualities but few have all of them. so far as is known to the writer only the grade of cloth described on page has the last qualification. practically all cloth used in the united states is made of cotton. the best cloths are manufactured by the holliston mills, norwood, mass.; the interlaken mills, new york city; the joseph bancroft & sons company, wilmington, del., and by the winterbottom company and the manchester book cloth company in england. since a number of grades are made in several different patterns and a great number of shades for each grade and each pattern, a variety of choice is permitted. as a matter of fact, however, most librarians select a good grade with a regular weave and confine themselves to a few standard shades, such as dark green, brown, red, dark blue, and tan. since the strength of the warp is much greater than that of the weft, it is advisable when possible to cover books with the warp running across the cover. this, however, may entail some hardship on the binder for it may frequently happen that in order to cut his cover economically he must make the warp run lengthwise of the book. if a strong cloth is used the advantage is not great enough to be insisted upon. each of the american firms mentioned makes three distinct grades, all of which libraries may use. each firm uses a different name for each grade. in other words, there are no general names which can be used for the corresponding grade in all makes. therefore for the purposes of this chapter these cloths will be considered under the heads of grades , and , but it must be remembered that this is an arbitrary designation not known to the trade. under each grade will be given the specific names used by the three manufacturers. grade grade one of cloth, the cheapest that a librarian may use, is not made of the best quality of cotton thread and should never be used under any circumstances for full binding. it may be used on the sides of books bound in leather; if this be done the corners should be covered with vellum, for this cloth does not withstand hard usage and is likely to fray at the corners. it is a cloth commonly used by publishers, but should be used sparingly by the librarian. "art vellum" made by the interlaken mills, "aldine vellum" made by the holliston mills, and "linen finish" made by the joseph bancroft & sons company, come within this grade. grade (_a_) grade two is made of a better grade of cotton and with a closer weave than the preceding, but is not sufficiently strong to be used for full binding. it can be used more satisfactorily than the preceding on the sides of books bound in leather or duck. in common with all cloths, except the buckram made according to the government specifications (which will be discussed later), the different colors are not made, as one might suppose, by dyeing the cloth after it is woven, but by mixing the color with the sizing or starch which is used in finishing the cloth, and pressing it into the cloth by machinery. as a natural result the color rubs off with wear and the natural gray of the original cloth as first woven appears. "art canvas" made by the interlaken mills, "classic buckram" made by the holliston mills, and "polished buckram," by the joseph bancroft & sons company come within this grade. (_b_) _buckram._ under the name of buckram various grades of cloth are manufactured which resemble to a greater or less degree those mentioned under grade (_a_). generally it is a coarsely woven cloth stiffened with glue or sizing, and the term originally indicated that the cloth was made of linen. at the present time linen buckram made in england can be obtained, but all that is manufactured in the united states is made of cotton. linen buckram costs much more than cotton and it is doubtful if it is any more serviceable. all of the three manufacturers mentioned make buckrams. grade prior to the congressional set of government documents distributed to the depository libraries had been bound in sheepskin and the leather on the volumes had disintegrated so much as to make the set a hard one to care for. in the congressional printing investigation commission asked librarians of depository libraries to suggest, without considering cost, suitable binding materials for government documents. the number of replies received was , embodying suggestions as follows: full sheep, ; half-russia, ; cloth, ; buckram, ; linen duck, ; canvas, . some librarians expressed more than one preference, so that the total number of preferences was greater than the total of those replying. most of those who favored sheep did so because of their desire for uniformity. those who favored half-russia undoubtedly desired half american russia, or cowhide. expressed preference for some form of cloth. after receiving the replies from librarians the printing investigation commission obtained samples of cloth from various cloth manufacturers in the united states and the bureau of standards made a series of chemical and physical tests to determine the durability of these cloths. chemical tests were made to discover whether the colors were fast when exposed to light. it is to be regretted perhaps that no tests were made to determine whether the cloths were fast to water and that this qualification was not included in the final specifications. admitting, however, that a cloth which is fast to sun and water both is a valuable cloth for bookbinding, it is evident that the quality of fastness to water is not a vitally important one for cloth used in the united states. the total number of books injured by water is so small as to make insistence upon this quality entirely unnecessary. if books become so soiled that they need to be washed they should be bound in waterproof cloth. because many volumes of government documents are sent to porto rico and the philippines where insects eat almost anything of an animal or vegetable character, the desirability of the cloth as an article of diet for insects, was also tested. the physical tests indicated: _a._ number of threads per inch of warp and weft. _b._ absorption of moisture. _c._ weight per yard. _d._ tensile strength. _e._ amount of stretch. _f._ amount of friction developed by rubbing two pieces of cloth together. this test was made because the friction developed in taking a book from between two others is an important matter when a shelf is full of books. if the friction is great the wear on the back of the book is correspondingly excessive. _g._ endurance when folded back and forth in the same place. _h._ endurance under extraordinary conditions of rubbing. some of these qualities, such as tensile strength, amount of stretch, etc., were comparatively unimportant, but the tests for all were severe and contributed much to our knowledge of the qualities which should enter into the composition of durable book cloths. after a very careful consideration of the results of the tests and a thorough examination of the samples submitted, a committee of librarians and government officials unanimously chose three samples as the best of all those submitted by the manufacturers. of these three samples the cloth numbered was considered the most satisfactory. although these three samples were excellent, they all had one defect--the color was pressed in by machinery, not dyed in the piece. after various experiments had been made by the manufacturers this defect was remedied. the government printing office then advertised for bids on cloths which would meet the specifications drawn up by the bureau of standards (see appendix a). since that time all the government documents which continue the old sheep-bound set have been sent to depository libraries bound in cloth made according to these specifications. this cloth is known sometimes as government specification cloth, but is manufactured under the specific name of "library buckram" by the holliston mills, "art buckram" by the interlaken mills, and "legal buckram" by the joseph bancroft & sons company. the first two are made in pieces about yards long and inches wide, the bancroft cloth in pieces yards long and inches wide. it must be admitted that this cloth is not quite so attractive in appearance as some of the old cloths which are not so durable. some binders claim that it is hard to use. on the whole, however, it supplies a long felt want and is the strongest cloth made that is at all attractive in appearance. duck duck or canvas, a rough, heavy cloth much the same in quality as sail cloth, is the strongest cloth used in binding, but has some very decided drawbacks which militate against its use, except when the question of strength overshadows all others. it always makes an unattractive-looking volume--some of the more fastidious librarians rebel against its use; and it readily absorbs dirt and moisture, making it disagreeable to handle if the book has been much used. duck having a double twisted thread in the weft is much more compact and absorbs dirt and moisture much less rapidly than other kinds. it should be used on the backs (never for full binding) of newspapers and such periodicals as are too heavy to put in library or legal buckram. imperial morocco cloth imperial morocco cloth, manufactured by the winterbottom book cloth company in england, is made of linen thread and finished with a grain to resemble leather. the kind most used in the united states resembles a straight-grained morocco. it is an excellent cloth in appearance, as well as in durability, but its cost is % greater than that of the government specification cloth. it may be used on semi-popular books which will not receive a great amount of use, but which should be as attractive in appearance as possible. water-proof cloths there are several cloths which are waterproof and therefore easily cleaned when the covers become soiled. the best of these are durabline, used exclusively by cedric chivers; rexine and pluviusin, used almost exclusively in england; keratol, made in newark, new jersey; and fabrikoid, made by the du pont powder company, wilmington, delaware. all of these cloths are said to be acid, alkali and germ proof, do not absorb grease and can be washed with soap and water. they are strong, durable cloths, but they have at first a disagreeable odor, are hard to work and hard to letter in gold. in the application of paste to most waterproof cloths, either in the process of binding or in attaching labels to the back, it is first necessary to break down the surface of the cloth or the paste will not hold. this disadvantage no longer exists in the case of fabrikoid. keratol and fabrikoid are made to imitate leather and are frankly sold as such. probably the use of these cloths in libraries will always be comparatively small. because they can be easily cleaned they may be used on the sides of juvenile books, and in rare cases for full binding. glue no very definite rules can be laid down as to what kind of glue should be used. the matter must be left largely in the hands of the binder, who must see that it is strong, yet flexible; not too poor in quality nor yet the most expensive kind which is generally used on furniture. this is too brittle for bookbinding use. the best glue for bookbinding is made from skins and shows a dark wine color in the cake. light colored glues are made chiefly from bones and are not usually so good. to prepare glue for use, soak small pieces in water over night and in the morning melt in the glue pot. it should never be boiled. a careful binder will see that utensils are kept clean and that glue is used in the proper thickness. flexible glue, which does not become too hard either before or after use, is made by mixing glycerine with good glue. it has no special advantages for use by binders, but can be used in the library itself for some of the repairs which assistants may have to make. paste (for paste used in mending, see p. ). the best paste is that made in the ordinary way with flour and water. the paste should be fresh, for if it is not a certain fermentation takes place which is injurious to the book, especially to leather. boards not the least important part of the make-up of a finished book are the boards forming the sides. there are practically four grades of boards which are known as strawboards; binders, cloth or millboards; semi-tar, and tar boards. the cheapest grade is the strawboard, for which there is no place in library work. mill or cloth boards, used for practically all library work, are generally made from waste papers of all kinds, though some may have an admixture of rags. clay is also mixed with the waste paper pulp and the whole subjected to heavy pressure in the final stages of manufacture. they are made in two sizes, Ã� and Ã� inches, and are put up in -pound bundles, the number of sheets in the bundle indicating the thickness of the board. the thickest is a no. which has sheets in a -pound bundle. they may have as many as sheets in a bundle, which makes a very thin board. a or board should be used for fiction and juvenile books and a or for heavier books such as magazines. prices of good cloth boards run from $ to $ a ton. semi-tar boards, made from better grade stock than mill board, should have in their composition a certain amount of rags and hemp or naval cordage. they come in the same sizes and weights, costing about $ a ton. tar boards are the best boards obtainable. made of naval cordage, they are very tough and hard to work. many of them are allowed to season, in much the same way as lumber seasons, in order to prevent warping. they are much too expensive for library use, sometimes costing as much as $ a ton. the matter of boards is not one about which the librarian need exercise great watchfulness. binders generally use a very good quality, though they sometimes use too thin a board on a heavy book, such as a newspaper or large folio. in such cases a board of suitable thickness can be made by pasting or gluing two or more together. thread at one time there was no question but that the best thread to be used in binding was linen. in the light of present knowledge it may be doubted if this is true under all circumstances. all commercially bound books, without exception, are sewed with cotton thread. even such large books as the century dictionary, webster's dictionary and the united states catalog of are sewed with cotton thread. since it was unquestionably the aim of the publishers of all these books to issue them in the strongest possible bindings, it is reasonable to suppose that linen would have been used if it were really the best for the purpose. the main reason linen thread has been advised for so long is because its tensile strength is much greater than that of cotton. on the other hand, it is just as true that what we may call the fraying resistance of a cotton thread is greater than that of linen. take two threads of the same size, one cotton and the other linen, make a loop of each thread with one inside the other, saw back and forth, and the cotton will always cut the linen thread. furthermore, linen thread deteriorates in quality unless very carefully stored. the publishers soon discovered these facts, and since tensile strength is not an important attribute in a thread that is being used in a book sewing-machine, they use a cotton thread with thoroughly satisfactory results. in the case of library binding, however, the books are always sewed by hand and the sewer, as she draws the thread tight, is obliged to use some strength; for this reason tensile strength is an important attribute. hayes' irish linen thread is generally specified. the barbour thread is referred to by mr. dana and by others, but the writer is not familiar with its use. other materials used in binding are gold leaf, paper for end papers, tape, headbands, cord and various concoctions used in finishing the books. gold leaf should be to karat, and neither aluminum nor silver leaf should be used. paper for end papers will vary somewhat with the size of the book, but should never be lighter in weight than a -pound manila. large libraries may find it desirable to have an end paper specially made for their own use. tapes should be linen and not over three-eighths of an inch wide. cord for use in sewing in the regular way (not overcasting) is a soft twine which can be obtained from all dealers in bookbinding supplies. for all books less than twelve inches in height use four-ply cord; for larger books, five-ply. chapter v specifications after the librarian has definitely decided upon the binder whom he wishes to employ he must, especially in dealing with binders who are not accustomed to library work, draw up specifications as to ways in which he wishes different classes of books bound. if he has employed a binder who thoroughly understands library binding, he may make use of the binder's knowledge in drawing up the specifications. under certain circumstances it may be wise to enter into a contract with the binder, but ordinarily in the united states such a course will not be necessary. after the specifications have been prepared and a schedule of prices agreed upon, the librarian always has the right to refuse to pay for books not bound according to specifications. therefore, a definite legal contract is not necessary. the librarian, except in the case of a few libraries which according to law must give their work to state officials, is always at liberty to take his custom from one binder and give it to another. thus sufficient pressure is brought to bear on the binder. although the present chapter gives definite specifications for the binding of various classes of books, it is always wise to show a certain latitude in the use of specifications. local conditions, the papers used in bookmaking which seem to become poorer and poorer with each succeeding year, and the kind of a library which is to use the specifications--all these must be taken into consideration when specifications are drawn up. moreover, the best specifications will accomplish little if they are not followed by the binder in a workmanlike manner, while good workmanship will sometimes make up for omission of important details in the specifications. in the main, it will be found that the following specifications may be used as a guide, except possibly in the case of some reference and college libraries which do not issue books for home use. it has seemed best to place first general specifications which apply to all books, followed by additional specifications for each kind of books treated. the way in which these specifications are carried out is described in the chapter on processes. general specifications . the binder is responsible for all books consigned to his care and must replace or pay for all books lost or injured. when one considers the large number of volumes passing through a bindery, coming from many different libraries, the number of books for which the binder is unable to account is surprisingly small. . the librarian is the judge of whether the book is bound according to the specifications. since he has submitted the specifications and the binder has agreed to them he should be the sole judge of the result. . the binder will be allowed to depart from any specification if it is desirable in the interests of good binding. he must, however, prove that he is justified in so doing. . books must be paid for according to a schedule of prices agreed upon by the binder and librarian. . the size should be determined by measuring at the back of the volume after it is bound. it might be wiser, perhaps, to measure the book before the boards are put on, so that binders would be sure to trim the book as little as possible. it is the universal custom, however, to pay according to the measure of the book with the boards on. this may possibly tempt the binder to increase the square of the book just enough to group it with the next larger size so that he can charge more for it. . all items not covered in the schedule of prices may be charged for at the regular rates of the binder for such work. . all books not oversewed are to be sewed all-along with hayes' irish linen thread, suiting the size of the thread to the requirements of the book; no. for light, no. for medium and no. for heavy sections. . cloth must be used for sides of all books bound in half-leather or half-duck. never use marbled paper except occasionally on newspapers. . unless otherwise specified, cloth which conforms to the specifications of the bureau of standards, or imperial morocco cloth, must be used for full binding. for sides of leather bound books a somewhat cheaper grade may be used. . duck should have a twisted, double thread in the weft. . moroccos or pigskins must be guaranteed by the manufacturer to be free-from-acid. . glue must be best quality of binders' or flexible glue, and must be used sparingly. . poor materials of any kind must not be used. . in taking books apart, all old glue, paste, back-lining, paper, etc., should be carefully removed. . the binder should expect to do a certain amount of mending of torn pages and guarding of weak signatures, but should be allowed to charge extra when the amount is excessive. . the text of all books must be collated by binder and imperfect books returned to the library. (see under processes, collation, p. ). . all illustrations of whatever character printed on single leaves must be guarded with thin, tough paper and the guard folded around the adjoining sections. some librarians and binders advocate the use of cloth guards but this seems hardly necessary. the cloth guards tend to swell the back of the book, especially if there be many plates, while the thin, tough paper is strong enough for ordinary books. folded plates should never be sewed through the middle of the fold, but should be mounted on guards so that the plates will open out nearly flat when the book is opened. folded maps, or other folded plates which may be consulted often should, unless otherwise specified, be guarded with cloth which is as wide as the book, so that they may be thrown entirely outside the book and lie flat on a table. . illustrations which are folded more than once, such as maps, should be carefully cut and mounted on thin cloth in such a way as to allow for the folding to come on the cloth alone, not on the paper. . stitching (that is, sewing signatures lengthwise with a sewing-machine) or old-fashioned whipstitching, is not permitted for any books; with the possible exception of newspapers. . in sewing three bands or tapes must be used for eight-inch books, four for twelve-inch, etc. . tapes, or bands, and back-lining must project at least an inch and a quarter on each side of the book. . all books should be lined on the back with canton flannel as described in the chapter on processes, except in a few cases where it may be advisable to use duck or a flesher. this eliminates lacing-on of boards. . adjoining leaves of fly leaves and end papers must always be pasted together. . books must be trimmed as little as possible. . all books should have rounded corners. . all books must have french joints. . all books, unless otherwise specified, will be fastened finally into the covers by pasting down end papers. tight-back books will in addition have the back glued to the book. . books should be loose-back unless otherwise specified. . edges should be sprinkled unless the library specifies gilding on top. the color used may be varied to harmonize with the color of the book. . books must be pressed until thoroughly dry. . binders must keep a record of each book, whether periodical or not, which has a volume number. this record, commonly known as a "rub" or "rub-off," shows the size of the book, kind of binding and exact lettering. whenever other volumes of the same work or same periodical are received they will be bound according to this record, unless the librarian has specified a different material, or different lettering. in such a case the matter must be referred to the librarian before the book is bound. if a binder receives a book with a volume number and has no record of previous volumes, he should ask the librarian for a sample volume, unless it is obviously a book for which there could be no sample, such as the first volume of a periodical giving contemporary dates. . the binder is expected to paste in book-pockets and book-plates when furnished by the library but may charge extra for the work. . the best gold leaf must be used in lettering unless cover is light enough in color to take ink. leather labels should never be used. fiction and juvenile books it seems to be fairly well proven that all fiction and juvenile books should be bound in some kind of leather, preferably cowhide.[ ] objections to this are heard from time to time, but the objections come chiefly from the large steel towns where the sulphur in the air has a bad effect on leathers. in most communities leather will outwear cloth and in any event cloth becomes shabby, even when perfectly strong, much more quickly than leather. when the french joint is used the leather need not be pared and ordinarily will outwear the paper of the book. follow general specifications as outlined above, supplemented by the following: . books should be bound in one-half cowhide (american russia). roan may be used if the librarian is sure that it is good. . fly-leaves should be made of white book paper, pounds to the ream and guarded with jaconet. it is apparent that when fly-leaves are guarded with cloth they are sewed as a separate section and not tipped on as is done in ordinary binding. since practically all fiction and juvenile books are oversewed, it will not be necessary to carry the guard around to the inner side of the fold. . end papers may be made of paper specially made for the binder, but it should be equal in strength to an -pound manila paper and should be guarded with jaconet on the outside of the fold in the same way as fly-leaves. . if book is not oversewed the first and last sections must be guarded with jaconet. . nearly all books should be sewed with some modern method of overcasting. it is probable that in every lot of books sent to the binder there will be some fiction and juvenile books which could be sewed in the regular way through the signatures either on bands or on tapes, but the number is so small that the binder finds it easier to sew all the books alike. in any event only those which have the backs of the sections unbroken the entire length and which, in addition, are seldom used, should be sewed in the regular way. footnote : see footnote, page . non-fiction . books should be bound in full cloth. . books in which the backs of sections are not injured, or which cannot be easily mended may be sewed regularly. the rest must be oversewed. . in all other respects the preceding specifications should be followed. periodicals there is no place in a small library where good judgment will do more to make the library efficient at a minimum cost than in the binding of periodicals. the use of libraries for reference purposes is increasing and the use of periodicals is made easy by means of the periodical indexes. the enthusiastic librarian who wishes to answer all questions will be tempted to bind more periodicals than are really needed, thus impairing the efficiency of the book fund. on the other hand, to some the cost of binding may seem so great that some useful periodicals will remain unbound. but it is not necessary to throw away unbound periodicals. if they are to be used only now and then in reference work, it is a good plan to wrap them in stout manila paper with stiff boards on the outside, letter carefully on the back and file away on the shelves in their regular places among other periodicals. supplement the general specifications by the following: . fly-leaves should be made of white book paper, pounds to the ream, guarded with jaconet on both sides. . end papers may be made of special papers used by the binder, but it is wise to have a -pound manila guarded with jaconet on the outside and also on the inside of the fold. . first and last sections must be guarded with jaconet. . books inches in height should be sewed regularly on four bands or on tapes one-quarter of an inch wide; larger volumes on five bands or tapes. sew all-along, passing needle through center of tapes. . a millboard as heavy as the weight of the book will allow must be used. . (_a_) books should be bound in full cloth made according to the specifications of the bureau of standards. as light colors, which may be lettered in ink, show dirt very readily it seems better to use a dark color and letter in gold. (_b_) in large reference or college libraries there are certain periodicals that receive constant use. it would be a mistake to bind such volumes in cloth, because no cloth will endure the wear that they receive. they should be bound in leather, preferably turkey or niger morocco. on no account should american russia be used. . if leather is used the sides should be covered with bureau of standards cloth. newspapers because newspapers are printed on wretched paper which it is freely admitted will disintegrate in a comparatively short time, the question when to bind and when to throw away is a hard one to decide. for the small library it is surely unwise to bind any except the local paper, which will be used from time to time for local history. in many cases it may be wiser simply to wrap the volumes to protect them from the light and file them chronologically. the librarian of the large library, however, no matter how disgusted he may be with the poor quality of paper used finds it necessary to bind a number of newspapers. when bound they will last twenty-five years or more, during which time they are sure to be used sufficiently to warrant binding. newspapers must be kept away from light, heat and moisture. if possible, keep in a dark closet until ready for binding. publishers of local papers ought to give a copy for binding. . newspapers must be bound in one-half duck, best quality. it is never under any circumstances wise to bind newspapers in leather. duck, to be sure, gathers dirt easily, but it seems to be the only material sufficiently strong and long-lived for binding newspapers. . fly-leaves and end papers should be made of extra heavy paper well guarded inside and outside the fold. . it is permissible to stitch sections lengthwise before sewing regularly on bands, but oversewing is preferable. . boards of double thickness must be used. it is best, perhaps, to make the boards by gluing or pasting two boards of ordinary thickness together. . corners should be covered with vellum tips. . tight backs must be used. . sides must be covered with paper. this facilitates the handling of the volumes. if cloth sides are used on newspapers it increases enormously the labor in shelving them and even of using them on ordinary library tables. in libraries that can afford to shelve newspapers on patent shelving with rollers, cloth sides are preferable. . libraries that can afford it should use a fibre-filling preservative on the edges. (see page of the bulletin of the american library association for .) reference books reference books should be bound in the same way as fiction or juvenile books, except that morocco, instead of cowhide, should be used for books constantly handled. books used only occasionally should be covered with cloth made according to the specifications of the bureau of standards. very heavy, thick volumes, such as dictionaries, should have all the strengthening devices and especially should have the bands and canton flannel on the back placed in split boards or between two boards glued together. it is impossible to bind such books too strongly. in rare cases it may be well to sew heavy books constantly used on raised bands, to have leather corners, and a strip of leather along the bottom of each board. law books some of the professions have conventional ways of binding professional books. in the law, for example, it was formerly customary to bind all law books in full sheep of the natural color. when sheep fell into disrepute, the law publishers began to substitute cloth similar in shade to the sheep generally used--a decided gain for law libraries. supplement the general specifications by the following: . end papers and fly-leaves must be guarded with jaconet, as described in specifications for fiction and juvenile books, page . . first and last sections must be guarded with jaconet. . all maps and charts must be backed with muslin and not folded unless necessary. . (_a_) bancroft legal buckram (the lightest shade made), or holliston mills library buckram no. , should be used for covering. (_b_) books used constantly should be bound in half turkey morocco or niger morocco. music . the most essential quality of a well-bound book of music is its ability to lie flat wherever opened. it is unwise therefore to use any kind of an overcast stitch in sewing. regular sewing on tapes, instead of bands, must be used. . the square at the bottom of the book should be greater than at the top so that leaves will not catch on the music-rack when turned over. . imperial morocco cloth should be used for covering. if hard usage is expected half cowhide, with sides of some kind of washable cloth, is preferable. . part music for various instruments or solos with accompaniment must have one strong binding for the part which takes the most space, with pocket on the inside of the back cover to hold the other parts. if these are bulky compensating guards should be inserted in the back of the book. books of illustrations every library finds it necessary to bind a few books, such as racinet's "le costume historique," which have very little text and a great number of illustrations. it is evident that the illustrations in such books are most useful if kept in unbound form in portfolios, but when kept in such a way they are likely to be lost, torn, mutilated or misplaced. . each plate should be guarded with thin, tough paper and the guards overcast. this insures a good strong sewing; in addition the guard forms a hinge where it meets the plate and the plate will lie flat and can easily be examined when the book is opened. . because of the artistic nature of such books, they should be bound in one-half morocco, taking extra care to see that acid-free leather is used. . canton flannel and bands, or tapes, should be inserted between split boards. if the book is very heavy, it would be wise to line the back with duck or a flesher rather than with canton flannel. commercial binding for reference books while they are not a part of library binding, it may not be amiss to include specifications for commercial binding of heavy reference books, such as dictionaries, cyclopedias, etc. it is done with the hope that librarians will exert pressure upon the publishers to induce them to adopt these or other specifications which will produce equally good results. . four tapes should be used in sewing; the tapes must extend on each side of the book at least two inches. the book should contain as many stitches as possible, using the best four-strand cotton thread. the thickness of the thread will depend somewhat upon the number of pages in a signature. books should be sewed "all along" with no splitting of signatures at head or tail. . first and last signatures should be reinforced inside and outside of the fold with a strip of strong, thin muslin which passes around the outside of the end papers. the english cloth called jaconet is the best for this purpose. . the second signature and the next to the last should be reinforced with muslin on the inside of the fold. . the end papers should also be lined on the inside. . illustrations should be guarded with muslin which is folded around the next signature. . books should be lined with a medium grade of canton flannel, with the fuzzy side to the back and extending from one-half inch from the head to within one-half inch of the tail of the book, lapping over at least two inches on the side. . the flannel, together with the tapes, should be inserted between split boards. . over the canton flannel, but not extending over to the sides, there should be pasted a good quality of linen, rope or manila paper of sufficient thickness to make the book firm. in putting on this lining paper paste instead of glue must be used. . volumes should have french joints. . the best quality millboard of suitable thickness with rounded corners should be used. . leather should be made, if possible, according to the specifications of the london society of arts. niger morocco is probably the best. volumes should have leather corners as well as backs. . for cloth sides, winterbottom's imperial morocco cloth, bancroft's legal buckram, or holliston's library buckram should be used. chapter vi binding before purchase and reinforcing one way of economizing in libraries is to buy books that have been bound in strong binding before they come to the library. it is not, however, a universal panacea which will reduce binding bills to a minimum. on the contrary, if not used with caution, this plan will result in the expenditure of large sums of money for which the library will never receive a return in actual wear of the books. library binders who adopt this scheme buy books in the sheets from the publishers, put them into a strong binding and sell them directly to the library. mr. cedric chivers of bath, england, was the first to adopt this plan. later he started a bindery in this country, and since then other binders have followed his practice. for the librarian there are several advantages in this method of buying books. . books can be bound according to the library's special needs before they have received any wear, while the paper is fresh and clean. books printed on very thick, spongy paper must be sewed very strongly and receive special reinforcements that are not necessary on paper which is more suitable for binding. if a good library binder buys the sheets from the publishers, he can test the paper to see what kind of treatment it should receive, and he can then bind it suitably for library wear. if the book is used in the original publishers' binding it deteriorates much more rapidly than when properly bound at the beginning. . the book can remain in circulation at the time when it is most needed. formerly one of the greatest trials in public libraries was the necessity of withdrawing from the shelves practically all the copies of a popular novel in order to send them to the bindery where they remained from four to six weeks, the public meanwhile hurling anathemas at the librarian for not providing sufficient copies of the book. not only were the books out of circulation when most needed, but much time was used in preparing them for the bindery, checking them up on return, putting on the library marks of ownership, making cards, marking pockets, etc., all of which added to the expense. today, in the case of new novels which are sure to be popular, such troubles are unnecessary. instead of buying the original publishers' binding, the wise librarian buys a sufficient number of copies bound from the sheets; if the binding is properly done, he need pay no more attention to them until they are worn out. he has done what he could to prevent the public from becoming dissatisfied, and he has saved the cost of the work required to send them to the bindery. . not only has he served his public better and saved the time of assistants, but in most cases he has actually saved money on his binding bills. let us suppose that he pays $ . for a book bound from the sheets; and suppose that he also buys a copy of the same book in the publisher's cover at a cost of $ . , which, after it has been issued twenty times, has to be bound at a cost of cents, making a total cost of $ . . if they are issued the same number of times there is a clear saving of cents in favor of the book bound from the sheets. as a matter of fact, however, statistics kept by the wilmington institute free library indicate that the first book will be issued times before it is discarded, and the second times--twenty before binding and eighty afterward. if this be true, it is clear that there is a further saving, provided that both have to be replaced when finally worn out. while these advantages are well worth considering, the librarian should not necessarily get all his books in this form. it is a plan which is peculiarly advantageous in the case of fiction and those few other books which are in constant use. in the case of juvenile books one must be cautious. juvenile books, particularly books for boys, become soiled so much more quickly than the adult books that they frequently have to be discarded because they are dirty rather than because they are worn out. if the books were bound before purchase the library may have lost money, because one can frequently buy a publisher's book and rebind it more cheaply than he can purchase the book bound from the sheets. most books in the classes should be purchased in the regular publisher's binding unless they are constantly used. in other words, the use a book is to receive is the test of whether it should be bound from the sheets before purchase. having decided that the use of a book warrants binding from the sheets, it is well to consider other facts. . it may not always be wise to bind from the sheets all the copies of a new book by a well-known author whose works are always popular and likely to continue so for years. if ten copies are approximately sufficient for use during the first year, it is safe to say that in most cases they will be too many for the needs of the library during the second and third years. if they are bound in leather before purchase they will not wear out and during the third and succeeding years a number of them may be deadwood on the shelves. it is therefore wiser to buy a few copies in leather binding and the others either in a regular publishers' binding, or in some publisher's cover reinforced. when these volumes have come to the point where they need binding the period of greatest popularity may have passed and they may be withdrawn, thus saving the library the expense of binding. . when the book is finally worn out and must be withdrawn from circulation, the question always arises, must it be replaced with a new copy? the majority of fiction and juvenile books so replaced are books of wide popularity. occasionally a book, such as henry james' "princess casamassima," or w. d. howells' "modern instance," is replaced because the library must have it on the shelves, not because it is popular. but ordinarily the popularity of a book is the determining factor in replacing worn-out copies. the decision to replace carries with it the decision to keep a book on the shelves indefinitely. since the book has proved its worth and is to receive hard wear, the reasons which prevailed against buying it in a strong binding when it was new no longer exist. the strongest binding that can be obtained suited to the strength of the paper is none too strong. perhaps the most vehement objection to books bound from the sheets comes from those librarians who have a strong sense of aesthetic values and who claim that these books are not so attractive to the eyes as the regular books in their bright and gay publishers' covers. the objection is valid. it must be admitted that the leather-covered books have the appearance of strength and serviceability, but not of beauty. if a reader knows that he wishes a particular book, he will not be prevented from taking it because of its appearance, but if it is bound in leather and he knows nothing about it, he will very likely pass it over and select some book which has a bright, attractive cover. this is true even of adults, while of children it is doubly true. a large part of the popularity of that well-known book, "fighting a fire," is due to the attractive cover which almost always excites the interest of boys who happen to see it. although the first cost of books bound from the sheets is always greater than that of books in the regular publishers' covers, it is hoped that the economy of buying them under certain conditions has been made clear. there is, however, a cheaper way of buying some books which one would otherwise obtain in this form. every year many copies of popular fiction and juvenile books find their way to the shelves of second-hand book dealers. some of these copies show signs of wear, while some of them are in excellent condition. in any event it is always wise to submit a list of replacements to some large dealer in second-hand books; to buy such books as may be obtained from him (generally at considerably less than one-half the published price); and to send them at once to a good library binder for rebinding before placing upon the shelves of the library. in this way one should get from per cent to - / per cent of fiction replacements in a substantial binding at a cost much less than the cost of a book in the original publishers' binding. reinforced books for those who wish strong bindings, but who wish them attractive also, reinforced bindings can be recommended. reinforced books are those which have been strengthened either by the publishers in the regular course of manufacture, or by some binder who takes the book as it comes from the publisher, removes the cover, strengthens the book and puts it back into the same cover. a reinforced book generally appears in the attractive publisher's cover, and it always appears in some form of cloth, never in leather. owing to the small number of times which books in the original publishers' binding were issued, the committee on binding of the american library association made an effort in to induce the publishers to issue a special edition for library use. as it was recognized that the publishers would not take kindly to elaborate specifications for stronger bindings, the improvements asked for were made as few in number as possible. they were the following: . sewed on three tapes (very small books sewed on two tapes). . first and last signatures reinforced with muslin. . cloth strip in joints pasted on fly leaf and sewed through. . thin strong muslin over backs. an attempt to demand hand-sewed books was abandoned when it was discovered that this stipulation added greatly to the cost of the binding without noticeably increasing its strength. the main strength of a book bound according to these specifications lay in the guarding of the first and last signatures. the honor of issuing the first reinforced book for library use belongs to charles scribner's sons co., who in the summer of bound copies of f. hopkinson smith's "tides of barnegat." their specifications, based on those submitted by the a. l. a. committee on binding, required that: . signatures contain not more than sixteen pages; . first and last signatures be guarded with muslin before sewing; . first and last signatures be oversewed (actually they were run through a sewing machine); . lining papers be guarded with strong drill and sewed through; . the book be sewed on two tapes; . highest grade super be used for back-lining; . books be glued to the back of the cover; making a tight back book; . buckram be used for the covers instead of the regular publisher's cover. the extra cost of the book was ten cents, and it was an excellent piece of work. in actual wear the books far exceeded the hopes of those who favored the plan, for they all went through the period of greatest popularity without being withdrawn from circulation. when they came to the point where they could no longer be circulated, most of them were discarded instead of being sent to the bindery. the initial success of the plan induced other publishers to try the experiment. in one hundred and twenty different books could be obtained in reinforced bindings from seventeen publishers. among these publishers were the firms of century company, harper, houghton, little brown & company, mcclurg, putnam, scribner's, stokes, and warne. some of these books were well-bound, the publishers evidently making a conscientious effort to meet the demands of the committee; others were makeshifts not worth one-half the extra cost. the success of "tides of barnegat" encouraged charles scribner's sons to give the experiment further trial, and from time to time during a period of several months this firm issued books bound in this way. in no case, however, was the initial success repeated. after the experiments had been tried by the different publishers for several months the obstacles to the plan, several of which had been foreseen, grew greater rather than less, and in the end the publishers gave up the plan of providing special editions of new fiction and juvenile books for library use. the main obstacle to the successful culmination of the plan lay in the inability of librarians to order books before publication, and in the inability of publishers to make special editions after the book had been published. the success of "tides of barnegat" was due largely to the fact that the author and book were well known in advance of publication. librarians knew at once that they wanted the book and the orders were filed promptly. in the case of nearly every other book which scribner published in this way librarians could not decide until they had actually seen the book, or at least had seen reviews of it. quite naturally they sent in few orders for the books. on the other hand scribner did not care to bind a large number of books in special binding unless they had some assurance that the books would be sold; and they could not at any time afford to manufacture a very small number. it seemed impossible to bridge this gap which existed between the publisher and the librarian. other reasons which worked against the success of the plan were: (_a_) the apathy of the library world in general. in spite of efforts made both by publishers and by those librarians specially interested; in spite of the proved success and economy of the best reinforced bindings, librarians in general paid little attention to them. (_b_) the opposition of booksellers. this opposition was not violent at any time; but a special edition for one class of buyers inevitably entailed more labor upon jobbers and booksellers with no financial return, since there was no discount on the c. extra cost. it followed that orders from librarians for the special library editions were filled by some jobbers with regular editions; and the time required to exchange the copy of a regular edition for one of a special edition was generally sufficient to prevent the librarian from returning the books. had it been possible to have one central bureau to bunch orders and to distribute them, greater success might have resulted. while the effort to induce publishers to issue special library editions and to keep them in stock was a failure, there were nevertheless good results from the venture. while most of the commercial bindings are no better to-day than they were ten years ago, yet the publishers know that something better is needed for library use. small books which are used by children and receive hard usage are as a rule much stronger bound than formerly, and will last as long as they are needed. as one direct result of the agitation, the well-known everyman's set can now be obtained in a library binding. certain large reference books, such as webster's and the century dictionaries, u. s. catalog, etc., have been put into the strongest possible binding. in these cases the publishers have tried to meet the demands of librarians. when the publishers ceased to make special editions for libraries several library binders undertook to supply books in this form. their method was to buy the books from the publishers, remove the covers, resew the books in the most approved library style and replace the books in the publisher's covers. when this cover wears out the sewing is so good that it is only necessary to recover either with a regular leather-back binder's cover, or with a home-made cloth cover. by this method the librarian is assured of a book in the same cover as the regular edition, the necessity of sending orders in advance of publication is obviated, and the publishers, jobbers and booksellers do not have to keep a stock of a special edition. in practice the plan works well. librarians for years have been annoyed because certain books, such as the brownie books, have given such poor service no matter how they were bound. in the original boards they went to pieces very quickly and the paper was of such a character that they were hard to rebind. the strong leather bindings bound from the sheets were too strong because the paper wore out long before the binding. in books of this character, through the initiative of mr. h. r. huntting in springfield, massachusetts, were sewed by the samson-back method, a strong machine sewing; they were then covered with cloth and the paper covers, so attractive to children, pasted on the outside. the cost of the books was much less than that of the leather-back binding and they were much more attractive. the samson-back method of reinforcement therefore practically solved the problem of binding large thin books with wide margins at the back, precisely the books that had given librarians the most trouble. chapter vii cost binding is a work of repair, not one of expansion, and consequently the amount spent for this purpose adds little to the resources of the library. the modern librarian does not begrudge money for salaries; heat, light and the general up-keep are items that cannot be reduced materially in most libraries. but money spent on binding reduces the funds available for new books. therefore, a study of the many ways in which binding bills can be made smaller is well worth while. two elements, material and labor, enter into the cost of binding, labor of course forming the larger part. since the cost of labor varies in different parts of the united states, it is impossible to give figures of cost applicable to all places. furthermore, as the cost of both material and labor is increasing constantly any statement made at the present time might be wrong a year from now. so far as figures of cost are concerned, it therefore seems best to discuss maximum and minimum figures. on this basis it is fair to assume that it will not be necessary at any time in the near future to pay more than fifty cents a book for fiction and juvenile books eight inches or less in height, bound in cowhide, government cloth, or the more expensive imperial morocco cloth. for this amount the librarian should get the best binding obtainable. as high a price as this is actually charged by a few binders only, some of whom are justified in so doing because they give full value for the money, or because the cost of their labor is high. if less than thirty-five cents is paid for fiction and juvenile books eight inches high, it is probable that the binding is not serviceable and therefore not economical; but in rare cases bindings costing thirty cents a volume will give excellent service. when low prices are charged the librarian should be sure that, taking the ratio of cost to circulation into consideration, he is getting full value. in general, it may be said that he who gets fiction and juvenile books well bound for less than forty cents a volume is to be congratulated. naturally, this statement does not apply to the large libraries which bind a large number of books every month, and can therefore obtain better rates than the smaller libraries. for books bound in cowhide or cloth, the cost increases at the rate of from fifteen to twenty cents a volume for every two inches in height. the price of the smallest volumes bound in morocco is considerably greater than of those bound in other materials, and the increase according to size is also somewhat greater. one dollar is the highest price paid within the knowledge of the writer for an eight-inch morocco book, and sixty cents the lowest price. the difference in the value of the work about corresponds to the difference in price. periodicals bound in government cloth, or duck, may cost from fifty-five cents to eighty cents a volume ten inches or less in height, increasing fifteen cents to twenty cents a volume for every two inches in height. newspapers well bound should not cost less than $ . a volume, nor over $ . . more variations will be found in the prices for newspapers than in any other kind of binding. most binders are paid a certain amount for books eight inches high or less, the prices differing according to the material used. the price in a few cases increases with each inch or fraction thereof in height to ten inches; in most cases the increase is for each two inches or fraction. for example, a book which measures eight and one quarter inches in height is charged for at the ten inch rate. one which measures ten and one quarter inches at the twelve inch rate. sometimes an extra charge for books which are much thicker than usual is justified. the following schedule covers practically all the different sizes and materials which the librarian must take into consideration. the prices given are those actually charged by a good library binder. rebinding adult and juvenile and miscellaneous books not exceeding inches in thickness in. in. in. in. half pigskin or cowhide full cloth (library buckram) full imperial morocco cloth extra sizes in. in. per inch half pigskin or cowhide . . cents full cloth (library buckram) . . cents full imperial morocco cloth . . cents books over inches thick charged at rate of size above. magazines, periodicals, sheet and folio music not exceeding inches in thickness in. in. in. in. full cloth (lib. buck.) or full duck full imperial morocco cloth half cowhide . half pigskin (english) . half pigskin (american) . half morocco . . half duck (waterproof sides) extra sizes in. in. per inch full cloth lib. buck. or full duck . . cents full imperial morocco cloth . . cents half cowhide . . cents half pigskin (english) . . cents half pigskin (american) . . cents half morocco . . cents half duck (waterproof sides) . . cents above prices include all lettering on books. books over inches thick charged at rate of size larger. newspapers not over inches, in half library buckram or half duck $ . , or in full duck, $ . . special prices for dictionaries, cyclopedias and other sizes not in above schedules. suggestions for reducing cost following is a statement of plans for cutting down the cost of binding, a few of them being obviously makeshifts for the benefit of poor or very small libraries. books bound before purchase under this head will be found (in chapter ) a full statement of reasons for buying books bound from the sheets. reprints bound before purchase the cheap reprints of popular novels which cost less than one-half as much as the original edition, although attractive in appearance, are very poorly bound and if bought in original covers must be rebound within a short time after they are first placed on the shelves. some librarians find that it pays to send orders for books which can be obtained in cheap reprints directly to their binders, who buy the books and rebind them in the regular half-leather binding which the library uses for its rebound fiction and juvenile. he bills the books to the library at the cost of the volume plus the cost of binding, the total in any event being considerably less than one dollar. not over ninety cents should be paid and eighty-five cents is the general price for such books. in this way the library gets a book in a good, strong library binding for less than the cost of the original edition in publisher's cover. furthermore all labor involved in sending the book to the bindery and receiving it again--no inconsiderable item--is eliminated. second-hand books akin to the foregoing plan is the practice which some libraries have of sending lists of replacements to dealers in second-hand books and having all books obtained in this way rebound at once before putting them into circulation. moreover this arrangement eliminates the time and labor necessary to send a book to the bindery. binderies in large cities can undertake to supply second-hand books, with advantages both to themselves and to the libraries employing them. the library is relieved from the necessity of searching for second-hand volumes, while the binder can well afford to do this service for a stated price per volume which will be reasonable from the library point of view, but which will allow the binder profit on all books which he can find at very cheap prices. when such a plan is adopted the binder should understand that the library wants neither the cheap books printed on wretched paper and having very small print, nor the very fine editions with colored illustrations. reinforcements a reinforced book is one which has been removed from the original publisher's cover, strengthened in various ways and put back into the same cover. (see chapter on this subject, page .) in its best form it means the complete resewing of the book with an overcast stitch. it is advisable to buy such books frequently, since they preserve the attractive publisher's cover and since they can also be recovered by the library itself without resewing. statistics kept by the wilmington institute free library show that such books when properly recovered give as good relative service as those which have been bound before purchase. the main advantage lies in the elimination of the time necessary to send them to the bindery and the greater length of service which they give at the height of their popularity. recovering at the library many books which come to the binding department require rebinding in order to put them into the best condition, but the books will be used so little that rebinding would not pay. in the numerous cases in which the sewing is in good condition it will be possible to recover them at the library and letter them by hand. in cases where the sewing is poor it will be possible to resew and recover. such books are neither so strong nor so attractive as books which have been wholly rebound, but they can be recovered at an expenditure of less than fifteen cents a volume, as against forty to fifty cents a volume for binding, and are in sufficiently good condition to wear a long time, perhaps as long as the library needs them. (for description of the process of recovering see page .) discarding valueless books in the preceding case it has been taken for granted that the books in question add something to the resources of the library and that they must be kept. books that have outlived their usefulness because they have been superseded by later editions, or by other books more authoritative, in all except the largest libraries should be discarded. (for arguments in favor of this see chapter , p. .) leather vs. cloth notwithstanding that he is repeating himself, the writer wishes to emphasize one point. it may almost be made a general rule, though like other rules, it will not work well at all times. never bind a seldom used book in leather, or a much used one in cloth. cheap editions money may be saved by replacing books which need rebinding with good editions cheaper than the cost of binding. (see (_f_), page .) proper care the life of the book in the library may be prolonged in several ways. . in opening the leaves of uncut books at the top the paper knife should be carried to the back of the book, using a dull knife that is thin, long and tapering. . many books should be carefully opened before being placed on the shelves. this is done by resting the book on its back and dropping the covers on the table. taking a few leaves at a time first at the front and then at the back, press them down carefully until the middle of the book is reached. if this be done there is little chance that the back of the book will be broken if the book is suddenly opened. . books should not be pressed tightly together on the shelves. . they should not be piled on other books resting on their fore-edge. . they should not be pulled from the shelves by the head bands. . they should be dusted frequently. . they should be kept upright on the shelves instead of half-fallen over. . in every way they should be handled as if they were books, not bricks. chapter viii preparing for the bindery to decide properly what books should be rebound and how they should be rebound is not a simple matter nor one which should be left to an inexperienced or uneducated assistant. in addition to a good working knowledge of materials and processes the assistant in charge of this work should have a general knowledge of books--paper, editions, prices, literary value, timeliness, etc.--and good judgment in deciding whether a book should be bound or whether it should be mended, recased, wrapped in paper, recovered, or thrown away. the binding, therefore, should be in the hands of an assistant who understands the demands of this department of library service, and for economy's sake as well as for the sake of efficiency it should not be shifted from one person to another. mr. dana has shown in his "notes on bookbinding for libraries" how essential it is that binding assistants should know books. credit for much of what here appears in support of that viewpoint is due him and is herewith acknowledged. in considering the binding of fiction and juvenile books the following are some of the questions which the binding assistant must ask and decide before determining whether a book is to go to the shelves in a new dress, or to the junk-man as waste paper: (_a_) is the book in such poor condition that it cannot be rebound or recased? if so, it must be discarded. while this decision is generally easy to make, it is sometimes made difficult by books which are in too good condition to throw away and in too poor condition to rebind. in such cases the decision must depend on the popularity of the book. if very popular, it may be wise to rebind it, for it must be remembered that good library binders can accomplish wonders with books that are in poor condition. sometimes the question arises whether the book is in poor enough condition to need rebinding. perhaps it will survive a few more issues just as it stands. if the book is a trifle shaky in its covers, the decision should be to rebind. the binder can do a better job at this time than he can when the book becomes more worn, and the life of the book will be prolonged by prompt binding. if the assistant decides not to rebind it, the book will be issued only a few more times before it will have to be withdrawn from circulation and sent to the repair room again. the result is a greater loss of time with no actual gain in wear. (_b_) is the book much read? if it is an old one that is evidently popular, it is reasonable to suppose that it is the policy of the library to supply the demand for this book, and the book will be rebound as a matter of course. a decision about new books which are popular is harder to make because it is fair to ask: (_c_) is the demand falling off? it is here that the assistant must show good judgment. it may be that the book can be rebound easily with profit, if there is a sufficient demand to keep all the copies in circulation. it may be that the book is waning in popularity and that other copies in the library are ample to supply present demands. if they are, the copy in hand should be canceled, since the cost of binding will then be saved. but the assistant should ascertain the condition of the remaining copies. let us take the case of a novel which has been withdrawn from circulation because it needs rebinding. the assistant looks at the record of circulation on the book card or pocket and discovers that last year the book was issued four times a month, while now it is issued only twice a month. he finds also that there are four other copies. these four copies should be sufficient to meet present demands, and the book in hand may be withdrawn. but suppose that further investigation shows that two of the four copies are in very poor condition and cannot be rebound. if he withdraws the one in hand, only two good copies will remain, and perhaps these are not sufficient to supply the demand. on the other hand, it is possible that they are sufficient to supply the demand. in any event, the situation is one which requires a knowledge of the book itself, its popularity with the public, and general good judgment. the question may be summed up in this way: . it is cheaper to rebind a book than it is to discard it and later be obliged to buy a new copy. . it is cheaper to discard a book when it seems assured that the book's popularity is over, than to bind it and have it remain for years unused. (_d_) if the book is much used, is it a book that the library wishes to circulate? every library has certain books on its shelves of which those in authority somewhat disapprove, but which are very popular and not poor enough to be done away with altogether. it is sometimes the policy to supply only partially the demand for such books; sometimes to discard them entirely when worn out. the good binding assistant will remember the titles of these books and use good judgment in dealing with them when they come into his hands. (_e_) if the book is not much read, is it a standard work? for example, in the case of a work of anthony trollope the assistant discovers that it was issued only once during the last year and that it is the only copy in the library. if he does not "know books," he will be led to believe that the book has no value and will cancel it. in a large library an action of this sort would be unwise; in a small library the decision would depend upon the particular title. most libraries keep a book of this particular class in order to supply the occasional demand for it. there are many books not written by men with the reputation of anthony trollope which, nevertheless, have intrinsic worth and have a small circle of admirers. they may not have great merit, but on no account should the library be without them. as examples of books of this kind we may take mrs. brush's "colonel's opera cloak" and theodore winthrop's "john brent." (_f_) can the book be replaced with a good reprint which will wear as long as a new binding and cost less? while there are not many cases in which this can be done, the assistant should watch for them. the most noteworthy reprints which will meet these requirements are the volumes in everyman's library. in the original everyman's edition these were entirely unsuited for library use, but in they were all put into a strong library binding. in the cloth edition they sell for thirty-five cents a volume and can easily be issued from forty to fifty times before being discarded. this makes the cost for each issue as small as can be obtained by binding higher-priced editions. the following case, which actually happened, illustrates the point, although the books are not fiction. grote's "history of greece," in twelve volumes, was in bad condition; several of the cloth backs were torn and the sewing of all the volumes was loose. it was decided to send the books to be rebound at a cost of $ . . before doing so, the list of everyman's library was consulted and it was found that the work could be obtained in that form in twelve volumes at a cost of $ . , a clear saving of $ . , or over per cent. the work was seldom used, yet it was necessary to have the set on the shelves; the everyman's edition answered every purpose, and will undoubtedly last as long as the rebound set would have done. unfortunately, owing to copyright provisions, comparatively few of the books which are constantly wearing out can be obtained in this edition. (_g_) is it an old edition, with poor paper and poor type? a book of this sort should never be rebound but should be discarded and a new copy purchased even if the cost of a new copy be much greater than that of rebinding. (_h_) if the book is the only copy in the library and is read not oftener than once in ten years, should it be kept because it is important historically? good examples of this class of unused books are the works of charles brockden brown. they are not interesting at the present time, but when first published were much read. every student of american literature should read them, and they should be on the shelves of all except the small libraries. here again good judgment is called for on the part of the assistant. (_i_) is the book used so seldom that it can be recased or recovered by the library? the process of recasing (described on page ) can be used in the case of small-sized books which have covers showing little evidence of wear, and which do not receive hard usage. the process of recovering (described on page ) can be used on leather-bound books which have cracked at the joints. in either case the sewing must be perfectly sound. (_j_) finally, let us suppose that we have asked all the foregoing questions and are still undecided what to do. there will be very few cases of the kind. perhaps the best solution is to wrap the book in paper, letter it with author, title and call number, and transfer it from the fiction shelves to the regular literature shelves. it may stay there for years unused and yet be at hand when finally called for. with books other than fiction and juvenile many of the same questions must be asked. in addition, however, it is sometimes necessary to ask the following: (_a_) are there later editions which are more valuable? this question will arise with frequency especially in the case of scientific, technical and reference books, and careful judgment must be exercised in making decisions. it often happens that a later edition of a technical book has little more value than the one which precedes it; frequently it entirely supersedes the earlier edition. in the one case the book can be rebound with profit, in the other it is best to discard it and buy the latest edition. some libraries keep all the editions of a book for historical purposes; but most libraries, especially the smaller ones, will do better to discard older editions when they are superseded by later ones. sometimes a book has no later edition, but its place has been entirely taken by the work of other authors. in such cases it should be remembered that an out-of-date technical book in the hands of an inexperienced person frequently causes more harm than good. it may cost more to buy a new book than to rebind an old one; yet this is exactly what should be done in every such case if the funds of the library permit. (_b_) may not the library be better off without either the book or a substitute? in the past librarians have hesitated to discard any book which has once been placed on the shelves. they have believed that all printed matter has value and that a book which belongs to the library is sacred and must on no account be destroyed. it is difficult to defend such an attitude. if we admit for the time being that the librarian never makes mistakes in acquiring books, still it is sure to happen that many books will outlive their usefulness, except as a part of the history or bibliography of the subject. why should they be kept on the shelves when they are not used and ought not to be used? it cannot, of course, be admitted that the librarian makes no mistakes in acquiring books; every library in the country will show examples of poor selection. why, after a mistake has been made, refuse to admit it? if the original purchase (or acceptance of a gift) was a mistake, to keep the book on the shelves simply perpetuates the mistake and adds to the expense of maintenance. it is no crime to discard a book. on the contrary, in many cases, it is the only sensible thing to do. in doubtful cases, however, the book should be kept. arrangement if the final decision is to bind the book the next step is to arrange the book in the way in which it should be bound. the question of collation is one on which there has been a difference of opinion. some librarians have claimed that it is best to collate books at the library in order to prevent imperfect books being bound, since it is always disappointing to discover, after a book has been bound, that it is incomplete. in the great majority of cases, however, collation is a waste of time, since good binders refuse to bind imperfect volumes. in the case of very valuable books, especially those with many plates, and even in the case of less valuable books which have many illustrations not paged-in, it may be best to collate at the library since it is obviously unfair to the binder to expect him to be responsible for anything except the main paging. fiction or juvenile books may sometimes be bound when one or two pages are missing. juvenile books, especially, often go to the bindery with missing pages. many times these missing pages are not especially important and in these cases it seems more economical to bind the book than to buy a new copy. if the number of missing pages is not too great they may be typewritten from other copies. books other than fiction or juvenile should seldom be bound in an imperfect condition. another exception to the rule of sending books uncollated is in the case of popular periodicals, such as scribner's, harper's, century, etc., where the library has only one copy which it binds. since periodicals frequently become torn and mutilated and must be replaced it will save delay in having the volumes bound, if the collation is done at the library. but while collation is generally unnecessary, arrangement in proper order is essential. in dealing with periodicals this is not always an easy task. they should first be examined to see that all the numbers are in hand, and that there is a title-page and an index. it would seem as if there were little chance to go astray in doing this, yet the vagaries of periodicals are innumerable and nothing must be taken for granted. if only five monthly numbers are found when there should be six to complete the volume, it is not best to conclude hastily that it is incomplete. sometimes the cover indicates that two numbers are published in one. if it is not so indicated one must look at the paging. if the paging is consecutive, and there is a title-page and index, it is safe to assume that the volume is complete, even if a number is apparently missing. the general rule for arranging periodicals is: place title page at the beginning, followed by table of contents, text, and index at the end. periodicals in english are generally easy to arrange, though even in this case one must know whether the periodical in hand is in the habit of publishing supplements which are paged separately, but which are called for by the table of contents. if such supplements are omitted the volume is incomplete. an example of a periodical of this class was the annals of the american academy of political and social science, before it changed to its method of issuing each number as a separate volume. many volumes of english periodicals such as all the year round, household words, etc., have been bound without the christmas supplements, which those periodicals always issued. a few periodicals in english have two or more sets of pagings either in each number, or in some of the numbers and not in others. when the numbers are taken apart and the proper pagings grouped together, the table of contents will generally indicate how these should be arranged. but if not, it is usually readily apparent which is the main paging and which the minor paging or pagings. though rarely found in periodicals printed in english, this exasperating condition of affairs frequently exists in foreign periodicals. the germans are especially fond of printing several different parts in the same number. frequently a long monograph will begin in the first number of a volume and extend through two or more volumes. when completed it may or may not have a special title-page and index of its own. perhaps the table of contents of the last volume in which part of it has appeared will call for it as a supplement to that volume. perhaps it does not. in any event the paging must be removed from the first and succeeding volumes until the monograph is finally complete. if it is not called for by any regular title-page or table of contents, it may be bound separately. sometimes a periodical will appear in two or more parts each month, each part covering some phase of the larger subject indicated by the general title of the periodical. these parts will be paged separately and numbered differently but will have the same kind of cover, and care must be used to keep the proper parts together. peculiarities and irregularities of this sort make periodicals veritable puzzles, some of which it may take months to solve. in arranging periodicals, front covers having a different color from the text must be kept to facilitate use. advertisements as a rule should not be bound. since they are a part of the history of the times, it is desirable for a few of the largest libraries to bind the advertising pages of one or two numbers a year in each periodical. other libraries should throw them away. it is not necessary to remove them entirely before sending the volumes to the bindery; tearing down two or three inches on pages which are to be discarded is sufficient indication to the binder that they are not to be bound. several magazines, such as mcclure's and everybody's, have, for several years, made a practice of leaving articles unfinished in the main paging and continuing them on advertising pages. this is an annoying practice since great care must be taken to see that all text matter is complete, even if it becomes necessary to bind all advertising pages. many periodicals, especially those of a scientific character, contain plates which are not paged-in. if these are scattered through the text they may be allowed to stay there, but if they are grouped together at the end of each number they should be placed together in proper order at the end of the complete volume. the vagaries of periodical publishers are shown as much in the way in which they issue (or do not issue) title-pages and indexes as in any other way. the proper way, which is seldom done, is to issue both title-page and index in the last number of each volume. some publishers issue them in the first number of the next volume; some at various times during the publication of the succeeding volume. some publish a title-page at the beginning of the first number of a volume and an index when the spirit moves. some publish a title-page but no index or table of contents. others publish a title-page and table of contents but do not send them unless requested to do so. many publish neither title-page nor index, and perfectly reputable periodicals which have published these essential parts of a periodical for twenty years or more will suddenly cease publishing them. it is evident that title-pages and indexes are nuisances in preparing periodicals for the bindery. the assistant in charge should keep a record showing (_a_) which publishers must be asked to send title-pages and indexes, and this should be done as soon as possible after the volumes are complete; (_b_) in which number of a periodical title-pages and indexes may be looked for if they come regularly; (_c_) which periodicals do not publish title-pages and indexes. if lack of funds makes it impossible to bind periodicals and they must be wrapped in paper it is highly important that title-pages and indexes be included, since it may be impossible to obtain them when funds permit binding. changes in the size of periodicals are a cause of annoyance. the annoyance is not great when the change is from a large quarto to an octavo, for the cost of binding an octavo is considerably less than that of a quarto. unfortunately, the present tendency is almost wholly the other way. many periodicals, for years published in a comfortable octavo size have been changed to a much larger size. this in itself is exasperating, but in addition the publishers apparently make no effort to change the size with the beginning of a new volume, so that part of a volume will be of one size and part of another. in such cases the troubles of the binding assistant may be readily imagined. while it is highly important to bind only complete volumes of periodicals, it is occasionally permissible to bind volumes with guards for missing numbers which may be inserted later if they are obtained. this method makes it possible to put a volume into permanent form better suited for use than unbound numbers, and prevents further loss of numbers already in hand. it can be done only when the numbers are very thin, particularly in the case of newspapers. quite a number of periodicals have so few pages in each number that a complete volume makes a very thin book. in such cases it is best to bind two volumes in one at the cost of one. among other material which passes through the hands of a binding assistant are the annual reports of various organizations--religious, charitable, fraternal, governmental, etc. in large libraries these must be bound for permanent preservation. in small libraries the annual reports of all local organizations should be bound if funds permit, others wrapped in paper and lettered on the wrapper. whether they are to be bound or wrapped in paper, they should be grouped by regular periods, preferably five or ten reports in a volume, according to size, following the decades or half decades. instructions to the binder having decided that the volume must be bound and having arranged it in its proper order, the next step is to indicate to the binder how it is to be bound and lettered. various methods have been used to indicate style and lettering. some libraries have an elaborate binding slip, giving on one side the different materials, colors, etc., and having the other divided into panels for lettering. a slip is made for each book and the binder follows it carefully. some libraries arrange an arbitrary system with the binder making one letter or figure indicate much that otherwise would have to be written in full. for example, "c" under such an arrangement might mean "bind in one-half red cowhide with green cloth sides." some librarians give a general blanket order to bind all fiction in one way and all juvenile books in another. for most books in english, except periodicals, lettering need not be indicated on a binding slip. all that is necessary is to underscore lightly on the title page the first letter of words which must be used. the call number may be put on a binding slip enclosed in the book, or in the case of fiction and juvenile books, it may be penciled lightly on the title page, thus doing away altogether with the binding slip. if there is a chance for misunderstanding on the part of the finisher, or if an author's real name must be used instead of a pseudonym which appears on the title page, a binding slip must be filled out giving exact lettering. while exact lettering on a binding slip is not essential for ordinary books, it is necessary for periodicals, each set of which should be bound and lettered uniformly. this may be assured by making out a binding slip giving in full the title, dates covered, volume number and call number, if one is used. the slip goes to the bindery with the book, and when the volume is returned is filed so that when the next volume is to be bound the slip can be consulted and a new one written with the necessary changes in volume number and dates. the chief value of the slip is to show exactly how the previous volume has been bound, so that the following volumes can be made uniform if possible. a carbon copy of binding slips for periodicals should be made, to be kept at the library for charging purposes. when binding volumes which are a part of a set, other than a periodical, a slip must be made to be kept on file so that when another volume of the set comes to hand it will not be necessary to visit the shelves to see whether other volumes have been bound and how they have been bound. in finishing periodicals the position of lettering and the size of type used may be kept uniform if the binder takes what is called a "rub" or "rub-off" of the book after it is lettered and keeps it on file at the bindery. this can easily be made by laying a sheet of thin, but tough, paper over the back and rubbing it with shoemaker's heel-ball which will show white lettering on a black background. when the next volume comes to the bindery the "rub-off" shows exact height of boards, exact position of lettering and size of type. a few libraries have had a dummy back made for each periodical showing color and kind of material in addition to other details. but the cost of a dummy is not slight and a new one must be made whenever any change in title or size occurs. large college or reference libraries may need dummy backs for their numerous sets of foreign periodicals having various marks, such as umlauts, etc., over or under letters. when a library operates its own bindery it is possible to send the last bound volume as a sample. while this adds much to the routine, its main advantage is that it eliminates the possibility of mistakes due to defective dummy or indistinct "rub-off." lettering it is necessary that binders understand exactly how books are to be lettered, what kind of type to use and the position on the back of the book which each item of information must have. there are differences of opinion as to the best ways of lettering, but it is essential that every librarian have uniformity in his own library, even if he disagrees with his fellow workers. in all lettering a bold, clear type should be used, and all figures should be in arabic, since it is plainer than roman. in most leather bindings the back is divided into five or six panels, making it possible to obtain uniformity by setting aside each panel for a definite purpose. if desired, another narrow panel may be made in which to stamp a mark of ownership. paneling is a useful device in the case of books which are eight inches or more in height, but in the case of juvenile books and fiction it may be omitted entirely. as most of these books require simply author, title and call number, if one be used, the device of paneling adds to the labor in binding and serves no useful purpose in the library. it should be used on most other books bound in leather and on all periodicals bound in cloth or duck. which shall go at the top of the book, author or title? in favor of the title it can be claimed that all publishers letter the title first with the author second; and since in non-fiction the books in publishers' covers on the shelves will outnumber the rebound books, it is advisable to put the title first in order to have uniformity. on the other hand, it can be claimed that the arrangement under the class is by author, that most library assistants look for the author rather than the title, and that it is therefore advisable to put the most important item of information at the top in the position of greatest prominence. in the opinion of the writer this advantage outweighs any other. it may be assumed, therefore, that the best arrangement is author, title, volume number if necessary, and call number. in the case of fiction, juvenile books and all other books from which it seems desirable to omit panels, these items will be put on with sufficient space between to make them independent of each other. the bottom of the call number should be - / or - / inches from the tail of the book on all books in the library, except oversized books, which should have the call number at the top (fig. ). if panels are used, the author's name should be near the bottom of the first panel, the title in the second, volume number in the fourth and call number in the fifth (fig. ). if two books are bound together, letter, author and title of the second book in the third panel (fig. ). when a work is in more than one volume with separate titles for each volume, place the author's name in the first panel, general title in the second, volume in the third and the title of the particular volume in the fourth (fig. ). if six panels are used, each item is dropped one panel. in most cases the author's last name is sufficient, but occasionally it may be necessary to use initials to distinguish between authors having the same name. use both surnames of joint authors (fig. ). for pseudonyms use the form adopted by the cataloging department. for example, if the catalog entry is under clemens instead of twain, letter clemens on the book. both real name and pseudonym may be put on the back, but it does not seem necessary. in the case of the classics add the name of translator or editor in the panel under the title (fig. ). +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ | | | . | | | | | | beecher | | qj | | patton | | bancroft | | | | james | | | | | +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ | | | | | home | | | | sermons | | italian | | and school | | works | | | | hours | | sewing | | | +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ | | | | | rarer | | | | | | | | hot weather| | | | | | | | dishes | | | +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | oregon | | | | | | | | | +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | . | | b | | | | r | | b | +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ | | | | | | | | +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ fig. fig. fig. fig. +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ | kipling | | | | national | | | | balestier | | plato | | conference | | | | | | | | on city | | | | | | | | planning | | | +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ | | | | | | | nineteenth | | naulahka | | dialogues | |proceedings | | century | | | | | | | | | +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | jowett | | | | | | | | | | | | | +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | chicago | | | | | | | | | | | +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ | | | | | | | jan.-june | | | | | | | | | | k | | p | | n | | | +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ | | | | | | | | +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ fig. fig. fig. fig. +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ | | | | | | | | | nature | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |------------| |------------| |------------| |------------| | | | national | | littel's | | | | | | municipal | | living | |independent | | | | review | | age | | | |------------| |------------| |------------| |------------| | nov. | | | | | | | | apr. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |------------| |------------| |------------| |------------| | apr.-june | | | | | | july-sep. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | part | |------------| |------------| |------------| |------------| | | | | | | | | | | | | | series | | | | | | | | | | | |------------| |------------| |------------| |------------| | | | | | | | | +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ +------------+ fig. fig. fig. fig. +------------+ +------+ +------------+ +------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |griggs| | | | | |------------| | | |------------| |------------| | | | use | | harper's | | | | punch | | of | | magazine | | monist | | | | the | | | | | |------------| |margin| |------------| |------------| | | | | | | | | | | | -g | | | | | | | | | | | | | |------------| | | |------------| |------------| | | | | | | | | | | | | | index | | | | - | | | | - | | | |------------| | | |------------| |------------| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | index | | | | | | | | - | |------------| | | |------------| |------------| | | | | | | | | +------------+ +------+ +------------+ +------------+ fig. fig. fig. fig. when the names of foreign cities or countries must be placed in the author panel, use the english form. names of government departments, bureaus, etc., should be inverted if necessary to bring the distinctive word first. for example, use health bureau, not bureau of health. in lettering titles it is seldom desirable to omit the first part of the title in order to use words which are more distinctive, in other words, to use a binder's title. if it is necessary it should be done with care and discrimination. ordinarily, give first words, omitting articles. very long titles must be condensed, sometimes at the expense of clearness. proceedings of organizations which meet in different cities should have the name of the place of the meeting lettered in the third panel (fig. ). on periodicals, the author panel is left vacant and the title of the periodical given in full in the second panel. here it is never permissible to omit first words, except articles. letter "american review of reviews," not "review of reviews." in case of foreign periodicals it may be necessary to place a sub-title in the third panel when a periodical is issued in two or more parts and each part bound separately with a distinct title page. with this exception, leave the third panel vacant and letter date and volume number in the fourth panel. place first the months covered by the volume, followed by the year (figs. and .) use the first three letters of each month, except june and july, which should be given in full. on foreign periodicals use the english abbreviations for months. if the volume covers the calendar year the months may be omitted (fig. ). in the same panel place the volume number beneath the year. if the periodical has more than one series give dates and total volume number, placing underneath the series number and volume of series (fig ). if the unbound volume of a periodical is too large to be bound in one book, bind it in two volumes and letter the exact months in each part, placing "part " and "part " underneath the volume number (fig. ). if two volumes are bound in one give the inclusive volume numbers (fig. ). in the case of periodicals having more than one series and which are indexed in poole's index or the readers' guide, the volume number given first should correspond with the one given in the indexes. thin volumes must be lettered lengthwise in the same order as outlined above. always letter from head to tail. this facilitates reading on the shelves, since shelves are naturally read from left to right. in lettering lengthwise place the book number below the class number, if there is room, if not, after the class number with a hyphen between (fig. ). oversized books which must be shelved on their sides should also be lettered from head to tail. if the book is an index complete in itself letter the word "index" in the fourth panel, followed by the inclusive volume numbers covered by the index (fig. ). if a periodical index covering several volumes is included at the end of one of the volumes, place the word index and the inclusive volume numbers underneath the dates and regular volume number (fig. ). other questions are sure to arise, but they can be solved satisfactorily if it be remembered that the essentials are definiteness and clearness. chapter ix binding records and routine binding records must be as simple as possible, but they should . instruct the binder. . show what books are in the bindery and when they were sent. . show how previous volumes of a set have been bound. . act as a check on books when returned. . show the cost of binding. some librarians keep a record of all books bound, called a "binding book." to the writer the need of a permanent register of books bound is not apparent. it is much easier to keep in other ways a record of books actually in the bindery and after the books have been bound and returned to the library the value of having the fact recorded in any other place than on the accession book is negligible. in the case of popular books easily replaced we may even question the necessity of recording in the accession book the fact that a book has been bound. any other permanent record seems useless. . when books are sent to the bindery the binder must be told: _a._ in what material each book is to be bound. _b._ how each book is to be lettered. the best way to indicate lettering, etc., has been shown in the chapter "preparing for the bindery." the designation of material and color can frequently be done by giving a blanket order if the books are of the same character. for example, if all the books are fiction it is perfectly feasible to send a written order, stating that they are all to be bound in half brown cowhide with red cloth sides, french joints, etc. if the shipment is a miscellaneous one of periodicals, reference books, fiction and juvenile books it may be necessary to state on the binding slips how each book is to be bound. . for public libraries the question of keeping a record of books that are in the bindery is a simple one. the use of book cards for charging purposes is practically universal. all that is necessary is to remove the book card from the book, stamp the name or first initial of the binder's name and the date after the last charging date (z ap ), and file the cards just as they are filed at the loan desk. if a book cannot be found on the shelves or in circulation, it takes but a few seconds to discover whether or not it is in the bindery. when the book is returned the card is replaced in the book. this is the easiest way of keeping this record and shows at once how many times a book circulated in the publisher's covers before it needed to be bound. for books which have no book cards, such as reference books and periodicals, it will be necessary to write a slip which can be filed as a record with the book cards. if a binding slip must be sent to the bindery, by using carbon paper both slips can be made at the same time. the binder should be notified if books have not been returned; if unable to find them he must pay for them. it is possible that some may think this method of keeping records unduly lax; that without a permanent record in book form many errors will creep in and that books will be lost. the answer to such a criticism is that in the wilmington institute free library it has worked for a period of ten years. during that time more than , volumes have been bound by five different binders, and the writer does not recall that a single volume has gone astray or that there have been any errors which would have been avoided if a record had been kept which required a careful invoicing of each volume sent to the bindery. when the books are shipped a statement is sent to the binder that so many volumes are in the shipment and it is his business to keep the books in this shipment together and return all at the same time. it is his responsibility, not that of the librarian. . records showing how previous volumes of a set are bound should be kept as outlined under "preparing for the bindery," page . the binding slip for the last volume of the periodical will show how it is bound. as an alternative to the carbon slip for periodicals it may be possible to keep a record of volumes in the bindery on the periodical checklist, if that be kept on sheets. a similar record should be kept for all books with volume numbers. for example, if volume of smith's works comes to the binding assistant a binding slip should be made out which records the material and color in which the book is to be bound, together with exact lettering used. when returned from the bindery this slip should be filed and referred to when another volume of the same work needs to be bound. unless this is done it will be necessary to go to the shelves to see whether other volumes have been bound. if only one volume has been bound and that is in the hands of a reader it will be necessary to wait until it is returned, all of which means loss of time. no book with a volume number should be sent to the bindery without consulting the file of binding slips. if there is no record that a previous volume has been bound it may be advisable for the assistant to go to the shelves to see if there are other volumes of the same set which need binding. it is little more work to send five volumes than to send one. . from what has been said it can readily be seen what sort of a check is placed upon the binder. books sent to him are charged to him as if delivered to a borrower. if he does not return them he must pay for them. let the method be elaborate or simple, this is all that it amounts to. it behooves the librarian, therefore, to make his charging as simple as is compatible with safety. . records of cost may be kept in various ways, but the essential facts which it is best to record are: _a._ number of volumes rebound; _b._ number newly bound; _c._ number resewed or recased; _d._ number repaired at the library; _e._ total cost. if desired, the cost of each of the foregoing items may be kept. a large library will also need to keep a record of the binding for each branch, and possibly for each department in the main library. in most cases it is not necessary for the binder to send a bill itemized by author and title. it will be sufficient if he bill the books in some such way as this: vols. cowhide in. @ . $ . vols. buckram in. @ . . vols. imperial morocco cloth in. @ . . vols. morocco in. @ . . ------ $ . books may more easily be checked with such a bill than with an itemized one. the information may then be drawn off on a sheet, allowing a column for each material and size, monthly and yearly statistics being easily compiled from these sheets. if it is the policy of the library to send an itemized invoice of books to be bound the binder should return the invoice with prices for each volume added. in large libraries, such as the large college and reference libraries and public libraries with many branches, more elaborate binding records than those just outlined are necessary. college libraries, which do not as a rule have book cards, will find it necessary to make out a slip of one kind or another for charging purposes. in large library systems books should be sent directly from the branch to the binder and returned to the branch. a record should be sent to the head of the binding department at the main library, showing the number of volumes sent with the date, also the date when the books were returned to the branch. each branch should, of course, keep records in much the same way as a single small library, but the needs of statistics require further records at the main library. it is probable that each large library will have to work out forms suitable for its own needs, but the following are suggested as feasible. +--------------------------------------------+ | | | | volumes | | | | | | / mor. |------------------------------| | | | | lib. buck. | | | | | | cloth |------------------------------| | | | | / duck | | | | | | / pig |------------------------------| | | | | light brown | | | | | | dark brown |------------------------------| | | | | black | | | | | | dark blue |------------------------------| | | | | dark green | | | | | | red |==============================| | | | +--------------------------------------------+ binding slip. size x in. material and color are indicated on the left by underlining. author, title, volume number, etc., are written in proper panels. +-----------------------------------------------+ | blankton public library | | | | branch date | | | | following books are ready for binding: | | | | ...... vols. to be bound in / morocco. | | ...... vols. to be bound in library buckram. | | ...... vols. to be bound in / duck. | | ...... vols. as samples. | | ...... vols. to be repaired. | | ...... vols. for corrections. | | | | ............................ | | branch librarian. | +-----------------------------------------------+ size Ã� in. this slip is filled out by the branch librarian and sent to supervisor of binding, who decides who shall bind the books and sends the order to the binder. +-----------------------------------------------------+ | blankton public library | | | | order no. . ........... | | | | messrs. .......................... | | | | please send to ..................... branch | | for the following books: | | | | ...... vols. to be rebound. | | ...... vols. samples. | | ...... vols. to be repaired. | | ...... vols. for corrections. | | | | bind according to specifications, following | |instructions for style on binder's slip in each book.| | | | please return books with bill to the branch. | | | | ............................... | | supervisor. | +-----------------------------------------------------+ size Ã� in. when books are returned to the branch they are checked up with the bill. if there are no discrepancies the bill is sent to the binding supervisor. +---------------------------------------------+ | order no. . sent........... | | | | from ..................... branch | | | | to .................................. | | | | ...... vols. to be rebound. | | ...... vols. samples. | | ...... vols. to be repaired. | | ...... vols. for corrections. | | | | returned ........... amt. $........ | | | | blankton public library. | +---------------------------------------------+ size Ã� in. this slip, made out at the central library upon advice from branch librarian that books have been shipped, is filed numerically. when bill is received, the information is drawn off on a monthly sheet. a similar slip can be used to keep records for each branch separately. the weekly or monthly statistics sheets ought to give in vertical columns the number of volumes and cost of each kind of binding and repair work used by the library. they will include one-half cowhide, one-half morocco, library buckram, one-half duck, reinforcing, recasing, lettering, etc. the first column at the left will have the names of different departments and branches. the last column on the right will give the total expenditure for each department and branch, and the footings of columns will give the cost of each kind of work. if necessary this sheet can also indicate number of volumes rebound and the number of volumes newly bound. binding routine in preparing books for the bindery and keeping binding records a regular routine should be adopted which should be followed as closely as possible in order to avoid errors. each library should adopt a routine suited to its needs, modifying when necessary the following suggestions. binding routine for small library . examine book, noticing condition, completeness, title pages, indexes, etc., and decide how book is to be bound. . underline on title page the first letter of words which must be lettered on back. pencil call number on reverse of title page. . if volume is a periodical or a volume in a set make out binding slip giving volume number and dates. . file book cards at loan desk. . send books to bindery. . when books are returned check bill with books to see that no mistake has been made in charges. . replace book cards in books. . file slips for periodicals. binding routine for medium-sized library . examine books for binding noticing condition, completeness, plates, title pages, indexes, number and condition of copies, editions and various other points noted under "preparing for the bindery." . if the book is a periodical find title page and index. a special record ought to show when these are due and which periodicals do not publish them. arrange exactly as the book is to be bound. . if the book is a periodical consult file showing how previous volumes have been bound and make out a binding slip with carbon copy, making such changes as are required by changes in title, date and volume number. the binding slip should be laid in the front of the book. . if the book is one of a set see if other volumes have been bound. . for books, not periodicals, indicate lettering by underlining on the title page the first letter of each word that is to go on the back. . indicate color, material, volume number, call number, etc., on a binding slip which should be laid in front of the book. if the shipment is all fiction and no call number is used it will not be necessary to make out any slip of instruction. a blanket order may be made saying that all books are to be bound in a certain way. . when ready to send to the bindery, remove book card or carbon copy of binding slip. leave slips containing information for the binder in the book. . pack books and send to the binder, notifying him of the date of shipment and the number of volumes sent as follows: vols. to be rebound. vols. of periodicals. vols. to be recased. vols. of corrections. vols. of samples. --- (it sometimes happens that a volume of a set is going to a binder who did not bind the previous volumes. in such a case the second binder has no "rubbing" and a sample volume or a "rubbing" must be sent.) . stamp carbon slips, and book cards after the last charging date, with the name or initial of the binder and the date sent. . file book cards and carbon slips alphabetically by author, or first word of title in the case of periodicals. . when books are returned from the bindery see that bill is correct. . see that books are lettered correctly, returning such as are incorrect. . remove book cards from the file and place in the books. . letter book pockets or book plates with call number and accession number, if this is the custom of the library. . send periodicals and other books which have not been properly recorded to the order or accession department to follow regular routine for new books. books that have been rebound may go directly to the shelves. . file binding slips for periodicals and destroy slips for previous volumes. . if it is the custom of the library to enter cost of binding in the accession book it will be necessary to put the accession number and cost on the binding slip. these slips may then be arranged numerically by accession number and the cost entered in the accession book. routine for large college and reference libraries the routine just given is as simple as can be made without endangering the safety of books. it is not sufficiently accurate for the large libraries, especially the college libraries which bind a large number of periodicals belonging to many departments, each department being obliged to pay for its own binding. this requires complex records in the binding department. in order to eliminate as many mistakes as possible it will be necessary to have a binding card for each periodical and for sets. (see fig. ) this card has a line for the title, a place for the description of the binding, and is ruled on both sides. on the right-hand side it is ruled in three columns--price, sent, returned. the lettering may be indicated by vertical lines in the title, one for change of line in the same panel, two for change of panel. harper's magazine color style ==================================================== volumes | price | sent | ret'd --------------------------|-------|-------|--------- | | | | --------------------------|---|---|-------|--------- | | | | --------------------------|---|---|-------|--------- | | | | --------------------------|---|---|-------|--------- | | | | --------------------------|---|---|-------|--------- | | | | --------------------------|---|---|-------|--------- | | | | --------------------------|---|---|-------|--------- | | | | --------------------------|---|---|-------|--------- | | | | ---------------------------------------------------- figure . size Ã� in. when no volume of a set is at the bindery the card is left in a permanent file of bindery cards. when a volume is sent to the bindery the card is transferred to a temporary file, showing what periodicals are at the bindery. . examine volumes for completeness; see that all numbers of periodicals are included and arranged in proper order. in the case of books examine quickly for missing signatures. with both books and periodicals leave page collation to the binder. . make charging slip and send to the loan desk. books for departments should be charged in the departments and not at the loan desk. . if a periodical, find title-page and index (if one is not published there should be a note to that effect on the binding card); and if separate, lay inside the volume. . if volume is part of a set examine binding records to see if other volumes have been bound. if no record is found in binding files look in catalog and order records to see if other volumes are already in the library, or have been recently bought and are not yet cataloged. if it is desirable to match exactly old sets bound elsewhere, make a "rub-off" for the binder and indicate the material and color. if the volume is one of a new set make decision in regard to style of binding and order a sample back. . if a periodical, get old card from "binding returned" file. in the case of new periodicals and books a card must be made, and the binder instructed to make a sample back for future use. enter volume on card (one volume a line, unless several volumes are to be bound together). . fill out binding slip (see page ), indicating full lettering, proper spacing, style and material. also make note on bottom of slip for such directions as "make sample back," "include all front covers," "no title page or index published," etc. . in the case of separate books it will be necessary to make out a card similar to the periodical binding card to be used in sending invoice of shipment to the binder. . place binding slip in front of volume; tie up periodicals and lay aside with the volumes waiting to be shipped. . when shipment is ready to be sent, arrange cards: _a._ by departments which are responsible for the cost of binding; _b._ alphabetically by author or title under departments. . make typewritten list in triplicate (or more if necessary) of volumes for each department; one copy for filing, one for the binder and one to go to the order department with an estimate of the cost to serve as a charge against the proper department. if the departments against which charges must be made are many it may be simpler to list the books as they come, even if several departments are on one page, and to draw off from this the charges for the order department. where departments are numerous and the record of each department is kept on a separate sheet there are a great number of sheets to handle, causing annoyance both in the binding department and in the bindery. two lists may be sent to the binder so that he may add prices to one when the books are returned. this saves his time and also that of the binding assistant. . stamp date on the binding card in the column marked "sent." . stamp name of binder on binding card if the work is divided among different binders. if all the work of the library goes to one binder this will not be necessary. . ship the books. . file one copy of the list made out as noted in no. , send one copy to the binder, and add the estimated cost to the third list which is sent to the order department. . file cards in "binding sent" file. . when books are returned itemized bills are sent by the binder made out to each department. . check books with the bills, arranging books in order of bills. . take cards out of "binding sent" file in order of bills so that bills, books and cards are in the same order. . compare lettering with slip to see if correct, lay aside such as are incorrect to be returned to the binder. destroy slips. . see if charge is correct and enter on binding card in column marked "price." if there is a sample back, enter the cost and letters "s. b." above the line of the volume for which it is made. . stamp date of bill on card in column marked "returned." . stamp date of bill and cost in book on first recto after title page: " june binding ." . send books to the cataloging department for cataloging, shelf-listing, etc. . draw off on statistics sheet number of volumes and cost. . send bills to the order department. . file cards for periodicals and all books with volume numbers in permanent file. destroy cards for single books. chapter x repairing, recasing, recovering, etc. practically all repairs to a book short of rebinding should be made in the library, since the work requires little space and no machinery, and the books may speedily be replaced on the shelves for general use. large or medium sized libraries can well afford to hire one or more girls as menders, while the small library must utilize the spare time of regular assistants. when books are sent to the binding department they should be sorted into the following groups: books to be (_a_) rebound, (_b_) recased, (_c_) recovered, (_d_) mended, (_e_) discarded; to have (_f_) new sides, (_g_) new labels, (_h_) new book cards or pockets. when menders are employed all except those in the first group may be cared for in the library. in sorting the books the question of whether to rebind or repair at the library must be decided for all books, except those in the discarded class and those which need new records (tags, pockets, book cards, etc.). the decision is not always an easy one to make. the kind of library in question, whether public, college, subscription, etc., will influence the decision, as well as the actual condition of the book. a few general rules about mending may help in making decisions. . if the book has never been rebound and in all probability must go to the bindery in a few months' time, send to the bindery at once. mending not only adds nothing to the life of this book, but may easily shorten it. . mend books which have been rebound once but which it would not pay to rebind again. judicious mending of such books may keep them in service for a long time, but there comes a day when the use gained does not pay for the time put upon them. . mend books which have nearly outlived their usefulness or which are to be withdrawn absolutely when worn out. the question need be decided only when the book is fairly clean, for if very soiled it should be withdrawn at once. . mend books which must be on the library shelves, but which are seldom used. . mend books printed on heavily loaded papers which will not pay to rebind. there are, unfortunately, many of them. . mending cannot be done if the sewing is completely broken, though it is sometimes possible to insert signatures which are loose. . books with broken corners must be rebound. . recase books which have sewing intact and covers in good condition, if they will be used comparatively seldom. . recover books which have worn covers but firm sewing. mending materials adhesives _paste._ home-made pastes are cheapest. while there are various recipes for paste, either of the following will give satisfaction: ( ) wheat flour, oz. powdered alum, / oz. glycerine, - / oz. oil wintergreen, dram. water, - / pts. dissolve the alum in water and mix gradually with the flour into a smooth, thin paste; cook in a double boiler until smooth and clear; take from the fire and add the glycerine and oil of wintergreen. this quantity will make about one quart. if after standing a day a watery fluid collects, stir it into the paste. keep this paste covered. ( ) / pound of flour ( cup). teaspoonful of alum, dissolved. generous fourth teaspoonful of oil of clove. cups of boiling water. mix the flour well with a little cold water, beating until perfectly smooth. add the alum dissolved in a little cold water. pour on two cups of the boiling water, strain through a wire sieve. add the remainder of the boiling water and cook, stirring constantly until partially clear. add the oil of clove and put into a clean, covered earthen jar. the paste thickens as it cools. take out small quantities for use. the materials for this paste cost less than cents for a hundred books. to all pastes it is best to add a spoonful of carbolic acid or formaldehyde to prevent spoiling. a small quantity of corrosive sublimate will make paste unattractive to bugs. although home-made pastes are cheapest, they are a bother to make and the saving of expense over commercial pastes is not worth while except in the very small library. besides paste in bulk which can be obtained from the local binder there are many kinds of commercial paste. some may be bought in powders; others, designed primarily for mounting photographs, in glass jars; still others in cans ready to use. the powders are cheap, keep indefinitely, but when needed must be mixed with water, and as a rule are not very satisfactory. higgins' and other photo-mounting pastes are expensive and dry too quickly, but keep indefinitely. in the long run the most satisfactory pastes are those in tin cans with tight lids; these are ready to use, do not dry up and the preservative which they contain keeps them indefinitely. the arabol manufacturing company, william street, new york, makes several varieties. their "sphinx" paste, which gives excellent satisfaction, can be bought in six one-gallon can lots at cents a gallon, f. o. b., and in larger quantities at slightly reduced rates. great care should be used to avoid having the paste so thin that it makes the paper stretch. although paste is a necessity in every library, there is a tendency to use too much of it, and to use it when it is not necessary. ordinarily it will injure the book less than other adhesives, but it should be used sparingly on books that must be rebound. when applied to the backs of loose signatures they become brittle; then when the book goes to the bindery a much larger amount must be cut from the back than would otherwise be the case. if paste is to be applied to part of the paper only, the easiest way is to lay the paper on a board, place another piece of paper over it, leaving exposed the surface to which paste is to be applied. it can be spread more evenly with the finger, faster with a soft, long-handled brush. the larger libraries will find a pasting-machine a great time-saver. book labels, book pockets, new end papers to freshen soiled books--anything which needs to have the entire surface covered--is pasted on the machine in one-tenth the time required by hand. _glue._ for ordinary mending, glue should never be used. (see materials, p. .) flexible glue, however, is a necessity for recasing and recovering books. it keeps indefinitely, can be used easily by those who acquire the knack of using it, and it sticks everlastingly. _mucilage._ mucilage has no real place in a library. if paste is not the suitable material to use, substitute flexible glue, never mucilage. cloth _cheesecloth._ this well-known cloth is used when pressing down paper or book labels after they have been pasted and applied, and for quickly cleaning the hands of superfluous paste or glue. it should be cut in pieces of convenient size and not used many times before being discarded. _jaconet._ a thin, strong muslin will be needed for guarding sections and occasionally for forming joints. jaconet is the best and may be obtained from a few library binders. _canton flannel._ a medium grade of this cloth is used for back-lining. _book cloth._ if recovering or re-siding is done the library must have a supply of book cloths in the shades preferred. for re-siding, any cloth in grade (see page ) is sufficiently good. for recovering cloths in the grade which meets the requirements of the bureau of standards are none too good. if much recovering is done it is best to buy the cloth by the piece. _crepeline._ this very thin cotton cloth, also called mousseline, through which print is easily read, is sometimes pasted over the entire surface of pages which receive very hard usage, and which would otherwise be literally thumbed to pieces long before the rest of the book. _specially prepared cloth._ the gaylord bros., of syracuse, and the multum in parvo binder co., of philadelphia, manufacture hinges made of cloth. while these are often useful they cannot be used under any and all conditions, as one might be led to believe from the claims of the manufacturers. papers _onion skin._ onion skin is a very thin, tough paper, used for mending torn pages, illustrations, etc., where print must show through. while it may be obtained gummed on one side, very little is gained, for it is nearly as easy to paste the ungummed onion skin as to moisten the gummed. for tears which do not run into the text; a thin, strong bond paper will be satisfactory. _kraft or manila paper._ a x -pound kraft paper makes good end papers in recasing and recovering. a -pound manila paper may be used instead of kraft, if desired. _red rope manila._ this is a very strong, tough fibred cardboard which may sometimes be used as covers for books that it will scarcely pay to put into stouter covers. it may be obtained in several weights, the lighter weights being sufficiently strong for library use. thread even if no resewing is done, thread is necessary for making various repairs. the best are hayes' linen thread no. , and barbour's no. . ammonia this is necessary for breaking down surfaces of highly glazed cloths so that labels will stick. shellac after labels or the backs of books have been lettered in white or black ink they should have a covering of shellac. a supply of the best white shellac may be obtained from the local paint dealer. occasional use is found for various other materials, such as powdered pumice stone, sponge rubber, india rubber erasers and art gum. tools folders several binder's bone folders, costing fifteen cents each, should be kept in the binding department. knives a long knife, broad at the point, thin-bladed but dull, is needed for cutting paper after it is folded and for various other uses. a sharp, pointed knife is needed for removing books from the covers, or old labels from the back. scissors long, thin-bladed, best quality. needles regular book-sewing needles. hammer a broad-faced hammer may be required for beating down the backs of sections, or the entire book when it is difficult to replace it in its old cover. press books wet with paste or glue must be pressed. an old-fashioned letter-press which screws down by hand will answer all purposes in a small library. as they are now out-of-date, second-hand ones can be purchased for a small sum. there are one or two inexpensive small presses which are not so heavy as the letter-press, but which hold a larger number of books and are fairly satisfactory. the most satisfactory press is a stationary one which holds a number of books and which will exert great pressure. on account of lack of space and the cost it is inadvisable to use this in a mending room, and makeshifts are generally necessary. press-board a few press-boards with projections which will fit into the joints of books may be necessary. they may be obtained from any dealer in binders' supplies. sewing bench if any resewing is done a sewing bench is a necessity. ordinarily books needing resewing should be sent to the bindery. glue-pot a double-boiler glue-pot is a necessity if recovering or recasing is to be done. it should be kept clean. brushes a long-handled, small-sized brush with soft bristles will be used for pasting, while glue will require a large, round brush such as is commonly used in binderies. pasting machine a good pasting machine will cost about ten dollars, but it is a great time saver. there are several on the market. in the wilmington library the "universal" is used and gives satisfaction in all cases when a machine can be used. cutting-board a small-sized cutting-board, such as is used by photographers, is useful in the mending room as well as in other parts of the library. cleaning a part of the duty of the mending department is to remove such dirt or stains as can readily be removed without injury to the books. pages various materials may be used for cleaning books which show soiled pages here and there, but which are in the main fairly clean. a red rubber or a sponge rubber is much better than an india rubber eraser. the latter should never be used unless the paper is excellent in quality. bread crumbs rolled in a ball or powdered pumice stone put on with a dry cloth will often give good results. if the book is much soiled, or has mud stains, it may be advisable to use ivory soap and water with a few drops of ammonia, applied with a piece of cheesecloth well wrung out. if the paper is of good quality it may be washed with javelle water, a preparation used in french laundries. this may be made by the following recipe: to one pound of chloride of lime add four and a half pints of water, and put in a jar with tight cover. in a separate vessel, dissolve oz. of ordinary washing soda in four and a half pints of boiling water, and immediately pour it into the first mixture. when cold add enough water to make eleven pints in all. strain through muslin, settle, and pour off the clear solution. after using it care must be taken to rinse the paper thoroughly with water, as it tends to rot paper. in the cleaning of pages care should be taken not to erase any marks made by the cataloging or accession departments. rubbing must be done slowly and the pages held flat to prevent tearing. rub from the inside outward. all traces of pumice stone, rubber, etc., should be carefully removed. if water and soap have been used, it may be necessary to put a pressing tin under the leaf, placing blotting paper on each side. fox marks may be removed by immersing the leaves in a weak solution of chlorine water and then transferring to a hot bath of very weak hydrochloric acid. to remove creases from leaves accidentally folded, place the leaves between moistened blotters enclosed between dry blotters and press. this can be repeated until the crease is entirely removed. sometimes creases may be ironed out with a hot iron. ink stains can be removed by any one of the standard eradicators (oxalic acid followed by chloride of lime). stains from pad ink used for dating stamps can be removed with benzine. the edges of leaves on very soiled books may be sandpapered. in this case the book should be held very firm, if possible in a vise. to prevent mildew or mold occasionally books are accidentally soaked with water. in many a fire more damage is done by water than by fire. in such cases it may be a waste of time and money to reclaim ordinary books which can easily be replaced. it is a different matter when it comes to rare books and especially to manuscripts which cannot be replaced. mr. j. i. wyer, jr., director of the new york state library, in his annual report for describes as follows the method used in that library after the disastrous fire of that year. the first step was to remove all covers. each volume was then taken apart leaf by leaf, and each sheet was laid between print paper for drying. after twenty-four hours every leaf was again handled and placed between heavy blotting paper; after twenty-four hours here, each leaf was again removed to a second blotting paper. at all of these stages pressure was applied to facilitate the drying and keep the documents from wrinkling.... when each leaf had thus passed through these three drying processes, those belonging to the same volume were collected and carefully tied up in boxes or separate packages to wait until all the manuscripts were thus treated.... when all were dried, the manuscripts were arranged in volumes.... the rarest pieces will in time be mended, nearly all will be covered with crepeline, all will be mounted on fresh paper and carefully bound into new volumes. covers covers may be cleaned by the same materials as those used on pages, but the best method is to wash them with soap and water. for this reason the use of a washable cloth for covers, such as keratol, durabline, or fabrikoid, is an advantage. miss margaret brown, in her pamphlet on mending, library handbook no. , advises the use of a wash as follows: "two parts good vinegar and one part water. apply with a clean cloth and rub hard until dirt is removed, then place upright to dry. this should not be used on leather." grease spots may be removed from both leather and cloth by covering with a blotter and ironing with a hot iron. the same method will partially remove paint or varnish. for a great variety of cleansing receipts see coutts and stephen's "manual of library bookbinding," chapter x. covers that have warped must be dampened and put under pressure. shellacking of covers has been advocated by some librarians, but it is doubtful if it pays. it may be used in the interests of cleanliness on books bound in light colored cloth and on books in towns where the atmosphere is very smoky. it is a process which takes some time since two coats of shellac must be applied, and it does not increase the wear of the cloth to any great extent. as a regular part of preparing the book for use it takes more time and material than it is worth. sometimes a book becomes wonderfully rejuvenated simply by having its cover and edges cleaned and a new pocket pasted in the back. mending it is very desirable that mending should not be done by inexperienced assistants, for an uninstructed beginner may do as much harm as good. torn pages torn pages may be mended in any one of the following ways: . if the tear does not affect the printing, cut a strip of thin, tough bond paper one-half inch wide, a little longer than the tear to be covered, put through pasting-machine and cover the tear, trimming the overhang even with the page. . if the page is torn into the text, and the book is not valuable commercially, use ungummed onion skin about one-half inch wide and apply as above. if onion skin is not available a very thin, tough bond paper will do very well. use a thin coating of paste, first putting a piece of white paper under the page to absorb extra paste. . if torn in the text and it is desirable to make as good a job as possible, use the following method: rub a very little paste on the torn edges, and place them together. then take a rather large piece of ordinary tissue paper and rub it gently along the tear so that the tissue paper will adhere to the torn edges. put under the press; when dry the superfluous tissue paper should be torn off, taking care to pull always toward the tear and from both sides at the same time. the delicate fibre of the tissue paper acts as an adhesive in such a way that it is almost impossible to discern how the mending was done. . if the margin of the leaf of a valuable book is torn in several places, take two sheets of paper the size of the leaf, cut out from the middle of each a piece a little larger than the letter-press of the book; trim the torn leaf so that it remains somewhat larger than the space cut out of the blank leaves; place it between these two leaves and paste down, thus forming new margins. books that have torn leaves mended may be put into the press, but it is not strictly necessary. when very much of this mending is done pressing is impossible unless a standing press is at hand. a few books such as granger's index and some of the poole's index volumes should have the first few pages entirely reinforced with cloth. the best cloth for this purpose is crepeline, through which the text can be easily read. when applying it put a thin layer of paste on the leaf and then put on the cloth. the book should then be pressed, first protecting adjoining pages with paper. loose leaves loose leaves may be inserted in several ways: . lay a piece of white paper over the leaf, allowing one-eighth of an inch of back margin of the leaf to project. paste this exposed surface and attach it to the adjoining leaf in the book, pressing down firmly. this can be done only when adjoining leaves are firm. . sometimes the leaf when inserted will extend beyond the fore edge of the book. trimming of either back margin or fore edge is inadvisable. it is possible to turn over about one-eighth of an inch of back margin, using some kind of straight edge for this purpose. apply paste to turned over part and press the fold well down into the book. this will give more freedom to the leaf than if one-eighth of an inch has been cut off and another eighth of an inch pasted. . fold strips of thin bond paper cut with the grain, three-fourths of an inch in width, through the center. paste the outside. attach the loose leaf to one side and attach the other side to the adjoining leaf in the book. it will be necessary to work quickly because the paper strips when wet will cause a wrinkling of the leaf. this method can be used only if adjoining leaf is firm, but can never be employed with overcasting. . if necessary to use as little paste as possible, apply paste to a piece of common soft string by drawing it over a board covered with paste. then draw the string through the book at the back. the leaf may then be inserted. loose signatures ordinarily when one signature becomes loose others speedily follow, and the book must be sent to the bindery unless it is withdrawn absolutely. sometimes, however, one section will become loose when the rest of the book is firm and solid, sometimes also the use a book will receive does not warrant binding. in such cases, if the book has a loose back, open the section in the middle and place it in its proper place in the book. thread a darning-needle with hayes' no. thread (or barbour no. ), pass the needle through the hole at top of the section (the kettlestitch hole) in such a way as to bring it out at the top of the book between the book and the loose back. draw thread through, allowing a few inches to remain inside the section. drop needle through the loose back, insert it from the back through the kettlestitch hole at tail of the book. the thread can then be tied to the thread projecting at the upper kettlestitch hole. this is a makeshift, but may answer if the book is not to receive hard usage. if the back of the signature is badly worn, mend it by guarding with jaconet on the outside, or by pasting a strip of bond paper down through the center of the fold. _tight backs_ for tight backs cut a guard of firm, thin cloth, such as cambric or jaconet, about three-fourths of an inch wide and as long as the book. sew the section to the middle of the guard, and paste the guard to the book, one-half to each of the adjoining leaves. press this guard well back into the book. this can be done only when the adjoining pages are securely held. loose joints it frequently happens that a book in the original publisher's cover becomes loose at the joint, because the super used as back-lining cannot stand the strain put upon it. ordinarily, a book defective in this manner should be bound at once; but if it is deemed best to attempt mending it, a strip of jaconet should be cut - / inches wide and the length of the book. paste one-half of this to the cover and the other to the adjoining fly-leaf, thus transferring the strain from the super to the fly-leaf. this method can also be used to mend a break in the middle of a book, but should never be used if the book must eventually be rebound. another method of mending a loose joint is to remove the book entirely from the cover, sew on new end papers guarded with muslin, and cover the back of the book with canton flannel which extends three-fourths of an inch on each side. when dry, paste the entire back of book and sides and put the book back into the cover, pasting down the new end paper. this is, in effect, recasing. (see page .) sometimes books which are loose at the joints and have loose signatures may be mended by applying paste with a long-handled paste brush to the backs of the signatures. this must never be done if it is possible that the book will need to be rebound later. fly-leaves to add new fly-leaves, cut paper suitable for this purpose the same length as the old fly-leaves and one-half inch wider. fold over this one-half inch, paste it on the outside and attach it to the old fly-leaf. if necessary, this may be used as a new end paper and pasted to the cover over the old end paper. if used as an end paper, the book should be pressed promptly to prevent it from warping. repair of maps all old or mutilated maps or charts must be flattened out by placing the maps between large millboards with heavy weights over them, before they can be inserted in books. repairs may be made with onion skin paper or any other thin, tough paper, the same as is done with torn leaves in books. if the map is very old and valuable, it may be advisable to use paper which resembles in a way the texture and color of the map itself. it is advisable to mount all maps on some kind of cloth. it is best to have this done by a regular binder, but it may be done in the library if there is sufficient room. if the map is to go on rollers, a piece of cotton cloth is tacked to a large table, the top of the cloth pasted, and the map placed on top, back down, all wrinkles having been removed. millboards or strawboards are then placed on the map and weights placed on top until it is dry. this may take some time, after which it may be tacked to the rollers. if it is a folding map or chart, it may be necessary to cut the map into sections before mounting. when mounted there will be one-eighth of an inch space between sections, so that the map itself will not be defaced through constant folding. the mounting of such maps is a difficult task and should be done only by an expert. recasing books . remove book from the cover; cut out old super from the back of the cover; thoroughly clean the back of the book of super and glue without injuring the backs of the signatures. lift the lining-paper from the back and front boards of the cover and remove the old super. scrape with a knife the glue which does not come off with the super. if the back of the book seems to be much thicker than the fore edge, pound down with a backing-hammer. . cut strips of muslin (or canton flannel) a little shorter than the height of the book, wide enough to cover the back and to extend over the boards - / inches on each side. . cut enough flexible glue to fill a double-boiler glue pot half full when dissolved. when the water comes to a boil the glue, which must be used hot to get good results, will generally be ready to use. if it is still too thick, add a little hot water to thin it. . turn back the lining paper on front and back covers, spread the glue on the inside of the back of the cover and on the boards where the lining has been turned back. . put the strip of muslin in the place just glued; then rub down the lining paper over the muslin. . even up the book by tapping it on the table so that no leaves will project at the top, bottom or front. . holding the book firmly in the hand, glue the back. . place the back on the muslin lining previously glued to the back of the cover, care being taken to see that the book is not put in upside down. . fold over the cover and, taking the entire book firmly in the left hand, with the right hand push the book firmly back into the cover. this will prevent it from becoming concave. . crease the joints with a bone folder and rub down the back. . when the book is dry, open it and, if necessary, paste new papers over the inside covers. this is necessary, because it is frequently impossible to turn back the lining and remove the old super without making an unsightly piece of work. recovering rules for recovering can be used only when books do not need to be resewed. . remove cover from the main part of the book. . remove with a dull knife the cloth from the outside and inside of the cover until the two boards are clean, being careful not to cut into the board itself. it is not worth while to remove old paper sides or end papers. . remove superfluous glue, super, etc., from the back. if the book has been overcast, and small strips of leather have been placed over the back, paste the ends of these strips of leather to the end papers. such a book will also have end papers guarded which will remain as an integral part of the book. . if the book has not been overcast, it will be necessary to add end papers. this can be done by using two sheets which when folded once will be the size of the leaves of the book. one of these should be a -pound and the other an -pound manila paper, both guarded entirely around the fold with jaconet. whipstitch the -pound fly-leaves to the first and last sections of the book, then whipstitch the -pound, being careful to pass the needle back through the first section. paste one of the fly-leaves and one of the end papers together. if the book has been oversewed, cut the end papers of -pound manila or -pound kraft paper the size of the book and paste on the entire surface of the fly leaves which are integral parts of the book. it will not be necessary to guard these new end papers. . trim the new fly leaves and end papers the exact size of the book. . mark the boards and book with corresponding numbers so as to identify them. . place boards on the book to within one-eighth of an inch of the back and mark the distance from the back. . measure exactly the distance across the back between marks just made on the end papers. . select the proper cloth with which to cover the book. place the boards on the cloth, allowing the width necessary for the back as measured in no. . . mark around boards on cloth. . cut cloth, allowing approximately an inch and a quarter all around outside edge of the boards. . glue the entire surface of the cloth. . place boards on markings previously made, pressing down firmly on the glued cloth. . put stiff paper, previously cut to the proper size, on the glued cloth between the boards, to prevent the glue from sticking to the back of the book. this should not be done if the book must have a tight back. . turn in the corners as follows: take the exact corner of the cloth and turn it straight in over the corner of the board. next turn in the end and then the side. rub down well with a bone folder. . with bone folder, round the corners, and crease the joints at the back. . put the case so formed into a press for a few minutes. . cut a strip of thin, tough muslin or canton flannel one-half inch shorter than the height of the book and wide enough to extend an inch on each side of the book. . glue the back of the book and put on the muslin or canton flannel. . glue the entire surface of the completed case. . with the fore edge in the right hand, lay book in its proper place on the right-hand cover, draw up the left-hand cover and lay it on top. open the book, rub down the end papers well with bone folder, and rub down the back; also crease the joints. . put book in press over night. . letter by hand either with black or white ink as the case demands. re-siding many books which have been rebound with leather backs come to the binding department with the cloth sides badly frayed at the corners or edges. if the sewing is good and the book is clean, it is worth while to put on new sides. . remove cloth sides and smooth off the inside of the board with a dull knife. . cut two pieces of cloth a little larger than the sides. . glue the inner surface of the cloth and place on the book, turning in the corners as described in on page . . put book in the press. . after book is dry, paste a single end paper over the inside of each cover. reinforcing in chapter will be found a discussion of the advisability of purchasing books bound from the sheets or in reinforced publisher's covers. while it is advisable on the whole to have reinforcing done by regular library binders, the work can be done in large libraries that have proper equipment and labor. the essential principles of reinforcing are the same in all libraries that practice it, though they may differ as to minor details. the following method has proved satisfactory. . remove the book from its cover, which is laid aside for future use. if the call number is to be gilded it will be easier to do it before the cover is removed than after it is replaced. . make end papers and fly-leaves of -pound kraft paper or -pound manila, guarded with jaconet on one side of the sheet. end papers should be guarded on the inside of the fold. . oversew the fly-leaves to the first and last sections of the book, being careful that stitches are not over one-eighth of an inch deep. . sew the end papers to the fly-leaves which have just been oversewed, and paste fly-leaves and end papers together. . apply a thin coating of flexible glue to the back of the book and put over it a piece of thin canton flannel cut as long as the book and wide enough to extend an inch on each side. this should be well rubbed down. . paste the canton flannel which projects on the side to the end papers. . glue one side of the book and place it on the proper side of the cover. glue the side remaining uppermost and draw the cover up over it. . rub both sides and back until sure that the glue is well forced into them. . if desired, the book may be given a coat of white shellac and one of varnish, after which it should be wiped with a paraffine cloth. magazine or pamphlet covering . cut red rope manila cardboard the exact size of the two covers plus the width of the back. . remove the cover of magazine or pamphlet, if possible keeping it in one piece. . fit the red rope cover over the magazine, creasing carefully at the joints with a folder so that it will lie flat across the back as well as over the sides. . glue the back of the magazine with flexible glue and press it firmly into the improvised cover. rub down the back with a folder. . thread a needle with stout linen thread and, using it double, at the middle of the book put the needle through from the inside to the outside. leave about two inches of thread projecting on the inside. . put the needle through from the outside about an inch from the head of the book. the needle must come through in the same section where the thread is projecting. . carry the thread through to about the same distance from the tail of the book and again put the needle through from the inside to the outside. . return the needle at the same place where the first stitch was taken and tie to the thread left projecting in such a way as to hold fast the long thread through the center. . paste the paper cover previously removed on to the new cover. this method can be used for all pamphlets one-half inch or more thick; even for those two inches thick, provided that the use they will receive is slight. in the case of the thicker unbound books, it is necessary to sew them in two or three places. labeling few libraries can afford to have all call numbers gilded. therefore it is necessary either to letter directly on the book, or to put call numbers in ink on a white label which has first been placed on the book. much objection exists to these gummed labels, because it is claimed that they come off very easily and the work soon has to be done over again. undoubtedly this is true if the labels are not properly put on; but if care be taken, there is no reason why the white gummed labels should not last until it is necessary to rebind a book, when of course the call number will be gilded. two points must be remembered in applying labels. . they must be put on at an even distance from the bottom of the book. perhaps nothing else will give a library such an unsightly appearance as uneven labels--some at the top, some in the middle and some at the bottom. the exact distance from the bottom of the book is not one of great importance, but the bottom of the label should not be less than - / inches from the bottom of the book, nor more than two inches. whatever distance is adopted, it will be necessary to have a piece of cardboard which may be used as a measure when applying the label. . labels must be fastened so securely that they will not come off. this seems sufficiently obvious, but as a matter of fact many assistants who do this work do not spend sufficient time to do it right. the following directions should be followed: _a._ if the book is new, it will be necessary to break down the glazed surface of the cloth or leather where the label is to be placed. to do this, use ammonia diluted somewhat with water. use a brush about the width of the label and draw across the back of the book at the proper place. after having done ten or a dozen books, it is best to wipe off the ammonia with a piece of cheesecloth which brings with it the glaze. _b._ labels are not put on until books are dry. use labels made of extra heavy paper, so that they will not turn dark when shellac is applied later. they may be moistened on a wet sponge or on some one of the numerous moisteners, or better still, they may be dipped quickly in hot water with a pair of tweezers. in using some labels it is not inadvisable to cover the gummed surface with a thin coating of paste. as soon as the label is pasted on the book straight and in proper alignment, it should be pressed firmly down with a piece of cheesecloth. this part of the operation should not be hurried and considerable pressure should be used until the label has firmly adhered. _c._ when dry, letter with india ink and cover label with a very thin coating of white shellac. later, when the first coating is thoroughly dry, cover with a thicker coating of shellac. this should be done quickly and neatly. if the line of shellac is uneven the book has an unsightly appearance. _d._ if books are thin, it is best to put labels on lengthwise. if very thin, put labels on front covers, near the back. if labels project over the back, trim with scissors. if books have been used or have already had labels, the process is the same, except that no ammonia need be used. old labels which have been shellaced are hard to remove. the best way is to apply ammonia and water to the label, allowing it to soak in. when thoroughly moistened, remove with a dull knife. removing dry labels by scraping with a knife injures the back of the book. lettering by hand it is sometimes feasible to letter with ink on the back of a book instead of putting on a label which holds the lettering. if the surface be glazed, it can be broken down with diluted ammonia, or sometimes merely a damp cloth will be sufficient. so far as possible, letter with black india ink. carter's white ink is the best for lettering dark colored cloths. it is sometimes difficult for a novice to use white ink, but it can be handled satisfactorily if one uses a stub pen which is kept perfectly clean and is always wiped before being dipped in the ink. shake the bottle often and add water if ink is too thick. gold ink should never be used. when lettering is dry, apply shellac as described under labeling. with type some of the larger libraries have found it economic to have a binder's printing outfit for lettering call numbers on all books, even when the library does not bind books. such an outfit may be used of course for lettering author and title, but there will be little occasion to do this except in connection with a regular bindery. call numbers, however, are so much more legible and permanent when put on with type that it should always be done whenever the number of accessions is sufficiently large to warrant the employment of some person to do the work. it does not, however, need experienced finishers and, if time permits, may be done by regular library assistants after some instruction and practice. it will be discovered, however, that lettering in gold on cloth is more difficult than on leather. for the benefit of those who wish to try it the following description is given. _tools._ the tools necessary are a pallet to hold the type; four fonts of brass type (lead, or type other than brass should never be used); long-bladed knife with straight edge for cutting gold leaf; cutting pad; gas burner similar to the burners on cook stoves; and a frame with wooden screws in which to hold the book while it is being stamped. _materials._ the materials needed are the best american gold leaf, cotton batting, sweet oil, some specially prepared rubber for removing the excess gold leaf, and glaire. the tools or materials which are used exclusively by binders can be obtained from any binders' supply house. glaire is easily made as follows: take whites of three eggs; add three teaspoonfuls of vinegar and beat until it is a light froth. let stand a few hours and strain through a piece of muslin into a bottle. if kept corked glaire will keep for some time. _process._ . place on finishing bench, backs up, books on which call numbers are to be gilded. . with a small sponge, apply the glaire to the part of the back which is to receive the call number, taking care to draw the sponge evenly across the back, leaving a straight line. if the application of glaire makes that part of the book appear radically different from the rest of the back, the glaire may be applied to the entire back. it should not be allowed to run over on the sides. allow the glaire to dry thoroughly. . with a long-bladed knife, transfer a sheet of gold leaf to the cutting pad which must be thoroughly protected by screens from all draughts. if the gold leaf does not lie unwrinkled on the cutting pad breathe on it lightly. with the knife, cut the leaf in proper size for work to be done, being careful to make the cuts clean, not ragged. . arrange type in the pallet, beginning at the right, and put type in the gas to heat. . screw book, back up, firmly in the frame. . with cotton batting, apply sweet oil to the part to be stamped, being careful to cover thoroughly this surface with the oil. this is done to make the gold stick. . apply a piece of cotton, slightly oiled, to the gold leaf which will instantly stick. it can then be transferred to the book, where the sweet oil will hold it securely. . test the type for heat. a little practice will soon teach the novice when the type is hot enough. the object of heating the type is to make the gold combine with the glaire in such a way as to cause the gold to adhere. it is better to have the type too cold rather than too hot. if it is too cold, the gold will not stick and the work must be done over again; if too hot, it burns the leather or cloth and the damage is irremediable. for cloth work the type can be used hotter than for leather. . apply type to the book, pressing down firmly. the pressure makes an indentation. if the materials are of the right quality, the work carefully done and the type of the right degree of heat, the gold will be firmly embedded. . with the specially prepared rubber remove the waste gold. when the rubber has absorbed all the gold that it is capable of taking up, it may be sent to a dealer who will refine it and give credit for the gold which it contains. about one-third of the original cost of the gold should be obtained from the sale of the waste. whenever books are bound in light colored cloths on which gold does not readily show use a black ink specially made for this purpose. it is much easier to use than gold, since the ink is evenly spread on a smooth, hard surface and the type is used cold. no glaire is necessary. chapter xi magazine binders one of the vexing questions which properly comes under the head of binding is that of magazine binders used on current periodicals in reading rooms. the binding of current numbers for circulation is described on page . it must be admitted that no binder on the market is perfectly satisfactory. some hold the periodicals satisfactorily but are hard to adjust. others are easy to adjust but the magazines slip out easily, or can with ease be surreptitiously removed. some have keys which become lost or will not work; some are clumsy; and some have projections which scratch tables. all are hard to hold in the hands. on an average a new binder is put on the market each year with the assurance of the maker that all faults have been eliminated. a trial soon convinces the librarian that it is no better than others and that the perfect binder does not exist. for the small library the problem is not an important one, since it is entirely feasible in such libraries to place current numbers without covers on reading room tables, or to cover them with tough paper. mr. dana advocates using most magazines without binders even in the reading room of a large library. possibly this may be done advantageously in some libraries, but it will depend upon the atmosphere of the city, the character of those who use the library and the ease with which assistants can keep all readers under observation. librarians for the most part will continue to believe that a temporary binder of one kind or another is necessary for current periodicals in the general reading room. binders in the reading room serve two purposes. they protect the magazine and they help to remind readers that the magazines are public property. some magazines--the scientific american, for example--are very thin and may be easily folded and put into an inside pocket. a binder does not prevent theft, but its tendency is to reduce it. the qualifications of a good binder are: . ease of fastening, together with difficulty in removing magazines by the uninitiated. . comparative ease of holding in the hand. . durability of surface and of device used for fastening the magazine. . preservation of the magazine without injury. . firmness when finally fastened. even the best magazine binders are far from being perfect in any of these requirements, except in ease with which they are fastened. there are many kinds of magazine binders. mr. dana, in the second edition of his "notes on bookbinding for libraries," mentions by name twelve different makes; and as many more, some of which are equally good, are known to the writer. but were there twice as many it is probable that they would fall, as they do now, into five classes. . spring back. . eyelet and tape. . sewed. . rod. . clamp which is screwed up tight. the well known spring-back variety is, in principle, a semi-circular steel tube longer than the magazine to be held, to which board sides are attached. when the cover is closed the jaws of the steel are close together. in order to insert the magazine the covers are bent back toward each other. this opens wide the jaws and the magazine is slipped in. when the covers are released the steel tube is firmly fastened to the back of the magazine. this kind of binder is probably the easiest of all to adjust. it is, however, equally easy to remove, is clumsy and is harder to hold in the hand than others. in the eyelet and tape class there are holes in the back of the cover. in fastening the magazine, tape or cord (generally a shoe string) is passed through the center of the magazine, laced into the eyelet and tied. the main objections to this kind of a binder are that it takes some time to fasten them and the magazine is generally loose in the binder when fastened. binders which require sewing have holes in the sides near the back. instead, however, of passing the cord through the center of the magazine, holes corresponding to holes in the binder are punched directly through the magazine at the back, one near the head, one near the tail and another in the middle. the binder is then sewed on through these holes. the chief merit of these binders is that they are inexpensive; but it takes longer to attach them than other binders and the magazine is injured by the holes which have been punched. there are various kinds of binders which use steel rods or bars through the center of the magazine. some use one rather heavy rod which is hinged at one end, and hooked or fastened into a slot at the other end when the magazine has been inserted. some have two or more thin steel rods hinged or pivoted at one end and held by a pin or a lock at the other end. and one at least has steel bars not permanently attached, the ends of which are in the form of a semi-circle, which are dropped between rigid uprights and prevented from slipping off by caps screwed on the uprights. the writer knows of only two binders which use a clamp which must be screwed tightly in order to hold the magazine firmly. the great merit of these binders is that they hold the magazine firmly, so that it can by no possibility be removed except by the assistant who has the key. they are, however, clumsy and unduly large at the back and it takes some time to fasten them to the magazine. taking into consideration all points of excellence it is probable that some form of rod binder is the best. rod binders are not hard to apply; they require some effort to remove them--those which lock cannot be removed without a key; they are firm when applied; and many of them do not injure the magazine. nearly every librarian has his own personal preference among such binders. since binders receive very hard wear it is important that they should be made of good material. those which are used for popular magazines should have cowhide backs and buckram or imitation leather (keratol or fabrikoid) sides. a full leather binding would help solve the question of dirt, but it is equally well and less expensively solved by using imitation leather on the side. in reading rooms frequented only by educated persons binders with flexible leather covers are desirable and are greatly enjoyed by readers. the cheaper grades of cloth, such as are used by the publishers, should never be used, as they soon wear through at the edges and corners. in many cases it is wise to use pigskin or morocco on the back, though if this is done, the cloth sides and the boards themselves may become disreputable before the back is worn. in nearly all binders the mechanism can be removed from the boards when they become shabby, and new covers attached. this will save some of the expense of a new binder. a clever mender can do such work so that it need not be sent to a regular library binder. the boards should not be made of mill boards, but of semi-tar or tar boards. chapter xii pamphlets fortunately it is not necessary to decide here the ever-vexing question "when is a pamphlet not a pamphlet?" from the binding viewpoint any printed matter of more than four pages which does not have a stiff cover is a pamphlet and it is within the province of the binding assistant to prepare it for the shelves. unbound material in libraries is of three kinds: periodicals; serial publications which are not periodicals such as annual reports, bulletins of societies or government bureaus, etc.; and separate pamphlets not numbered, of a monographic character. the binding of periodicals forms part of the regular routine and is discussed elsewhere in this book. annual reports and other publications of a serial character should be filed in pamphlet boxes on the regular shelves at the end of the bound set. when a sufficient number of reports have collected they may be bound in cloth by decades or half-decades, according to the thickness of the reports. in many libraries most of such publications need not be bound at all, but will answer every purpose if wrapped in paper and lettered by hand. serials other than annual reports generally give some indication of which numbers should be bound together, if bound at all. if there be no change of numbering or no completion of volume numbers to indicate a separation, they should be arbitrarily grouped in volumes of a convenient size, conforming if possible to one or more calendar years, and bound or wrapped in paper. if series are not to be kept together they should be treated as described in the following paragraphs. monographic works in unbound form range in size from those of a dozen pages to those of several hundred. probably the best arrangement for a large part of this material is to assign a subject heading or a class number and keep in a vertical file alphabetically or by class number. with this the binding department has no concern, but there are always a number of pamphlets which have permanent value for the library and which should be treated in the same way as a book with stiff covers. undoubtedly the cheapest way to prepare pamphlets not over one-half inch thick for the shelves is to put them into gaylord binders. these are made of board sides connected at the back by a strip of cloth and having on the inside gummed flaps which can be attached to the back of the pamphlet. there are thirty different sizes ranging from by inches to - / by inches. they are made in two qualities, the photo-mount costing from $ . to $ . per hundred and press board costing from $ . to $ . a hundred.[ ] if the pamphlet has a cover as well as a title page, the cover should be taken off and pasted to the outside of the front cover of the binder. in addition to moistening and attaching the gummed flaps, it will be found necessary in many cases either to wire through the back of the pamphlet with some kind of a stapling machine, or to sew through as described on page for attaching red rope manila to circulating magazines. footnote : prices increased per cent april , . when the pamphlet is firmly attached in the binder it should be lettered in white ink along the back. if the pamphlet is very thin it will be necessary to letter author, title and call number along the back edge of the front cover, close to the back. if the original cover has not been pasted on the outside it will also be necessary to letter author and title across the front cover. pamphlets which are too big to go into the binders can be bound in regular book form if their use will warrant the expense. if the use will be slight they can be made very serviceable by using the red rope manila as described on page . very large libraries keep all pamphlets permanently. those which are not sufficiently important to treat as books are generally kept in classified order in temporary cases. when a sufficient number have been collected on any subject they may be bound together in volumes of proper size. so far as possible pamphlets of the same size should be bound together in cloth, but they may vary a little if they are level on top. the expense of binding in this way is, of course, much less than if each pamphlet had been put in a binder. smaller libraries may perhaps be well advised to bind in this way pamphlets having a local interest which must be kept permanently. it is not necessary to discuss here the various kinds of temporary homes of pamphlets, such as manila folders, envelopes, wooden or pasteboard boxes, ballard klips, etc. they all have their uses, and each librarian must work out whatever scheme seems best to him. chapter xiii bindery in the library building how large an amount of binding must a library have before it becomes economical to establish a bindery in the library building? this question is frequently asked and is difficult to answer. in the first place, local conditions must be taken into consideration. is there in the same city a library bindery which does satisfactory work at reasonable prices, or must work be sent a long distance away? is there ample room in the building and is it easily adapted to binding purposes? can a good foreman be employed? is the local rate of wages so high as to make the cost of the binding in the library equal the cost in a good bindery outside the city? these are some of the questions which must be considered. some of the advantages in having a bindery in the building are as follows: . it is more convenient. when books are much needed they can be found and generally used, even if incompletely bound. . there is less chance of losing books. when books are sent to a binder who does the work of other libraries also there is always a chance of loss. the binder, of course, is responsible, but one would always rather have the book than the cash value. . there is no chance of damage to books in transit. . repairs which are too difficult for the ordinary library mender to make can easily be done in the library bindery at slight cost. . the books need not as a rule spend so long a time in the bindery. if perchance the bindery becomes clogged with extra work the librarian can rush the books that are needed most. if such books are in another bindery, especially when that bindery is outside the city, it is difficult to get the books that are needed first. . there is a certain amount of competition which works to advantage if part of the books have to be bound outside. the outside binder knows that the librarian who operates a bindery in his own building knows something about the cost of binding, and he realizes that unless his prices are reasonable and his work good he need not expect to be favored. . the librarian can at all times inspect materials on hand and see the books in the process of binding. the bindery outside the building can sometimes substitute inferior materials without fear of detection for many months. . when the work reaches a certain amount it can be done at reduced cost in the library, since the ordinary profits of the bindery will accrue to the library. . it is much easier to make experiments with new materials or new processes. while the outside binder does not care to get a small quantity of a new material, the library which owns its own bindery can do so easily. . a bindery in the library can do much work, such as the mounting of maps or photographs, gilding of call numbers and book-mending, which needs skilled workmen. such work frequently remains undone, either because the regular library force has no time to do it or because it seems unwise to send it outside the library. such are some of the benefits, but only the larger libraries which bind many thousands of volumes can take advantage of them successfully from the financial standpoint. in order to be administered economically there must be sufficient work to keep several workmen busy. it probably is not wise to open a bindery when the annual expenditure for binding is less than $ , . there are two ways in which a library bindery may be administered. under the first plan the library buys all material and hires all the workmen, employing a foreman on salary to take charge. a schedule of prices which is lower than the prices paid to outside binders should be adopted, and the total value of binding in a year based on this schedule must equal the cost of material, wages and depreciation on the value of the plant. under this plan the work may be unexcelled in quality, but there is no incentive to produce it in quantity. so long as the work turned out balances the outlay the employees, unless they are exceptionally conscientious, are satisfied. there is also the added difficulty of finding a competent foreman. any man who is able to manage a library bindery successfully is able to manage any bindery successfully and he will not be willing to work for the salary which the library can afford to pay. the librarian himself, harassed as he is with many problems, must of necessity leave such matters as the purchase of material and the hiring of workmen to the foreman in whom he must have implicit confidence. the librarian cannot assume the same attitude toward his bindery foreman that the proprietor of a regular bindery may assume. he is not skilled in the craft, does not know about materials, especially leathers, and cannot direct the work. under the second plan the library lets the work out by contract to some binder who agrees to do the work in the building. the contractor is under no expense for rent, heat and light, and in arranging prices this is taken into consideration. it is obvious that it is to the interest of the binder to turn out as large a number of books as possible. since the librarian has safeguarded the library in the contract by specifying that all materials and work must meet with his approval, this plan is more advantageous to him than the former plan. the contract should allow for frequent revision of schedule. under the first plan the librarian will be obliged to buy all machinery, tools and materials, and to hire the workmen. under the second plan he may have to buy the machinery and tools, but the purchase of materials and the hiring of labor will be in the hands of the contractor. a good binding plant will contain the articles in the following list. those marked * are necessary, even when the amount of work turned out is small: * sewing frame * standing press * dozen press-boards (all sizes) * glue pot * hammers * board shears * lever paper cutter perforating machine extra cutting knives * hammering-block with plate grindstone * paring stone * oil stone * pairs of shears * paring knives * bone folders * brushes * monkey wrench sandstone * saws * book-backing machine * dozen sewing needles ruler * screw driver lying press * finishing press steel square * pair pliers straight-edges * awls * iron divider * oil can * paste bucket * complete set of brass type * pallet * gold cushion * gold knife * gilding rolls * imprint stamp * single fillet two-line fillet * finishing gas stove * ten-drawer type cabinet flat agate polisher flat steel polisher round agate polisher gas stove for heating glue * forwarder's bench * sewing table * finisher's bench small table band nippers creaser the total cost of the plant will vary in various sections of the country, but it ought not to cost more than $ . if second-hand cutting machines, benches, etc., can be obtained it is possible that the cost may be reduced to $ or less. the st. louis public library recently equipped a bindery at a cost of $ . during the first year, with a force of fifteen, it turned out work to the value of $ , . appendixes appendix a specifications of the u. s. bureau of standards for book cloths fabric the fabric shall be made from first-quality staple cotton, uniformly woven and of a grade known as "firsts." the weave shall be two up and two down in the warp and one up and one down in the weft. the gray cloth shall consist of from to threads per centimeter ( to per inch) in the warp, and to threads per centimeter ( to per inch) in the weft. the surface shall be finished smooth and hard and show no tendency to stick when folded upon itself. thickness, tensile strength and weight the thickness of the finished fabric shall not exceed . millimeter ( . inch) or be less than . millimeter ( . inch). the tensile strength of the gray cloth shall be not less than kilograms per centimeter ( pounds per inch) of width in the warp, and kilograms per centimeter ( pounds per inch) in the weft. the average value for the warp and weft in the finished fabric must show an increase over the average value for the warp and weft in the gray cloth of at least per cent of the strength of the gray cloth. the finished fabric, when dry, shall weigh not more than grams per square meter ( . pound per yard), or less than grams per square meter ( . pound per yard). absorption of moisture at a normal relative humidity of per cent it shall not absorb more than per cent of moisture, or expand (an average of both directions) to exceed . per cent, and when subjected in a closed case to a saturated atmosphere for two hours at a temperature of ° c. ( ° f.) shall not absorb more than per cent of moisture or expand (an average of both directions) to exceed per cent. all increases to be computed on the basis of the dry weight and dimensions. folding endurance the folding endurance, as determined by the schopper folder, shall be not less than , double folds for the warp and not less than , for the weft. color before coating, the fabric must be dyed with a purely mineral or inorganic color (such as iron salts), so as to imitate the color of the finished cloth, but somewhat lighter in shade, so as to give the desired "linen" effect. all coal-tar, aniline, vegetable, or other organic dyes and lakes must be strictly excluded from both fabric and coating, even in traces; except where necessary to match color, lake may be used in red, blue, or brown. the following substances must be also excluded: chrome yellow and other chromates, ultramarine, browns containing bituminous or other organic matter, compounds of lead and arsenic. the color of the finished fabric should be slightly darker than the standard sample, which will be furnished on application, and it must not show the slightest change of color after exposure under prescribed conditions to direct sunlight, or to the action of ammonia gas, sulphuretted-hydrogen gas, sulphur-dioxide gas, or illuminating gas. resistance to mold and insects the finished fabric shall be immune to the growth of mold or the attack of insects. tests physical and chemical tests to verify the properties required by these specifications will be made according to the "standard method for testing book cloths" as used by the bureau of standards, copies of which can be obtained on application. appendix b reading list on binding adam, paul. practical bookbinding. . van nostrand. $ . . a translation of a german work. american library association. committee on bookbinding. binding for libraries. . a. l. a. publishing board. $. . (library handbook no. . second edition, revised.) binding specifications which may be used by large as well as small libraries. bailey, a. l. bookbinding. . a. l. a. publishing board. $. . preprint of manual of library economy, chapter . bindery talk. - . v. - . all published. a periodical published by w. e. reavis, los angeles, california, covering various phases of library binding. bliss, h. e. better bookbinding for libraries. library journal, , : - . brief article on methods and materials. brown, j. d. bookbinding and repairing. in his manual of library economy, pp. - . valuable chiefly for its section on lettering. brown, m. w. mending and repair of books. a. l. a. publishing board. $. . (library handbook no. .) caldwell, m. r. preparing for the binder. public libraries, , : - . chivers, cedric. paper and binding of lending library books. american library association. bulletin. , : - . also published separately by mr. chivers. a record of experiments and tests of modern book papers. chivers, cedric. relative value of leathers and other binding materials. . published by the author. a record of tests of leathers. practically the same article will be found in the bulletin of the american library association for , p. . cockerell, douglas. bookbinding and the care of books. . appleton. $ . . best general book on binding processes, but does not cover all library requirements. coutts, h. t., and stephen, g. a. manual of library bookbinding. . libraco limited. s. d. net. a valuable book for all libraries. gives the english point of view. crane, w. j. e. bookbinding for amateurs. . scribner. $. . cundall, joseph, ed. on bookbindings, ancient and modern. . bell, lond. $ . will be used mainly by those interested in the history and artistic side of bookbinding. dana, j. c. notes on bookbinding for libraries. ed. . . library bureau. $ . the best single book for the librarian. drury, f. k. w. on protecting pamphlets. library journal, , : - . field, c. book repairing. california news notes, : - . hasluck, p. n., ed. bookbinding. . mckay. $. . practical handbook. does not cover strong binding for libraries. horne, h. p. binding of books. . scribner. $ . for those interested in the artistic side of binding. hulme, e. w., and others. leather for libraries. . library supply co., london. s. d. net. lowe, j. a. permanent book marking. library journal. , : - . macleod, r. d. preservation of books in libraries. library world, : , , , . deals with general repairs, etc. the second part (p. ) is especially valuable for the large number of cleaning recipes. memoranda relative to binding publications for distribution to state and territorial libraries and depositories. . u. s. superintendent of documents. an account of the tests of book cloths made by the bureau of standards. philip, a. j. the business of bookbinding from the viewpoint of the binder, the publisher, the librarian and the general reader. . s. paul. s. net. in spite of the title the viewpoint is that of the librarian. prideaux, s. t. historical sketch of bookbindings. . lawrence, london. $ . net. sawyer, h. p. how to care for books in a library. . democrat printing co., madison, wis. $. . a good article on mending. society of arts. report of the committee on leathers for bookbinding. . bell. s. d. stephen, g. a. commercial bookbinding. . stonhill, london. s. d. the best book on this subject. ----. machine book-sewing. . aberdeen university press. reprinted from the library association record, june . ----. notes on materials for library bookbinding. library assistant, - , : - , - . swezey, a. d. binding records. public libraries, , : - . worcester (mass.) county law library. leather preservation. . ----. a small binding plant in the building. . zaehnsdorf, joseph. bookbinding. macmillan. $ . . zahn, otto. on art binding. . toof & co., memphis. $ . . by a well known artistic bookbinder. appendix c list of technical terms in this list terms relating to paper, to materials described in the body of this work and to historical bindings, and terms seldom used have been omitted. =acid free leather.= leather which is manufactured without using acid. as interpreted by some dealers, it means leather from which all acid has been removed. =aldine style.= decorative design consisting of solid face ornaments without shading. first used by aldus and other early italian printers. =all-along.= in hand-sewing when the thread passes from kettlestitch to kettlestitch in each signature it is sewed all-along. =antique.= see blind-tooled. =arabesque.= decorative design consisting of many interwoven lines and curves arranged in conventional patterns. sometimes applied to a design consisting of interwoven plants, animals, birds, etc. =arming press.= see blocking press. =asterisk.= this well known sign is sometimes used to indicate that the printed matter on which it appears is to take the place of pages previously printed. =awl.= see bodkin. =azuré tools.= tools with a series of horizontal lines parallel on their faces. =back lining.= cloth or paper glued to the back of a book to help hold the signatures together. =backing.= forcing over the folds on each side at the back to form grooves into which boards fit, forming the joint. =backing boards.= used for backing or forming the joint. made of hardwood sometimes faced with iron. have a beveled edge, over which the paper is forced by hammering and are thicker at this edge than at the other, so that when placed one on each side of the book and all are placed in the lying press, the power of the press is brought to bear on the part of the book nearest the back. =backing hammer.= has a broad, flat face and short handle. used in rounding and backing. =backing machine.= machine run by power used in edition work for backing books. =backing press.= a press having vertical steel plates brought together with a screw. when the book is placed in it with the back slightly projecting it can be backed in exactly the same way as if backing boards were used. =band-driver.= used in forwarding to eliminate irregularities of raised bands. =band nipper.= pincers used after leather has been put on over raised bands in order to straighten them. =banding.= decorating by means of horizontal stripes. =bark skiver.= tanned with oak bark. =bastard title.= see half title. =beading.= small twist or roll formed when winding the cotton or silk in head-banding. =beating.= process of flattening and smoothing out the folded sheets to make the leaves lie closely together. =beating hammer.= heavy, short-handled hammer used for beating books to make the leaves lie closely together. =beating stone.= stone or iron bed on which books are beaten. =beveled boards.= heavy boards with beveled edges, sometimes used for the sides of very heavy or large books. =binder.= . case used for the temporary protection of pamphlets and periodicals. can be detached and used on succeeding numbers. . one whose business it is to bind books. =binder's title.= title lettered on the back of a book. frequently differs from that on the title page. =binder's board.= see boards. =binding slip.= sheet of paper containing instructions to the binder inserted in each book sent to the bindery. =blanks.= books with blank leaves of good paper used for keeping records which are more or less permanent. the binding of such books is a special trade. =bleed.= when books are trimmed so that part of the print is cut off they are said to bleed. =blind-tooled.= books on which impressions have been made by tools without the use of gilt are blind-tooled. sometimes called "antique" tooling. =block.= the solid metal stamp used for impressing a design on a book cover. =blocking.= stamping the design in gold or other material on book covers. =blocking press.= used in stamping designs on cloth book covers or back. known also as stamping press and arming press. =board papers.= the parts of end papers pasted to the boards. =board shears.= heavy shears with a gauge, for cutting boards for the sides of books. =boards.= boards for the sides of books are called cloth board, binder's board, mill board, tar board. they are called boards in the full size and also when cut for sides. =bodkin.= an awl used for punching holes in boards through which the bands are laced. =body.= main part of the book, from chapter i to the end of the text. =bolt.= the folded edge of signatures at the head, fore edge and tail of books. =book card=, or =book slip=. card kept in the book, used in charging the book when it is borrowed. =book label.= see label. =book pocket.= a pocket made of paper, generally pasted on the last fly-leaf to hold the book card when the book is on the shelf, or to hold the reader's card when the book is borrowed. =bosses.= metal ornaments fastened on the boards of books. =broken.= . paper folded over. . the back of a book which has been cracked open from head to tail is broken. =broken up (or over).= plates are broken up when they are folded over a short distance from the back before being placed in the book. =burnish.= the gloss produced by the application of a burnisher to the edges of a book. =burnisher.= piece of agate or blood-stone set in handles and used to produce a gloss on the edges of books. =calendered paper.= paper with a highly polished surface. =cancels.= leaves containing errors which are to be replaced with corrected pages. the replacements are frequently marked with an asterisk. =canvas.= same as duck. see page . =caps.= coverings which protect the edges of books during the processes of covering and finishing. =case.= . a cover for a book made independently of the book, i. e. the boards are not laced in. . cover made to fit over book already bound in order to protect it. =case bindings.= books in which the boards and covering materials are made into a case and the book glued into it. term generally applied to commercial work, which is practically all done by machinery. =casing-in.= the operation of putting a sewed and forwarded book into its case. =catchword.= in old books and in a few modern books the first word of a page is printed under the last line on the preceding page. this is called the catchword. =center tools.= specially-cut tools for ornamenting the centers of panels. =circuit edges.= projecting flexible covers turned over to protect the leaves of the book. used almost wholly on bibles and prayer books. sometimes called divinity edges. =clasp.= a catch for fastening the covers of a book together. =clearing-out.= the process of removing the waste paper and paring away superfluous leather on the inside of the covers before pasting down end papers. =cloth boards.= . boards covered with cloth. . boards used for the sides are sometimes called cloth boards instead of mill boards. =collation.= an examination of a book to see if it is complete. may be done by signatures before book is bound. must be done page by page in books which are to be rebound. =combs.= an instrument with wire teeth used in marbling. =compensating guards.= short stubs bound in the back to equalize space taken up by thick folded plates. =creaser.= the tool used in marking on each side of raised bands. generally made of steel. =cropped.= term applied to books which have been trimmed too much. =crushed.= term applied to leather, generally morocco, which has been pressed so that the surface, naturally grained, is made smooth. =cut edges.= see edges cut. =cut flush.= in very cheap binding the book is trimmed after the cover is on and edges of boards are cut flush with the leaves. =cutter=, or =cutting machine=. a machine used for trimming the edges of books. sometimes called guillotine. =cutting boards.= boards similar to backing boards, except that they are not beveled. used in trimming. =cutting in boards.= see in boards. =cutting press.= the "lying press" turned over so that the runners are uppermost. =deckle edge.= the rough untrimmed edge of hand-made paper. =dentelle.= a form of book ornament which supposedly represents lace. =derome.= a style of ornament having dentelle border with small birds among the arabesques. =diaper.= a form of ornament consisting of a small pattern repeated in geometrical form. =divinity calf.= dark brown calfskin blind-stamped and without gilding, formerly used in binding religious books. =divinity edges.= see circuit edges. =die.= an engraved stamp used for stamping a design. =double.= see doublure. =doubled.= a design is doubled when the finisher tries to make a second impression and the tool does not quite follow the lines of the first impression. =doublure.= the lined and decorated inside face of boards on fine bindings. when so lined the cover is said to be "double." =dummy.= . a book made up of blank leaves to show style of binding and grade of workmanship. . a piece of leather or cloth mounted on a board to show exact size and lettering of a periodical. =duodecimo.= book printed on paper folded into twelve leaves. generally written mo. loosely applied to books from six to eight inches high. =dutch metal.= an imitation of gold leaf which soon tarnishes. =edges cut.= a book which has all edges trimmed smooth. =edges gilt.= all edges trimmed smooth and gilded. =edges opened.= a book which has the folds of leaves cut by hand with a paper knife, has its edges opened. =edges rolled.= the edges of the covers are marked with a roll. =edges trimmed.= edges cut somewhat, but not enough to cut all the folds. =edges uncut.= uncut edges have not been trimmed in any way, though they may have been opened with a paper knife. =edition de luxe.= fine editions of books printed on large paper and handsomely bound. many books so-called are in reality cheaply bound. =eighteenmo.= a book printed on paper folded into eighteen leaves. not often found. =elephant folio.= see folio. =embossing.= the process of producing raised designs by means of stamps. used in imitating leathers. =end papers.= folded sheets at the beginning and end of books, half of which are pasted to the boards. sometimes called lining papers. =eve style.= decorative design consisting of geometrical figures joined by interlaced circles. the figures contain flowers and the space surrounding them contains scroll work and branches of laurel and palm. =extra binding.= trade term for the best work. =fanfare style.= leafy spirals interwoven with a delicate tracery over the cover. =fast.= colors are fast to sunlight if they do not fade; to water if they do not wash off. =fillet.= . plain lines stamped upon the back or cover of the book. . the tool with which the work is done. =filling.= see weft. =finishing.= . all processes after the book leaves the hand of the forwarder are known as finishing processes. . the ornaments stamped on a book. =finishing press.= a small wooden press with wooden screws which holds a book with the back up. =finishing stove.= a small gas or electric stove used for heating finishing tools. =flexible.= a form of binding in which the book is sewed on raised bands, the thread being passed entirely around the bands. =flush cut.= see cut flush. =fly leaves.= blank leaves at the beginning and end of the book between end papers and the book itself. =folder.= . small flat piece of bone used in folding sheets and in other binding processes. . person engaged in folding sheets. =folding machines.= power machine for folding sheets. =folio.= . a book printed on paper folded in two leaves--four pages. loosely applied to books over fifteen inches high. very large books are sometimes called elephant folios. . consecutive page numbers of a book. =fore-edge.= the front edge of the leaves of a book. =font.= the complete number of letters, figures, etc., forming a set of type. =format.= size and shape of a book. =forwarding.= . all processes between sewing and finishing. . the department which takes charge of books during these processes. those who work in it are called forwarders. =foxed.= books having leaves stained by dampness are said to be foxed. =french guard.= the back edge of an illustration turned over and folded around the adjoining signature. =french joint.= joint formed by setting the boards a short distance away from the back. see page . =french morocco.= a very inferior quality of levant morocco. many skins so-called are sheep skins or cowhide. =frontispiece.= illustration facing the title page. =full-bound.= term applies to books entirely covered, back and sides, with the same material, whether cloth or leather. =gascon style.= the distinguishing characteristic of this style of decoration is that dotted lines are used instead of lines which are continuous. =gathering.= collecting the folded sheets, or signatures, in the order in which they are bound. =gaufre edges.= edges which have had impressions made by finishing tools after the edges have been gilded. =gauge.= a tool used for obtaining the correct size of a volume in order to mark it on boards for squaring. =gilding press.= same as the finishing press. =gilt edge.= see edges gilt. =gilt tops.= top edges gilded. =glaire.= a liquid made by beating whites of eggs. used in lettering and gilding. see page . =goffered edges.= see gaufre edges. =gold cushion.= leather cushion on which the finisher cuts gold leaf. =gold knife.= a long straight knife used in cutting gold leaf. =gold leaf.= gold beaten very thin, used for lettering and gilding. =gouge.= a finishing tool used to stamp the segment of a circle on a book. =grain.= the outer surface of a piece of leather from which the hair has been removed. generally used with adjectives which indicate the appearance of the grain in question. =graining.= . process of "bringing up" the natural grain of leather by artificial means. . process of embossing leather to produce a fictitious grain. =grater.= tool used for rubbing backs after they are paste-washed. =grolier.= an elaborate style of ornament consisting of scroll work with interwoven squares, circles and diamonds, parts of the design being studded with gold dots. =grooves.= projections at the back against which boards rest to form the joint. made by the backing hammer. sometimes called joints. =guards.= . narrow strips of paper bound in books to which plates or leaves are attached later. . narrow strips of cloth or paper used to reinforce the folds of signatures, or pasted to single leaves and folded around adjoining signatures. =guides.= the grooves in which the plough moves on the face of the cutting press. =guillotine.= see cutter, or cutting machine. =half-bound.= term indicating that leather is used on the back, with cloth or paper on the sides. if small pieces of leather are placed on the corners the book is still half-bound. if the corner pieces are large the book is three-quarters bound. =half-title.= brief title on the leaf preceding the main title page. also called bastard title. =hand letters.= single letters affixed to handles and used in lettering. =head.= the top of the back of the book. =headband.= a silk or cotton band attached to the head of the book to strengthen it, improve its appearance, and make the back even in thickness with the boards. =head cap.= fold of leather over the headband. =heel-ball.= shoemaker's preparation of wax used for taking rubbings of the backs of books. =holeing.= piercing the boards with an awl so that bands can be laced-in. =hollow back.= see loose back. =imperfections.= in commercial binderies, sheets rejected because imperfect. =in boards.= . term used when books are cut after boards have been attached. . style of binding which has a very narrow cloth back and paper covered sides. =in print.= obtainable from the publishers. =india-rubbered.= when the backs of books consisting of single leaves are covered with a solution of india rubber instead of being sewed they are said to be india-rubbered. not practicable for permanent bindings. =inlaid.= the cover of a book bound in leather in which leather of a different kind or color has been inlaid. =in quires.= unbound books in sheets. =inset.= a folded sheet laid inside of another. =in sheets.= a book is said to be in sheets before it has been bound, whether the sheets are folded or not. =inside margin.= the border made by the turned-in leather on the inside face of the boards. =inside tins.= sheets of tin sometimes placed in books which are to receive heavy pressure. =jansen style.= a style of decoration in which the book is absolutely plain on the outside except for lettering. the inside covers, however, may be elaborately decorated. =joints.= the part of the book which bends when the book is opened. see also grooves; french joint. =kettlestitch.= the stitch made at the head and tail of the book fastening a signature at these points to the preceding signature. =keys.= small metal objects which fasten the bands to the under side of the sewing bench. =kip calf.= made from the skin of a heifer. stronger than calfskin. =knocking-down iron.= iron plate on which books are placed when it is necessary to hammer down the ends of laced-in bands to prevent them from showing. =label.= a piece of paper or leather affixed to the back of a book on which to letter information. =lacing-in.= process of attaching the ends of bands to boards through holes made with an awl. see page . =large-paper edition.= copies of a book printed on paper with wide margins. =laying press.= see lying press. =law sheep.= uncolored sheepskin. so-called because at one time it was generally used on law books. see page . =lay cords.= the bands when stretched on the sewing bench ready for the signatures. =leatherette.= imitation leather, generally made of cloth. =lettering block.= a dummy book made of wood on which leather labels that are to be lettered are placed for greater ease in gilding. =lettering box.= that part of the pallet in which type is screwed up before lettering. =limp leather.= books bound in full leather without stiff boards are said to be bound in limp leather. =lining papers.= see end papers. =loose back.= books are loose backed when the covering material is not glued to the back, but springs out when the book is opened. called "hollow back" in england. =lying press.= the under side of the cutting press used in backing. sometimes called laying press. =magazine binder.= see binder. =maioli style.= decoration formed of shields or medallions with scroll work running through them. =marbled calf.= calfskin treated with acid so that it resembles marble. =marbling.= process of staining the paper or the edges of books with colors irregularly combined, similar to the irregular colorings and markings in marble. =marker.= piece of ribbon fastened to the headband and used as a book mark. also called register. =marking-up.= marking the position of the cords on the back. =millboard.= see boards. =millboard machine.= used for cutting and squaring boards. =mitred.= term indicating that lines in finishing meeting each other at right angles, continue but do not overrun each other. =mosaic binding.= a leather binding ornamented by designs made of inlaid pieces of leather or other material of different colors. =mottled calf.= light brown calf treated with acid to give it a mottled appearance. =mull.= see super. =octavo.= book printed on paper folded into eight leaves. usually written vo. loosely used to indicate that the size of a book is between eight and ten inches in height. =off and on.= term used in machine sewing, meaning that certain stitches in each signature are skipped. =off-set.= marks made on opposite page because the printer's ink had not become thoroughly dry. in case of illustrations tissue paper is frequently inserted to prevent this. also called set-off. =opened edges.= see edges opened. =out of boards.= a book trimmed before the boards have been fastened to it. =out of print.= not obtainable from the publishers. =overcasting.= process of sewing single leaves over and over. also called whipstitching. see page . =pallet.= a tool used in lettering having an adjustable box for holding type securely, with a handle attached. =panel.= . space between raised bands, or between stamped lines on the back. . a square or rectangular space on the side of a book, whether sunken or enclosed by beveled edges or gilded lines. =papering-up.= covering the leaves of a book, especially if it has gilded edges, to protect it during further processes. =parchment.= a material similar to vellum, but not so thick. =paring.= process of thinning the edges of leather with a sharp knife, so that there will not be a rough edge when it is on the book. sometimes called skiving. =pastewash.= paste diluted with water. =pasting-down.= operation of pasting end papers to the boards. =payne, roger.= style of decoration distinguished by gold-tooled corner pieces and by the grace and freedom of ornamentation. =pebble-grained.= covering material grained in an irregular manner. =pegamoid.= an imitation leather made in england. =perforating machine.= a machine which punches holes in sections so that they can be more easily overcast. =petits fers.= small hand tools used in finishing, as distinguished from the stamps or blocks used in a press. =pieced.= any space on the cover of a book which has a piece of another material attached to it. most often used to mean leather which is used as labels for titles; also called titled. =plate.= . illustration printed from a plate. the term is often used incorrectly for wood cuts. . in library usage any full-page illustration not paged-in. =plough.= a tool used for trimming books. =pluviusin.= an imitation leather made in england. =pocket.= an envelope made of paper or cardboard generally attached to the inside of the back cover and used to hold loose maps or plates. see also book pocket. =pointillé style.= a form of decoration in which the design is marked with small dots or points. =points.= holes made in sheets during the process of printing which serve as guides in registering and folding. =polisher.= a steel tool used to give a gloss to leather after finishing. =portfolio.= a case made for holding loose plates or maps. =powder, semé.= a form of decoration in which a small figure is repeated regularly. =preliminary matter.= half title, title, table of contents and preface, and all other matter preceding the main part of the book. =press pin.= an iron bar used to turn the screws of standing presses. =presses.= for various kinds see lying press; cutting press; finishing press; blocking press. =pressing boards.= wooden boards placed between books in the standing press. brass strips which project over the edges of the board fit into the grooves of the joint. =pressing plates.= japanned or nickeled plates, which, when placed next to leather bindings under heavy pressure give them a finish. =pulled.= a book taken from its cover and the signatures separated is said to be pulled. =puppy.= the specially prepared rubber used to remove superfluous gold leaf from a book is sometimes called the puppy. =quarto.= a book printed on paper folded into four leaves (eight pages). generally written to. loosely applied to books between ten and fifteen inches high. =quire.= twenty-four sheets. =raised bands.= see bands. =recasing.= replacing a book in its original cover, either with or without resewing. =recto.= right hand page of an open book. =register.= . ribbon attached to a book to be used as a book mark. . term indicating that the print on the verso falls exactly over that on the recto. =rexine.= an imitation leather made in england. =roll.= finishing tool with brass wheel having a design on the circumference. used in decorating leather bound books. =rolled edges.= see edges rolled. =rolling machine.= used in publisher's binding to press the leaves firmly together. =roulette border.= border design made with a roll. =rounding hammer.= heavy hammer used in rounding. =roundlet.= small circle in gold used in decorating books. =roxburgh binding.= plain leather backed book, lettering near the top enclosed in gold lines, gilt top, and cloth or paper sides. =rub-off=, or =rubbing=. a copy of the back of a book showing exact lettering. made by placing a sheet of thin strong paper on the back and rubbing it with a piece of heel-ball until all lettering is fully outlined. =run-up.= the back of a book with a fillet from head to tail not mitred at the bands is said to be run-up. =running title.= short title of a book or chapter appearing at the head of the page throughout the book or chapter. =saddle stitching.= a machine process which either sews or staples pamphlets of one signature. =sawing-in.= sawing the back of a book to make grooves in which the bands will rest when the book is sewed. =section.= see signature. =semé.= see powder. =set-off.= see off-set. =setting the headband.= adjusting the leather so that it covers the headband with a kind of cap. =sewer.= the person who sews the signatures together on a sewing bench to form a book. =sewing bench.= a board about two feet long having at each end on the front edge an upright. these are connected by a bar which is adjustable in height and between which and the board are stretched the bands or tapes on which the book is sewed. =sextodecimo.= see sixteenmo. =shears.= see board shears. =sheets in.= see in sheets. =signature.= . the letter or figure on the first page of each folded sheet to ensure its proper place in the book when bound. . the folded sheet itself. often called section. =sixteenmo.= a book printed on sheets folded into sixteen leaves. generally written mo. =size.= a preparation used in gilding and finishing. =skiving.= see paring. =slips.= the pieces of bands or tapes projecting beyond the book after it is sewed. =smooth calf.= plain, undecorated calf. =split boards.= . boards split at the edge to admit slips and back-lining. . boards made of two boards glued together, leaving a space for insertion of slips and back-lining. =sprinkled calf.= calf treated with acid so that it looks as if it had been sprinkled with dye. =sprinkled edges.= edges which have been colored by shaking or spraying coloring matter on them. =squares.= the parts of the board projecting beyond the edges of the leaves of the book. =stabbing.= . process of fastening together the signatures of a pamphlet with wire. . piercing the boards for lacing-in. =stabbed.= a pamphlet is said to be stabbed when the signatures are held together by wire staples driven in vertically near the back and clinched on the other side. =stamping press.= see blocking press. =stamps.= blocks or dies used to impress designs upon leather. =standing press.= a large fixed press capable of holding many books. =start.= sections which after cutting project beyond the others, are said to have started. =steamboating.= cutting a number of books at the same time. =stitching.= process of sewing signatures lengthwise with a sewing machine. _see also_ saddle stitching. =strawboard.= very soft paper board easily broken or cut. sometimes used in cheap work. =super.= a thin, coarsely woven cotton cloth used for back-lining. called mull in england. =tacky.= glue that is still sticky but not wet is tacky. =tail.= the bottom of the back of the book. =tar board.= see boards. =thirty-twomo.= a book printed on sheets folded into thirty-two leaves. written mo. =three-quarters bound.= see half-bound. =thrown out.= folded maps or diagrams which are likely to be used a great deal can be mounted on cloth guards the width of the book. when opened they will be entirely outside the book and are said to be thrown out. =tight back.= a book on which the covering material is glued to the back. see page . =title.= space between the bands upon which the title is lettered. =title skiver.= very thin skiver used as labels on which to gild lettering. =titled.= see pieced. =tooling.= the decoration of leather made by stamping designs in gold leaf upon it. =tools.= brass stamps used in tooling. =top gilt.= indicates that only the top edge of the book is gilded. =tree calf.= imitation of the trunk and branches of a tree made with acid on the sides of a book bound in full calf. =trimmed.= . books which have only the edges of projecting leaves, not the folds, cut off are said to be trimmed. . in library binding the term generally means that all edges have been trimmed even. =trindle.= a small tool used to take out the round of a book when it is being cut. =tub.= stand supporting the lying press. formerly a tub used to catch the paper cut from the edges. =turning up.= when books are cut in boards it is necessary to take the round out of the back. the process is assisted by the use of trindles and is called turning up. =twelvemo.= see duodecimo. =twenty-fourmo.= a book having twenty-four leaves to a sheet. =two on.= see page . =tying up.= when leather covers are put on over raised bands it is necessary to tie them with twine so that the leather will stick to the sides of the bands. =uncut.= see edges uncut. =unopened.= when the folds of signatures have not been cut the book is unopened. =varnish.= bookbinder's varnish is used to give a gloss to leather. it is claimed that it acts as a preservative also. =verso.= left hand page of an open book. =warp.= the threads running lengthwise in cloth. =waste papers.= the part of the end papers or fly leaves which in some kinds of work are removed when the end paper is pasted to the cover. the terms end papers, fly leaves and waste papers are used in different binderies with much the same meaning. =waterproof sheets.= sheets of waterproof cardboard sometimes laid in or between books when pressing. =weft.= the threads running crosswise in cloth. also called woof, and filling. =whipping=, or =whipstitching=. see overcasting. =whole bound.= term indicating that a book is bound in full leather. see also full bound. =wire sewing.= sewing the signatures of a book to cloth by means of wire staples driven through their centers. =wired.= pamphlets held together by wire staples driven through and clinched near the back edge, are said to be wired. =witness.= the leaves of a book which show the original size of the sheet, although other sheets have been trimmed, are a witness to the fact that the book has not been cut down. =woof.= see weft. index acid-free leather, , acids used in dyeing, effects, adhesives, advertisements, when to bind, age of animals, effect on leather, aldine vellum, a. l. a. committee on binding, a. l. a. specifications for reinforced books, american russia, ammonia, angora goatskin, arrangement for binding, art canvas, art vellum, artistic binding, back-lining, backing, backs, loose, mending, backs, tight, mending, backs, tight and loose, bands, bands, frayed, bands, number necessary, , bands, raised, barbour's thread, bench sewing, bibliography of binding, bids for binding, binder, instructions for, binders' boards, binders for magazines, binders ignorant of library binding, bindery in the library, bindery, equipment, binding before purchase, binding records, binding routine, binding slip, use of, , boards, boards, cut, bock, bone folders, bookbinding terms, books, discarding of, books, opening of, books, proper care, booksellers, oppose reinforced books, brownie books, strong binding, brushes, buckram, buffing, bureau of standards, specifications for cloth, bureau of standards, tests of cloth, burnishing, calfskin, calfskin vs. cowhide, call number, location of, call numbers gilded, canton flannel for lining, canvas, care of books, case, making of, cased books, catechol group, cheesecloth, chivers, cedric, binding from sheets, chivers, tests of leather, chivers, test of levant morocco, classic buckram, cleaning cover, cleaning pages, climate, effect on leather, cloth, cloth boards, cloth, cutting of, cloth for sides, cloth, government specifications, , cloth, grades of, cloth guards, cloth, manufacturers of, cloth, qualities of, cloth, tests of, cloth used in mending, cloth vs. leather, collation, , commercial binding, commercial binding, specifications, copying press, corners of vellum, corners rounded, cost of binding, , , cost of binding, records of, cost of binding, suggestions for reducing, , cotton vs. linen thread, covers, how cleaned, covers of periodicals, when to bind, cowhide, cowhide for fiction and juvenile, creases, how removed, creasing for flexibility, crepeline, , crushed levant, cutting board, dampness, effect on leather, decay of leather, discarding books, , duck, , duck for newspapers, dummy backs, durabline, embossing leather, end papers, end papers and fly leaves pasted together, end papers pasted down, end papers, quality, english buckram, everyman's library, library edition, , eyelet and tape binders, fabrikoid, , fibre-filling preservative, fiction, specifications, finishing, flesher for back-lining, flexible glue, flexible sewing, fly leaves and end papers pasted together, fly leaves guarded, fly leaves tipped on, fly leaves, renewal, folded plates, guarded, folders, bone, forwarding, fox marks, how removed, french joints, , , gall nuts for tanning, gas, effect on leather, gaylord binders, gilding, gilding tops, glaire, glue, , glue, flexible, glue pot, glue, removed from back of books, gluing, gluing for overcasting, goatskins, gold leaf, government cloth, government cloth, specifications, government documents, binding of, , government documents, materials used in binding, graining leather, grease in leather, grease spots, how removed, guarding fly leaves, guarding illustrations, guarding signatures, hair sheep, hayes' thread, headbands, heat, effect on leather, hemlock bark, home binderies, huntting, h. r., samson-back sewing, illustrations guarded, , illustrations mounted on cloth, imitation of morocco, , imperfect books, when to bind, imperial morocco cloth, , incomplete volumes, when to bind, index, where to place, index volumes, lettering of, ink stains, how removed, instructions to binder, jaconet, , javelle water, joint authors, lettering, joints, juvenile books bound from sheets, juvenile books, specifications, keratol, , kettlestitch, kettlestitch, sawing for, kettlestitch, three for overcast books, knives, knocking down, kraft paper, kraft paper for fly leaves, labeling, process, labels made of leather, labels on tight-back books, labels, removal of, labor, effects on cost of binding, lacing-in, , larch, for tanning, law books, specifications, law sheep, leather, leather, causes of variation in, leather corners, leather, decay of, , leather, embossed, leather for back-lining, leather imitation of, leather kinds of, leather labels, leather, mechanical qualities, leather, preservation of, leather vs. cloth, legal buckram, lettering, arrangement, lettering by hand, lettering, how indicated, lettering in white ink, lettering, joint authors, lettering, oversized books, lettering, pamphlets, lettering, periodicals, lettering, pseudonyms, lettering, thin volumes, lettering, two books in one, lettering with type, levant morocco, library binderies, library binderies, administration, library binderies, cost of, library binding, library buckram, linen buckram, linen finish cloth, linen vs. cotton thread, loose back, , loose joints, how mended, loose leaves, inserting, loose signatures, inserting, machine-bound books, magazine binders, making the case, manila paper, manila paper for fly leaves, maps, repair of, materials, materials for lettering, materials for repairing, mending, , mending by binder, mending materials, mending, rules for, mildew, how prevented, millboards, morocco, morocco, bock, morocco, imitation of, morocco, levant, morocco, niger, morocco, persian, morocco, turkey, mucilage, music, specifications for, newspapers, specifications, newspapers, wrapped in paper, niger morocco, non-fiction, specifications, oak bark, , oak bark for pigskin, oak bark for sheepskin, onion skin, overcast books, cut before sewing, overcasting, , overcasting, sawing for, oversized books, lettering, pages, cleaning of, pages, how mended, pages missing, pamphlets, binding, pamphlets, binding single copies, pamphlets, lettering, panels, panels, staining of, paper, effect of folding, paper, effect on binding, parker, j. gordon, on causes of decay in leathers, paste, , paste, poor, effect on binding, pasting down, pasting machine, , perforating machine, periodicals, arrangement of, , periodicals, binding single copies, periodicals, lettering, periodicals, specifications, periodicals, two volumes in one, periodicals, vagaries of, periodicals, when to bind incomplete, persian morocco, plates, folded, guarding, plates, unpaged, where to place, preparing for the bindery, press used in mending, pressing, pigskin, pluviusin, polished buckram, preservation of leather, prices, schedule of, printing investigation committee, processes, pseudonyms, lettering, publishers' binding, publishers' reinforced books, publishers' reinforced books, failure of, pyrogallol group, questions binding assistants must ask, raised bands, ratio of cost to circulation, reading list, rebacking, recasing instead of rebinding, recasing, process, records for large libraries, records of binding, records of previous volumes, , recovering, recovering, process, red rope manila, reference books, specifications, regular sewing, reinforced books, , reinforced books, specifications, reinforcing, process, repairing, reports, binding of, , reprints, bound before purchase, reprints, use instead of rebinding, resewed commercial books, re-siding, process, retanning, rexine, roan, rod binders, rounding, routine of binding, royal society of arts, investigation of leather, rub or rub-off, , russia leather, samson-back sewing, sawing, scientific books, when to rebind, scribner's, charles, sons co., reinforced books, sealskin, , second-hand books, rebound before using, , selection of binder, semi-tar boards, setting the square, sewing, sewing, affected by paper, sewing bench, sewing on tapes, sewing two-on, sex of animals, effect on leather, shaving of skins, sheep-bound set of u. s. documents, sheepskin, sheets, binding from, shellac, shellacking of covers, signatures, guarding of, - size, basis for prices, skiver, society of arts, investigation of leather, society of arts, on preservation of leather, sound leather committee of the library association, specifications, specifications, books of illustrations, specifications, commercial binding, specifications, fiction, specifications, general, specifications, juvenile, specifications, law books, specifications, music, specifications, newspapers, specifications, non-fiction, specifications, periodicals, specifications, reference books, specifications, reinforced books, split boards, split cowhide, split sheepskins, splitting of skins, spring-back binders, sprinkling, squares, stained labels, stitching, strawboards, sulphuric acid, , sumac, , , sumac for sheepskin, sunlight, effect on leather, super, supplements to periodicals, taking apart, tanning materials, tapes, tapes, sewing on, tar boards, technical books, when to rebind, technical terms, thread, , tides of barnegat, reinforced, tight backs, tight backs, mending, title page, where to place, title pages, vagaries of, tobacco smoke, effect on leather, tooling, tools for repairing, tools used in lettering, tools used in mending, torn leaves, mending, trimming, , turkey morocco, turwar bark, two-on, sewing, use determines kind of binding, valueless books, discarding of, vaseline for leathers, vellum, vellum corners, warp, strength of, waterproof cloths, weft, strength of, well-bound book, how to recognize, whipstitching, white ink, when used, wire, dr. g. e., on preservation of leather, wool sheep, english embroidered bookbindings [illustration: --christopherson, historia ecclesiastica. lovanii, .] edited by alfred pollard english embroidered bookbindings by cyril davenport, f. s. a author of 'the english regalia' etc. london kegan paul, trench, trÜbner and company, limited the english bookman's library edinburgh: t. and a. constable, printers to her majesty contents and list of plates page general introduction, ix by alfred w. pollard. english embroidered bindings by cyril davenport. chapter i.--introductory, plates. . embroidered bag for psalms. _london_, , . embroidered cover for new testament. _london_, , chapter ii.--books bound in canvas, plates. . the felbrigge psalter. th-century ms., . the miroir or glasse of the synneful soul. ms. by the princess elizabeth. , . prayers of queen katherine parr. ms. by the princess elizabeth. , . christian prayers. _london_, , . psalms and common praier. _london_, , . bible, etc. _london_, , . sermons by samuel ward. _london_, - , . new testament, etc. _london_, - , . the daily exercise of a christian. _london_, , . bible. _london_, , . bible, etc. _london_, , . bible. _london_, , chapter iii.--books bound in velvet, plates. . très ample description de toute la terre saincte, etc. ms. , . biblia. _tiguri_, , . il petrarcha. _venetia_, , . queen mary's psalter. th century ms., . christopherson, historia ecclesiastica. _lovanii_, , _frontispiece_ . christian prayers. _london_, , . parker, de antiquitate ecclesiæ britannicæ. _london_, , . the epistles of st. paul. _london_, , . christian prayers, etc. _london_, , . orationis dominicæ explicatio, etc. _genevæ_, , . bible. _london_, , . the commonplaces of peter martyr. _london_, , . biblia. _antverpiæ_, , . udall, sermons. _london_, , . collection of sixteenth-century tracts, . bacon, opera. _londini_, , . bacon, essays. , . common prayer. _london_, , . bible. _cambridge_, , chapter iv.--books bound in satin, plates. . collection of sixteenth-century tracts, . new testament in greek. _leyden_, , . bible. _london_, , . emblemes chrestiens. ms. , . new testament. _london_, , . new testament and psalms. _london_, , . henshaw, horæ successivæ. _london_, , . psalms. _london_, , . psalms. _london_, , . psalms. _london_, , . bible. _london_, , . psalms. _london_, , . the way to true happiness. _london_, , . new testament. _london_, , . psalms. _london_, , . psalms. _london_, , . psalms. _london_, , . psalms. _london_, , . bible. _london_, , general introduction a new series of 'books about books,' exclusively english in its aims, may seem to savour of the patriotism which, in matters of art and historical research, is, with reason enough, often scoffed at as a treacherous guide. no doubt in these pleasant studies patriotism acts as a magnifying-glass, making us unduly exaggerate details. on the other hand, it encourages us to try to discover them, and just at present this encouragement seems to be needed. there are so many gaps in our knowledge of the history of books in england that we can hardly claim that our own dwelling is set in order, and yet many of our bookmen appear more inclined to re-decorate their neighbours' houses than to do work that still urgently needs to be done at home. the reasons for this transference of energy are not far to seek. it is quite easy to be struck with the inferiority of english books and their accessories, such as bindings and illustrations, to those produced on the continent. to compare the books printed by caxton with the best work of his german or italian contemporaries, to compare the books bound for henry, prince of wales, with those bound for the kings of france, to try to find even a dozen english books printed before with woodcuts (not imported from abroad) of any real artistic merit--if any one is anxious to reinforce his national modesty, here are three very efficacious methods of doing it! on the other hand, english book-collectors have always been cosmopolitan in their tastes, and without leaving england it is possible to study to some effect, in public or private libraries, the finest books of almost any foreign country. it is small wonder, therefore, that our bookmen, when they have been minded to write on their hobbies, have sought beauty and stateliness of work where they could most readily find them, and that the labourers in the book-field of our own country are not numerous. touchstone's remark, 'a poor thing, but mine own,' might, on the worst view of the case, have suggested greater diligence at home; but on a wider view english book-work is by no means a 'poor thing.' its excellence at certain periods is as striking as its inferiority at others, and it is a literal fact that there is no art or craft connected with books in which england, at one time or another, has not held the primacy in europe. it would certainly be unreasonable to complain that printing with movable types was not invented at a time better suited to our national convenience. yet the fact that the invention was made just in the middle of the fifteenth century constituted a handicap by which the printing trade in this country was for generations overweighted. at almost any earlier period, more particularly from the beginning of the fourteenth century to the first quarter of the fifteenth, england would have been as well equipped as any foreign country to take its part in the race. from the production of queen mary's psalter at the earlier date to that of the sherborne missal at the later, english manuscripts, if we may judge from the scanty specimens which the evil days of henry viii. and edward vi. have left us, may vie in beauty of writing and decoration with the finest examples of continental art. if john siferwas, instead of william caxton, had introduced printing into england, our english incunabula would have taken a far higher place. but the sixty odd years which separate the two men were absolutely disastrous to the english book-trade. after her exhausting and futile struggle with france, england was torn asunder by the wars of the roses, and by the time these were ended the school of illumination, so full of promise, and seemingly so firmly established, had absolutely died out. when printing was introduced england possessed no trained illuminators or skilful scribes such as in other countries were forced to make the best of the new art in order not to lose their living, nor were there any native wood-engravers ready to illustrate the new books. i have never myself seen or heard of a 'caxton' in which an illuminator has painted a preliminary border or initial letters; even the rubrication, where it exists, is usually a disfigurement; while as for pictures, it has been unkindly said that inquiry whence they were obtained is superfluous, since any boy with a knife could have cut them as well. making its start under these unfavourable conditions, the english book-trade was exposed at once to the full competition of the continental presses, richard iii. expressly excluding it from the protection which was given to other industries. practically all learned books of every sort, the great majority of our service-books, most grammars for use in english schools, and even a few popular books of the kind to which caxton devoted himself, were produced abroad for the english market and freely imported. only those who mistake the shadow for the substance will regret this free trade, to which we owe the development of scholarship in england during the sixteenth century. none the less, it was hard on a young industry, and though pynson, wynkyn de worde, the faques, berthelet, wolfe, john day, and others produced fine books in england during the sixteenth century, the start given to the continental presses was too great, and before our printers had fully caught up their competitors, they too were seized with the carelessness and almost incredible bad taste which marks the books of the first half of the seventeenth century in every country of europe. towards the close of the eighteenth century, as is well known, the french thought sufficiently well of baskerville's types to purchase a fount after his death for the printing of an important edition of the works of voltaire. but the merits of baskerville as a printer, never very cordially admitted, are now more hotly disputed than ever; and if i am asked at what period english printing has attained that occasional primacy which i have claimed for our exponents of all the bookish arts, i would boldly say that it possesses it at the present day. on the one hand, the kelmscott press books, on their own lines, are the finest and the most harmonious which have ever been produced; on the other, the book-work turned out in the ordinary way of business by the five or six leading printers of england and scotland seems to me, both in technical qualities and in excellence of taste, the finest in the world, and with no rival worth mentioning, except in the work of one or two of the best firms in the united states. moreover, as far as i can learn, it is only in great britain and america that the form of books is now the subject of the ceaseless experiment and ingenuity which are the signs of a period of artistic activity. as regards book-illustration the same claim may be put forward, though with a little more hesitation. we have been taught lately, with insistence, that 'the sixties' marked an epoch in english art, solely from the black and white work in illustrated books. at that period our book-pictures are said to have been the best in the world; unfortunately our book-decoration, whether better or worse than that of other countries, was almost unmitigatedly bad. in the last quarter of a century our decorative work has improved in the most striking manner; our illustrations, if judged merely for their pictorial qualities, have not advanced. in the eyes of artists the sketches for book-work now being produced in other countries are probably as good as our own. but an illustration is not merely a picture, it is a picture to be placed in a certain position in a printed book, and in due relation to the size of the page and the character of the type. english book-illustrators by no means always realise this distinction, yet there is on the whole a greater feeling for these proprieties in english books than in those of other countries, and this is an important point in estimating merits. another important point is that the rule of the 'tint' or 'half-tone' block, with its inevitable accompaniment of loaded paper, ugly to the eye and heavy in the hand, though it has seriously damaged english illustrated work, has not yet gained the predominance it has in other countries. our best illustrated books are printed from line-blocks, and there are even signs of a possible revival of artistic wood-engraving. in endeavouring to make good my assertion of what i have called the occasional primacy of english book-work, i am not unaware of the danger of trying, or seeming to try, to play the strains of 'rule britannia' on my own poor penny whistle. as regards manuscripts, therefore, it is a pleasure to be able to seek shelter behind the authority of sir edward maunde thompson, whose words in this connection carry all the more weight, because he has shown himself a severe critic of the claims which have been put forward on behalf of several fine manuscripts to be regarded as english. in the closing paragraphs of his monograph on _english illuminated manuscripts_ he thus sums up the pretensions of the english school:-- 'the freehand drawing of our artists under the anglo-saxon kings was incomparably superior to the dead copies from byzantine models which were in favour abroad. the artistic instinct was not destroyed, but rather strengthened, by the incoming of norman influence; and of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there is abundant material to show that english book-decoration was then at least equal to that of neighbouring countries. for our art of the early fourteenth century we claim a still higher position, and contend that no other nation could at that time produce such graceful drawing. certainly inferior to this high standard of drawing was the work of the latter part of that century; but still, as we have seen, in the miniatures of this time we have examples of a rising school of painting which bid fair to attain to a high standard of excellence, and which only failed for political causes.'[ ] to this judicial pronouncement on the excellence of english manuscripts on their decorative side, we may fairly add the fact that manuscripts of literary importance begin at an earlier date in england than in any other country, and that the cotton ms. of _beowulf_ and the miscellanies which go by the names of the _exeter book_ and the _vercelli book_ have no contemporary parallels in the rest of europe. [footnote : _english illuminated manuscripts._ by sir edward maunde thompson, k. c. b. (kegan paul, ), pp. , .] when we turn from books, printed or in manuscript, to their possessors, it is only just to begin with a compliment to our neighbours across the channel. no english bookman holds the unique position of jean grolier, and 'les femmes bibliophiles' of england have been few and undistinguished compared with those of france. grolier, however, and his fair imitators, as a rule, bought only the books of their own day, giving them distinction by the handsome liveries which they made them don. our english collectors have more often been of the omnivorous type, and though lords lumley and arundel in the sixteenth century cannot, even when their forces are joined, stand up against de thou, in sir robert cotton, harley, thomas rawlinson, lord spencer, heber, grenville, and sir thomas phillips (and the list might be doubled without much relaxation of the standard), we have a succession of english collectors to whom it would be difficult to produce foreign counterparts. round these _dii majores_ have clustered innumerable demigods of the book-market, and certainly in no other country has collecting been as widely diffused, and pursued with so much zest, as in england during the present century. it is to be regretted that so few english collectors have cared to leave their marks of ownership on the books they have taken so much pleasure in bringing together. michael wodhull was a model in this respect, for his book-stamp is one of the most pleasing of english origin, and his autograph notes recording the prices he paid for his treasures, and his assiduous collation of them, make them doubly precious in the eyes of subsequent owners. mr. grenville also had his book-stamp, though there is little joy to be won from it, for it is unpleasing in itself, and is too often found spoiling a fine old binding. mr. cracherode's stamp was as graceful as wodhull's; but, as a rule, our english collectors, though, as mr. fletcher is discovering, many more of them than is generally known have possessed a stamp, have not often troubled to use it, and their collections have never obtained the reputation which they deserve, mainly for lack of marks of ownership to keep them green in the memory of later possessors. that this should be so in a country where book-plates have been so common may at first seem surprising. but book-plates everywhere have been used rather by the small collectors than the great ones, and the regrettable peculiarity of our english bookmen is, not that they despised this rather fugitive sign of possession, but that for the most part they despised book-stamps as well. of book-plates themselves i have no claim to speak; but for good taste and grace of design the best english jacobean and chippendale specimens seem to me the most pleasing of their kind, and certainly in our own day the work of mr. sherborn has no rival, except in that of mr. french, who, in technique, would, i imagine, not refuse to call himself his disciple. i have purposely left to the last the subject of bindings, as this, being more immediately cognate to mr. davenport's book, may fairly be treated at rather greater length. if the french dictum 'la reliure est un art tout français' is not without its historical justification, it is at least possible to show that england has done much admirable work, and that now and again, as in the other bookish arts, she has attained preeminence. the first point which may fairly be made is that england is the only country besides france in which the art has been consistently practised. in italy, binding, like printing, flourished for a little over half a century with extraordinary vigour and grace, and then fell suddenly and completely from its high estate. from to the death of aldus the books printed in italy were the finest in the world; from the beginning of the work of aldus to about italian bindings possess a freedom of graceful design which even the superior technical skill quickly gained by the french does not altogether outbalance. but just as after about a finely printed italian book can hardly be met with, so after , save for a brief period during which certain fan-shaped designs attained prettiness, there have been no good italian bindings. in germany, when in the fifteenth century, before the introduction of gold tooling, there was a thriving school of binders working in the mediæval manner, the renaissance brought with it an absolute decline. holland, again, which in the fifteenth century had made a charming use of large panel stamps, has since that period had only two binders of any reputation, magnus and poncyn, of amsterdam, who worked for the elzéviers and louis xiv. of spanish bindings few fine specimens have been unearthed, and these are all early. only england can boast that, like france, she has possessed one school of binders after another, working with varying success from the earliest times down to the present century, in which bookbinding all over europe has suffered from the servility with which the old designs, now for the first time fully appreciated, have been copied and imitated. in this length of pedigree it must be noted that england far surpasses even france herself. the magnificent illuminated manuscripts, the finest of their age, which were produced at winchester during the tenth century, were no doubt bound in the jewelled metal covers of which the rapacity of the sixteenth century has left hardly a single trace in this country. but early in the twelfth century, if not before, the winchester bookmen turned their attention also to leather binding, and the school of design which they started, spreading to durham, london, and oxford, did not die out in england until it was ousted by the large panel stamps introduced from france at the end of the fifteenth. the predominant feature of these winchester bindings (of which a fine example from the library of william morris recently sold for £ ), and of their successors, is the employment of small stamps, from half an inch to an inch in size, sometimes circular, more often square or pear-shaped, and containing figures, grotesques, or purely conventional designs. a circle, or two half-circles, formed by the repetition of one stamp, within one or more rectangles formed by others, is perhaps the commonest scheme of decoration, but it is the characteristic of these bindings, as of the finest in gold tooling, that by the repetition of a few small patterns an endless variety of designs could be built up. the british museum possesses a few good examples of this stamp-work, but the finest collections of them are in the cathedral libraries at durham and hereford. any one, however, who is interested in this work can easily acquaint himself with it by consulting the unique collection of rubbings carefully taken by mr. weale and deposited in the national art library at the south kensington museum. in these rubbings, as in no other way, the history of english binding can be studied from the earliest winchester books to the charming oxford bindings executed by thomas hunt, the english partner of the cologne printer, rood, about . during the first half of this period the english leather binders were the finest in europe; during the second, the germans pressed them hard, and when the large panel stamps, three or four inches square and more, were introduced in holland and france, the english adaptations of them were distinctly inferior to the originals. the earliest english bindings with gold tooling were, of course, also imitative. the use of gold reached this country but slowly, as the first known english binding, in which it occurs, is on a book printed in , by which time the art had been common in italy for a generation. the english bindings found on books bound for henry viii., edward vi., and mary i., all of which are roughly assigned to berthelet as the royal binder, resemble the current italian designs of the day, with sufficient differences to make it probable that they were produced by englishmen. we know, however, that until the close of the century there were occasional complaints of the presence of foreign binders in london, and it is probable that the grolieresque bindings executed for wotton were foreign rather than english. where, however, we find work on english books distinctly unlike anything in france or italy, it is reasonable to assign it to a native school, and such a school seems to have grown up about , in the workshop of john day, the helper of archbishop parker in so many of his literary undertakings. these bindings attributed to day, especially those in which he worked with white leather on brown, although they have none of the french delicacy of tooling, perhaps for this reason attack the problem of decoration with a greater sense of the difference between the styles suitable for a large book and a small than is always found in france, where the greatest binders, such as nicholas eve and le gascon, often covered large folios with endless repetitions of minute tools whose full beauty can only be appreciated on duodecimos or octavos. the english designs with a large centre ornament and corner-pieces are rich and impressive, and we may fairly give day and his fellows the palm for originality and effectiveness among elizabethan binders. in the next reign the french use of the semé or powder, a single small stamp, of a fleur-de-lys, a thistle, a crown, or the like, impressed in rows all over the cover, was increasingly imitated in england, very unsuccessfully, and, save for a few traces of the style of day, the leather bindings of the first third of the century deserve the worst epithets which can be given them. until, however, french fashions came into vogue after the restoration, english binders had never been content to regard leather as the sole material in which they could work. embroidered bindings had come early into use in england, and a psalter embroidered by anne felbrigge towards the close of the fourteenth century is preserved at the british museum, and shown in one of mr. davenport's illustrations. in the sixteenth century embroidered work was very popular with the tudor princesses, gold and silver thread and pearls being largely used, often with very decorative effect. the simplest of these covers are also the best--but great elaboration was often employed, and on a presentation copy of archbishop parker's _de antiquitate ecclesiæ britannicæ_ we find a clever but rather grotesque representation of a deer-paddock. under the stuarts the lighter feather-stitch was preferred, and there seems to have been a regular trade in embroidered bibles and prayer-books of small size, sometimes with floral patterns, sometimes with portraits of the king, or scriptural scenes. a dealer's freak which compelled the british museum to buy a pair of elaborate gloves of the period rather than lose a finely embroidered psalter, with which they went, was certainly a fortunate one, enabling us to realise that in hands thus gloved these little bindings, always pretty, often really artistic, must have looked exactly right, while their vivid colours must have been admirably in harmony with the gay cavalier dresses. besides furnishing a ground for embroidery, velvet bindings were often decorated, in england, with goldsmith work. one of the most beautiful little bookcovers in existence is on a book of prayers, bound for queen elizabeth in red velvet, with a centre and corner pieces delicately enamelled on gold. under the stuarts, again, we frequently find similar ornaments in engraved silver, and their charm is incontestable. thus while for english bindings of this period in gilt leather we can only claim that berthelet's show some freedom in their adaptation of italian models, and day's a more decided originality, we are entitled to set side by side with this scanty record a host of charming bindings in more feminine materials, which have no parallel in france, and certainly deserve some recognition. after the restoration, however, leather quickly ousted its competitors, and a school of designers and gilders arose in england, which, while taking its first inspiration from le gascon, soon developed an individual style. in effectiveness, though not in minute accuracy of execution, this may rank with the best in europe. we can trace the beginnings of this lighter and most graceful work as early as the thirties, and it might be contended with a certain plausibility that it began at the universities. certainly the two earliest examples known to me--the copy of her _statutes_ presented to charles i. by oxford in , and the little gidding _harmony_ of , the tools employed in which have been shown by mr. davenport to have been used also by buck, of cambridge--are two of the finest english bindings in existence, and in both cases, despite the multiplicity of the tiny tools employed, there is a unity and largeness of design which, as i have ventured to hint, is not always found even in the best french work. the chief english bindings after the restoration, those associated with the name of samuel mearne, the king's binder, preserve this character, though the attempt to break the formality of the rectangle by the bulges at the side and the little penthouses at foot and head (whence its name, the 'cottage' style) was not wholly successful. the use of the labour-saving device of the 'roll,' in preference to impressing each section of the pattern by hand, is another blot. nevertheless, it is almost impossible to find an english or scotch binding of this period which is less than charming, and the best of them are admirable. at the beginning of the eighteenth century a new grace was added by the inlaying of a leather of a second colour. these inlaid english bindings are few in number (the british museum has not a single fine example), but those who know the specimens exhibited at the burlington fine arts club, two of which are figured in its catalogue, will readily allow that their grace has never been surpassed. the fine harleian bindings let us down gently from this eminence, and then, after a period of mere dulness, with the rise of roger payne we have again an english school (for payne's traditions were worthily followed by charles lewis) which, by common consent, was the finest of its time. payne's originality is, perhaps, not quite so absolute as has been maintained, for some of his tools were cut in the pattern of mearne's, and it would be possible to find suggestions for some of his schemes of arrangement in earlier english work. if he borrowed, however, he borrowed from his english predecessors, and he brought to his task an individuality and an artistic instinct which cannot be denied. after payne and lewis, english binding, like french, became purely imitative in its designs; but while in our own decade the french artists have endeavoured to shake themselves free from old traditions by mere eccentricity, in england we have several living binders, such as mr. cobden sanderson and mr. douglas cockerell, who work with notable originality and yet with the strictest observance of the canons of their art. moreover in the application of decorative designs to cloth cases england has invented, and england and america have brought to perfection, an inexpensive and very pleasing form of book-cover, which gives the bookman ample time to consider whether his purchase is worth the more permanent honours of gilded leather, and also, by the facts that it is avowedly temporary, and that its decoration is cheaply and easily effected by large stamps, renders forgivable vagaries of design, which when translated, as they have been of late years in france, into the time-honoured and solemn leather, seem merely incongruous and irreverent. in binding, then, as in the other bookish arts, the part which english workers have played has been no insignificant or unworthy one, and the development of this art, as of the others, in our own country is worthy of study. in this case much has already been done, for the illustrations of _english bookbindings at the british museum_, edited, with introduction and descriptions by mr. w. y. fletcher, present the student with the best possible survey of the whole subject, while the excellent treatises of miss prideaux and mr. horne bring english bookbinding into relation with that of other countries. here, then, there is no need of a new general history, but rather of special monographs, treating more in detail of the periods at which our english binders have done the best work. the old stamped bindings of the days of manuscript, the embroidered bindings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the leather bindings of mearne and his fellows under the later stuarts, and the work of roger payne--all these seem to offer excellent subjects for unpretentious monographs, and it is hoped that others of them besides the _english embroidered bindings_, with which mr. davenport has made a beginning, may be treated in this series. in other subjects the ground has not yet been cleared to the same extent, and for the history of english book-collectors and english printing, not special monographs, but good general surveys are the first need. to say much on this subject might bring me perilously near to re-writing the prospectus of this series. it is enough to have pointed out that the bookish arts in england are well worth more study than they have yet been given, and that the pioneers who are endeavouring to enlarge knowledge, each in his own section, may fairly hope that their efforts will be received with indulgence and good-will. alfred w. pollard. [illustration] chapter i embroidered books the application of needlework to the embellishment of the bindings of books has hitherto almost escaped special notice. in most of the works on the subject of english bookbinding, considered from the decorative point of view in distinction from the technical, a few examples of embroidered covers have indeed received some share of attention. thus in both mr. h. b. wheatley's and mr. w. y. fletcher's works on the bindings in the british museum, in mr. salt brassington's _historic bindings in the bodleian library_ and _history of the art of bookbinding_, and in my own _portfolio_ monograph on 'royal english bookbindings,' some of the finer specimens of embroidered books still existing are illustrated and described. but up to the present no attempt has been made to deal with them as a separate subject. in the course, however, of the many lectures on decorative bookbinding which it has been my pleasure and honour to deliver during the past few years, i have invariably noticed that the pictures and descriptions of embroidered specimens have been the most keenly appreciated, and this favourable sign has led me to examine and consider such examples as have come in my way more carefully than i might otherwise have done. very little study sufficed to show that in england alone there was for a considerable period a regular and large production of embroidered books, and further, that the different styles of these embroideries are clearly defined, equally from the chronological and artistic points of view. a peculiarly english art which thus lends itself to orderly treatment may fairly be made the subject of a brief monograph. with the exception of point-lace, which is sometimes made in small pieces for such purposes as ladies' cuffs or collars, decorative work produced by the aid of the needle is generally large. certainly this is so in its finest forms, which are probably to be found in the ecclesiastical vestments and in the altar frontals of the renaissance period, or even earlier. on the other hand, such work as exists on books is always of small size, and, unlike the point-lace, it almost invariably has more than one kind of 'stitchery' upon it--chain, split, tapestry, satin, or what not. thus it can be claimed as a distinction for embroidered book-covers that as a class they are the smallest complete embroideries existing, ranging upwards from about inches by - / inches--the size of the smallest specimen known to me, when opened out to its fullest extent, sides and back in one. this covers a copy of the psalms, printed in london in , and is of white satin, with a small tulip worked in coloured silk on each side. an 'embroidered book,' it should be said, means for my purpose a book which is covered, sides and back, by a piece of material ornamented with needlework, following a design made for the purpose of adorning that particular book. a cover consisting of merely a piece of woven stuff, or even a piece of true embroidery cut from a larger piece, is not, from my point of view, properly to be considered an 'embroidered book,' it being essential that the design as well as the workmanship should have been specially made for the book on which they are found; and this, in the large majority of instances, is certainly the case. with regard to the transference of bindings to books other than those for which they were originally made, such a transference has often taken place in the case of mediæval books bound in ornamental metal, but even in these instances it must be recognised that such a change can seldom be made without serious detriment. it is chiefly indeed from some incongruity of style or technical mistake in the re-putting together that we are led to guess that the covers have been thus tampered with. now and then such a transference occurs in the case of leather-bound books, and in such instances is usually easy for a trained binder to detect. embroidered covers, on the other hand, have rarely been changed, the motive for such a proceeding never having been strong, and the risk attending it being obvious enough. we may, in fact, feel tolerably sure that the large majority of embroidered covers still remain on the boards of the books they were originally made for. all the embroidered books now extant dating from before the reign of queen elizabeth have gone through the very unfortunate operation of 're-backing,' in the course of which the old embroidered work is replaced by new leather. the old head and tail bands, technically very interesting, have been replaced by modern imitations, and considerable damage has been done in distorting the work left on the sides of the book. it would seem obvious that a canvas, velvet, or satin embroidered binding, if it really must be re-backed or repaired at all, should be mended with a material as nearly as possible of the same make and colour as that of the original covering; but this has rarely been done, the large majority of such repairs being executed in leather. but in the case of such old bindings we must be grateful for small mercies, and feel thankful that even the sides are left in so many cases. it is indeed surprising that we still possess as much as we do. if all our great collectors had been of the same mind as henry prince of wales, the right hon. thomas grenville, or even king george iii., we should have been far worse off, as although several fine old bindings exist in their libraries, many which would now be priceless have been destroyed, only to be replaced by comparatively modern bindings, sometimes the best of their kind, but often in bad taste. _division of embroidered books according to the designs upon them._ the designs on embroidered books may be roughly divided into four classes--heraldic, figure, floral, and arabesque. the heraldic designs always denote ownership, and are most frequently found on royal books bound in velvet, rarely occurring on silk or satin, and never, as far as i have been able to ascertain, on canvas. the figure designs may be subdivided into three smaller classes, viz.:-- i. scriptural, _e.g._ representations of solomon and the queen of sheba, jacob wrestling with the angel, david, etc. ii. symbolical, _e.g._ figures of faith, hope, peace, plenty, etc. iii. portraits, _e.g._ of charles i., queen henrietta maria, duke of buckingham, etc. the scriptural designs are most generally found on canvas-bound books; the symbolical figures, and portraits, on satin, rarely on velvet. the floral and arabesque designs are most common on small and unimportant works bound in satin, but they occur now and then on both canvas and velvet books. the true arabesques have no animal or insect forms among them, the prophet mohammed having forbidden his followers to imitate any living thing. it may further be noted that heraldic designs on embroidered books are early, having been made chiefly during the sixteenth century, and that the figure, floral, and arabesque designs most usually belong to the seventeenth century. there are, of course, exceptions to these divisions, notably in the case of the earliest existing embroidered book, which has figure designs on both sides, but also maintains its heraldic position, inasmuch as its edges are decorated with coats-of-arms. naturally, again, it may be sometimes difficult to decide whether a design should be classed as heraldic or floral. such a difficulty occurs as to the large bible at oxford bound in red velvet for queen elizabeth, and bearing a design of tudor and york roses. i consider it heraldic, but it might, with no less appropriateness, be called floral. if it had belonged to any one not a member of the royal family it would undoubtedly be properly counted as a floral specimen. again, in many of the portrait bindings flowers and arabesques are introduced, but they are clearly subordinate, and the chief decorative motive of such designs must be looked for, and the work classed accordingly. thus it is evident that the arrangement of the embroidered books by their designs cannot be too rigidly applied, although it should not be lost sight of altogether. _division of embroidered books according to the material on which they are worked._ a more useful and accurate classification may however be found by help of the material on which the embroidered work is done, and this division is obvious and easy. with very few exceptions all embroidered books, ancient and modern, are worked on _canvas_, _velvet_, or _satin_, and while canvas was used continuously from the fourteenth century until the middle of the seventeenth century, velvet was most largely used during the tudor period, and satin during that of the early stuarts. broadly speaking, the essential differences in the kind of work found upon these three materials follow the peculiarities of the materials themselves. canvas, in itself of no decorative value, is always completely covered with needlework. velvet, beautiful even when alone, but difficult to work upon, usually has a large proportion of appliqué, laid, or couched work, in coloured silk or satin, upon it, showing always large spaces unworked upon, and such actual work as occurs directly on the velvet is always in thick guimp or gold cord. satin, equally beautiful in its way, is also freely left unornamented in places; the needlework directly upon it is often very fine and delicate in coloured floss silks, generally closely protected by thick raised frames or edges of metallic threads or fine gold or silver cords. [illustration: fig. . silken thread closely wound round with strip of flat metal.] [illustration: fig. . silken thread loosely wound round with strip of flat metal.] [illustration: fig. . strips of flat metal cut into shapes and kept down by small stitches at regular intervals. called 'lizzarding.'] by 'metallic' threads, when they are not simply fine wires, i mean strands of silk closely (fig. ) or loosely (fig. ) wound round with narrow coils of thin metal, mostly silver or silver gilt. the use of such threads, alone, or twisted into cords, is common on all styles of embroidered books, and it is largely due to their use that pieces of work apparently of the greatest delicacy are really extremely durable--far more so than is generally supposed. certainly if it had not been for the efficient protection of these little metal walls we should not possess, as we actually do, delicate-looking embroidered books, hundreds of years old, in almost as good condition, except in the matter of colour, as when they were originally made. thin pieces of metal are sometimes used alone, caught down at regular intervals by small cross stitches; this is, i believe, called 'lizzarding' (fig. ). metal is also found in the form of 'guimp,' in flattened spirals (fig. ), and also in the 'purl,' or copper wire covered with silk (fig. ), so common on the later satin books (compare p. ). [illustration: fig. . edging made with a piece of spiral wire hammered flat, appearing like a series of small rings.] [illustration: fig. . loop made of a short length of purl threaded, the ends drawn together.] spangles appear to have been introduced during the reign of elizabeth, but they were never freely used on velvet, finding their proper place ultimately on the satin books of a later time. the spangles are generally kept in position either by a small section of purl (fig. ) or a seed pearl (fig. ), in both cases very efficaciously, so that the use of guimp or pearl was not only ornamental but served the same protective purpose as the bosses on a shield, or those so commonly found upon the sides of the stamped leather bindings of mediæval books. [illustration: fig. . spangle kept in place by a stitch through a short piece of purl.] [illustration: fig. . spangle kept in place by a stitch through a seed pearl.] [illustration: fig. . binder's stamp for gold tooling, cut in imitation of a spangle.] it may be mentioned that the seventeenth-century dutch binders, magnus and poncyn, both of amsterdam, invented a new tool for gilding on leather bindings, used, of course, in combination with others. this was cut to imitate the small circular spangles of the embroidered books (fig. ), and the english and french finishers of a later period used the same device with excellent effect for filling up obtrusive spaces on the sides and backs of their decorative bindings. thus it may be taken as an axiom that, for the proper working of an embroidered book, except it be tapestry-stitch or tent-stitch, on canvas, which is flat and strong of itself, there should invariably be a liberal use of metal threads, these being not only very decorative in themselves, but also providing a valuable protection to the more delicate needlework at a lower level, and to the material of the ground itself. the earliest examples of embroidered bindings still existing are not by any means such as would lead to the inference that they were exceptional productions--made when the idea of the application of needlework to the decoration of books was in its infancy. on the contrary, they are instances of very skilled workmanship, so that it is probable that the art was practised at an earlier date than we now have recorded. there are, indeed, frequent notes in 'wardrobe accounts' and elsewhere of books bound in velvet and satin at a date anterior to any now existing, but there is no mention of embroidered work upon them. _the forwarding of embroidered books._ the processes used in the binding of embroidered books are the same as in the case of leather-bound books; but there is one invariable peculiarity--the bands upon which the different sections of the paper are sewn are never in relief, so that it was always possible to paste down a piece of material easily along the back without having to allow for the projecting bands so familiar on leather bindings (fig. ). the backs, moreover, are only rounded very slightly, if at all. this flatness has been attained on the earlier books either by sewing on flat bands, thin strips of leather or vellum (fig. ), or by flattening the usual hempen bands as much as they will bear by the hammer, and afterwards filling up the intermediate spaces with padding of some suitable material, linen or thin leather. in several instances the difficulty of flattening the bands has been solved, in sixteenth-and seventeenth-century embroidered books, in a way which cannot be too strongly condemned from a constructive point of view, although it has served its immediate purpose admirably. a small trench has been cut with a sharp knife for each band, deep enough to sink it to the general level of the inner edges of the sections (fig. ). [illustration: fig. . back of book sewn on raised bands.] [illustration: fig. . band of flat vellum sometimes found on old books with flat backs.] [illustration: fig. . typical appearance of a book, before it is sewn, with small trenches cut in the back in which the bands are to be laid; a bad method, but often used to produce a flat back.] this cutting of the back to make room for the bands was afterwards more easily effected by means of a saw--as it is done now--and in the eighteenth century was especially used by the french binder derome le jeune, who is usually made responsible for its invention. the existence of the sunken bands on early embroidered books probably marks the beginning of this vicious system, but here there is some excuse for it, whereas in the case of ordinary leather-bound books there is none, except from the commercial standpoint. in the case of vellum books there may be some reason for using the 'sawn in' bands, as it is certainly difficult to get vellum to fit comfortably over raised bands, although numerous early instances exist in which it has been successfully done. again in the case of 'hollow backs,' the bands are kept flat with some reason. but for all valuable or finely bound books the system of 'sawing in' cannot be too strongly condemned. 'sawing in' can be detected by looking at the threads in the centre of any section of a bound book from the inside. it will show as a small hole with a piece of hemp or leather lying transversely across it, under which the thread passes (fig. ). [illustration: fig. . typical appearance of the sewing of a book with 'sawn in' bands, as seen from the inside of each section. the bands just visible.] in the case of a properly sewn book, the bands themselves cannot be seen at all from the inside of the sections, unless, indeed, the book is damaged (fig. ). if the covering of the back is off, or even loose, the method of sewing that has been used can very easily be seen; and if it appears that the bands are sunk in a small trench, that is the form of sewing that is called 'sawn in,' or analogous to it. [illustration: fig. . typical appearance of the sewing of a book on raised bands, as seen from the inside of each section. the bands invisible. known as 'flexible.'] although in the embroidered books the bands of the backs do not show on the surface, it is common enough to find the lines they probably follow indicated in the work on the back, which is divided into panels by as many transverse lines, braid or cord, as there are bands underneath them. but in some cases the designer has used the back as one long panel, and decorated it accordingly as one space. the headbands in some of the earlier books were sewn at the same time as the other bands on the sewing-press and drawn in to the boards, but in most early bindings the ravaging repairer has been at work and made it impossible to know for certain what was the state of the headbands before the book came into his hands. most of the existing headbands are made by hand in the usual way, with the ends simply cut off, not indeed a very satisfactory finish. it would be better if these ends were somehow drawn in to the leather of the back, as for instance they still often are on thin vellum books. the great majority of embroidered books, both large and small, have had ties of silk on their front edges--generally two, but sometimes only one, which wraps round. these ties have generally worn away from the outer side of the boards, but their ends can usually be traced (if the book has not been repaired) in the inner side, covered only by a thin piece of paper; and if this paper is loose, as often happens, and the ends show well, it may often be advisable not to paste it down again at that particular place. the backs of old embroidered books are by far the weakest parts about them. if they exist at all in their old forms they are always much worn, and the work upon them so much damaged that it is often difficult to make out even the general character of the design, to say nothing of the details of the workmanship. the edges of the leaves of books bound in england in embroidered bindings are always ornamentally treated, sometimes simply gilded, often further adorned with 'gauffred' work, that is to say, small patterns impressed on the gold, and sometimes beautifully decorated with elaborate designs having colour in parts as well. the earliest english ornamentation of this kind in colour is found on the felbrigge psalter and on some of the books embroidered for henry viii., one of which is richly painted on the fore edges with heraldic designs, and another with a motto written in gold on a delicately coloured ground. _cases for embroidered books._ common though the small satin embroidered books must have been in england during the earlier part of the seventeenth century, it is still certain that the finer specimens were highly prized, and beautifully worked bags were often made for their protection. these bags are always of canvas, and most of them are decorated in the same way, the backgrounds of silver thread with a design in tapestry-or tent-stitch, and having ornamental strings and tassels. to describe one of these is almost to describe all. the best preserved specimen i know belongs to a little satin embroidered copy of the psalms, printed in london in , and measures inches long by inches in depth. [illustration: --embroidered bag for psalms. london, .] the same design is repeated on each side. a parrot on a small grass-plot is in the middle of the lower edge. behind the bird grow two curving stems of thick gold braid, each curve containing a beautifully-worked flower or fruit. in the centre is a carnation, and round it are arranged consecutively a bunch of grapes, a pansy, a honeysuckle, and a double rose, green leaves occurring at intervals. from the lower edge depend three ornamental tassels of silver loops, with small acorns in silver and coloured silks, one from the centre and one from each corner. the top edge has two draw-strings of gold and red braid, each ending in an ornamental oval acorn of silver thread and coloured silks, probably worked on canvas over a wooden core, ending in a tassel similar to those on the lower edge. a long loop of gold and silver braid serves as a handle, or means of attachment to a belt, and is fixed at each side near a strong double loop of silver thread, used when pulling the bag open. the lining is of pink silk. this particular bag is perfect in colour as well as condition, but usually the silver has turned black, or nearly so. besides these very ornamental bags, others of quite simple workmanship are occasionally found, worked in outline with coloured silks. as well as the embroidered bags, certain rectangular cloths variously ornamented, some richly, some plainly, were made and used for the protection of embroidered books, when being read. these, like the bags, only seem to have been used during the seventeenth century. a particularly fine example belongs to a new testament bound in embroidered satin in . it is of fine linen, measuring - / by - / inches, and is beautifully embroidered in a floral design, with thick stalks of gold braid arranged in curves and bearing conventional flowers and leaves, all worked in needle-point lace with coloured silks in a wonderfully skilful manner. in the centre is a double red rose with separate petals, and among the other flowers are corn-flowers, honeysuckles, carnations, strawberries, and several leaves, all worked in the same way, and appliqués at their edges. some, however, of the larger leaves and petals are ornamentally fastened down to the linen by small coloured stitches arranged in lines or patterns over their surfaces, as well as by the edge stitches. there are several spangles scattered about in the spaces on the linen, and the edge is bound with green silk and gold. on the book itself to which this cover belongs there is a good deal of the same needle-point work, probably executed by the same hand; but the cover is a finer piece altogether than the book,--in fact it is the finest example of such work i have ever seen. [illustration: --embroidered cover for new testament. london, .] abroad there have been made at various times embroidered bindings for books, but in no country except england has there been any regular production of them. i have come across a few cases in england of foreign work, the most important of which i will shortly describe. in the british museum is an interesting specimen bound in red satin, and embroidered with the arms of felice peretti, cardinal de montalt, who was afterwards pope sixtus v.; the coat-of-arms has a little coloured silk upon it, but the border and the cardinal's hat with tassels are all outlined in gold cord. the work is of an elementary character. the book itself is a beautiful illuminated vellum copy of fichet's _rhetoric_, printed in paris in , and presented to the then pope, sixtus iv. in the same collection are a few more instances of italian embroidered bindings, always heraldic in their main designs, the workmanship not being of any particular excellence or character. perhaps altogether the most interesting italian work of this kind was done on books bound for cardinal york, several of which still remain, embroidered with his coat-of-arms, one of them being now in the royal library at windsor. although the actual workmanship on these books is foreign, we may perhaps claim them as having been suggested or made by the order of the english prince himself, inheriting the liking for embroidered books from his stuart ancestors. french embroidered books are very rare, and i do not know of any examples in england. two interesting specimens, at least, are in the bibliothèque nationale, and are described and figured in bouchot's work on the artistic bindings in that library. the earlier is on a book of prayers of the fifteenth century, bound in canvas, and worked with 'tapisserie de soie au petit point,' or as i should call it, tent-, or tapestry-, stitch. it represents the crucifixion and a saint, but m. bouchot remarks of it, 'la composition est grossière et les figures des plus rudimentaires.' the other instance occurs on a sixteenth-century manuscript, 'les gestes de blanche de castille.' it is bound in black velvet, much worn, and ornamented with appliqué embroideries in coloured silks, in shading stitch, probably done on fine linen. the design on the upper cover shows the author of the book, etienne le blanc, in the left-hand corner, kneeling at the feet of louise de savoie, regent of france, to whom the book is dedicated. near her is a fountain into which an antlered stag is jumping, pursued by three hounds. the dutch, in the numerous excellent styles of bindings they have so freely imitated from other nations, have not failed to include the english embroidered books. in the south kensington museum is a charming specimen of their work on satin, finely worked in coloured silks with small masses of pearls in a rather too elaborate design of flowers and animals. in the british museum, besides other instances of dutch needlework, there is a very handsome volume of the _acta synodalis nationalis dordrechti habitæ_, printed at leyden in , and bound in crimson velvet. it has the royal coat-of-arms of england within the garter, with crest, supporters, and motto, all worked in various kinds of gold thread; in the corners are sprays of roses and thistles alternately, and above and below the coat are the crowned initials j. r., all worked in gold thread. _hints for modern broiderers._ many book-covers have been embroidered during the last few years in england by ladies working on their own account, or by some of the students at one or other of the many excellent centres now existing for the study and practice of the fascinating art of bookbinding. although a large proportion of modern work of this kind has been only copied from older work, i see no reason why original designs should not be freely and successfully invented. but i think that the ancient work may be advantageously studied and carefully copied as far as choice of threads and manner of working them goes. the workers of our old embroidered books were people of great skill and large experience, and from a long and careful examination of much of their work, i am impressed with the conviction that they worked on definite principles. if i allude briefly to some of these i may perhaps give intending workwomen a hint or two as to some minor points which may assist their work to show to the best advantage when _in situ_, and also insure, as far as possible, that it will not be unduly damaged during the operation of fixing to the back and boards of the book for which it is intended. ( ) before the operation of fixing on the book is begun, it will always be found best to mount the embroidered work on a backing of strong fine linen. the stage at which it is best to add the linen will vary according to the kind of work it is to strengthen. in the case of canvas it will only be necessary to tack it on quite at the last; with velvet a backing from the first may be used with advantage, all the stitches being taken through both materials. as to satin, it will be best to do all the very fine work, if any, in coloured silks first, and when the stronger work in cord or braid comes on, the linen may be then added. the value of the linen is twofold: it strengthens the entire work and protects the finer material from the paste with which it is ultimately fastened on to the book. ( ) a book must be sewn, the edges cut, and the boards fixed, before the sizes of the sides and back can be accurately measured. these sizes must be given to the designer most carefully, as a very small difference between the real size and the embroidered size will entirely spoil the finished effect, however fine the details of the workmanship may be. when the exact size is known the designer will fill the spaces at his disposal according to his taste and skill, making his sketches on paper, and, when these are complete, transferring the outlines to the material on which the work is to be done. if the designer is also to be the worker it is artistically right, and he, or she, will put in the proper stitches as the work progresses; but if another person is to execute the needlework it will be best that very detailed description of all the threads and stitches that are to be used should be given, as every designer of an embroidery design intends it to be carried out in a particular way, and unless this way is followed, the design does not have full justice done to it. ( ) in the working itself the greatest care must be taken, especially as to two points: the first and perhaps the more important, because the more difficult to remedy, is that the needlework on the _under_ side of the material must be as small and flat as possible, and all knots, lumps, or irregularities here, if they cannot be avoided or safely cut off, had best be brought to the upper side and worked over. with satin, especially, attention to this point is most necessary, as unless the plain spaces lie quite flat, which they are very apt not to do, the proper appearance of the finished work is spoiled, and however good it may be in all other points, can never be considered first-rate. the second pitfall to avoid is any pulling or straining of the material during the operation of embroidering it. success in avoiding this depends primarily upon the various threads being drawn at each stitch to the proper tension, so that it may just have the proper pull to keep it in its place and no more--and although a stitch too loose is bad enough, one too tight is infinitely worse. ( ) the preponderance of appliqué work, and raised work in metal guimps on embroidered books, especially on velvet, is easily accounted for when the principles they illustrate are understood, the truth being that in both these operations the maximum of surface effect is produced with the minimum of under work. if the piece appliqué is not very large, a series of small stitches along all the edges is generally enough to keep it firm; such edge stitches are in most cases afterwards masked by a gold cord laid over them. if, however, the appliqué piece is large it will be necessary to fix it as well with some supplementary stitches through the central portions. these stitches will generally be so managed that they fit in with, or under, some of the ornamental work; at the same time, if necessary, they may be symmetrically arranged so as to become themselves of a decorative character. _the embroidered books here illustrated._ for the purposes of illustration i have chosen the most typical specimens possible from such collections as i have had access to. the chief collections in england are, undoubtedly, those at the british museum and at the bodleian library at oxford. the collection at the british museum is especially rich, the earlier and finer specimens almost invariably having formed part of the old royal library of england given by george ii. to the museum in . the more recent specimens have been acquired either by purchase or donation, but as there has been no special intention at any time to collect these bindings, it is remarkable that such a number of them exist in our national library. the bodleian is rich in a few fine specimens only, and most of these are exhibited. my illustrations are made from photographs from the books themselves in all instances; to show them properly, however, all should be in colour, and it should not be forgotten that an embroidered book represented only by a half-tint print, however good, inevitably loses its greatest charm. however, if the half-tint is unworthy, the colour prints are distinctly flattering. i think that almost any old book well reproduced in colour gains in appearance, and in two of my colour plates i have actually restored some parts. in the beautiful fourteenth century psalter, supposed to have been worked by anne de felbrigge, i have made the colours purposely much clearer than they are at present. if it were possible to clean this volume, the colours would show very nearly as they do on my plate; but, actually, they are all much darker and more indistinct, being in fact overlaid with the accumulated dirt of centuries. the other instance where i have added more than at present exists on the original is the green velvet book which belonged to queen elizabeth, and forms my frontispiece. here i have put in the missing pearls, each of which has left its little impression on the velvet, so nothing is added for which there is not the fullest authority. moreover, some of the gold cord is gone on each of the three volumes of this work, but i have put it in its proper place for the purpose of illustration. the other plates are not in any way materially altered, but it may be allowed that the colour plates show their originals at their best. the books illustrated are selected out of a large number, and i think it may fairly be considered that the most favourable typical specimens now left in england are shown. it may well be that a few finer instances than i have been able to find may still be discovered hidden away in private collections, but it is now so rarely that a really fine ancient embroidered book comes into the sale-room, that we may safely conclude the best of them are already safely housed in one or other of our great national collections. where not otherwise stated, the specimens described are in the british museum. in the following detailed descriptions i have used the words 'sides' and 'boards' to mean the same thing, and the measurements refer to the size of the boards themselves, not including the back. these measurements must be taken as approximate only, as from wear and other causes the actual sizes would only be truly given by the use of small fractions of inches. chapter ii books bound in canvas english books bound in embroidered canvas range over a period of about two hundred and fifty years, the earliest known specimen dating from the fourteenth century, and instances of the work occurring with some frequency from this time until the middle of the seventeenth century. the majority of these bindings are worked in tapestry-stitch, or tent-stitch, in designs illustrating scriptural subjects in differently coloured threads. very often the outlines of these designs are marked by gold threads and cords, of various kinds, and parts of the work are also frequently enriched with further work upon them in metal threads. spangles are very rarely found on canvas-bound books. the backgrounds of several of the later specimens are worked in silver threads, sometimes in chain-stitch and sometimes in tapestry-stitch; others again have the groundwork of silver threads laid along the surface of the canvas and caught down at regular intervals by small stitches--this kind of work is called 'laid' or 'couched' work. books bound with this metal ground have always strong work superimposed, usually executed in metal strips, cords, and thread. the silver is now generally oxidised and much darkened, but when new these bindings must have been very brilliant. [illustration: --the felbrigge psalter. th-century ms.] _the felbrigge psalter._ th-century ms. probably bound in the th century. the earliest example of an embroidered book in existence is, i believe, the manuscript english psalter written in the thirteenth century, which afterwards belonged to anne, daughter of sir simon de felbrigge, k. g., standard-bearer to richard ii. anne de felbrigge was a nun in the convent of minoresses at bruisyard in suffolk, during the latter half of the fourteenth century, and it is quite likely that she herself worked the cover--such work having probably been largely done in monasteries and convents during the middle ages. on the upper side is a very charming design of the annunciation, and, on the under, another of the crucifixion, each measuring - / by - / inches. in both cases the ground is worked with fine gold threads 'couched' in a zigzag pattern, the rest of the work being very finely executed in split-stitch by the use of which apparently continuous lines can be made, each successive stitch beginning a little _within_ that immediately preceding it--the effect in some places being that of a very fine chain-stitch. the lines of this work do not in any way follow the meshes of the linen or canvas, as is mostly the case with book-work upon such material, but they curve freely according to the lines and folds of the design. it will be recognised i think by art workwomen skilled in this kind of small embroidery, that the methods used for ornamenting the canvas binding of this book are the most artistic of any of the various means employed for a similar purpose, and i know of no other instance which for appropriateness of workmanship, or charm of design, can compare with this, the earliest of all. the figure of the virgin mary, on the upper side, is dressed in a pale red robe, with an upper garment or cloak of blue with a gold border. on her head is a white head-dress, and round it a yellow halo; just above is a white dove flying downwards, its head having a small red nimbus or cloud round it. the virgin holds a red book in her hand. the figure of the angel is winged, and wears an under robe of blue with an upper garment of yellow; round his head he has a green and yellow nimbus, his wings are crimson and white. between these two figures is a large yellow vase, banded with blue and red; out of it grows a tall lily, with a crown of three red blossoms. the drawing of both of the figures is good, the attitudes and the management of the folds of the drapery being excellently rendered, and the execution of the technical part is in no way inferior to the design. on the lower side, on a groundwork of gold similar to that on the upper cover, is a design of the crucifixion. our saviour wears a red garment round the loins, and round his head is a red and yellow nimbus, his feet being crossed in a manner often seen in illuminations in ancient manuscripts. the cross is yellow with a green edge, the foot widening out into a triple arch, within which is a small angel kneeling in the attitude of prayer. on the right of the cross is a figure of the virgin mary, in robes of pale blue and yellow, with a white head-dress and green and yellow nimbus. on the left is another figure, probably representing st. john, dressed in robes of red and blue, and having a nimbus round his head of concentric rings of red and yellow. this figure is unfortunately in very bad condition. the edges of the leaves of the book are painted with heraldic bearings in diamond-shaped spaces, that of the felbrigge family 'gules, a lion rampant, or' alternately with another 'azure, a fleur-de-lys, or.' the embroidered sides have been badly damaged by time and probably more so by repair. the book has been rebound in leather, the old embroidered back quite done away with, and the worked sides pulled away from their original boards and ruinously flattened out on the new ones. after the felbrigge psalter no other embroidered binding has been preserved till we come to one dating about , which is in satin, and will be described under that head. _the miroir or glasse of the synneful soul._ ms. by the princess elizabeth. . the princess elizabeth, afterwards queen, in her eleventh year, copied out in her own handwriting the _miroir or glasse of the synneful soul._ she says it is translated 'out of frenche ryme into english prose, joyning the sentences together as well as the capacitie of my symple witte and small lerning coulde extende themselves.' it is also most prettily dedicated: 'from assherige, the last daye of the yeare of our lord god ... to our most noble and vertuous quene katherin, elizabeth her humble daughter wisheth perpetuall felicitie and everlasting joye.' the book is now one of the great treasures of the bodleian library; it is bound in canvas, measures about by inches, and was embroidered in all probability by the hands of the princess herself. the countess of wilton in her book on the art of needlework says that 'elizabeth was an accomplished needlewoman,' and that 'in her time embroidery was much thought of.' the rev. w. dunn macray in his _annals of the bodleian library_ considers this binding to be one of 'elizabeth's bibliopegic achievements.' [illustration: --the miroir or glasse of the synneful soul. ms. by the princess elizabeth. .] [illustration: --prayers of queen katherine parr. ms. by the princess elizabeth. .] the design is the same upon both sides. the ground is all worked over in a large kind of tapestry-stitch in thick pale blue silk, very evenly and well done, so well that it has been considered more than once to be a piece of woven material. on this is a cleverly designed interlacing scroll-work of gold and silver braid, in the centre of which are the joined initials k. p. in each corner is a heartsease worked in thick coloured silks, purple and yellow, interwoven with fine gold threads, and a small green leaflet between each of the petals. the back is very much worn, but it probably had small flowers embroidered upon it. _prayers of queen katherine parr._ ms. by the princess elizabeth. . another manuscript beautifully written by the princess elizabeth about a year later is now at the british museum. it is on vellum, and contains prayers or meditations, composed originally by queen katherine parr in english, and translated by the princess into latin, french, and italian. the title as given in the book reads, 'precationes ... ex piis scriptoribus per nobiliss. et pientiss. d. catharinam anglie, francie, hibernieq. reginam collecte, et per d. elizabetam ex anglico converse.' it is, moreover, dedicated to henry viii., the wording being, 'illustrissimo henrico octavo, anglie, francie, hibernieq. regi,' etc., and dated hertford, th december . it is bound in canvas, and measures - / by inches, the groundwork being broadly worked in tapestry-stitch, or some stitch analogous to it, in red silk, resembling in method the work on the ground of _the miroir of the synneful soul_ already described. on this, in the centre of each side, is a large monogram worked in blue silk, interwoven with silver thread, containing the letters k, probably standing for katherine, a, f, h, and r, possibly meaning 'anglie, francie, hibernieque, reginæ,' but like most monograms this one can doubtless be otherwise interpreted. above and below the monogram are smaller h's, worked in red silk, interwoven with gold thread. in each corner is a heartsease of yellow and purple silk, interwoven with gold thread, and having small green leaves between each of the petals. the work which was once on the back is now so worn that it cannot be traced sufficiently to tell what it originally was. the designs of these two volumes, credited to the princess elizabeth, resemble each other to some extent; they both have a monogram in the centre, they both have heartsease in the corners and groundwork of a like character. they are, as far as workmanship goes, still more alike, similar thick silk is used for the ground, and threads and braids of a thick nature, with metal interwoven, are used on both for the ornamental work. speaking of this british museum book, the countess of wilton says, 'there is little doubt that elizabeth's own needle wrought the ornaments thereon.' _books embroidered by the princess elizabeth._ it cannot be said that there is any actual authority for saying that the two covers just described are really the work of elizabeth's own hand, although she is known to have been fond of embroidery, it being recorded that she made and embroidered a shirt for her brother edward when she was six. there is little doubt, however, that the same designer and the same workwoman worked both these covers, and the technique, as well as the design, are peculiar for the time in which they were done. canvas bindings were rare--most of the embroidered work on books of that period were splendid works on velvet--so that if these two manuscripts had been 'given out' to be bound in embroidered covers we should have expected to find them in rich velvet, like brion's _holy land_, or christopherson's _historia ecclesiastica_, instead of a very elementary braid work. without attaching too much importance to the various statements concerning their royal origin, i am inclined to think that there is no impossibility, or even improbability, in the supposition that the princess designed and worked them herself, thereby adding to her exquisite manuscript the further charm of her clever needle. the idea of both writing and embroidering such valued presents as these two books must have been is likely to have strongly appealed to an affectionate and humble daughter, and there is an artistic completeness in the idea which, i think, tells strongly in its favour. probably enough no proof of their having been worked by elizabeth will now ever be forthcoming, but it is equally unlikely that any positive disproof will be found. the two 'elizabeth' books stand alone--there are no others resembling them; but the next kind of embroidered work i shall describe is one which includes a large number of books, generally small in size, and usually copies of the bible or the psalms. the canvas in these cases is embroidered all over in small tapestry-stitch, the design being shown by means of the different colours of the silks used. the work being all flat it is very strong, and often books bound in this way are in a marvellous state of preservation. the most interesting designs are those which represent scriptural scenes. some of these are very curious and almost grotesque, but there is much excuse for this. to work a face any way in embroidery is troublesome enough, but to work it on a small scale in tent-stitch is especially difficult, the result being somewhat similar in effect to that of a glass or marble mosaic, each little stitch being nearly square and of an uniform colour. the designers of these embroideries do not appear to have had a very fertile imagination, as again and again the same subject is represented. perhaps the most favourite of all is jacob wrestling with the angel; of figure subjects 'faith and hope' are the most frequently met with, but 'peace and plenty' are also common enough. [illustration: --christian prayers. london, .] _christian prayers._ london, . a _book of christian prayers_ with illustrated borders, printed in london in , is bound in coarse canvas worked in tapestry-stitch in colours, and measures by inches. the same design is on each side--a kind of flower-basket in two stories, out of the lower part of which, rectangular in shape, grow two branches, one with lilies and another with white flowers, and out of the upper, oval in shape, rise two sprays of roses, one white the other red. in the lower corners are a large lily, a blue flower, and a large double-rose spray. all the design is outlined with silver cord or thread, and the veinings of the leaves are indicated in the same way. there are remains of two green velvet ties on the front edges of each of the boards. the back is not divided into panels, but has a design upon it of the letters e and s repeated five times. the edges are gilt and gauffred. _psalms and common praier._ london, - . during the seventeenth century little 'double' books were rather favourite forms for common prayer and psalms especially. these curious bindings open opposite ways and have two backs, two ornamental boards, and one unornamented board enclosed between the two books, which are always of the same size. there are several instances where embroidered books have been bound in this way, the earliest i know being a copy of the psalms and common prayer, printed in - . this is bound in canvas, and measures - / by inches, each side having the same design embroidered on each of the ornamented sides and backs. the flowers and leaves are worked in long straight stitches in coloured silks, outlined with silver twist. a large pansy plant occupies the place of honour, growing out of a small green mound, from which also spring two short plants with five-petalled yellow flowers. the main stems and ribs of the leaves are made with strong silver twist. round about the central spray are several coloured buds. on the backs are four panels, each containing a small four-petalled flower. the ground is worked all over with silver thread irregularly stitched, and the edges are bound with a broad silver thread. there was originally one ribbon to twist round both books and keep them together, but it is now quite gone. the edges are gilt, gauffred, and slightly coloured. [illustration: --psalms and common praier. london, .] [illustration: --bible, etc. london, .] _bible, etc._ london, . a copy of the bible, with the psalms, printed in london in , and measuring - / by - / inches, is bound in fine canvas, and bears upon it designs embroidered in coloured silks in tapestry-stitch. on the upper side is king solomon seated in an elaborate throne on a dais, all outlined with gold cord. he wears a golden crown and a dress which more nearly approaches the style worn at the date of the production of the book than that which was probably worn by solomon himself. before the king kneels a figure, no doubt intended for the queen of sheba, in a red and orange robe of a curious fashion. she holds out two white and red roses to the king, who bends to take them. the ground is patterned in green and blue diamonds. the distant landscape shows a castle with turrets, trees, a tower, a house, and a sun with rays. the groundwork on both sides and the back is worked in silver thread. the lower side has in the centre jacob wrestling with the angel. jacob has a beard and a blue cloak; his staff lies on the ground. the angel wears a red flowing robe, and his wings are many-coloured, and enriched with various threads and spirals of gold. the landscape is elaborate. in the foreground is a river with a bridge of planks, a gabled cottage, hospitably smoking from its chimneys, a red lily, and a tree. in the middle distance is a castle with tower and flag, and on the horizon are a windmill, a castle with two towers, and some trees, above all a red cloud. the back is divided into six panels, on each of which is a different design in coloured silks. these designs are small, and although they are in perfectly good condition, the subjects represented are doubtful. the upper and lower panels seem to represent only castles with towers. then apparently come jonah and the whale, the creation, the temple, and the deluge with the ark, but it is quite possible that other interpretations might be made. there are remains of two red silk ties on the front edges of each board, and the edges of the leaves are gilded simply. [illustration: --sermons by samuel ward. london, - .] _sermons by samuel ward._ london, - . mr. yates thompson has kindly allowed me to describe and illustrate an embroidered book belonging to him, bound in canvas, and measuring - / by - / inches. it is a collection of sermons preached by 'samuel ward, bachelour of divinity,' and printed in london, - , the binding being probably of about the latter date. on the upper cover is a lady in a blue dress, seated, and holding a hawk on her left wrist, and a branch with apples in her right. round her are scattered flower sprays, honeysuckle, foxglove, a stalk with two large pears, a cluster of grapes, a twig with a butterfly upon it, and a wild-rose spray. the lady, the petals of the flowers, and the leaves are all worked in tapestry-stitch; the bird and the lady's hair in long straight stitches; the stalks, fruits, and grasses are worked in variously coloured silk threads, thickly and strongly bound round with very fine silver wire. the lady has a coif, cuff, and belt of short pieces of silver and gold guimp arranged like a plait. the under side shows a seated lady in a green dress, playing a lute left-handed. this most unusual position is probably not really intentional, but the drawing has accidentally been reversed. she is surrounded, like her companion with the hawk, by flower sprays, a thistle, cornflower, strawberries, a rose, lily, bluebell, and small bunch of grapes, making a kind of arbour, with a wreath of red cloud at the top. the lady, the petals of the flowers, and the leaves are worked in fine tapestry-stitch; the stalks and fruits in coloured silks, mixed with silver wire. the lady has a coif and a cuff of silver guimp arranged in the same way as that on the other side. the back is divided into four panels by silver guimp, each containing a flower worked in tapestry-stitch, a blue flower, a wild rose, a pansy, and a thistle. the ground of the whole is loosely overcast with silver thread, the constructive lines of the book being marked by rows of silver guimp arranged in small arches. the edges are bound by a strong silver braid. the head and tail bands are worked in silver thread--an unusual method--and the edges are gilt and gauffred. there are two ties on each board of striped silk, much frayed and worn, but the embroidered work itself is in excellent condition, and very strong. _new testament, etc._ london, - . [illustration: --new testament, etc. london, - .] a small copy of the new testament, printed in london in , bound together with the psalms, , is covered with canvas, all worked in tapestry-stitch, and measures - / by inches. on the upper cover is a full-length figure of hope, with dark hair, dressed in a red dress with large falling collar, having a blue flower at the point. in her left hand she holds an anchor. in the distant background is a cottage and a gibbet on a hill, the sun with rays just appearing under a cloud. on the hilly foreground is a red lily, and further afield a caterpillar and a strawberry plant. on the lower cover is a full-length figure of faith, with fair hair, dressed in a blue dress with large falling collar, having a red flower at the point. in her left hand she holds an open book with the word 'faith' written across it. on the hilly foreground is a large red tulip and a plant with red blooms, further afield are a pear-tree and two caterpillars. on the back are four panels, containing respectively a bird, a blue flower, a squirrel, and a red flower. on the front edge of the upper cover can be seen the remains of one tie of green silk, and the edges are protected all round by a piece of green silk braid. the edges of the leaves are plainly gilt. this cover is one of the rare instances of a book bound in embroidered work not made for it, the embroidery being clearly made for a book of about half the present thickness. it is possible that it was intended for either the new testament or the psalms separately, and, as an after-thought, was made to do double duty. but as it now is, the worked back is just a strip down the middle of the back itself, the designs of the sides encroaching considerably inwards. _the daily exercise of a christian._ london, . _the daily exercise of a christian_, printed in london in , and measuring - / by - / inches, is ornamented with a single flower spray, with buds and leaves. the flower is a double rose with curving stem, one large half-opened bud and one smaller, and a few leaves, all worked in tent-stitch. the spray rises from a small bed of grass, out of which grows a small blue flower. in the upper right-hand corner is a small blue cloud. the same design is on both sides. the back is divided into four panels, the divisions being marked and bounded by a thick silver braid, which is also used as an edging all round the book; the designs, beginning at the top, are a fly and a flower alternately, differently coloured. the background is all worked in with silver thread in chain-stitch. with this book is one of the now rare ornamental markers, which, no doubt, often went with embroidered books. it is fastened to an ornamental oblong cushion, probably made of light wood, and is worked in silver thread and coloured silks in the same manner as the rest of the embroidered work, and finished off at the ends with small red tassels. [illustration: --the daily exercise of a christian. london, .] [illustration: --bible. london, .] _bible._ london, - . a copy of the bible, printed in london in , is bound in canvas, and measures by - / inches. the embroidery is in coloured silks, silver cords and threads, and silver guimp. on the upper cover is a small full-length figure of st. peter, with short beard, holding a key in his left hand. he is dressed in a blue under-garment, with red and orange robe over it, all the edges being marked by a silver twist, some of which has come off. the ground is green and in hillocks. all this work is done in coloured silks and silver threads in shading stitch. on the under side is a figure of st. paul, with long beard, holding a silver sword in his right hand. he wears a blue under-garment, with red and orange upper robe, all edged with silver twist. the feet of both figures are bare. the rest of the design is the same on both sides. the skies are worked in large stitches of blue and yellow silk and silver threads, graduating from dark to light; above these are canopies of silver thread, couched, and vandyked at the edge. enclosing the figures are arches with columns, in high relief in silver cords and threads. the inner edge of the arch is curiously marked by a line of brown silk worked over a strip of vellum in the manner used for hand-worked head-bands, and the outer edge has 'crockets' of silver guimp. the columns rest upon 'rams-horn' curves, heavily worked in relief with silver threads, the insides of the curves worked in brown silk over vellum like the inner edge of the arch. _metal threads used on embroidered books._ guimp and gold threads are largely used, as has already been noticed, in embroidered books from early times, but on the next specimen of a canvas-bound book i have chosen for description, dated , a kind of metal thread occurs which is very curious. it is used at an earlier date on satin books, and it is also found more commonly upon them; but as i have put the canvas books first for the purpose of description, and the 'thread' occurs in one of them, this is the best place to put its description. this thread i call 'purl,' and a thread with this name is mentioned in several places as having been used in england in the seventeenth century; but there is no description of it, so that this thread may not be the 'purl' mentioned by the seventeenth-century writers, but if it is not, i do not know what purl is, neither do i know any other special name for the thread. in order that there may be no doubt as to what i mean by purl, i will shortly describe the thread as i know it. first there is a very fine copper wire; this is closely bound round with coloured silk, also very fine, and in this state it looks simply like a coloured thread. then this coloured thread is itself closely coiled round something like a fine knitting-needle--in fact i have made it on one--and then pushed off in the form of a fine coiled tube. the thread is always cut into short lengths for use, and on books these short lengths are generally threaded and drawn together at their ends, making, so to speak, little arches--so that although on the under side of the material there is only a tiny thread, on the upper side there is a strong arch, practically of copper. on boxes and other ornamental productions of this same period, pieces of purl are not infrequently found laid flat like little bricks; and houses, castles, etc., are often represented by means of it; but on books the general use is either for flowers, grounds, or (in very small pieces) to keep on spangles. obviously any coloured silk can be used in making this thread, so that it may be said that for coloured silk work, where strength is required, flowers worked in purl are the best. the colours used when roses are represented are usually graduated,--yellow or white in the centre, then gradually darkening outward, yellow, pale pink, and red, or pale yellow, pale blue, and dark blue. purl flowers are usually accessories to some regular design, but, in one instance at least, to be described later on, it supplies the entire decoration of a small satin book. _bible, etc._ london, . the design on a bible with psalms, printed in london in , bound in fine canvas, and measuring by - / inches, is the same on both sides. the ground is all laid, or couched, with silver threads, caught down at intervals by small white stitches. in the centre is a circular silver boss, and out of this grow four lilies worked with silver thread in button-hole stitch; each of these lilies has a shape similar to its own underneath it, outlined with fine gold cord, and filled in with red silk; representing altogether white flowers with a red lining. these four red and white lilies make together the form of a maltese cross, and between each of the arms is a purl rose with yellow centre and graduated blue petals. a double oval, with the upper and lower curves larger than the side ones, marked with a thick gold cord, encloses the central cross, and the remaining spaces are filled with ovals and lines of gold guimp, with here and there a little patch of red or yellow purl, the extremities of the upper and lower ovals being filled with threads of green silk loosely bound with a silver spiral, worked to represent a green plot. [illustration: --bible, etc. london, .] the upper and lower curves of the oval are thickened by an arch of gold thread laid lengthwise, and kept in place by little radiating lines of red silk. in each corner is a purl rose, with blue centre, the petals graduating in colour from pale yellow to dark red, with leaf forms and stalks of gold cord and guimp. at the top and bottom of the oval is a many-coloured purl rose, and the spaces still left vacant are dotted with little pieces of red, blue, and yellow purl and spangles. on the front edges are the remains of two red silk ties. [illustration: --bible. london, .] the back is divided into four panels by a thick gold twist. the upper and lower panels have each a blue purl rose worked in them, with a white and red lily in the same silver thread as those on the sides, with gold leaves and stalks; the two inner panels contain each three purl roses, with gold leaves and stems. the upper of these panels has a large rose of blue, yellow, and red, and two smaller ones yellow with blue centres; the lower panel has a large rose of red, pink, and yellow, and two smaller ones of red, with yellow centres. dotted about the groundwork of the panels are several spangles and short lengths of coloured purl. the edges of the leaves are plainly gilt. _bible._ london, . a bible, printed in london in , formerly the property of george iii., is bound in canvas, and has embroidered upon the boards emblematic representations of faith and hope. it measures - / by - / inches. on the upper side is a full-length figure of faith. she has fair hair, and is dressed in an orange and red dress cut low, and showing in the front a pale blue under garment. she has a large white collar and cuffs, both in point-lace, and bears in her right hand an open book with the word 'faith' written upon it, while her left hand rests upon a pointed shield, pale purple with a yellow centre. she is standing upon a rounded hillock, on which are a strawberry plant with two fruits, two caterpillars, a red tulip, and another flower. in the right-hand upper corner is a turreted and gabled house, the windows of which are marked with little glittering pieces of talc. below the house is a caterpillar and a large blue butterfly. in the left-hand upper corner is the sun, in gold, just appearing under a blue cloud. underneath this, in succession, come a tree with a butterfly upon it, a bird, most likely meant for a wren, and another caterpillar. the remains of two red tie-ribbons are near the front edges. the background is worked in silver thread, and the edges of the boards are bound with silver braid having a thread or two of red silk on the innermost side. on the under cover hope appears in a curiously worked upper garment of blue and white, short in the sleeves, in needlepoint, with a belt. under this is a dress of red and orange, showing a blue under skirt in front. a scarf of the same colour as the dress is gracefully folded over the shoulders and hangs over the left arm; a rather deep collar and cuffs are both worked in needlepoint. the right hand rests upon an anchor with a 'fouled' rope. hope stands upon a rounded hillock, on which are a snail and spray of possible foxglove, and out of which grow a red carnation and another flower. in the upper right-hand corner is a gabled cottage with a tree, and under it a moth, flower, and caterpillar. towards the upper left-hand corner is a bank of cloud with red and yellow rays issuing therefrom, and under it a pear-tree with flower and fruit, and a many-coloured butterfly. all the background is worked in silver thread. the five panels of the back, indicated with silver cord, are each filled with a different design. beginning at the top, these are: a rose, a parrot with a red fruit, a double rose, a lion, and a lily. the edges are plainly gilt. chapter iii books bound in velvet it seems probable that velvet was a favourite covering for royal books in england from an early period. such volumes as remain 'covered in vellat' that belonged to henry vii. are, however, not embroidered, the ornamentation upon them being worked metal, or enamels upon metal. it is not until the time of henry viii. that we have any instances remaining of books bound in embroidered velvet. velvet is very troublesome to work upon, the pile preventing any delicate embroidery being done directly upon it, hence the prevalence of gold cords and appliqué work on canvas or linen, on which of course the embroidery may be executed as delicately as may be desired. _tres ample description de toute la terre saincte, etc._ [by martin de brion.] ms. of the sixteenth century, probably bound about . [illustration: --tres ample description de toute la terre saincte, etc. ms. .] the earliest extant english binding in embroidered velvet covers this manuscript, which belonged to henry viii., and is dedicated to him. the manuscript is on vellum, and is beautifully illuminated. it is bound in rich purple velvet, and each side, measuring by inches, is ornamented with the same design. in the centre is a large royal coat-of-arms, surrounded by the garter, and ensigned with a royal crown. the coat-of-arms and the garter are first worked in thick silks of the proper colours, red and blue, laid or couched, with small stitches of silk of the same colour, arranged so as to make a diamond pattern, on fine linen or canvas. on the coat are the arms of france and england quarterly; the bearings, respectively three fleur-de-lys and three lions, are solidly worked in gold cord, and the whole is appliqué on to the velvet with strong stitches. on the blue garter the legend 'honi soit qui mal y pense' is outlined in gold cord, between each word being a small red rose, the buckle, end, and edge of the garter being marked also in gold cord, and the whole appliqué like the coat. the very decorative royal crown is solidly worked in gold cords of varying thickness directly on to the velvet. the rim or circlet has five square jewels of red and blue silk along it, between each of these being two seed pearls. from the rim rise four crosses-patée and four fleurs-de-lys, at the base of each of which is a pearl, and also one in each inner corner of the crosses-patée. four arches also rise from the rim, the two outer ones each having three small scrolls with a pearl in the middle; at the top is a mound and cross-patée, with a pearl in each of its inner corners. there is a letter h on each side of the coat-of-arms, and these letters were originally doubtless worked with seed pearls, but the outlines of them alone are now left. in each corner is a red lancastrian rose worked on a piece of satin, appliqué, the centres and petals marked in gold cord, and the whole enclosed in an outer double border of gold cord. on the front edges of each side are the remains of two red silk ties. this is certainly a very handsome piece of work, and is wonderfully preserved. it is the earliest example of a really fine embroidered book on velvet in existence, and it has perhaps been more noticed and illustrated than any other book of its kind. the crown has an interesting peculiarity about it, which does not appear, as far as i have observed, on any other representation of it, namely, that the four arches take their rise directly from the rim. they generally rise from the summits of the crosses-patée, but i should fancy that the rise from the circlet itself is more correct. [illustration: --biblia. tiguri, .] _biblia._ tiguri, . this bible also belonged to henry viii. it is bound in velvet, originally some shade of red or crimson, but now much faded. it measures by - / inches. it is ornamented with arabesques and initials all outlined with fine gold cord. in the centre are the initials h. r., bound together by an interlacing knot, within a circle. arabesques above and below the circle make up an inner panel, itself enclosed by a broad border of arabesques, with a double, or tudor, rose in each corner. the edges of the leaves of the book are elaborately painted with heraldic designs. it has been re-backed with leather, but still retains the original boards. [illustration: --il petrarcha. venetia, .] _il petrarcha._ venetia, . another fine example of the decorative use of heraldry occurs on a copy of petrarch printed at venice in , and probably bound about , after the death of henry viii. it belonged to queen katherine parr, and bears her arms with several quarterings--worked appliqué on rich blue purple velvet, and measures by inches. the first coat is the 'coat of augmentation' granted to the queen by henry viii.--'argent, on a pile gules, between six roses of the same, three others of the field'--and the next coat is that of 'parr.' the various quarterings on this coat are worked differently from those on the last book described. here the red and blue are well shown by pieces of coloured satin--except in the first, fifth, and seventh coats, where there is some couched work in diamond pattern, just like that on martin brion's book. the entire coat, which is of an ornamental shape, is appliqué in one large piece, and edged by a gold cord. the crown surmounting it is heavily worked in gold guimp--the cap being represented in crimson silk thread and all appliqué. there are two supporters--that on the right, an animal breathing flame, and gorged with a coronet from which hangs a long chain, all worked in coloured silks on linen and appliqué, belongs to the fitzhugh family, the coat of which is shown on the third quarter; that on the left, a wyvern argent, also gorged with a coronet, from which depends a long gold chain, is that of the parr family. the wyvern is a piece of blue silk, finished in gold and silver cords, in appliqué. the gold cord enclosing the armorial design is amplified at each corner into an arabesque scroll. the book has been most unfortunately rebound, and the work is badly strained in consequence--the back being entirely new; nevertheless it is in a wonderful state of preservation. it is said to have been worked by queen katherine parr herself. the design is too large for the book, and the crown is too large for the coat-of-arms. it is probable that the binding of the book was done after the death of henry viii., otherwise the supporters would have been the lion and the greyhound; also the coat-of-arms would have been different; also, as the seymour coat does not appear, it is likely that the binding was done before queen katherine parr's marriage with lord seymour of sudley, in . the design is the same on both sides. [illustration: --queen mary's psalter. th-century ms.] _queen mary's psalter._ th-century ms. bound about . the beautiful english manuscript of the fourteenth century known as 'queen mary's psalter' was presented to her in . it is bound in crimson velvet, measuring by - / inches, and appliqué on each side is a large conventional pomegranate-flower worked on fine linen in coloured silks and gold thread. this flower is much worn, but enough is left to show that it was originally finely worked. queen mary used the pomegranate as a badge in memory of her mother, katharine of aragon. the volume has been re-backed in plain crimson velvet, and still retains the original gilt corners with bosses, and two clasps, on the plates of which are engraved the tudor emblems,--portcullis, dragon, lion, and fleur-de-lys. christopherson, _historia ecclesiastica_. lovanii, . many fine bindings in embroidered velvet of the time of queen elizabeth still remain, several of them having been her own property. one of the most decorative of these last is unfortunately in a very bad state, owing possibly to the fact that there were originally very many separate pearls upon it, and that these have from time to time been wilfully picked off. the book is in three volumes, and is a copy of the _historia ecclesiastica_, written by christopherson, bishop of chichester, and printed at louvain in . each of these volumes is bound in the same way, so the description of one of them will serve for all, except that no one volume is perfect, so the description must be taken as representing only what each originally was. it is covered in deep green velvet, and measures by - / inches, the design being the same on each side. in the centre the royal coat-of-arms is appliqué in blue and red satin, on an ornamental cartouche of pink satin, with scrolls of gold threads and coloured silks, richly dotted with small pearls. the bearings on the coats-of-arms are solidly worked in fine gold threads. from each corner of the sides springs a rose spray, with tudor roses of red silk mixed with pearls, and yorkist roses all worked in pearls clustering tight together, the leaves and stems being made in gold cord and guimp. a decoratively arranged ribbon outlined with gold cord and filled in with a line of small pearls set near each other, encloses the design, and numerous single pearls are set in the spaces between the roses and their leaves and stems. [illustration: --christian prayers. london, .] the back is divided into five panels bearing alternately yorkist roses of pearls and tudor roses of red silk and pearls, all worked in the same way as the roses on the sides. the illustration i give of this binding (frontispiece) is necessarily a restoration. but there is nothing added which was not originally on the book. each pearl that has disappeared has left a little impress on the velvet, and so has each piece of gold cord which has been pulled off. the back is still existing; but bad though both sides and back now are, it is much better they should be in their present condition than that they should have been mended or replaced in parts by newer material. _christian prayers._ london, . a simpler binding, but still one of great richness, covers a copy of _christian prayers_, printed in london in . this is covered in crimson velvet, measuring by - / inches, and is worked largely with metal threads, mixed with coloured silks. in the centre is the crest of the family of vaughan--a man's head with a snake round the neck. the crest rests on a fillet, and is enclosed in a twisted circle of gold with four coloured bosses. from the upper and lower extremities of this circle spring two flower forms in gold and silver guimp, with sprays issuing from them bearing strawberries, grape bunches, and leaves, in the upper half, and roses and leaves in the lower. the grapes are represented by rather large spangles, and the leaves, worked in gold, have a few strands of green silk in them; large spangles, kept down by a short piece of guimp, are used to fill in spaces here and there. this is the first instance of the use of spangles on a velvet book. the back is tastefully ornamented with gold cord arranged diamond-wise, and having in each diamond a flower worked in gold. parker, _de antiquitate ecclesiæ britannicæ_. london, . this is one of the embroidered books that belonged to queen elizabeth, and has been frequently illustrated and described. it is remarkable in other respects than for its binding, as it is one of a number of probably not more than twenty copies of a work by matthew parker, archbishop of canterbury, _de antiquitate ecclesiæ britannicæ_, printed for him by john day in london, . it was the first instance of a privately printed book being issued in england. [illustration: --parker, de antiquitate ecclesiæ britannicæ. london, .] archbishop parker had a private press, and his books were printed with types cast at his own cost, john day being sometimes employed as his workman. no two copies of this particular work are alike, and it is supposed that the archbishop continually altered the sheets as they came from the press and had the changes effected at once. the book has two title-pages, each of which, as well as a leaf containing the arms of the bishops in vellum, the ornamental borders, and coats-of-arms throughout the book, are emblazoned in gold and colours. the biographies of sixty-nine archbishops are contained in the book, but not parker's own. this omission was supplied afterwards by a little satirical tract published in , entitled 'histriola, a little storye of the actes and life of matthew, now archbishop of canterbury.' but the archbishop not only had his printing done under his own roof, but also had in his house 'paynters ... wryters, and boke-binders,' so that it may fairly enough be considered that he bound the splendid copy of his great work which was intended for the queen's acceptance, in a specially handsome manner, under his own direct supervision, and in accordance not only with his own taste but also with that of his royal mistress. the volume is a large one, measuring by inches, and is covered in dark green velvet. on both sides the design is a rebus on the name of parker, representing in fact a park within a high paling. the palings are represented as if lying flat, and are worked in gold cord with flat strips of silver, on yellow satin appliqué. there are gates and other small openings in the continuity of the line of palings. on the upper cover within the paling is a large rose-bush, bearing a large tudor rose and two white roses in full bloom, with buds and leaves, some tendrils extending over the palings. the stalks are of silver twist edged with gold cord, the red flowers are worked with red silk and gold cord, the white ones made up with small strips of flat silver and gold cord. detached flowers and tufts of grass grow about the rose-tree; among these are two purple and yellow pansies, elizabeth's favourite flowers, and in each corner is a deer, one 'courant,' one 'passant,' one feeding, and one 'lodged.' the design fills the side of the book very fully, and the workmanship is everywhere excellent. this upper cover is much faded, as it has been for many years exposed to the light in one of the binding show-cases in the king's library at the british museum. [illustration: --the epistles of st. paul. london, . (_from a drawing_).] the under side is much fresher, but the design not so elaborate. there is a similar paling to that on the other side, the 'park' being dotted about with several plants, ferns, and tufts of grass. near each corner is a deer, one feeding, one 'couchant,' one 'tripping,' and one 'courant,' and one 'lodged' in the centre. there are also two snakes worked in silver thread with small colour patches in silk. the back is badly worn, but the original design can be easily traced upon it. there were five panels, in each of which is a small rose-tree, bearing one large flower, with leaves and buds, and tufts of grass. the first, third, and fifth of these are white yorkist roses; the second and third are tudor roses of white and red. _the epistles of st. paul._ london, . if this book of archbishop parker's is one of the most elaborately ornamented embroidered books existing, and perhaps one of the greatest treasures of its kind in the british museum, the next velvet book to describe is one of the simplest, yet it also is one of the greatest treasures of its kind at the bodleian library. it is a small copy of the epistles of st. paul, printed by barker in london, , and measuring - / by - / inches, and it belonged to queen elizabeth. inside she has written a note in which she says: 'i walke manie times into the pleasant fieldes of the holy scriptures, where i plucke up the goodlie greene herbes of sentences by pruning, eate them by reading, chawe them by musing, and laie them up at length in the hie seat of memorie by gathering them together, so that having tasted thy swetenes i may the less perceive the bitterness of this miserable life.' the rev. w. d. macray, in the _annals of the bodleian library_, says, 'this belonged to queen elizabeth, and is bound in a covering worked by herself'; and the countess of wilton, in the _art of embroidery_, says, 'the covering is done in needlework by the queen herself.' it is also described by dibdin in _bibliomania_. he says, 'the covering is done in needlework by the queen herself.' the black velvet binding is much worn, and has been badly repaired. the work upon it is all done in silver cord or guimp, and the designing, as well as the work, is such as may well have been done by the queen. on both covers borders with legends in latin, enclosed in lines of gold cord, run parallel to the edges. beginning at the right-hand corners of each side, these legends read, 'beatus qui divitias scripturæ legens verba vertit in opera--celum patria scopus vitæ xpus--christus via--christo vive.' in the centre of the upper side is a ribbon outlined in gold cord, with the words, 'eleva sursum ibi ubi,' a heart being enclosed within the ribbon, and a long stem with a flower at the top passing through it. in the centre of the lower side a similar ribbon with the motto, 'vicit omnia pertinax virtus,' encloses a daisy, a badge previously used by henry viii. and edward vi., probably in memory of their ancestress, margaret beaufort. both these inner scrolls have the initial letter e interwoven with them. [illustration: --christian prayers, etc. london, .] there is no doubt that the usual royal embroidered bindings of the time of elizabeth were elaborately designed and richly worked, in decided contrast to this small book; and this difference of style makes it more probable that the queen worked it herself. there is no resemblance between this book and the two canvas-bound books already described which are attributed to her, except the use of cord alone in the embroidery; but the difference of material might perhaps be considered sufficient to account for this. no real evidence seems to be forthcoming as to the authorship of the embroidered work, but there is no doubt that the book was a favourite one of queen elizabeth's, and if the needlework had been done for her by any of the ladies of her court, it would be likely that she would have added a note to that effect to the words she has written inside. _christian prayers, etc._ london, . a copy of _christian prayers_, with the psalms, printed in london in and , is curiously bound in soft paper boards strengthened on the inner side with pieces of morocco and covered with pale tawny velvet. it measures - / by - / inches. the edges of the leaves are gilt and gauffred. the arrangement of the design is unusual. it starts from the centre of the back in the form of a broad ornamental border, extending towards the front edges along the lines of the boards. this border is handsomely ornamented by a wavy line of silver cords, filled out with conventional flowers and arabesques worked in gold and silver cords and threads, with a little bit of coloured silk here and there. a symmetrical design of flower forms and arabesques starts, on each board, from the centre of the inner edge of the border, and is worked in a similar way. some of the leaves, however, have veinings marked by strips of flat silver, and others made by a flattened silver spiral, having the appearance of a succession of small rings. there are the remains of two pale orange silk ties on the front edges of each board, and the edges are gilt and gauffred with a little colour. the petals of the flowers are worked in guimp, whether gold or silver is difficult to say. indeed in many instances of the older books it is difficult to be sure whether a metal cord or thread was originally gilded or not, as all these 'gold' threads are, or were, silver gilt, so that when worn the silver only remains. if the cord or thread has been protected in any corners, however, or if it can be lifted a little, the faint trace of gold can often be seen on what would otherwise have been surely put down as originally silver. [illustration: --orationis dominicæ explicatio, etc. genevæ, .] _orationis dominicæ explicatio, etc._ genevæ, . there is in the british museum a copy of _orationis dominicæ explicatio, per lambertum danæum_, printed at geneva in , which belonged to queen elizabeth. it is bound in black velvet, measures - / by - / inches, and is ornamented most tastefully, each side having an arabesque border in gold cord and silver guimp, enclosing a panel with a design of white and red roses, with stems and leaves worked in gold cord and silver guimp with a trifle of coloured silk on the red roses and on the small leaves showing between the petals. on the front edge are the remains of red and gold ties. the design of this charming little book is excellent, and the colour of it when new must have been very effective. the design is the same on both sides. the back is in bad condition, and is panelled with arabesques in gold and silver cord. _bible._ london, . the most decorative, and in many ways the finest, of all the remaining embroidered books of the time of elizabeth is now at the bodleian library at oxford. it is one of the 'douce' bibles, printed in london in , and probably bound about the same time. it was the property of the queen herself, and is bound in crimson velvet, measuring by inches. the design is the same on both sides, and consists of a very cleverly arranged scroll of six rose stems, bearing flowers, buds, and leaves springing from a large central rose, with four auxiliary scrolls crossing the corners and intertwining at their ends. the large rose in the centre as well as those near the corners are tudor roses, the red shown in red silk and the white in silver guimp, both outlined with gold cord. small green leaves are shown between each of the outer petals. these flowers are heavily and solidly worked in high relief. the smaller flowers are all of silver, the buds, some red, some white. the stems are of thick silver twist enclosed between finer gold cords, and the leaves show a little green silk among the gold cord with which they are outlined and veined. immediately above and below the centre rose are two little t's worked in small pearls. [illustration: --bible. london, .] the narrow border round the edges is very pretty; it is a wavy line of gold cord and green silk, the hollows within the curves being filled with alternate 'pods' with pearls, and green leaves. the back is divided into four panels by wavy lines of gold cord and pearls, and the upper and lower panels have small rose-plants with white roses, buds, and leaves; the inner panels have each a large tudor rose of red and white, with leaves and buds. the drawing and designing of this splendid book are admirable, and the workmanship is in every way excellent. many of the pearls are gone, and some of the higher portions of the large roses are abraded, the back, as usual, being in a rather bad state; but in spite of all this, and the inevitable fading, the work remains in a sufficiently preserved condition to show that at this period the art of book-embroidery reached its highest decorative point. it is rather curious to note that henry viii. used the red lancastrian rose by preference, but that on elizabeth's books the white rose always appears, and i know of very few instances where the red rose appears on her books. of course both sovereigns used the combined, double, or tudor rose as well. [illustration: --the commonplaces of peter martyr. london, .] _the commonplaces of peter martyr._ london, . an embroidered book designed in a manner which is characteristic of a gold tooled book is found but rarely. an instance of this however is found on a copy of _the commonplaces of peter martyr_, translated by anthonie marten, and printed in london in . it is covered in blue purple velvet measuring - / by inches, and the design upon it is a broad outer border doubly outlined with a curious and effective braid, apparently consisting of a close series of small silver rings, but really being only a silver spiral flattened out. this border is dotted at regular intervals with star-shaped clusters of small pieces of silver guimp symmetrically arranged. the centre of the inner panel is a diamond-shaped ornament made with similar 'ring' braid and small pieces of silver guimp, and the corner-pieces are quarter circles worked in the same way. this design of centre-piece and corner-pieces is distinctly borrowed from leather work, and i have never seen another example of the kind executed in needlework. the colouring of this book is very good, the purple and silver harmonising in a very pleasing manner. [illustration: --biblia. antverpiæ, .] _biblia._ antverpiæ, . a beautiful binding of green velvet covers a bible printed at antwerp in , measuring by inches. the design is the same on both sides, and the book was apparently bound for 't. g.,' whose initials are worked into the design; a conventional arrangement of curving stems and flower forms worked in gold cord, guimp, and small pearls thickly encrusted; the same on both boards. the centre is a large conventional flower, in form resembling a carnation, with serrated petals, having a garnet below it, and flanked by the letters t. g., all thickly worked with reed pearls. in each corner is a smaller flower--conventionalised forms probably of honeysuckle and rose--joined together by curving stems of gold cord, filled out with leaves and arabesques, all together forming a very decorative panel. the outer border is richly worked with leaves and arabesques in guimp and pearls, the outer line of gold cord being ornamented with small triple points marked with pearls. the back is divided into three spaces by curving lines of gold cord, and in each of these spaces is worked one of the same conventionalised flower forms as occur on the boards, _i.e._ a honeysuckle, cornflower, and rose, with leaves and smaller curves of gold cord. [illustration: --udall, sermons. london, . (_from a drawing_).] the ground of the entire work is freely ornamented with gilt spangles held down by small pieces of guimp, and with single pearls; the larger of these are enclosed within circles of guimp, the smaller are simply sewn on one by one. there are remains of gilt clasps on the front edges of each of the boards, and the edges of the leaves are gilt and gauffred, with a little pale colour. udall, _sermons_. london, . a few specimens of embroidered books were exhibited at the burlington fine arts club in . among them was a charming velvet binding that belonged to queen elizabeth, lent by s. sandars, esq., and now in the university library, cambridge. it is a copy of udall's _sermons_, printed in london in , and is covered in crimson velvet, measuring about by inches. the design is the same on each side, the royal coat-of-arms appliqué, with the initials e. r., and a double rose in each corner with stalks and leaves. the coat-of-arms is made up with pieces of blue and red satin, the bearings heavily worked with gold thread, and the ground also thickly studded with small straight pieces of guimp, doubtless put there to insure the greater flatness of the satin. the crown with which the coat-of-arms is ensigned is all worked in guimp, and is without the usual cap. the ornaments on the rim are only trefoils, and there are five arches. the initials flanking the coat are worked in guimp, as are the corner roses and leaves. the guimp used is apparently silver, and the cord used for the outlines and stems is gold. the back has a gold line down the middle and along the joints, with a wavy line of gold cord each side of it. [illustration: --collection of sixteenth-century tracts.] _collection of sixteenth-century tracts._ bound about . to henry, prince of wales, we owe a great debt of gratitude, as he was the first person of much consequence in our royal family to take any real interest in the old royal library. indeed it may be considered that the existence to-day of the splendid 'old royal' library of the kings of england, which was presented to the nation in by george ii., is largely due to the attention drawn to its interest and value by prince henry, who moreover added considerably to it himself. this prince used as his favourite and personal badge the beautiful design of three white ostrich feathers within a golden coronet, and with the motto 'ich dien' on a blue ribbon. with regard to the origin of this badge there is unfortunately a good deal of obscurity. the usual explanation is that it was the helmet-crest of the blind king of bohemia, who was killed at crécy in , and that in remembrance of this it was adopted by the black prince as his badge. but, as a matter of fact, the ostrich feather was used as a family badge by all the sons of edward iii. and their descendants. it appears to have been the cognisance of the province of ostrevant, a district lying between artois and hainault, and the appanage of the eldest sons of the house of hainault. in this way it may have been adopted by the family of edward iii. by right of his wife, philippa of hainault. an early notice of the ostrich feather as a royal badge occurs in a note in one of the harleian mss. to the effect that 'henrye, son to the erle of derby, fyrst duke of lancaster, gave the red rose crowned, whose ancestors gave the fox tayle in his proper cooler, and the ostrych fether, the pen ermine,' the henry here mentioned being the father of blanche, wife of john of gaunt. on the tomb of prince arthur, son of henry vii., at worcester, the feather is shown both singly and in plume, and it occurs in the triple plume form within a coronet and a scroll with the words 'ich dien' upon it, on bindings made by thomas berthelet for prince edward, son of henry viii., who never was prince of wales. it really seems as if the first 'prince of wales' actually to use the ostrich feather plumes as a personal badge of that dignity was prince henry, and it occurs largely on such books belonging to his library as he had rebound, and also on books that were specially bound for presentation to him. this is the case in one of the most decorative bindings he possessed, enclosing a collection of tracts originally the property of henry viii., but which somehow or other became the property of magdalen college, cambridge, the governing body of which had it bound in embroidered velvet and presented to prince henry. [illustration: --bacon, opera. londini, .] the cover is of crimson velvet, the edges of which extend freely beyond the edges of the book, bound all round with a fringe of gold cord. it measures about by inches. the design is the same on each side. in the centre is a large triple plume of ostrich feathers, thickly and beautifully worked in small pearls, within a golden coronet, and having below them the motto 'ich dien' in gold upon a blue silk ribbon. the badge is enclosed in a rectangular panel of gold cords, in each corner of which is an ornamental spray of gold cords, guimp, and a flower in pearls. a broad border with a richly designed arabesque of gold guimp or cord, with pearl flowers, encloses the central panel. the design is filled in freely with small pearls enclosed in guimp circles and small pearls alone. the back has an ornamental design in gold cord and guimp. this cover is a beautiful specimen of later decorative work on velvet, and the general effect is extremely rich, the design and workmanship being equally well chosen as regards the materials to which they are applied, and with which they are worked. bacon, _opera_. londini, . a copy of the works of francis bacon, viscount st. albans, printed in london in , is bound in rich purple velvet, and measures - / by - / inches. the design is a central panel with arabesque centre and corners, surrounded by a deep border of close curves and arabesques, all worked in gold cord and guimp. there are several gold spangles used, kept down by a small piece of gold guimp. the front edges of each board have only the marks left where two ties originally were, and the edges of the book are simply gilt. [illustration: --bacon, essays. .] bacon, _essays_. . a copy of another work by the same author, the essays printed in , was given by him to the duke of buckingham, and is now at the bodleian library at oxford. it is bound in dark green velvet, measuring about by inches, the same design being embroidered on each side. in the centre is a small panel portrait of the duke of buckingham, with short beard, and wearing the ribbon of the garter. the portrait is mostly worked with straight perpendicular stitches, except the hair and collar, in which the stitches are differently arranged. the background merges from nearly white just round the head to pink at the outer edge; the coat is brownish. the framework of the portrait is solidly worked in gold braids and silver guimp in relief, the design being of an architectural character. two columns, with floral capitals and pediments, spring from a scroll-work base and support what may perhaps be intended for a gothic arch with crockets. immediately above the crown of the arch is a ducal coronet, and a handsome border of elaborate arabesques reaching far inwards is worked all round the edges. the outlines of these arabesques, the stalks and curves, are all worked in gold cords, the petals and leaves in silver guimp in relief. the back is divided into eight panels by gold and silver cords, and in each of these panels is a four-petalled flower with small circles. there are several gilt spangles kept down by a small piece of guimp. [illustration: --common prayer. london, .] _common prayer._ london, . among the few older royal books in the library at windsor castle is an embroidered one that belonged to prince charles, afterwards charles ii. it is a copy of the _book of common prayer_, printed in london in , and is bound in blue velvet with embroidered work in gold cord and silver guimp, similar in character to that on the copy of bacon's _essays_ just described. it measures by inches. the design is heraldic. in the centre is the triple plume of the prince of wales, with coronet and label, no motto being apparent on the latter. the plume is encircled by the garter appliqué, on pale blue silk, the motto, worked in silver cord, being nearly worn off. resting on the top of the garter is a large princely coronet, flanking which are the letters 'c. p.' in the lower corners are a thistle and a rose. a broad border with arabesques encloses the central panel. this book was exhibited by her majesty at the burlington fine arts club in . it is in very bad condition, which is curious, as it is not so very old, and as it is still among the royal possessions it might well have been imagined that it would have been better preserved than other and older books of a like kind which we know have been considerably moved about. the colour is however very charming still, and books have rarely been bound in blue velvet, black, green, or crimson being most usual. after , or thereabouts, there was a full stop for a time to any art production in the matter of bookbinding. indeed, for the embroidered books as a class that is the end, but nevertheless a few examples are found at a later date, but no regular production and no original designs. [illustration: --bible. cambridge, .] _bible._ cambridge, . a large bible printed at cambridge in , in two volumes, was bound in crimson velvet for james ii., presumably about . the work upon it, each volume being the same, is of a showy character, good and strong, but utterly wanting in any of the artistic qualities either of design or execution which characterised so many of the earlier examples. in the centre are the initials 'j. r.' surmounted by a royal crown, heavily worked in gold braid, guimp, and some coloured silks. enclosing the initials and crown are scrolls in thick gold twist; these again are surrounded by a curving ribbon of gold, intertwined with roses and leafy sprays. in each corner is a silver-faced cherub with beads for eyes and gold wings, and at the top a small blue cloud with sun rays, tears dropping from it. there are two broad silk ties to the front of each board, heavily fringed with gold. the back is divided into nine panels, each containing an arabesque ornament worked in gold cord and thread, the first and last panels being larger than the others and containing a more elaborate design. the edges of the leaves are simply gilt, and the boards measure by inches each, the largest size of any embroidered book known to me. chapter iv books bound in satin _collection of sixteenth-century tracts._ bound probably about . [illustration: --collection of sixteenth-century tracts.] perhaps the earliest existing english book bound in satin is a collection of sixteenth-century tracts that belonged to henry viii., and is now part of the old royal library in the british museum. it is covered in red satin, measures by inches, and is embroidered in an arabesque design, outlined with gold cord. on the edges the words 'rex in aeternum vive neez' are written in gold. the word 'neez' or 'nez,' as it is sometimes spelt, may mean nebuchadnezzar, as the other words were addressed to him. on books bound in leather by thomas berthelet, royal binder to henry viii. and his immediate successors, the motto often occurs, and as he is known to have bound books in 'crymosyn satin,' this is most likely his work. the pattern is worked irregularly all round the boards, and a sort of arabesque bridge crosses the centres. the back is new, and of leather, but the boards themselves are the original ones, and the embroidery is in a very fair condition. [illustration: --new testament in greek. leyden, .] _new testament in greek._ leyden, . if early bindings in satin are rare, still rarer is the use of silk. one example worked on white ribbed silk still remains that belonged to queen elizabeth. it measures - / by - / inches, and in its time was no doubt a very decorative and interesting piece of work, but it is now in a very dilapidated state, largely due to improper repairing. the book has actually been rebound in leather, and the old embroidered sides stuck on. so it must be remembered that my illustration of it is considerably restored. the design, alike on both sides, is all outlined with gold cords and twists of different kinds and thicknesses, and the colour is added in water-colours on the silk. in the centre is the royal coat-of-arms within an oval garter ensigned with a royal crown, in the adornment of which a few seed pearls are used, as they are also on the ends of the garter. enclosing the coat-of-arms is an ornamental border of straight lines and curves, worked with a thick gold twist, intertwined with graceful sprays of double and single roses, outlined in gold and coloured red, with buds and leaves. a few symmetrical arabesques, similarly outlined and coloured, fill in some of the remaining spaces. the work on this book, a _new testament in greek_, printed at leyden in , is like no other; but the general idea of the design, rose-sprays cleverly intertwined, is one that may be considered characteristic of the elizabethan embroidered books, as it frequently occurs on them. the use of water-colour with embroidery is very rare, and it is never found on any but silk or satin bindings, generally as an adjunct in support of coloured-silk work over it, but in this single instance it is used alone. _seventeenth-century embroidered books._ the books described hitherto have been specimens of rare early instances, but in the seventeenth century there is a very large field to choose from. small books, mostly religious works, were bound in satin from the beginning of the century until the time of the commonwealth in considerable numbers; so much so, in fact, that their value depends not so much upon their designs or workmanship as upon their condition. it is generally considered that embroidered books are extremely delicate, but this is not so; they will stand far more wear than would be imagined from their frail appearance. the embroidered work actually protects the satin, and such signs of wear as are visible are often found rather in the satin itself, where unprotected, than in the work upon it. in many cases a peculiar appearance, which is often mistaken for wear, is seen in the case of representations of insects, caterpillars, or butterflies particularly. these creatures, or parts of them, appear to consist only of slight stitches of plain thread, suggesting either that the work has never been finished, or else that the finished portions have worn away. the real fact is, however, that these places have been originally worked with small bright pieces of peacock's feather, which have either tumbled out or been eaten away by minute insects, a fate to which it is well known peacocks' feathers are particularly liable. the late lady charlotte schreiber, who was a great collector of pieces of old embroidery, among a host of other curious things possessed the only perfect instance of work of this kind of the seventeenth century i have ever been fortunate enough to find. it was a very realistic caterpillar, closely and completely worked with very small pieces of peacocks' feathers, sewn on with small stitches, quite confirming the opinion i had already formed as to the original filling in of the usual 'bald' spaces representing such objects. _bible._ london, . a copy of a bible, printed in london in , is bound in white satin, and measures by - / inches. on each side is an emblematic figure enclosed in an oval; the figures are different, but their surroundings are alike. on the upper side a lady holding a palm branch in her right hand is worked in shading-stitch. she is full length, and wears an orange skirt with purple robe over it confined by a blue belt, and over her shoulders a pink jacket--all these garments are outlined by a gold cord. her fair hair is covered by an ornamental cap of red and gold, and her feet are bare. the ground is worked with coloured silks and threads of fine wire closely twisted round with coloured silks, and the sky, painted in gradations of pink in water-colours, is worked sparsely with long stitches of blue silk. [illustration: --bible. london, .] the lower side shows a female figure worked in a similar way; in this case she bears in her right hand some kind of wand or spray, which has nearly worn off, and in her left a bunch of corn or grapes, or something of that kind which has also badly worn away. if the first figure may be considered to represent peace, this one may perhaps be plenty. she wears a deep purplish skirt, with full over-garment and body of the same colour, with an under-jacket of white and gold. on her dark hair she has a blue flower with red leaves. her feet are bare. the ground and sky are both worked in the same way as the other side. both figures are enclosed in a flat oval border of gold thread, broad at the top and narrowing towards the foot. in the corners are symmetrical arabesques thickly worked in gold, and within the larger spaces in each corner-piece are the 'remains' of feathered caterpillars, now skeleton forms of threads only. the back of the book is particularly good, and most beautifully worked. it is divided into five panels, within each of which is a conventional flower, a cornflower alternating with a carnation, and the colours of all of these are marvellously fresh and effective. among embroidered panelled backs it is probably the finest specimen existing. [illustration: --emblemes chrestiens. ms .] _emblemes chrestiens_, par georgette de montenay. ms. à lislebourg. [edinburgh] . charles i., when he was prince of wales, often used the book-stamps that had been cut for his brother henry, and he also particularly liked the triple plume of ostrich feathers. it occurs, as has been shown, on one of prince henry's velvet-bound books, and it forms the central design on the satin binding of an exquisite manuscript written by esther inglis, a celebrated calligraphist, who lived in the seventeenth century. it is a copy of the _emblemes chrestiens_, by georgette de montenay, dedicated to prince charles, covered in red satin embroidered with gold and silver threads, cords, and guimp, with a few pearls, measuring - / by - / inches. in the centre is the triple ostrich plume within a coronet, enclosed in an oval wreath of laurel tied with a tasselled knot. a rectangular border closely filled with arabesques runs parallel to the edges of the boards, and there is a fleuron at each of the inner corners. in all cases the design is outlined in gold cord, and the thick parts of the design are worked in silver guimp. there are several spangles, and on the rim of the coronet are three pearls. _new testament._ london, . one of the most curious embroidered satin bindings still left is now in the bodleian library, and a slightly absurd tradition about it says that the figure of david, which certainly is something like charles i., is clothed in a piece of a waistcoat that belonged to that king. [illustration: --new testament. london, .] it is a new testament, printed in london in , and covered in white satin, with a different design embroidered on each side. it measures - / by - / inches. on the upper board is david with a harp. he wears a long red cloak lined with ermine, with a white collar, an under-garment of pale brown, and high boots with spur-straps and red tops. on his head is a royal crown of gold with red cap, and he is playing upon a golden harp. the face of this figure resembles that of charles i. the red cloak is worked in needlepoint lace, and is in deep folds in high relief. these folds are actually modelled in waxed paper, the needlework being stretched over them, and probably fixed on by a gentle heat. the other parts of the dress are worked in the same way, but without the waxed paper, and the edges of the garments are in some places marked with what might be called a metal fringe, made in a small recurring pattern. david is standing upon a grass plot, represented by small arches of green purl, and before him is sitting a small dog with a blue collar. above the dog is a small yellow and black pansy, then a large blue 'lace' butterfly, on a chenille patch, and a brown flying bird. behind david there is a tall conventional lily and a flying bird. the sky is overcast with heavy clouds of red and blue, but a golden sun with tinsel rays is showing under the larger of them. on the lower board is a representation of abraham about to sacrifice isaac. abraham is dressed in a red under-garment on waxed paper, in heavy folds with a belt and edge of stamped-out metal, a blue flowing cape and high boots, all worked in needlepoint lace in coloured silks. in his right hand he holds a sword, and his tall black hat is on the ground beside him. on the ground towards the left is isaac in an attitude of prayer, his hands crossed, with two sheaves of firewood. he wears a red coat with a small blue cape. the ground is green and brown chenille. above isaac is a gourd, and above this a silver ram caught in a bush, on a patch of grass indicated by green purl. the sky is occupied by a large cloud, out of which leans an angel with wings, the hands outstretched and restraining abraham's sword. on the back are four panels, containing respectively from the top a butterfly, a rose, a bird, and a yellow tulip, all worked in needlepoint and appliqué. the pieces that are in high relief all over the book are edged with gold twist, and have moreover their counterparts under them closely fastened down to the satin. there are several gold spangles in the various spaces between the designs; the whole is edged with a strong silver braid, and there are two clasps with silver attachments. considering the high relief in which much of this work is done, the binding is in wonderful preservation, but many of the colours are badly faded, as it has been exposed to the action of light in one of the show-cases for many years. although no doubt it is advisable to expose many treasures in this way, it must be admitted that in the case of embroidered books it is frequently, if not always, a cause of rapid deterioration, so much so that i should almost think in these days of good chromo-printing it would be worth the while of the ruling powers of our great museums to consider whether it would not be wiser to exhibit good colour prints to the light and keep the precious originals in safe obscurity, to be brought out, of course, if required by students. [illustration: --new testament and psalms. london, .] _new testament and psalms._ london, . several small english books of the seventeenth century were bound 'double,' _i.e._ two volumes side by side, so as to open different ways (compare p. ). each of the books, which are always of the same size, has a back and one board to itself, the other board, between them, being common to both. as already stated, this form of book occurs rarely in canvas bindings, and it is of commoner occurrence in satin. a design which is frequently met with is well shown in the case of a double specimen containing the new testament and the psalms, printed in london in , and covered in white satin, measuring - / by inches, the ornamentation being the same on both sides. in the centre, in an oval, is a delicately worked iris of many colours in feather-stitch, the petals edged with fine silver cord. the oval is marked by a silver cord, beyond which are ornamental arabesques outlined in cord and filled in solidly, in high relief, with silver thread. the backs are divided into five panels, containing alternately flowers in red, blue, and green silks, and star shapes in silver thread in high relief. silver spangles have been freely used, but most of them have now gone; the edges of the leaves are gilt and gauffred in a simple dotted pattern. to the middle of the front edge of one of the boards is attached a long green ribbon of silk which wraps round both volumes. henshaw, _horæ successivæ_. london, . [illustration: --henshaw, horæ successivæ. london, .] henshaw's _horæ successivæ_, printed in london in , is bound in white satin, and measures - / by inches. it is very delicately and prettily worked in a floral design, the same on both sides, and is remarkable for its simplicity--a flower with stalk and leaves in the centre, one in each corner, and an insect in the spaces between them. the centre flower is a carnation, round it are pansy, rose, cornflower, and strawberry, while between them are a caterpillar, snail, butterfly, and moth. all of these are delicately worked in feather-stitch in the proper colours, and edged all round with fine gold cord; the stalks are of the same cord used double. on the strawberries there is some fine knotted work. the back is divided into four panels, containing a cornflower, rose, pansy, and strawberry, worked exactly in the same way as their prototypes on the sides. there were several gold spangles on sides and back, but many of them have been broken off, and on the front edges of each board are the remains of pale green ties of silk. [illustration: --psalms. london, .] _psalms._ london, . a copy of the psalms, printed in london in , is bound in white satin, embroidered in coloured silks worked in satin-stitch, and measures by inches. on the upper board is a gentleman dressed in the style of the period, with trunk hose of red and yellow, a short jacket of the same colouring, and a long, reddish cape. he has a broad-brimmed hat with coloured feathers, a large white collar, and a sword in his right hand. near him is a beetle, and in the sky a blue cloud, and he is standing upon a grass mound. on the lower board is the figure of a lady in a deep pink dress, with white collar and cap. she holds a tall red lily in her right hand, and in the upper left-hand corner is a small cloud under which the sun is just appearing, and in the lower corner is a small flower. the lady is standing upon a small green mound. the outlines of both figures, as well as the inner divisions between the various garments, are marked with a gold or silver thread. the back is divided into four panels, in which are a fly, a rose, a larger fly, and a blue flower. the outlines and legs of both the insects were marked originally with small pieces of peacocks' feathers, but the upper fly has lost most of these; the lower one, however, more ornamental, shows them clearly, and has the thorax still in excellent preservation, glittering with little points of green and gold. there is one broad ribbon of striped silk attached to the lower board. this little book, which is in a wonderful state of preservation, has been always kept in the beautiful embroidered bag which i have described already on p. . _psalms._ london, . one of the most finely embroidered bindings existing on satin occurs on a small copy of the psalms, printed in london in , and measuring - / by inches. the design is one which has been repeated in other sizes with small differences. there is a larger specimen at the bodleian, but the british museum example is the finer altogether. [illustration: --psalms. london, .] on each side there is an oval containing an elaborate design most delicately worked in feather-stitch, the edges and outlines marked with very fine gold twist. on the upper board there is a seated allegorical figure with cornucopia, probably representing plenty. behind her is an ornamental landscape with a piece of water, the bright lines of which are feelingly rendered with small stitches of silver thread, hills with trees, and a castle in the distance. the other side has a similarly worked figure of peace, a seated figure holding a palm branch; the landscape is of a similar character to that on the upper board, but the river or lake has a bridge over it. the work itself is of the same very delicate kind, the edges and folds of the dress being marked with fine gold twist. each of these ovals is marked by a solid framework with scrolls, strongly made with silver threads, and in high relief; in each corner is a very finely worked flower or fruit, pansy, strawberry, tulip, and lily. the back is divided into four panels, a very decorative conventional flower being worked in each, representing probably a red lily, a tulip, a blue and yellow iris, and a daffodil. the edges of the boards are bound with a broad silver braid, the edges of the leaves are gilded and prettily gauffred, and there are remains of four silver ties. _psalms._ london, . there is often much speculation as to who can have worked the english embroidered books, and it is very rarely that any reliable information on this interesting point is available. there is, however, a manuscript note in a copy of the psalms, printed in and bound in embroidered white satin, that the work upon it was done by 'elizabeth, wife of matthew wren, bishop of ely,' who was an uncle of the architect. the volume still belongs to a member of the family, dr. w. t. law of portland place, who has most kindly allowed me to give an illustration of this beautiful book. it measures by inches. the design is different in details on each board, the central design, however, being in each case contained within a strongly worked gold border in high relief, widening out at each extremity into a crownlike form, and richly augmented at intervals with clusters of seed pearls. on the upper board within the oval is a double rose with curving stem, leaves, and a bud; the petals are worked in needlepoint, with fine gold twist at the edges, and a cluster of pearls in the centre. in the upper corners are a butterfly, with needlepoint wings, and a bird, with needlepoint wing and tail. in the lower corners are a unicorn and an antlered stag, both recumbent, and in high relief. [illustration: --psalms. london, .] on the lower board within the oval is a vine, with curving stem and two large grape clusters, tendrils, and leaves, growing from a small green mound. the edges of the petals are bound with a fine gold twist, as are also the edges and outlines of the leaves, and most of these parts are worked in coloured silks, mixed with fine metal threads, in needlepoint lace-stitch. a few hazel-nuts are scattered about outside the gold oval, and in each corner is a further ornamentation: a reddish butterfly with wings of needlepoint lace in relief and edged with a gold cord, a green parrot with red wings and tail, are in the two top corners, and in the two lower are a rabbit and a dog, each on a small green ground. innumerable gold spangles are all over the sides and back, each kept in place by a small pearl stitched through. the back is divided into five panels, by rows of pearls, and a conventional flower is in each, except the centre one which has an insect. these are all worked in needlepoint and edged with gold twist, the stems of some of them strongly made by a kind of braid of gold cords. this little book is certainly one of the most ornamental specimens of any of the smaller satin-bound books of the seventeenth century, and although here and there some of the pearls are gone, altogether it is in very good condition, and it is rarely that such a fine example can now be met with in private hands. _bible._ london, . [illustration: --bible. london, .] several of the embroidered books on satin are worked chiefly in metal threads, and the designs on such books are not as a rule good. whether the knowledge that the work was to be executed in strong threads has hampered the designer or not cannot be said, but certainly there is often a tinselly effect about these bindings that is not altogether pleasing. in the case of a bible printed in london in , bound in white satin, and measuring by inches, one of the chief ornaments is a cherub's head, the face in silver and the hair and wings in gold. the working of this head and wings seems to me wrong. the face is, possibly enough, as well done as the material would allow, but the hair is made in small curls of gold thread, and the feathers of the wings are rendered in a naturalistic way with pieces of flat gold braid. this kind of realism is out of place in embroidery, and it is unfortunately characteristic of the english embroidered work of about this period, occurring generally on boxes, mirror frames, or the like, but only rarely on book-covers. the design is the same on both sides; a narrow arch of thick gold cord reaches about three-quarters up the side, and interwoven with it is a kind of cusped oval, with leaves, reaching up to the top of the book. the lower half of the arch is enclosed in a rectangular band of silver threads, broad and kept in place by transverse bars at regular intervals, and beyond it another row, made of patches of red and blue silk alternately. in the lower part of the oval is a ground of green silk, on which grow two double roses made of red purl. in the space enclosed between the top of the arch and the lower point of the oval is a bird worked in high relief in gold with a touch of red silk on his wings. over the bird is a blue cloud, heavily worked in blue silk, and beneath is a small grass plot. the cherub's head already described is in the space between the top of the arch and the upper extremity of the oval; it is flanked by two small red purl roses. the two upper corners have undulating clouds in blue silk, and a red and yellow purl rose between them. there are several gold spangles all about, and innumerable small pieces of coloured purl. the back is divided into four panels, in which are, alternately, a rose-tree on which are two red roses with yellow centres and green leaves, growing from a grass plot, and a blue rose with yellow centre and green leaves under a red cloud with silver rays. there are several spangles and some small pieces of coloured purl scattered about in the spaces. the book is in excellent condition, owing, no doubt, to the fact that most of it is in metal, but it is representative of the lowest level to which the art of the embroidered book in england has ever fallen. _psalms._ london, . a charming little piece of delicate workmanship occurs in a copy of the psalms, printed in london in , and bound in white satin. it measures by inches. the design on each side is the same, but the work is slightly different. a tall rose-tree, with gold stem, grows from a small chenille base, the rose petals beautifully worked in the finest of stitches, as well as the leaves, all of which are outlined with fine gold thread. from the lower branches of the rose-tree hang on one side a violet, and on the other a pansy, each worked in the same way as the rose, and edged with fine gold thread. the back is divided into four panels, containing respectively a cornflower, a pomegranate, a fruit, perhaps meant for an apple, and a honeysuckle, all conventionally treated and very delicately worked. the edge is bound all round with a strong braid, and there is one tie of broad, cherry-silk ribbon. with this book is its canvas bag, embroidered in silver ground with coloured-silk flowers and tassels of silver, the general design and workmanship of which nearly resembles that of the finer bag already described at page . the silver has turned nearly black, as is usually the case with these bags. [illustration: --psalms. london, .] [illustration: --the way to true happiness. london, .] _the way to true happiness._ london, . a copy of _the way to true happiness_. printed in london in , is bound in white satin, and embroidered with figures of david and a queen. it is a little larger than the majority of the satin-embroidered books, measuring by - / inches, and is, for its time, a very fine specimen. both figures stand under an archway with columns, all worked heavily in silver cord, guimp, and thread. the columns have ornamental capitals and a spiral running round their shafts, and the upper edge of the arch is ornamented with crockets of a peculiar shape. within this archway, on the upper cover, is a full-length figure of a queen, finely worked in split-stitch with coloured silks. she wears a red dress with long, falling sleeves, a purple body and gold collar. on her head is a golden crown, with six points. she carries, in her left hand, a golden sceptre, and has also a golden belt. the outlines are everywhere marked either with a gold or silver twist. on the ground, which is in small hillocks, grow a strawberry and two other small plants; a snail is also shown. scattered about the field are a 'skeleton' caterpillar--at one time probably filled in with peacocks' feathers,--a conventional lily, a butterfly, and the sun, with rays, just appearing from under a cloud. in the two upper corners are flowers, a pansy and another, and smaller ones down each side. on the lower board, within the arch, is a figure of david. he wears a short tunic of orange and silver, with vandyked edge, and a short skirt of blue and silver, with a long cloak of cream, pink, and silver, clasped with a silver brooch; on his head he wears a silver crown, with a red cap and green and red feathers; on his feet are brown, high boots. in his left hand is a silver harp of ornamental pattern, and in his right a silver sceptre with a little gold about it. the ground, in hillocks, has a few small flowers growing upon it, and a large tulip is just in front of the king; on the field are also a moth and a snail. at the top is a blue cloud. the upper corners have a red and yellow tulip and a pansy with bud in them, and smaller flowers are worked down each side. the back is very tastefully ornamented with an undulating scroll of gold cord, widening out here and there into conventional leaves of gold guimp in relief. on this scroll are sitting three birds, and there are also a bunch of grapes, a tulip, daffodil, and other flowers with leaves, conventionally treated, all worked in coloured silks. there are the remains of two red and yellow silk ties on the front edges of each board, and the edges of the leaves are gilded and gauffred. with this book is a canvas bag, simply ornamented with a design worked in red silk. [illustration: --new testament. london, .] _new testament._ london, . the curious little new testament of , now at oxford, which i have already described, is perhaps the earliest example left on which needlepoint lace in coloured silks is much employed. it occurs again largely on another small new testament, printed in , bound in white satin, measuring - / by - / inches; now in the british museum. in this case the artist has not attempted the difficult task of producing a satisfactory figure in needlework, but has very properly limited her skill to the reproduction of flower and animal forms. on the upper cover is a spray of columbine, the petals of which, pink and blue, are each worked separately in needlepoint lace stitch, and afterwards tacked on to a central rib. the stalks and leaves of this spray are also worked in needlepoint, and on the top sits a bullfinch, worked in many colours in the same way, but fastened down close to the satin all round. in the corners are a beetle, a nondescript flower, a bud, and a butterfly with coloured wings in needlepoint, with replicas of them closely appliqués just underneath, on the satin. on the lower board is a spray of a five-petalled blue flower, the petals of which were originally worked in needlepoint and fastened on a central rib, but they have now all gone except two, leaving the rib of thick pink braid. the supporting replicas underneath are, however, perfect, showing what the original upper petals were like. this spray has two leaves, exquisitely worked in needlepoint, and fastened by a stitch at one end, with the usual flat replicas underneath them, and there is also a bud. the stem is a piece of green braid. above the spray is a parrot in needlepoint, most of him fastened down round the edges, but his wings and tail left free. in the upper corner are two strawberries, and in the lower a butterfly, with coloured wings, left free in needlepoint. there are also two caterpillars on this side. on the back are three large flowers heavily worked in silk and metal threads, in needlepoint, and appliqués--a pansy, lily, and rose, with stalks of green braid. the boards are edged all round with a gold braid, and there are two green silk ties on each for the front edges. there are several gold spangles all about, but many more have gone. the work on both boards is very delicate, but that on the back is curiously coarse. such imitative work as the needlepoint, which is perhaps seen at its best in the columbine, and the leaves on this book, is at all times a dangerous thing to use, except when it is only used as appliqué, as in the beautiful cover belonging to this book, which i have described on page , and the work on which is very likely by the same skilled hand as that on the book. i believe this use of the needlepoint, or button-hole stitch, is only found in english work; it is exactly the same as is used on the old venetian and other so-called 'point' laces, but executed in fine-coloured silk instead of linen thread, and without open spaces. [illustration: --psalms. london, .] _psalms._ london, . nicholas ferrar's establishment at little gidding in huntingdonshire is often credited with having produced embroidered books, but there is really no authority for the belief. all the authentic bindings which came from little gidding have technical shortcomings from a bookbinding point of view, none of which are found on any embroidered books. in the _history of the worthies of england_, by thomas fuller, there is a short note about little gidding, and he says about the ladies there that 'their own needles were emploied in learned and pious work to binde bibles.' this note and the mention of needles may have perhaps given the start to the belief that embroidered work was intended, but in all probability it only refers to the sewing of the leaves of the books upon the bands of the back, which is done with needle and thread. moreover, the ladies of little gidding did actually sew the backs of their books in a needlessly elaborate way, putting in ten or twelve bands where three or four would have been ample. i also think that if embroidery had been intended by the sentence above quoted, it would have been more clearly mentioned. to 'emploie needles to bind bibles' is hardly the description one would expect if the meaning was that when bound the bibles were covered in embroidered work; but it may be safely interpreted as it is written, the sewing being a most important part of a bookbinding, and one likely to be much thought of by amateur binders, as the nieces of nicholas ferrar were. the attribution of embroidered bindings to little gidding may also have been strengthened by the fact that many of the bindings made there are in velvet, the ornamentation on which, though it is actually stamped in gold and silver, does to some extent suggest embroidery. indeed, i have myself heard the remark, on showing one of these books, 'oh, yes! embroidery.' again, a peculiarity of the little gidding books is, generally, their large size, whereas the embroidered books, especially the satin ones, are usually very small. [illustration: --psalms. london, .] one of the embroidered books thus wrongly credited to little gidding is a psalter, printed in london in . it is bound in white satin, very tastefully embroidered, the same design being on each side, and measures by inches. in the centre is a large orange tulip, shading from yellow to red, finely worked in silks in shading-stitch. the stem is outlined in gold cord, and has also symmetrical curves and leaves, some of which are filled in with silver guimp. the flower is enclosed in an ornamental scroll and leaf border, all made with gold threads and twists, and having leaf forms in relief at intervals in silver guimp. the back has five panels, ornamented alternately with guimp scrolls and small spheres of coloured silk. there have been spangles and small pieces of guimp scattered about on the sides and back, but most of them have gone. there are no ties, and the edges of the leaves are gilt, and have a small gauffred pattern upon them. the design of this book is extremely simple and effective; the fine stitching on the tulip contrasts well with the strong metal border enclosing it. it may be considered a favourable specimen of the commonest type of satin embroidered books of the seventeenth century. it is not in very good condition. _psalms._ london, . a very quaint design embroidered on white satin covers a copy of the psalms, printed in london in , and measuring - / by - / inches. on the upper side is a representation of jacob wrestling with the angel, flanked by two trees with large leaves; the angel has wings and long petticoats. the lower board has a representation of jacob's dream. the patriarch is asleep on the grass, his head upon a white stone, his staff and gourd by his side. he has pale hair and beard. behind him is a large tree, and in front a conventional flower with leaves and bud, and from the clouds reaches a ladder on which are three small winged angels, two coming down, and one between them going up. through a break in the clouds is seen a bright space, with rays of golden light proceeding from it. the back is divided into five panels, in each of which is a flower. these resemble, to some extent, a red tulip, a lily, a red dahlia, a yellow tulip, and a red rose. the work here is not protected by any strong or metal threads, and it is consequently much worn. there are no signs of any tie ribbon, and the edges are plainly gilt. _psalms._ london, . [illustration: --psalms. london, .] another copy of the psalms, printed in london in , bound in satin, and measuring - / by - / inches, bears on each side, within a circle, a miniature portrait of charles i. worked in feather-stitch. the king wears long hair, moustache, and small pointed beard. he is crowned, and has a red cloak with miniver tippet, from under which appears the blue ribbon of the garter worn round the neck, as it originally was, and having a small gold medallion attached to it. the initials c. r. in gold guimp are at each side. the circle is enclosed in a strong framework of silver cord and guimp in the form of four thin long pointed ovals of leaf form arranged as a diamond. the four triangular spaces between the diamond and the oval are filled with small flowers or small pieces of guimp and spangles. towards each corner grows a flower, two pansies, and two others with regular petals. the remaining spaces are filled variously with green leaves, small patches of purl and gold spangles, and a strong gold cord encloses the whole. the back is divided into three panels, in each of which is an ornamental conventional flower, the upper and lower ones alike, and worked in shades of red with guimp leaves in relief, and the centre one with six petals worked in yellow and edged with a fine gold cord. there are no signs of ties ever having existed, and the edges of the leaves are gilt and slightly gauffred. it has been suggested that this little book may have belonged to king charles i.; but the fact of his portrait being upon it is no proof of this, as portraits of this king are more numerous upon the bindings of english books than those of any other person. _psalms._ london, . the value of 'purl' was recognised some few years back, when i had some made, and explained its value and use to the royal school of art needlework at south kensington, and i believe they used it considerably. [illustration: --psalms. london, .] on books the use of purl is generally auxiliary, but one small book bound in white satin, and measuring by - / inches, a copy of the psalms, printed in london in , is entirely embroidered in this material, helped with gold braid and cord. the design is approximately the same on each side, a large flower with leaves in the centre, and a smaller flower in each corner. on the upper cover the centre flower is yellow and red, with two large green leaves, and the corner flowers are, possibly, intended for a cornflower, a jonquil, a lily, and a rose, but the material is so unwieldy that the forms are difficult to trace, and flowers worked in it are likely to assume forms that are unrecognisable, when finished, however well designed to start with. all the flowers and leaves are made with the purl cut into short lengths, drawn together at the ends by a thread run through, thus forming a succession of small arches. the stalks are made in gold cord. the flowers on the other side are, perhaps, a carnation in the centre, and round it a convolvulus, lily, daffodil, and rose. the back is divided into five panels, in each of which is a 'purl' flower, all worked in the same way, representing successively a tulip, cornflower, carnation, lily, rose, or something analogous to them; round the designs are straight pieces of brown purl, and the edges are bound with a broad gold braid. there are no ties or signs of any, and the edges are simply gilt. the purl is undoubtedly very strong; i possess a small patch-box worked on white satin in a similar way to this little book, and although it has been roughly used for some two hundred and fifty years, the colour of the purl is still good; the upper surfaces of the small spirals, however, show the copper wire bare almost everywhere. the book, not having had anything like the hard wear, is in very good condition, but it is too small for the proper use of so much thick thread. the larger leaves and petals are made in relief by being sewn on over a few pieces of purl laid underneath them at right angles. [illustration: --bible. london, .] _bible._ london, . a bible printed in london in is bound in white satin, and embroidered in coloured silks and gold braid and cord, measuring by - / inches. the same design is on both sides. in the centre within an oval of gold braid and cord is a spray of vine, with two bunches of grapes, three leaves and a tendril, the fruit and leaves worked in silk, and the stem in gold cord. enclosing the oval is an arabesque design worked in gold cord and guimp, and at each corner is an oval of thin gold strips and gold cord; the gold strips are done in the manner known as 'lizzarding,' and are kept down by small stitches at intervals. the back has four panels, in each of which is an arabesque design in coloured silks and gold cord or braid. although this book is comparatively late, it is in a bad condition, and shows much wear; the design also is weak, and the workmanship inferior. [illustration] index appliqué work, remarks on, . arthur, prince of wales, ostrich feather badge used by, . bacon's 'essays' ( ), ; 'works' ( ), . bags for embroidered books, . berthelet, thomas, bookbinder and printer, , . bible, ed., ; ed., ; ed., ; ed., ; ed., ; ed., ; ed., ; ed., ; ed., ; ed., ; ed., . bibliothèque nationale, embroidered books in the, . bodleian library, embroidered books in the, . brassington, mr. w. salt, . brion, martin de, 'très ample description de la terre sainte,' . british museum, embroidered books in the, , . broiderers, hints for, . buckingham, duke of, portrait on 'bacon's essays, ,' . canvas bindings, , , - . charles i., portrait on 'psalms, ,' . charles ii., badge on 'common prayer, ,' ; 'emblemes chrestiens, ,' . 'christian prayers,' ed., ; ed., ; ed., . christopherson, bishop of chichester, 'historia ecclesiastica' ( ), . collection of sixteenth century tracts ( ), ; ( ), . 'common prayer, ' (other editions are with 'psalms'), . covers for embroidered books, . 'daily exercise of a christian, ,' . day, john, printer, . derome le jeune, french bookbinder, . dibdin's 'bibliomania,' mention of queen elizabeth's embroidery in, . 'double books,' , . dutch embroidered books, . edges, ornamentally treated, . elizabeth, queen, arms embroidered, , , ; books embroidered by, , , , , . embroidered books, definition of, . 'epistles of st. paul, ,' . 'felbrigge psalter,' , . ferrar, nicholas, . fitzhugh, heraldic supporter, . fletcher, mr. w. y., . floral designs, , ; and on the following books: 'miroir of the soul' ( ), ; 'prayers of q. kath. parr' ( ), ; parker, 'de antiq. ecc. britannicæ' ( ), ; 'prayers' ( ), ; 'prayers' ( ), ; 'orationis dominicæ explicatio' ( ), ; 'psalms,' etc. ( ), ; 'bible' ( ), ; 'daily exercise of a christian' ( ), ; 'henshaw, 'horæ successivæ' ( ), ; 'psalms' ( ), ; 'bible' ( ), ; 'psalms' ( ), ; 'psalms' ( ), ; 'psalms' ( ), . forwarding of embroidered books, . french embroidered books, . fuller, thomas, . gauffred edges, . george ii., gift of the royal library to the british museum in , . george iii., his books largely rebound, . grenville, right hon. thomas, his books largely rebound, . guimp, description of, . headbands, . henry viii., arms on embroidered book, . henry benedict, cardinal york, . henry, prince of wales, his use of the ostrich feather badge, ; badge upon 'tracts, ,' , , . henshaw's 'horæ successivæ,' . heraldic designs, , ; _arms_ of henry viii., ; katherine parr, ; elizabeth, , , ; _badges_ of queen mary, ; prince of wales, , , ; _crest_ of vaughan, . inglis, esther, calligraphist, . italian embroidered bindings, . james ii., initials on 'bible, ,' . law, dr. w. t., . little gidding, 'needlework' done at, . lizzarding, description of, . macray, rev. w. d., , . magnus, of amsterdam, bookbinder, . martyr, peter, 'commonplaces,' . mary, queen, badge on 'psalter,' . metal threads, , . 'miroir of the synneful soul,' . montenay, georgette, 'emblemes chrestiens,' . new testament, ed., ; ed., ; ed., ; ed., . 'orationis dominicæ explicatio,' , . ostrevant, badge of the province of, . ostrich feather badge of the princes of wales, origin of the, ; on embroidered bindings, , , . parr, queen katherine, arms on 'petrarcha, ,' ; prayers written by, . parker, archbishop, 'de antiquitate ecclesiæ britannicæ,' . peacocks' feathers used in embroideries, . pearls used in embroidered bindings: brion ( ), ; christopherson ( ), ; parker ( ), ; 'new testament' ( ), ; 'bible' ( ), ; 'bible' ( ), ; 'tracts' ( ), ; montenay ( ), ; 'psalms' ( ), ; 'common prayer' ( ), . 'petrarcha, ,' . pomegranate badge on queen mary's 'psalter,' . poncyn, of amsterdam, bookbinder, . portraits on embroidered books, ; charles i., ; duke of buckingham, . 'psalms,' ed., ; ed., , ; ed., ; ed., ; ed., ; ed., , ; ed., . purl, description of, , , ; book embroidered alone with, . satin bindings, , , - . schreiber, the lady charlotte, . scriptural designs and figures of saints used on embroidered books, , ; abraham and isaac, ; the annunciation, ; the crucifixion, ; david, , ; jacob's dream, jacob wrestling with the angel, , ; st. peter, ; st. paul, ; solomon and the queen of sheba, . silk bindings, . south kensington museum, embroidered books in the, . spangles, , . stitches used on embroidered books: _buttonhole_ or _needlepoint lace_ stitch, 'new testament' ( ), ; 'psalms' ( ), ; 'new testament' ( ), ; 'bible' ( ), ; 'bible' ( ), . _chain stitch_, 'daily exercise of a christian' ( ), . _feather stitch_, sometimes called _shading stitch_, 'bible' ( ), ; 'new testament' ( ), ; henshaw ( ), ; 'psalms' ( ), ; 'psalms' ( ), ; 'psalms' ( ), . _satin stitch_, 'psalms' ( ), . _split stitch_, 'felbrigge psalter' (fourteenth century), ; 'way to true happiness' ( ), . _tapestry_ or _tent stitch_, ; 'miroir of the synneful soul' ( ), ; 'prayers' ( ), ; 'prayers' ( ), ; 'bible' ( ), ; ward ( ), . symbolical figures, , ; faith and hope ( , ), , ; peace and plenty ( , ), , . thompson, mr. h. yates, . udall's 'sermons,' . vaughan crest, on 'christian prayers, ,' . velvet bindings, , , - . victoria, queen, embroidered book belonging to, . wales, ostrich plumes of the prince of, , , . ward, samuel, 'sermons, - ,' . water-colours used on embroidered bindings, - . 'way to true happiness' ( ), . wheatley, mr. h. b., . wilton, countess of, , , . wren, elizabeth, book embroidered by, . york, cardinal, . printed by t. and a. constable, printers to her majesty, at the university press, edinburgh: march mdcccxcix =the english bookman's library= edited by alfred pollard volume i =english embroidered bookbindings= by cyril davenport, f. s. a. volume ii =a brief history of english printing= by h. r. plomer volume iii =english book collectors= by w. y. fletcher london kegan paul, trench, trÜbner & co., limited [illustration: ( .) goat.] [illustration: ( .) seal (bold grain).] [illustration: ( .) seal (fine grain).] leather for libraries. by e. wyndham hulme, j. gordon parker, a. seymour-jones, cyril davenport, and f. j. williamson london: published for the sound leather committee of the library association by the library supply co., bridge house, , queen victoria street, e.c. . library association. constitution of the sound leather committee. cyril davenport, _british museum library_. j. p. edmond, _signet library, edinburgh_. dr. j. gordon parker, _london leather industries laboratory, bermondsey_. e. wyndham hulme, _patent office library_. (_hon. secretary._) contents. chapter i. page history of sumach tanning in england, degradation of the manufacture of leather, and history of the reform movement. by e. wyndham hulme chapter ii. the causes of decay in bookbinding leathers. by j. gordon parker chapter iii. provenance, characteristics, and values of modern bookbinding leathers. by a. seymour-jones chapter iv. the repairing and binding of books for public libraries. by cyril davenport chapter v. specification for the fittings of a small bindery. by f. j. williamson index _the bancroft library_ university of california · berkeley the roger levenson memorial fund chapter i. history of sumach tanning in england, degradation of the manufacture of leather, and history of the reform movement. by e. wyndham hulme. chapter i. the section of the leather trade to which this handbook relates is that concerned in the manufacture of light leathers tanned with a pale tannage preparatory to being dyed. bark and most other vegetable tanning substances leave a colour on the skin which cannot be removed without detriment to the durability of the leather; the retention of the colour, however, detracts from the purity of the final colour imparted by the dye. the reputation in the past of the sumach-tanned spanish leather was founded upon this peculiar property of sumach of leaving the skin white, and on this point the wisdom of the ancients has been justified by the results of an exhaustive series of experiments conducted by the society of arts' committee, which have given to sumach the first place in the list of tannages for light leathers. the date of the introduction of sumach tanning into england may, with some show of probability, be assigned to the year , when a seven years' monopoly patent was granted to two strangers, roger heuxtenbury and bartholomew verberick, for the manufacture of "spanish or beyond sea leather," on the condition that the patentees should employ one native apprentice for every foreigner in their service. this stipulation indicates that the industry was a new one. following the custom of the times, the supervision of the industry was entrusted to the "wardens of the company of leathersellers in london." additional evidence of the use of sumach at this period is afforded by another patent to a spanish jew, roderigo lopez, one of elizabeth's physicians. by way of settling her doctor's bills the queen granted to lopez, in , an exclusive licence to import sumach and aniseed for ten years. besides attending the queen in his professional capacity, lopez was called upon to act as interpreter to the portuguese pretender, don antonio, on his visit to this island. as the result of some misunderstanding with antonio, lopez was induced to join a conspiracy nominally aimed against the life of antonio, but actually directed against the queen, and in lopez expiated his crimes at tyburn. those who are curious in such matters will be interested to trace in the "merchant of venice" the re-appearance of our sumach merchant as shylock, while the name of antonio is boldly retained by shakespeare for his hero (cf. s. lee, "the original of shylock," in the _gentleman's magazine_, ). after the arrest of lopez, his grant was continued to r. alexander and r. mompesson (patent roll, eliz., p. ). in the charter of the leathersellers' company, dated , "spanish leather and other leathers dressed or wrought in sumach or bark" are mentioned. in the duty granted upon imported sumach was fixed at s. d. per cwt. of lbs., and on dried myrobalans at s. d. per lb., thus disproving the statement of prof. thorold rogers in his "history of prices" (vol. , p. ), that oak bark was the only tanning material used in england at this period. the earliest description known to the writer of the process of sumaching by sewing up the skins into bottles and allowing the fluid extract to penetrate the fibre by pressure, is to be found in in the "dictionary of arts and science" (vol. , article "morocco"). the first step in the degradation of the manufacture of light leathers, though it at first affected the heavy leathers only, was the introduction of the use of sulphuric acid in by dr. mcbride of dublin (_phil. trans._, ). by substituting a vitriolic liquor for the vegetable acids obtained by fermenting bran, rye, or other cereals, dr. mcbride claimed three advantages: ( ) absolute control over the degree of acidity of the liquor, whereas organic souring was troublesome and uncertain; ( ) that the skins were "plumped" better by the acid, and that the danger of injury to skins (by bacterial action) was avoided; ( ) that the process of tanning was materially shortened. at all events, the doctor succeeded in convincing first the dublin tanners, and shortly afterwards their bermondsey rivals, of the superiority of his methods, which, as already stated, were intended for heavy leathers only (_encyclopædia britannica_, , article "tanning"). having once established its footing in the tanyard the use of sulphuric acid was soon further extended. with the introduction of aniline dyestuffs about sulphuric acid came into universal use as a means of clearing the skin before entering the dyebath. the effect of the introduction of the coal-tar colours was to revolutionise the dyeing of leather. under the old _régime_ of the vegetable dyestuffs the few standard shades of red, blue, olive, yellow, and black were obtained on moroccos mordanted with alum, while bark-tanned calf and sheep skins were, as a rule, left in their natural browns and ornamented by sprinkling or marbling. the wide range of colours offered by the new dyestuffs fascinated the public, which accepted the new leathers without question as to their durability. librarians began to insist upon accuracy and uniformity of shade, regardless of the methods by which these results were obtained. yet, apart from the question of durability, it is clear that brilliancy of colour has been purchased at too high a price. under the old system of dyeing a thin superficial layer of colour was laid over the natural white of the skin, thereby obtaining a variety and depth of colour which is in striking contrast to the dead uniformity of the colours of modern acid-bitten leathers. hence the reform of the manufacture of the light leathers is supported by æsthetic as well as by practical considerations. passing from the domain of chemistry to that of mechanics, the committee of the society of arts has emphasized the need of a return to sounder and less ruinous methods of dealing with leather; but their recommendations are so clearly set out in their report that it is proposed here to touch upon one point only, viz., the artificial graining of leather. the committee remark that, whereas many examples of sound sheepskin, dating from the th century to the early part of the th century, had been brought to their notice, "since about sheepskin as sheepskin is hardly to be found." now, the decoration of leather by the impression of patterns by mechanical pressure had long been known, the lozenge pattern of early russia leather having been effected in the th century by means of engraved steel cylinders. but in it occurred to an ingenious mechanic that, by means of the electroplate process, an exact reproduction of the grain of the higher-priced skins might be communicated to sheepskin or other inferior leather whereby the selling value of the latter would be considerably enhanced (cf. bernard's patent specification , of , and a modification of the same process in no. , of ). from this date, therefore, sheepskin disappears from view only to reappear as imitation morocco, pigskin, or other higher-priced leather. so perfectly does the counterfeit skin imitate the original on the bound volume that the two can only be distinguished with certainty by microscopic examination. librarians, therefore, must bear in mind that a familiarity with the natural characteristics of the ordinary binding leathers is no safe guide to the character of the leather of a binding. the utmost that can be said is that the leather is either genuine or else a remarkably good counterfeit, a conclusion which, it is hardly necessary to say, is not one of great value in practice. as might have been supposed, the rapid decay of leather bindings in the th century, resulting from a combination of the above malpractices, with the attendant evils of heavy outlay upon rebinding, cropped margins, and ill-matched sets upon the shelves, from time to time attracted the attention of booklovers and bookbinders; but their efforts to determine the causes of the deterioration and to find a remedy have until recently met with very little success. in the subject was investigated by professors faraday, brande, and others on behalf of the athenæum club. this committee is largely responsible for the "sulphur in gas" theory--a theory which was never wholly true, even at a period when the percentage of sulphur in coal gas was much higher than at present (cf. _journal of the society of arts_, - , p. ), and which now has ceased to have any practical bearing upon the matter. it should be noted that, in , crace calvert, the well-known manchester chemist, came to a different conclusion. after pointing out that decay in leather was observable in libraries, such as the chetham library, in which gas had never been used, he stated that the presence of sulphuric acid in leather bindings was attributable to one or more of three causes: (_a_) to the pollution of the atmosphere by consumption of coal in the manchester factories; (_b_) to the action of gas fumes in unventilated rooms; (_c_) to the use of sulphuric acid by the tanners; and he further expressed his opinion that the seat of the disease would be found in irregularities in the processes of tanning--in other words, that the disease was aggravated rather than originated by these first two causes (cf. _trans. society of arts_, vol. , pp. - ). calvert's views, however, met with very little support. in , at the conference of librarians in london, a proposal was made that a committee of librarians and chemists should deal with the matter, but no effect was given to the proposal. ten years later a series of experiments on the action of gas fumes and heat was undertaken on behalf of the birmingham library by mr. c. t. woodward (_library chronicle_, , pp. - ). strips of leather exposed for , hours to the action of gas fumes, at temperatures of ° and ° fahrenheit, showed a mean absorption of sulphuric acid of · per cent., accompanied by a marked reduction in their stretching capacity and breaking strain. the experiments on the action of heat alone were regarded as inconclusive. mr. woodward suggested that the library association should undertake the testing of leathers, and that librarians should thereafter employ only leather of a given standard; but once more nothing was done. in the meantime the reputation of leather as a binding material continued to dwindle; one leather after another was tried, found wanting, and excluded from library practice, while various leather substitutes--buckram, art linen, and imitation leathers, gradually took its place. it is due to the efforts of dr. parker and prof. procter between and that the real facts of the case have been brought to light. in the latter years an agitation in favour of standard leather was set on foot by lord cobham, mr. cockerell, mr. davenport, and others, which resulted in the appointment by the society of arts of a committee on leathers for bookbinding, the cost of which was met by a grant from the leathersellers' company. upon the publication of the first report of the above committee in the subject was taken up by the council of the library association, and after several papers had been read at the monthly meetings in london and elsewhere, a committee was appointed to ascertain how far members of the association were prepared to accept a common standard for binding leathers. for this purpose in march , close upon , circulars were addressed to the libraries of the united kingdom asking for a statement of their views upon the following proposals, amongst others, viz.: (_a_) that the council should appoint an official analyst; (_b_) that they should publish a handbook giving to members of the association such information as would enable them to secure sound leather at a reasonable price. the circular meeting with a favourable reception, the council invited dr. parker to draw up a scale of fees for the analysis of leathers, and the scale having been duly approved, dr. parker was at once appointed analyst to the association. since the appointment of the committee abundant evidence has been forthcoming that at last the reform of light leathers for bookbinding and upholstery is now in sight. the efforts of the committee have been warmly seconded by the press. in the recently concluded government binding contracts a clause has been inserted enabling any department to obtain standard leather and rendering the contractor liable to heavy penalties for infringement of the conditions of this clause; yet the price paid for bindings in this leather is only fractionally increased. from the outset the committee have been assured of the support of the leading firms of leather manufacturers, who have recognised that, if leather is to regain the ground which has been lost, it must be by the adoption of a common standard of manufacture and by the introduction of honest trade descriptions in the retail trade. hence where the provenance of the leather is declared and the method of its manufacture supported by a written guarantee from the leather manufacturer, the need for periodical analysis of samples is less urgent. but where the bookbinder is unwilling or unable to state the provenance of his leathers recourse to chemical analysis is the only safeguard. the librarian on his side will materially assist the binder by limiting his demand to leathers of a few standard shades and by abstaining from insisting upon accurate matching to pattern. if the piecing, panelling and lettering of serials is kept uniform, a want of uniformity in the shade of leather is not of much practical moment. in the meantime the librarian should keep a vigilant watch for the following symptoms of deterioration:-- (_a_) general shabbiness and tenderness of leather, especially at parts where the leather is strained over the cords on the back or edges of the boards. probable cause: sulphuric acid. (_b_) red rot in morocco. on friction the leather turns to a red powder. probable cause: a persian or east indian half-bred sheepskin has been supplied in place of goat. (_c_) withering of pigskin accompanied by discoloration. probable cause: over "pulling down" of the skin in the "puering" process. if the pigskin has been dyed in a bright shade, acid also is present. (_d_) deterioration and discoloration of smooth and light-coloured calfskins, especially law calf. probable cause: use of oxalic acid by the bookbinder to remove grease marks, &c. chapter ii. the causes of decay in bookbinding leathers. by j. gordon parker. chapter ii. why do modern leather bindings decay? is it possible to obtain a leather for bookbinding purposes as good and as durable as the leather produced from the th to th century? these are the two problems which the committee on bookbinding leather appointed by the society of arts set themselves to investigate. fortunately we are able to solve both problems. in the olden days all skins were tanned with a liquor made from either oak bark or sumach, and in some cases a mixture of the two. the skins used by the tanner were usually obtained direct from the butchers. after soaking and cleansing they were then limed for a period sufficiently long to loosen the hair. after the removal of the hair and superfluous flesh and fat, the skins were washed in several changes of fresh soft water to remove the excess of lime, the process being assisted by working the skins over on a beam with a blunt knife. when in suitable condition they were brought into sour, old tan liquors. there was no hurry, the skins being slowly tanned in weak infusions, and when the process was complete, the leather was simply washed free from superfluous tan, dyed with wood or other vegetable dyes, rinsed free from excess of dye-stuff, and dried out. the leather was afterwards softened by stretching, and polished or glazed by brushing the skin over with oil, soap, beeswax, or a solution of some moss. such leather lacked the high finish, the regular colour, the bright shades of modern leather, but it lasted fifty or one hundred years with hard wear, and, under favourable conditions, appears to be almost imperishable. the finish, or general appearance, of leather continued to improve up to about , but after that date some of the bindings examined showed signs of rapid deterioration in quality. this deterioration increased on bindings subsequent to , and probably per cent. of the leather used for bookbinding during the last twenty years either has already decayed or will do so within a comparatively short time. now to deal with the answer to the first question, why do modern leather bindings decay? the chief causes are as follows:-- . the introduction of tanning materials other than oak and sumach, stronger in tanning, and more rapid in their action. many of these tanning materials are unstable, and the leather produced disintegrates on exposure to light and air. . the use of dried and cured skins of variable soundness imported from abroad. goat, calf, and sheep skins are imported into this country from all over the world; some are simply dried in the sun, some salted, whilst others are cured with various ingredients. . the use of infusions of acids and other bleaching agents to produce bright and even shades of colour. . the use of sulphuric or other mineral acids for the purpose of developing the depth of colour during the process of dyeing. . the shaving and splitting of skin for producing an even substance. . printing and embossing grains upon leather, together with other methods of finishing now in common use. . the stripping, scouring, souring, and re-tanning of east india leathers (persians). . the removal of the natural grease or nourishment of the skin. these eight causes, although by no means exhaustive, are, however, the chief factors in the deterioration of modern leather; and in as few words as possible i will explain the reason of their introduction and effect. as the industry advanced there were found in different parts of the world tanning materials other than oak and sumach, some of which were two, three, or five times as rich in tannin as oak, thus making infusions of greater strength, and consequently of quicker action, with the result that leather which formerly required from three to six months to tan was turned out in almost as many days, or, at the most, in as many weeks. it was not realised, however, that these different tanning materials contained tannins of different qualities, capable of producing quite a different leather to that produced by means of oak or sumach. the experts who spent months testing and investigating this question came to the unanimous conclusion that the speed of tannage or the strength of the tanning liquor had very little to do with the wearing qualities of the leather produced, but found that some of these new materials contained tannins of a different chemical nature from that of sumach, and that they produced leather of an unstable character, some of the leathers undergoing change in a few hours on exposure to strong light and air. on the other hand, some of the new tanning materials produced permanent leathers practically equal to sumach. those tanning materials, therefore, which contained tannins of the catechol series, including the tannins of hemlock, larch, quebracho, mangrove, gambier, and turwar, were condemned, as all these materials produce a leather which on exposure to light and air turns first a red shade of colour and afterwards develops what is now well known by bookbinders and librarians as the red decay, where the leather crumbles off on application of friction. on the other hand, tanning materials of the pyrogallol class, such as sumach, galls, divi-divi, myrobalans, oak, and chesnut, produce a leather which is practically unaffected by light or air. further, it was found in every case where authentic bindings dating from the th century onwards were examined the tanning material used was one of this pyrogallol series. on the other hand, leathers which showed the red decay were in every case found either to have been tanned with tanning materials of the catechol series, or were rotted with acid. the second cause of trouble is the manufacture of leather from skins from distant lands which have been improperly or insufficiently preserved for export. it often happens that the fibres have partly perished before the tanner receives the skins, the resulting leather is therefore poor, spongy, and partially perished, making thin leather, which sometimes, on account of its thinness, will cut up apparently economically for the binder, but not economically for the librarian or the owner of books, as the leather cannot possibly be as good or have as long life as leather manufactured from a sound skin. bright even shades and light fancy colours previous to the introduction of acid bleaches were manufactured from sumach-tanned skins only, sumach alone producing a leather of a light cream colour, and therefore capable of taking practically any shade of dye. most other tanning materials produced dark foundations, on which it was practically impossible to dye any but a dark shade. gradually, however, manufacturers found leather tanned with materials cheaper than sumach could be scoured and bleached with acids, then re-tanned with sumach, thus producing a light, even-coloured leather, which with the dye produced light shades. the cheapest, and at the same time the most effective, acid for this purpose was vitriol or sulphuric acid. this, in common with other mineral acids, combines with the leather fibre, upon which it exercises a most disastrous and disintegrating action, and to the use of this acid, either as a bleaching or clearing agent in the tanning process, or in subsequent use in developing the colour in the dye-bath, may be ascribed the cause of decay of over per cent. of modern bookbinding and upholstering leather. it is impossible to remove these acids from leather by any subsequent amount of washing, or without the addition of some other chemical to expel them. recently the writer treated some leather with sulphuric acid, and after cutting the leather up into small pieces, washed the same in running water for three weeks; at the end of that period the sulphuric acid was still tightly fixed in the fibres of the leather. the introduction of aniline dyes instead of the older process of wood dyes made a great change in the production of bookbinding leather. hundreds of new shades of colour were produced, and the process of leather dyeing was simplified and cheapened. but, unfortunately, in the use of a certain class of these dye-stuffs the full depth of shade could not at that date be produced upon the leather except in the presence of an acid. here, again, therefore, sulphuric acid was introduced into the leather during the process of manufacture, thus increasing the proportion of leather which contained this disintegrating material. it has frequently been stated by leather dyers and others that a certain quantity of sulphuric acid must be used with acid dye-stuffs, otherwise the full depth of shade cannot be produced, and they claim that without its use it is impossible to produce certain brilliant shades of colour. these statements have been proved to be devoid of foundation. there are several substitutes for sulphuric acid which are harmless in their nature. among these i may mention formic, acetic and lactic acids. these are organic acids which have no harmful action on the leather; they are easily washed out, and even if any trace of these acids be left in the skin, they will evaporate. formic acid has even been proved to be cheaper than sulphuric, and, moreover, is capable of developing equal shades in all cases, and deeper and more brilliant shades of colour with some dyes. for the present, however, bookbinders, and especially librarians, are advised not to insist upon brilliant shades of colour. the introduction of the splitting machine and the introduction of a machine for shaving leather has undoubtedly tended to produce a large quantity of thin leather, but it is impossible either to shave or to split a skin without cutting the network of fibres, and the strength of the leather cannot but be materially decreased. leather is made up of a complex system of fibres interweaving and intertwining in every possible direction, and even the small amount of paring carried out by the bookbinder himself considerably impairs the strength and life of the binding. how much more, therefore, does the splitting and shaving that the tanner carries out in order to bring the skin to an even substance destroy the strength of the product. sufficient has been written on the printing of morocco, seal, and pig grains upon skins of an inferior class, but it cannot be too strongly pointed out to librarians that the strength of embossed leather must be impaired when it is realised how the embossing and printing is carried out. the skins to be embossed are coated over in the wet state with a mixture of dye, size, and other materials, and are then passed between two hot electrotype rollers. this embosses or prints upon the skin the required grain; at the same time it glues the fibres of the leather together, preventing the free run which good skins should possess, and the heat dries up the leather, reducing its strength very considerably. i now come to the stripping, scouring, souring, and re-tanning of leather. it is difficult to decide whether more damage is done in this process or in the use of mineral acids in the dye-bath; but it is certain that any leather which is stripped of its natural tanning by use of alkalies or bleached by an acid has lost at least per cent. of its wearing and lasting properties. thousands of dozens of skins in the rough tanned condition reach the english market from india, australia, new zealand, and other parts. these are tanned with quebracho, mimosa, or some similar tanning material, whereas the indian skins are nearly all tanned with turwar bark and are of a reddish-fawn shade of colour. these are purchased by the leather finishers, and are manufactured in england. in order to get rid of the reddish colour they are first soaked in water and afterwards drummed in a weak solution of washing soda, borax, or some similar alkali. this removes the uncombined tan from the skin, as well as taking out the natural grease. the skins emerge from the drum a dark mahogany colour; they are then washed in water and afterwards soured in a sulphuric acid bath. this bleaches the skin to a light bright shade. the finisher then, in order to put back tannin into the skin of a light colour, re-tans them in sumach or a mixture of sumach and oak. they are now known as re-tanned skins; and after drying, are dyed and finished in the ordinary manner. the sheep and goat skins are sold as roans or moroccos, as the case may be, and, as a rule, no indication is given that these are re-tanned skins. the re-tanned indian skins, however, generally leave the factory as persian roans or persian morocco, but as the skins pass from the manufacturer to the merchant, from the merchant to the small dealer, the word "persian" is generally omitted, and they reach the bookbinder as moroccos or roans, as the case may be. now this is the most important point for the binder. i would go so far as to say that it should almost be a punishable offence to use either persians or re-tanned skins for bookbinding purposes, as such leather cannot possibly last ten years if exposed to light and air. not only has the scouring and alkali a perishing effect upon the leather, but it is afterwards made worse by the treatment with acid, a bleach, and the further addition of acid to the dye-bath; added to which the alkaline treatment removes the natural grease or nourishment of the skin, and it is well known to those engaged in the leather trade that the strength and life of a leather is at least doubled by a proper nourishment of the leather with a suitable fat. therefore, if the whole of the natural fat is removed, the leather rapidly dries, it loses its elasticity and spring, the grain cracks, and after keeping in a dry library for some time the backs break right off the books. i have dealt with the eight chief causes of premature decay, but before passing to the other part of this paper i must also deal with the weaknesses of the bookbinder as well as those of the leather manufacturer, and, for reasons stated above, absolutely condemn the undue paring of leather, the bleaching of leather by means of oxalic acid, and the use of patent finishes and glares, the composition of which is in most cases a mystery, many of them containing acids, others containing drying agents which have almost as injurious an action upon leather as the vitriol used by the tanner. to revert to my original thesis, it is not only possible to obtain a leather as good as any leather manufactured from the th to th century, but it is even possible to get a better leather. librarians, in drawing up their binding specifications have only to do what the controller of h.m.'s stationery office is doing for the libraries under his charge, viz., to provide under suitable penalties that leathers supplied by the contractor shall be equal to samples shown on pattern cards prior to tendering for the contract, and in addition to insist that such leathers shall conform to certain conditions laid down in the report of the society of arts' committee on bookbinding, which may be summarised as follows:-- . the binder undertakes not to use stripped and re-tanned leather, whether persians (east indian skins) or from elsewhere, or to use leather embossed or grained artificially to resemble morocco, pigskin, &c. . he guarantees (or undertakes to produce the guarantee of the firm supplying the leather) that all skins supplied ( ) are genuine as described; ( ) are tanned with pure sumach or galls, or in the case of calf or sheep with oak bark, or mixtures of oak bark and sumach; ( ) that no mineral acid has been used either in the process of tanning, bleaching, or dyeing, and that the leather is free from acid or other injurious ingredient; ( ) that he will use no acid to clear the leather in the process of binding. before drafting his binding specification the librarian would do well to consult the excellent "note on bookbinding" by mr. douglas cockerell, published by w. h. smith and son, at the price of d. special attention is drawn to the difference of the cost in binding according to specification i. and ii. of the society of arts' committee reproduced on pp. - of this pamphlet, and to mr. cockerell's remarks on pages , etc. the above stipulations should not make any substantial difference in price per volume to those libraries which already have been using high-class leather tanned in sumach, but librarians who have hitherto been content with persians, re-tanned australians, and other cheap classes of leather must expect to pay a higher price for leather, properly tanned and guaranteed to last. several large firms of high reputation, who are now catering for the bookbinding trade, have already turned out thousands of skins of a satisfactory nature. these firms are not only anxious to fall in with the requirements of the society of arts' report, but are desirous of removing the distrust which at present exists with regard to leather, and to reinstate this article as being the standard and natural covering for books. for permanent wear, whether for books or other purposes, leather, when properly prepared, is without a rival both for appearance and durability. it is only for the cheaper class of work that leather substitutes are formidable as rivals. with regard to strengths of various leathers, it is somewhat difficult to lay down a hard-and-fast rule, but in general terms it may be stated that the strongest leather made is pigskin. the fibres are tough, somewhat coarse, but of great strength. the only danger is in the paring down of the skin previous to use in the binding, and therefore, by reason of its thickness, it is well to only use pigskin for the binding of large, heavy volumes where a thick leather can be used without detriment to the appearance of the book. seal probably comes next in strength. it is tougher than goat skin, and, by reason of the quantity of natural grease which these skins contain, will in most cases remain pliable and wear longer than the average morocco. seal is closely followed by goat skin. a special feature of goat is the hard grain which it possesses. this is specially to be recommended where much frictional wear is given to the book. sheep and calf may be put on about the same footing. both are extremely pliable, but i think one may safely state that books bound in sheepskin leather, if that leather be from the cross breed, welsh, or other mountain sheep, will probably outlast calf skin. there is no doubt that calf has got into disrepute largely on account of the destructive processes used in the finishing and production of the soft, smooth-grained calf, which has of late years become so popular. binders must understand that the velvety finish can only be obtained by an undue pulling down of the skin previous to the tanning process or an undue paring on the part of the binder. both russia leather and vellum, as binding materials, have done good service in the past, but have lost their old reputation for durability. for the present, librarians are recommended to use these skins as little as possible. a few words suffice to deal with skiver bindings. these are the thin grain of sheep and sometimes calf, and are at their best about equal in strength to thin notepaper, their whole texture and fibrous structure having been split off and their nature destroyed. it must be understood that the deterioration of leather is not only caused by faulty manufacture or improper treatment in the dye-house or finishing shop. good bindings of sound leather are frequently destroyed by the neglect of certain elementary precautions on the part of the librarian. the subject is too large to deal with fully in these pages, but librarians would do well to study carefully the detailed report of the society of arts' committee. but the following elementary rules should be observed:--books should not be exposed to gas fumes, or to the direct rays of the sun; the temperature of the library should not exceed ° f., the upper strata should be well ventilated, and a thermometer should be hung on the same level as the top shelves in order to advise the librarian whether the temperature is being kept within reasonable limits. freedom from damp is, of course, an essential condition of library architecture. the question of leather preservative compositions is dealt with in another chapter, but too much cannot be said against the use of various decoctions which are sold to librarians for coating and preserving leather bindings. many of these contain turpentine, which has a drying, detrimental effect. various other emulsions are on the market, but although these give the leather a soft, pleasant feel when applied, this soon dries up, the leather becoming hard and liable to crack. there may be some suitable ingredients for applying to leather bindings, but i am of the opinion that if a library is not allowed to get too hot, and a plentiful supply of pure, dry air is always present, sound leather should require no further preservative. chapter iii. provenance, characteristics, and values of modern bookbinding leathers. by a. seymour-jones. chapter iii. to correctly locate the sources of skin supply suitable for bookbinding is not easy, in consequence of original breeds having been transplanted to equally suitable climes over the seas. in many cases purity of breed has been maintained, while in the majority, deterioration has set in, due to desire for heavier beasts: therefore the purposes of this chapter will be best met if original breeds are described and their general _habitat_ located. the animals which furnish skins suitable in quality and quantity to meet the increasing demands of to-day are: sheep, goat, calf, seal, and pig or hog. other animals may produce skins good for bookbinding, but a description of the foregoing will afford ample illustration. the sheepskin takes first place in regard to quantity. probably more than two-thirds of modern commercial bindings are represented by this much-abused skin, which is frequently so skilfully manipulated as to deceive even an expert, that it is not what it is represented to be. after the pelt has been split or cut in twain--the grain part after tanning being termed "a skiver," and the flesh after dressing designated chamois--the former is so manipulated with dyes, finishes, and embossing, that surface or grain detection is extremely difficult, say, between a true morocco or embossed skiver. much of this so-called misrepresentation has been created by the public, who order their books to be covered in "leather," which they are pleased to think is morocco, or pig or seal, when reflection should tell them that it cannot be genuine at the price they have paid, often for book and binding complete. this "faking" is very largely accomplished upon sheepskin, because it readily lends itself to such alterations both by nature and price; but when such leathers are employed they should be correctly described by the binder. sheepskins have a large place in the commercial bookbinderies and affections of the public at large, and there is no reason why they should not only hold their ground, but succeed in displacing the cloth imitations of leather; and, provided the skins are selected from suitable breeds, they should find a place in the binding of certain classes of books intended for permanent reference in libraries. the sheep as a family are divided into two classes: the upland and lowland breeds. the upland class inhabit the mountain ranges, and while possessing a short firm wool, have a mass of close thick hair underneath. their habits and life make the character of meat and skin approach a goat nearer than any other animal. the parent stock are the argali or wild sheep of the himalaya, and the "musmon" of the andes and sierra nevadas. fuller particulars will be found in the "royal natural history," by richard lydekker, b.a., f.r.s., vol. , pp. to . the upland sheep of to-day vary in purity or closeness to the parent stock according to the source of supply. in certain mongolian, arabian and welsh sheep it is not easy to discriminate between them and a true goat, after the wool has been removed. it is the skins of such sheep that are suitable for binding books in libraries where price and hard wear are a consideration. sheep-grazing countries having high altitudes would be probable sources of supply of such skins. great britain, through wales, cumberland, westmorland, and the highlands of scotland provides many millions of skins a year to the cotton spinning trade, for covering drawing rollers, an operation calling for a hard-wearing grained skin. in practice it has been found that sheepskins yield the most lasting results when tanned slowly in oak-bark liquors; the product is a tighter and more solid skin than when tanned in sumach, though sumach may be used in given cases, or a combination of both. commercially valued, the upland sheepskins sell at prices varying from - / d. to d. per square foot, when finished according to the society of arts' bookbinding committee's report. the lowland breed, commonly known as domestic sheep (ovis aries) are found wherever there are grazing lands. in sheep grazing, the graziers' "object" varies. it may be the "wool or the flesh." if the former, the skin is usually unfavourable for binding purposes, while if the latter, a large portion find their way to the sheepskin splitters, who by machinery of considerable delicacy split the skins into what are known in the trade as grains and fleshes. the grains alone interest us, being subsequently tanned into skivers. this class of leather has its use in low-price trade bindings of flexible character, and as such competes and compares in price and durability successfully with any imitations. to make skivers suitable in wearing qualities it is advisable to take the plain dyed class, reasonably stout, tanned in sumach, and dyed without mineral acid, dried out with a little stretch left in, and if they are required as tough as it is possible to obtain a grain, a little nourishing material may be used to advantage. by following these lines it will reduce the risk of imitations. though "paste grain," "long grain," and "glazed skivers" will still find a market among binders, they must not be classed among the "imitations." skivers are sold from about d. to d. per square foot. before proceeding further it may be well to point out that the skins from old or very young animals should be avoided, although old animals are a rarity. exceptionally large skins in their class should be viewed with suspicion, likewise very small ones. the former may indicate weakness, and the latter want of maturity. this must in practice have a general application. the goat (genus capra) finds most favour as furnishing a suitable skin among binders. this animal, in the proper sense of the word "goat" exclusive, belongs to the old world, being confined to the area north of the southern flanks of the himalaya, though one species is found in egypt and another in abyssinia, but quite unknown in the remainder of africa. in america the term "goat" is applied to our ruminant. while being essentially a mountain animal, goat breeding has become a business to-day throughout the world, which has been laid under contribution to supply the enormous demand which has been created during the past twenty years by the chrome glacé kid manufacturers, one maker alone requiring , dozen skins per diem to keep his factory running full. the skins generally employed for book purposes are the european and northern african supplies, though many other sources are equally suitable. goat skins, on account of their firm nature are best tanned in pure sumach (sicilian). time has conclusively proved this point. in the rylands library in manchester (eng.) are two heavy volumes bound in plain undyed sumach-tanned goat-skins which were bound in spain in the th century, and are to-day in a perfect state of preservation. the niger skins (mixed goat and sheep) which have found favour among certain bookbinders are produced from a breed of egyptian goats, tanned and prepared by nigerian natives with a species of nut-galls which gives them that peculiar close, tight feel, and when such firmness is required in european stock it may be equally effectively produced with oak bark. the large proportion of so-called moroccos offered to-day are made from skins tanned in east india with a catechol tannin. it is unfortunate that this tannage has failed to withstand the tests supplied by the scientific committee appointed by the society of arts on bookbinding leathers, because it excludes from the binding trade a very useful and cheap supply of pretty looking and feeling skin ready to hand for finishing in moroccos. while condemned for permanent library work--that is, guaranteed leathers--the writer sees no reason why such leathers may not safely be used for lending library work, where the life of a binding is not expected to run more than ten years, provided the surplus tan is washed out and replaced by some nourishing material (fat), and in all processes inorganic acids and alkalis are avoided. goat-skins differ from other animals mainly in the pronounced grain formations, while the texture of the skin is closer and firmer than a sheep, the grain is harder, more scale like, the papillæ between which the hair-holes are situate are most marked, and it is their formation which produces during the operation of "boarding" the grained morocco with its beautiful nodules. if these nodules or grains are bold and large it indicates a thick skin originally. such grains cannot be expected upon a thin skin--it implies either over-reduction (shaving) in substance or embossing. thin skins will produce a small shortlike grain. if the grain is fine on a large skin it may have been reduced too much in substance, and thereby loses most of its muscular structure and strength. it is necessary when buying moroccos, which are not only expensive but are expected to yield longevity and be hard wearing, to obtain a manufacturer's guarantee that the skins are genuine goat (genus capra) and not mountain sheep (argali) or bastards, and that they have been prepared in accordance with the society of arts' report on bookbinding. in value the moroccos vary considerably in price, according to substance, size, quality, and character. the skins are generally bought in the dry pelt state with hair on at per lb., the large, plump, well-flayed skins commanding higher prices than less favoured ones. in this state it is difficult to detect grain faults, consequently to the manufacturer it is somewhat of a speculation, and unless he is well informed in his trade he stands to lose heavily. generally speaking the prime clear grains go into bright colours at higher prices than defective grains, which can be hidden by darker colour with the aid of a suitable finish. for example, the colour of the niger skins previously referred to is an excellent one for hiding grain defects. the amount of absolutely perfect skins is small, but the remainder are good skins in their class for half-bound work. the perfect skins will realise up to s. d. per square foot, and according to quality and colour the balance will range down to d. per square foot. calf skins have long been favoured for bookbinding, but through much variety of tannages and faulty selection of skins have been brought somewhat into disrepute for permanent work, but if prepared by slow tanning in oak bark or sumach there is no reason why they should not be reinstated. undoubtedly the calf is favoured by nature with the finest and silkiest grains of all animals, and though too tender for rough usage, is nevertheless, if suitably nourished, capable of standing greater wear than it is credited with. calf skins for bookbinding are the product of the domestic ox (bos taurus), and as this useful animal is bred the world over, we are not wanting in supplies, nor is one land more favoured than another. if the principle is accepted that small books require small thin skins, as the books increase in size so should the skins and substance, a great difficulty will be overcome, because in buying calf one of the fatal mistakes made is the stipulation that large skins must be thin. if this is insisted upon they must be split or shaved of all their muscular tissue till merely the grain or skiver is left. a reasonable amount of shaving is permissible, but splitting is disastrous. calf skins are invariably free from grain faults, so that for delicate shades of colour they are particularly suitable. the grain does not lend itself to any very definite formation in boarding (graining), therefore calf by preference should be left smooth. in the raw state they are purchased by the pound, and such cost being a governing factor in selling, the price when finished may vary from d. to s. d. per square foot. the skins of seal (family phocidæ) are most useful for bookbinding, possessing special features, viz.: evenness of quality throughout, there being no flanky or abdominal parts, extremely durable and producing pretty grains either coarse or fine, dependent upon the substance and character of the skins. the sources of supply are russia, norway, spitzbergen, greenland, labrador, and newfoundland, the largest supply coming from the latter place. isolated supplies have been shipped from the falkland islands and antarctic. these are the true or earless seals (family phocidæ), commonly called hair seals in contradistinction to the fur or eared seal (family otaridæ) which inhabit the pacifics. as a leather for bookwork when tanned with a pyrogallol tannage it is soft and kind to the touch, having few equals and no superiors. it is essentially a hard-wearing leather and in this respect only equalled by certain classes of goat-skins and pig or hog skins. the "grained" skins exhibit a grain which sparkles in a manner which is peculiarly characteristic and absent in other grained leathers. the value of seal-skins, finished, ranges from d. to s. per square foot. the former are useful for half-bound books. finally, pig or hog skins have played an important part in ancient bindings of all sizes, and proved their great value as a hard wearing cover by coming down to us in a remarkable state of preservation, even on very heavy tomes. but, regretfully, some discredit has been cast upon this splendid skin, partly due to ignorance in manufacture, also to the very clever imitations. it is, perhaps, one of the easiest skins to reproduce in its grain features and solid character, though the imitations are easily detected by immersing a piece of the suspected leather in water until saturated, then pulling it out with the hands to stretch when the grain, which is produced by embossing, will disappear, while the true hog grain will remain showing clear hair holes through from grain to flesh. a hog-skin may be said to be practically fibreless, approaching nearer to a piece of tough gristle than anything else. in the raw state the skins are shipped from southern europe, danubian and balkan states, china and the east generally, while north america has an almost unlimited supply, but scotland produces the finest and most esteemed. in size they vary considerably, like all skin supplies, but a most useful skin for binders' use will contain about to square feet. slow oak-bark tanning is most suitable for this class of skin. sumach may with advantage be employed after tanning to prepare them for the "dressing" or "finishing" process, but no mechanical or chemical means should be employed to overcome a too gristly nature, otherwise its unique capacity to withstand the act of attrition is proportionately decreased, or if some similar means are adopted to attain evenness of shade in dyeing, the same result may be expected: therefore, so far as it is practicable, this skin should be used in its natural state, if full durability is required. pigskins containing to square feet may be purchased, according to their quality and degree of manufacture, from d. to s. d. per square foot. chapter iv. the repairing and binding of books for public libraries. by cyril davenport. chapter iv. what with bad paper and bad leather, the librarian of the present is confronted with two serious problems. in spite of the society of arts' adverse criticism in , much paper is still made of mechanical wood pulp, and more badly overloaded with clay, in both cases causing much anxiety and expenditure to the librarian who attempts to cope successfully with the defect. the soft, spongy leaves, like blotting-paper, that are chiefly composed of wood pulp, can best be dealt with in the very expensive way of inlaying each page in a surround of sound, true paper. but there is another expedient, which i have not tried, which may to some extent be useful; it is to enclose each leaf within a network of fine open silk net, made on purpose. in either case re-sewing and re-binding is necessary. with regard to the clay-laden paper on which many books are printed, the case is equally serious and equally costly. fine monotone illustrations produced by the half-tone method, and colour illustrations produced by the three-colour process, are now always made on this sort of paper, which has a beautifully fine and even surface. the paper, however, will not allow any stitching to keep it in place, so it rapidly falls out. then it has either to be inlaid in a sound paper surround or else entirely mounted on a sound piece of paper or jaconet; and if there are many plates this involves re-binding and an ugly thickening of the book. there is, however, a new method, which may prove of real value: the actual print is made on a very thin paper, which is at once laid down on a sound sheet. all these operations are expensive as at present provided for in most libraries. they require great care and skill, and take a long time; and it may safely be said that any trustworthy binder entrusted with such work, which is quite out of the ordinary schedule, is fully justified in charging highly for it. the necessary materials are, however, quite simple, so that if there should be a skilled binder on the staff, all such work can practically be done and counted at the cost of time-work only--an immense saving. there are numerous other small accidents which befall books in all public libraries about which the same things may be said--accidental ink-spots, leaves crushed from a fall, torn places, cut places, damp or wet marks found out in time; all these are expensive to send out and cheap to do on the premises. besides this, in many cases such as ink-stains or wet an immediate treatment is often quite successful, whereas a delayed treatment can rarely be so. all this comes under the category of small repairs; but there are other matters which rank a little higher in the bookbinding world which can also be easily and effectively done by a resident binder with few appliances. in all libraries there are a number of pamphlets and thin books which come under the usual binder's schedule at a fair price, but which, if dealt with by the "stabbed" method on the premises, will be equally strong at about one-third the cost. an ordinary octavo periodical, measuring by inches, and - / inches thick, can, with the help of a cheap stabbing machine, be strongly and effectively bound for about d., with boards, cloth back, paper sides, and lettered in hand type on a paper label. i showed a specimen to the library association on dec. , , when i read a paper on the subject, and it was much approved. i do not advise the stabbing for a book of value, but it does admirably for unimportant books, and is quick and easy to do. it might be worth pointing out that in binding in this way a collection of pamphlets of the same size, the collection can easily be taken to pieces for insertion of a new piece, if required, without further injury to the pamphlets already stabbed. next to this comes binding proper, books sewn with sewn-in bands or flexible, then properly forwarded and finished. this is all skilled work, and if any library is able to afford it there is no question but that a large saving would be effected, both in money and in efficiency, if it would set up a small bindery of its own. i think, however, that it would not be wise to set up such a bindery unless some member of the superior staff has gone through the binding shops and is able to bind a book properly himself. [n.b.--in london the practical knowledge is very difficult to obtain, as the technical education board of the london county council does not admit amateurs.] without this knowledge it is impossible to know whether a book is truly or fraudulently bound. a very common fault is that binders will not draw the ends of the bands of a book properly in to the boards. they cut off the ends of the bands or scrape them so thin that they are of no strength--this is done so that the joint should look quite flat. the result is that when the cloth, buckram, or leather with which the back is covered, gives way, off come the boards; the book is then sent to a binder, who sticks a new strip of leather along the back, and letters it, and charges the same as for re-binding, the operation is done by one's own binder with own leather, costing about a few pence only. in a properly forwarded book with the bands properly drawn in, the boards are very securely fastened and may well remain so for hundreds of years, irrespective of whatever substance is used to cover the back. if the sewing of an old book is still sound, but the ends of the bands are broken off, new bands can be added by means of tape glued over the old ones and then fastened on to the boards and properly covered with a new bit of leather. sometimes when they are sound, the remaining ends of old bands will bear a new bit sewn on to them. in all repairs care should be taken to match any old leather that can be retained as nearly as possible. the proper sewing and forwarding of the book is the integral part of the binding, the outer covering is of little real use except for the protection of the threads which in the case of a flexible sewn book would soon wear through if not enclosed. the outer covering of a book, however, has great decorative possibilities and has been for centuries a much valued field for designers, jewellers, enamellers, goldsmiths, and workers in blind and gold tooling. much fine decorative work done on modern calf and bright coloured leathers will probably perish in a very few years. the question, therefore, of quality and soundness of the leather used for covering the proper sewing of a book is of much importance. there is strong need for sound leather, which is difficult to get, and ordinary persons, even bookbinders and librarians themselves, cannot by a simple inspection discriminate between new good leather and new bad leather because there is no apparent difference. we are in the hands of our leather merchants, and although several firms are now willing to sell leathers under guarantee of freedom from sulphuric acid, all are not yet so inclined. i should advise all librarians who do their own binding to accept no leather without a written guarantee of freedom from sulphuric acid, and even then i should send a cutting to dr. parker for examination. with regard to the trade aspect of employing a binder directly to work on a time agreement, i am authoritatively informed that, provided the workman is paid the full trade union wage, and properly located, there is no objection to his employment in this manner. on the other hand, as i have hinted before, i think that such a workman requires some skilled supervision, so here, again, i would urge that in every library one of the superior staff should be a competent binder himself. given such a skilled supervisor and a small body of skilled binders under his authority, there is no doubt whatever that much money would be saved in the administration of any library, and a multitude of invaluable small repairs would be possible, which under ordinary conditions must be left alone to accumulate and get worse and worse. i am pleased to say that there are already valuable corroborations of this view in actual working, and i am permitted to cite the case of the hull public library, whose report on the binding for is before me. during this year i find that the work done comprised-- , volumes bound (all sizes, average s. - / d. per volume). volumes re-sewn (with new sides to volumes). - / dozen volumes lettered and - / dozen volumes alterations in numbers. reading cases made. repairs, maps and sundries. the cost of the above work was-- £ s. d. wages materials-- £ s. d. millboards cloth tapes paste and glue calico gold leaf leathers thread gas, carriage, &c. end papers ---------- ------------ £ ============ the mere enumeration of these materials shows the immense value of the system, enabling the administration to accomplish numbers of small repairs, each of which would have cost very much more if they had been done by an outside bookbinder. the report for is similar, but the sum spent is £ s. d., and the work done was-- , volumes bound (all sizes) average s. - / d. per volume. , volumes lettered and , volumes alterations in numbers. maps mounted and repairs. in we find an expenditure of £ s. d., and work done-- , volumes bound, all sizes ( s. - / d. per vol.). " re-cased. , " repaired and glued up. , " numbered, and volumes numbers altered. reading cases made. boxes for application forms made. sheets of ordnance maps mounted and repaired. the increased cost in binding "is principally owing to extra labour incurred in preparing the books for sewing, necessary in consequence of the poor quality of paper on which books are now printed, and the method of sewing adopted by publishers." here we begin to find the result of the bad paper of to-day, and we must also note the warning to publishers contained in the last paragraph. i can thoroughly endorse it, and i know that nine out of ten new books are so badly put together that it takes a long time and much trouble to pull them to pieces before they can be properly sewn. for there is an expenditure of £ s. d., and the work done-- , volumes bound (average cost s. - / d. per vol.), and various items of mounting ordnance maps, always a very expensive operation, re-sewing, lettering, and miscellaneous repairs, all very necessary and, if sent out, very costly. it will be noted that the cost of binding per volume is steadily increasing, and this not because the work is better done, but because of the bad quality of the paper and sewing as sent out by publishers. books are sent out fastened by little wire clips, which rust, and have to be very carefully extracted before a book can be properly sewn. these little clips are abominations, and the process of removing them, however carefully done, is likely to cause damage which must be repaired in its turn. then machine sewing has not yet reached its final stage; there is a difficulty about the return of one of the threads, and it is clumsily brought back by tearing through the upper and lower extremities of each section. this damage is glued up and hidden by a head-band stuck on, but when the book is pulled so that it may be properly sewn, the torn parts have to be laboriously mended. my thanks are due to mr. william f. lawton, the librarian of the hull public libraries, who has most courteously given me the particulars i asked him for; and he tells me further that his books are all half-bound, mostly in sealskin--a very valuable leather; also that he is getting a far better binding both as regards the quality of the materials used and the highest average he mentions, s. - / d. per volume for a satisfactory binding must be something of a revelation to most librarians, whose average, even if they employ the cheapest binder in their neighbourhood, must be very much higher than this, and in all likelihood the work and materials not in any way near the same standard of excellence. there is another point about an old library which is of much importance, and for which the services of a regular working binder are invaluable. this is the periodical cleaning and polishing of books. it is no use to try to clean old books with water; it will do more harm than good. but until some competent chemist chooses to suggest a proper dressing, it will be found that a good furniture polish is excellent for the purpose. among the several skilled members employed in my library, one of the best is always cleaning and polishing old books; in fact, old leather really requires some sort of feeding to keep it in sound condition, and the state of perfect repair in which numbers of th century books and books of about that date still are is a remarkable testimony to the excellence of old systems of preparing leather and its permanence if carefully kept. calf, vellum, and goat-skin all last splendidly, but all do better if kept in the dark and under glass; and it must never be forgotten that damp is one of the worst enemies of both paper and leather. bookcases should never touch an outer wall, but a ventilation space should always be left between the wall and the back of the bookcase. this should even be done when the bookcase abuts on an inner wall. bookshelves should never be cleaned or washed with water--only use furniture polish; and vellum books should be kept with their backs inwards, the title, if necessary, being written on the fore-edge. old vellum books were usually kept so in olden times, as light makes vellum brittle like egg-shell. books should be close enough on a shelf to support each other; they should not be allowed to flop about; if they are there will be a tendency to fall away from the upper bands, especially in the case of large books. a simple angle iron, the lower wing being inserted under the last few books on a shelf not full, will enable the books to be kept always at the proper lateral pressure. big books, such as newspapers, should have a strong handle loop of leather bound in, coming out about the middle of the back. chapter v. specification for the fittings of a small bindery. by f. j. williamson. chapter v. the following practical hints may be found useful when repairs are required to books in libraries. it is, however, necessary that the librarian or his assistants should gain some technical knowledge of bookbinding, as this will enable them to execute small repairs, which, if promptly done, will probably prevent the expense of rebinding. the repairing room or small bindery should be not less than feet square, and should have a good natural light. the "plant" required will be as follows:-- approximate cost. ------------ £ _s._ _d._ one cutting press, plough, pin and two knives one close tub and cover one stabbing machine one sewing press and keys one pair of millboard shears one pair of shears one paring knife one cutting-out knife one backing hammer one knocking-down iron two bone folders (thin and thick) one paste tub one glue pot two paste brushes (small and large) two glue brushes (small and large) two pairs of backing boards (octavo and folio) [a]two pairs of pressing boards (quarto and folio) one iron nipping press, by or one wooden nipping press, by one ragstone one sandstone one steel straight-edge one square one wooden trindle [a] a few stout millboards of the same size as the wooden pressing boards will be required for placing between the books when more than one book is pressed at a time, the wooden pressing boards being used for the top and bottom books. these can be made by pasting together two tenpenny millboards; line each side with stout smooth paper, trim the edges of the boards, so that they are square. _to repair torn leaves._--paste the edges of the parts torn very neatly, using a little paste, place a piece of tissue paper under the torn part, carefully join the parts, and place another piece of tissue paper over the joint; then place a piece of paper each side of the leaf, and put a weight upon it until the part is dry, then take away the loose tissue paper. _to insert a loose leaf._--flatten the back edge of the leaf, then place a strip of paper about / inch from the edge, and paste that part very neatly, insert it in the book, placing it as close to the back as possible, close the book, and place a weight upon it for about three hours. _to replace books in their covers._--if the cover of a book is sound, the book can be inserted again in the following manner:--if it is necessary, re-sew the book on tapes, put new end papers made with a strip of wide linen in the fold, sew these on the book and trim them, paste the tapes on the end papers, knock up the edges of the book as evenly as possible (as they will not be cut) and glue the back, using the glue sparingly, and place a thin piece of linen round the back extending about inch on each end paper; put the book under a weight until the glue is almost dry, then "round" it and afterwards "back" it slightly; place the book again under a weight until the glue is quite dry, glue the back again, and place the book squarely in the old cover; place a piece of paper round the back of the cover, and rub it down with the bone folder until the back of the cover sticks well to the book. after about three hours the glue will be dry, and the book can then be pasted down; open the covers and paste the end paper facing the board, using the brush from the centre to the edges; close the covers and put the book in the nipping press--the pressing boards should be placed carefully against the grooves and not upon them; leave the book in the press for about twelve hours. when a book does not require re-sewing, new end papers should be made as stated and sewn on the book if it has been sewn on tapes; if the book has not been sewn on tapes, the end papers should be edged on in the same manner as the loose leaf, and in these instances the linen should be placed in the fold of the end papers. * * * * * old books which have been bound in leather generally require repairs to the corners and the back, these being the parts which first show signs of decay. carefully cut away the ragged edges of the old leather along the joints at the back and also the corners; strip the leather off the back and soak it off if necessary, so that the back is quite clean; also take away the old leather from the corners, lift up the edges of the leather along the joints and also at the corners about inch, turn the leather back, and place a thin piece of wooden trindle under the fold, and pare the edges of the leather neatly; if the millboard at the corners is broken, open the edges and rub in some glue, press the edges together, and, when nearly dry, hammer them flat on the "knocking-down iron," obtain some leather to match the old binding, put a new back, also corners where necessary, on the book, paring the edges of the leather neatly; after these are quite dry, the edges of the old leather should be pasted down to overlap the new leather; wash any smears of paste away, and press the book lightly in the nipping press; new end papers should be edged in as in the case of the loose leaf: trim them to the size of the book and then paste them down, but with the boards open until they are quite dry; place either a tin or a glazed cardboard inside the covers, and keep the book pressed in the nipping press for about six hours. index. acetic acid. _see_ acids, organic. acids, mineral, , ---- ---- _see also_ sulphuric acid. ---- organic; sulphuric acid substituted for, , ----, ---- use of, advocated, aniline dyes. _see_ leather, dyeing. athenæum club committee on leather decay, binderies, private; fitting and administration, - binding contracts, , , binding specifications, model, bookbinding, education in, want of provision for, bookbinding in public libraries. _see_ binderies, private. bookbinding leathers. _see_ leather; _and under names of skins_, _e.g._, goatskin, &c. book cleaning and polishing. _see_ leather preservative compositions. books; replacing within covers, , , book-sewing; stabbing process for pamphlets, , ---- ---- modern methods, , calvert, c., on decay of leather, catechol tannins condemned. _see_ tannins. calfskin, , cockerell, d.: note on bookbinding, damp, influence upon leather, , davenport, c.: "repairing and binding of books for public libraries." chap. iv., - decay of leather. _see_ leather, decay. dyeing leather. _see_ leather, dyeing. formic acid. _see_ acids, organic. gas fumes; influence upon leather, , goatskin, , - graining, artificial, of leather. _see_ leather, artificial graining. heat; action upon leather, , , hogskin. _see_ pigskin. hull public library; reports on private bindery, - hulme, e. w.: "history of sumach tanning, &c." chap. i., - jones, a. s.: "provenance, &c., of bookbinding leathers." chap. iii., - lactic acid. _see_ acids, organic. lawton, w. f. _see_ hull public library. leather, artificial graining of, , , ---- bindings; conditions for preserving, ----, decay of; history, - ----, ---- symptoms, , ----, ---- reasons, - ---- dyeing; old and new systems compared, , , ---- early manufacture, ---- finishes, ---- preservative compositions, , , leathers, retanned; process described and condemned, - ----, ---- conditionally recommended, , ---- split, , , leathersellers' company; supervision of sumach tanning in , ---- ---- grant to society of arts' committee, light, influence upon leather, , lopez, r., original of "shylock", , mcbride, dr., introduces use of sulphuric acid in , , morocco grain, ---- ---- artificial. _see_ leather, artificial graining of. moroccos. _see_ goatskin; niger skin; leathers, retanned. myrobalans, duty on, in , niger skin, oxalic acid, use of, by binders, , paper, clay-loaded, mounting, , parker, j. g.: "causes of leather decay." chap. ii., - ----, ---- appointed analyst to the l.a., , "persians." _see_ leathers, retanned. pigskin, characteristics, &c., , , ---- decay, pyrogallol tannins. _see_ tannins. russia leather, sealskin, , sheepskin, , - "shylock," original of, skivers. _see_ leathers, split. society of arts' committee on leathers, appointment, ---- ---- ---- recommendations, _passim_. sound leather committee; appointment, spanish leather, sumach-tanned, stationery office. _see_ binding contracts. sulphuric acid, first used in , , ---- ---- _see also_ acids, mineral. sumach tanning, history, , tannins; pyrogallols distinguished from catechols, , vellum, , williamson, f. j.: "specification for the fittings of a small bindery." chap. v., - woodward, c. t.: experiments on action of gas fumes and heat, advertisements. index to advertisements. _bookbinders_: banting, george f., x birdsall & son, xi bookbinders' co-operative society, ltd., xii chappell, r. d., & co., xii eyre & spottiswoode, xiii gray, john p., & son, xiv mudie & co., x riley, b., & co., ltd., ix smith, w. h., & son, xii _leather analysis_, ii _leather importers_: gray, john p., & son, xiv _leather manufacturers_: bevingtons & sons, iii deed, john s., & sons, ltd., v garnar, james, & sons, vii gibbs, geo., & son, vii gryffe tannery co., ix meredith-jones, j., & sons, ltd., vi muir, john, & son, iv richardson, edward & james, v _leather (bookbinding) merchants_: eyre & spottiswoode, xiii _leather trades review_, viii _sumac importers_: "tiger" sumac co., x when corresponding with advertisers, please mention "leather for libraries." _leather analysis._ _under an arrangement entered into between the council of the library association and dr. j. gordon parker, their official examiner of leather, the following scale of fees has been agreed upon:--_ special fee usual fee. to members. -------- ----------- £ _s._ _d._ £ _s._ _d._ test for presence of injurious acids quantitative estimation of acids nature of tannage, if pure sumach full microscopic examination full examination and report on sample of leather samples of leather, not less than six square inches, may now be sent to dr. j. gordon parker, herold's institute, drummond road, bermondsey. _correspondence on above may be addressed to the hon. sec., sound leather committee of the library association, whitcomb house, whitcomb street, w.c._ bevingtons & sons, neckinger mills, bermondsey, london, s.e. _manufacturers of--_ [illustration] _seal leather for books,_ _calf leather for books,_ _goat leather for books,_ _---- and ----_ _sheep leather for books._ guaranteed sumach-tanned and free from mineral acids. --> every skin stamped. <-- _see samples of our goat, seal, and calf ( - ) on end covers._ * * * * * pigskin for book binding. muir's [illustration: pigskin] beith.n.b. we first introduced this material to the notice of bookbinders some years ago. since then it has steadily increased in popularity, as its durability and utility have been demonstrated by this test of a quarter of a century. _wherever hard wear is wanted pigskin is the right thing in the right place._ it is not a fibrous substance as other leather is, but naturally of a compact, gristly character. when skilfully tanned and treated for the purpose, it unquestionably is the best of bookbinding leather. see sample of our pigskin on end cover. available in all colours and substances. please write for full particulars. john muir & son, tanners and curriers, beith, scotland. (_established a century ago._) offices: , arundel street, strand, london, w.c. telephone: gerrard. pigskin tyre factory for vehicles and motors: , bow road, london, e. * * * * * john s. deed & sons, _ltd._ manufacturers of best quality sumach-tanned moroccos and calf and other classes of bookbinding leathers. factories { eagle leather works, mitcham and carshalton, surrey. { middlesex - - arthur street, london, w.c. _all communications to be addressed to central works and offices_ , new oxford st., london, w.c. * * * * * fine leathers for bookbinding. [illustration] speciality ... seals. cape goats. coloured calf. [illustration] makers also of best flexible skin glue and .. roller compo. .. edward & james richardson elswick leather works, newcastle-on-tyne. * * * * * j. meredith-jones & sons, ltd., cambrian leather works, wrexham. manufacturers of bookbinders' leathers. guaranteed to be dressed on the lines recommended by the society of arts report, and free from mineral acids. speciality: welsh sheep. see sample of our sheepskin on end cover. _patterns and prices on application._ * * * * * an effective binding! _skivers._ sumach-tanned split sheep and lamb skins. specially adapted for pocket editions and small volumes. only english and scotch skins used. james garnar & sons, the grange, bermondsey, london, s.e. * * * * * geo. gibbs & son, , st. bride street, london. factories:-- mitcham common, surrey, and long lane, bermondsey. manufacturers of every description of coloured hides, calf, morocco, roan, pigskin, and skiver leathers. also white and coloured vellums, forels and parchments for bookbinders. * * * * * a journal in every sense of the term. the champion and supporter of the true interests of the leather trade. _"the leather trades' review."_ the organ of the _hide, tanning, leather and kindred trades._ a practical and thoroughly up-to-date paper, and indispensarle to all leather men, both employers and employÉs. _every issue well worth a whole year's subscription._ unequalled as an advertising medium. world-wide circulation. technical and scientific articles by the leading experts in all the branches of the leather industry. latest and most reliable news. annual subscription: ten shillings ( weekly numbers post free). office: , mark lane, london, e.c. * * * * * pig skins in the crust for bookbinding leather manufacturers _warranted free of mineral acid._ gryffe tannery company, bridge of weir, near glasgow, _scotland_. telegrams: "gryffe," bridge of weir. national telephone: no. , bridge of weir. * * * * * b. riley & co., ltd., library bookbinders and specialists. best work, best materials, and promptness, with lowest prices. pigskins and moroccos _guaranteed free from injurious acid._ patent sewing and flexibility. _catalogues, price lists, and quotations by return post._ note address:-- works: westgate, huddersfield. london office: , strand, w.c. * * * * * messrs. mudie & co. _undertake all classes of binding for either public or private libraries.... the best work and best materials only. no imitation leathers used...._ charges for large or small quantities on application. _address manager_, bookbinding department, mudie's library, new oxford street, london. * * * * * _important to librarians._ george f. banting, danemere works, danemere street, putney (hitherto trading as j. banting & son, chelsea), _specialist in public library bookbinding_. the only binder in london who has made a speciality of public library bookbinding. _testimonials from customers for continuous work for years._ books bound in sound leather as per society of arts recommendation. a trial order will prove that books bound by me are "bound once for all." * * * * * telegrams and cables: "cleaning, eccles." code: a.b.c., th ed. stores: london. liverpool. the "tiger" sumac company. "tiger" registered brand. thomas atkin, proprietor. eccles, england. purity and per cent. minimum tannin guaranteed by i.a.l.t.c. analysis. analyst, dr. andrew turnbull, , lord street, liverpool, whose determination in every case must be final. average test of all our shipments from september , , to july , , = · =%, =or per cent. beyond our guarantee=. _free copy of analysis given with orders for tons and upwards._ shipments made c.i.f. from palermo to any port in the world. stocks kept in liverpool and london for the home trade. a special sumac for the finest leathers. agents--messrs. poppleton, gibbs & co., - , leather market, london, s.e. sole agents for australia and new zealand--messrs. james hardie & co., melbourne. * * * * * birdsall & son _northampton_, high-class, general, and miscellaneous bookbinders. an old-established business with a lengthened reputation, and in the hands of the proprietors' family for the past years. the buildings now cover , square feet of ground. the thoroughness of the old handicraftsman, with the skill of modern expert workmanship. sound and durable english leather free from destructive acids. reliures de luxe and art bindings of the highest quality, either to original designs, or as reproductions of early styles. private and public library bindings of every description. patentees of "bibliofortis" bindings for books subject to exceptional wear. special bindings in general conformity with the specifications of the society of arts. repairing, remounting, and restoring of old bindings. washing and repairing of old books. imperfect leaves made up in facsimile, &c., &c. two fireproof strong rooms for the better security of valuable books. the personal attention of the four messrs. birdsall is given to the intricate and often difficult detail of this business. their efforts are seconded by a large and expert managing staff, so that an exceptional amount of experienced supervision is available, and a high standard of efficiency is thereby maintained. * * * * * messrs. w. h. smith & son execute orders for all styles of bookbinding in their own workshops under the direction of douglas cockerell they are making a speciality of carrying out exactly the recommendations of the committee of the society of arts on leather for bookbinding books for binding may be handed in at any of w. h. smith & son's bookstalls or branches or sent direct to their binding department pamphlet & price list sent on application goldsmith st. drury lane london, w.c. * * * * * _the bookbinders' co-operative society, ltd._, (with co-partnership of the workers.) , bury street. bloomsbury, w.c. established . the above society is noted for sound, reliable work, and binds for many public institutions, and also has an _extensive private connection_. special terms quoted for school and college libraries. niger morocco bindings a speciality. _books bound in accordance with society of arts recommendations._ all work entrusted to us is under the supervision of mr. j. watson, manager. * * * * * our "flexo" bookbinding ensures strength, durability, and flexibility: three important requisites. portfolios of every description made at the shortest notice. mss. carefully bound. old and rare books restored, washed, and cleaned without use of acids. r. d. chappell & co., general library bookbinders, , st. john's square, london, e.c. * * * * * =eyre & spottiswoode's= _pure sumach tanned leather._ supplied in a variety of colours. not only free from acid, but strengthened and enriched by a process which fully satisfies the conditions prescribed by the committee of the society of arts. analysed by gordon parker, and certified to be pure sumach tanned and free from acid. _facsimile of [illustration] _stamped on every skin guarantee_ supplied._ binding: undertaken in this special leather (as used for the british museum) at a nominal increase on the rates charged for ordinary leather. eyre & spottiswoode, east harding street, e.c. * * * * * [illustration] _established ._ _established ._ special appointment. [illustration] _best appointed bindery in east anglia_ special attention to library books john p. gray & son, _artistic & general_ _bookbinders_, nat. tel.: . _ , green street_, cambridge. _niger morocco_, _being importers of this excellent leather, direct from kano, northern nigeria, we are in a position to supply the trade and public in general with good skins at reasonable prices._ early parish registers skilfully restored, &c. [illustration] john p. gray & son's reputation is a guarantee for the best workmanship and materials at moderate prices. [illustration: ( .) calf.] [illustration: ( .) sheep (roller basil).] [illustration: ( .) pig.] transcriber's notes in the text version, text in italics and underlined text has been transcribed using the _underline symbol_. text in bold has been transcribed with =equals symbols=. there is some inconsistent hyphenation. this has been left as printed. p. . "since about skeepskin" changed to sheepskin. p. . "books sewn with sawn-in bands" changed to sewn-in. index. "sulphuric acid , " there is no marked p. . it is most likely that the reference is to p. and this has been corrected. [illustration: _montague style_ _harleian style_ _aldine style_ _harleian border_] a manual of the art of bookbinding: containing full instructions in the different branches of forwarding, gilding, and finishing. also, +the art of marbling book-edges and paper.+ the whole designed for the practical workman, the amateur, and the book-collector. by james b. nicholson. philadelphia: henry carey baird & co., industrial publishers, booksellers and importers, walnut street. . entered according to act of congress, in the year , by jas. b. nicholson, in the clerk's office of the district court of the united states for the eastern district of pennsylvania. stereotyped by l. johnson & co. philadelphia. preface. the progress of the art of bookbinding has made nearly all the works written upon the subject obsolete; their descriptions no longer apply to the methods practised by the best workmen. throughout this work, the opinions and remarks of other writers have been adopted without alteration, unless they came in contact with practical knowledge. every thing that would not bear that test has been rejected, and in lieu thereof those modes of operation described that the young binder will have to learn and practise if he desires to emulate the skill of the best artists. the plan of the work is taken from "arnett's bibliopegia;" and every thing given in that work that has any approach to utility will be found in these pages. it was at first intended merely to revise that production; but during the progress of revision so much was rejected that it was deemed better to pass under notice at the same time the labours of others. "cundall's ornamental art" has furnished the early incidents in the "sketch of the progress of the art of bookbinding;" and, as the best authority upon the subject, "woolnough's art of marbling" has been adapted to this country. mr. leighton's "suggestions in design" has been laid under contribution in order to enrich the subject of ornamental art. the "london friendly finishers' circulars" have been a valuable acquisition to the writer, and it is trusted will make this work equally so to the young finisher. "cowie's bookbinders' manual," "arnett's school of design," "gibb's hand-book of ornament," and "scott's essay on ornamental art," in addition to those acknowledged in the body of the work, have supplied some valuable hints. it is hoped that this volume will prove useful to those forming libraries, by imparting correct information upon subjects that to the book-collector are important, and that its tendencies will be to increase and strengthen a love for the art. j. b. n. philadelphia, . contents. introduction. page sketch of the progress of bookbinding part i. sheet-work part ii. forwarding the edges marbling gilding the edges covering half-binding blank binding boarding cloth-work part iii. ornamental art finishing: taste and design styles gilding illuminated binding blind tooling antique colouring marbling uniform colours gold marbles, landscapes, &c. inlaid ornaments harmony of colours pasting down, &c. stamp or press-work restoring the bindings of old books supplying imperfections in old books hints to book-collectors technical terms introduction. sketch of the progress of bookbinding. the earliest records of bookbinding that exist prove that the art has been practised for nearly two thousand years. in past ages, books were written on long scrolls of parchment or papyrus, and were rolled up and fastened with a thong which was made of coloured leather and often highly ornamented. these scrolls were usually attached to one, or, occasionally, two rollers of wood or ivory, or sometimes of gold, much as our large maps are now mounted, and the bosses at the end of the rollers were frequently highly decorated. this decoration may be called the first step toward ornamental art applied to the exterior of books. a learned athenian, named phillatius, to whom his countrymen erected a statue, at length found out a means of binding books with glue. the sheets of vellum or papyrus were gathered two or four together, sewn much in the same way as at the present day; and then, in order to preserve these sheets, there came, as a matter of course, a covering for the book. the probability is that the first book-covers were of wood--plain oaken boards, perhaps; then, as books in those days were all in manuscript, and very valuable, carved oak bindings were given to those which were the most decorated within. to cover the plain wooden board with vellum or leather would, in the course of years, be too apparent an improvement to be neglected; and specimens of books so bound, of the great antiquity of which there are undoubted proofs, exist at the present day. there is reason to believe that the romans carried the art of binding to considerable perfection. some of the public offices had books called dyptichs,[a] in which their acts were written. the binding of one of these in carved wood is thus described:--"seated in the centre of each board is a consul, holding in one hand a baton, and in the other, upraised, a purse, as if in the act of throwing it to some victor in the games. above these are miniature portraits, various other ornaments, and an inscription; below, on one board, are two men leading out horses for the race, and beneath them a group, with a ludicrous representation of two other men, exhibiting their endurance of pain by allowing crabs to fasten on their noses." a small print of an ivory dyptich of the fifth century, in mr. arnett's "books of the ancients," may be consulted as a specimen of the kind of ornament then adopted. an old writer says, that about the time of the christian era the books of the romans were covered with red, yellow, green, and purple leather, and decorated with gold and silver. [footnote a: "the antiquity of illuminated missals has been traced, conjecturally, even to the time of the apostles themselves. at the beginning of the christian era, missive letters were usually written on tablets of wood, hollowed so as to present something of the appearance of a boy's slate in a frame. two of these were placed face to face to preserve the writing, which was on wax, and a pair of boards thus prepared was called a dyptich. the epistles of st. paul and the other apostles to the primitive churches were, in fact, missive letters despatched to their distant congregations; and there is every probability that imaginary or real portraits of the writers accompanied the letters, and headed the contents of the christian dyptichs, in order to insure to them the same degree of reverence which was paid to the missives of the government when headed by the imperial effigies. "the compact form of the dyptich suited the purposes of a movable altar-piece admirably. and the names dyptic or triptic, which implied at first but a double or triple page, came with time to designate those folding altarpieces so frequently found in the earliest christian churches."--_lady calcott's essay._] if we pass on to a few centuries later, we find that the monks were almost the only literati. they wrote chiefly on subjects of religion, and bestowed the greatest pains upon the internal and external decorations of their books. in the thirteenth century some of the gospels, missals, and other service-books for the greek and roman churches, were ornamented with silver and gold, apparently wrought by the hammer; sometimes they were enamelled and enriched with precious stones, and pearls of great value. carved oak figures of the virgin, or the infant saviour, or of the crucifixion, were also the frequent adornments of the outside covers. one of these ancient relics is thus described by the librarian of henry viii. "all i have to do is to observe, that this book (which the more i have look'd upon the more i have always admired) hath two thick boards, each about an inch in thickness, for its covers, and that they were joined with the book by large leather thongs, which boards are now by length of time become very loose. tho' i have seen a vast number of old books and oftentimes examined their covers, yet i do not remember i ever saw boards upon any of them of so great thickness as these. this was the manner of binding, it seems, of those times, especially if the books were books of extraordinary value, as this is. 'twas usual to cut letters in the covers, and such letters were the better preserv'd by having them placed in some hollow part, which might easily be made if the boards were pretty thick. i suppose, therefore, that even the copies of _gregory's_ pastoral that were given to cathedral churches by king _alfred_ had such thick covers also, that these by the _Æstals_ might be fix'd the better. what makes me think so is, that the outside of one of the covers of this book is made hollow, and there is a rude sort of figure upon a brass plate that is fastened within the hollow part, which figure i take to have been designed for the virgin _mary_, to whom the abbey was dedicated. over it there was once fastened another much larger plate, as is plain from the nails that fixed it and from some other small indications now extant,--and this 'tis likely was of silver, and perhaps there was an _anathema_ against the person that should presume to alienate it, engraved upon it--together with the name of the person (who it may be was _roger poure_) that was the donor of the book. this will make it to have been nothing else but an Æstal, such a one (tho' not so valuable) as was fastened upon _gregory's_ pastoral. but this i leave to every man's judgment."[b] [footnote b: leland's itin. vol. ii. p. , oxford, .] at a later period we find on the binding of books gold and silver ornaments of very beautiful design, enclosing precious stones of great variety; carved ivory tablets let into framework of carved oak; rich-coloured velvets, edged with morocco, with bosses, clasps, and corners of solid gold; white vellum stamped in gold and blind tooling; and morocco and calf covers inlaid with various colours and adorned in every conceivable way. this was at the end of the fourteenth and in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, when the love of art was universal, in the land where michael angelo, and raffaelle, and da vinci produced their great works, and where, under the auspices of the medici, the art of bookbinding as well as all other arts was encouraged. mr. dibdin, in his "bibliographical decameron," to which we are much indebted, has given an account of the library of corvinus, king of hungary, who died at buda about the year . this library consisted of about thirty thousand volumes, mostly manuscripts of the greek and latin poets and historians, and was contained in large vaulted galleries, in which, among other works of art, were two fountains, one of marble and the other of silver. the binding of the books were mostly of brocade, protected with bosses and clasps of gold and silver; and these, alas! were the subsequent cause of the almost entire destruction of the library; for, when the city of buda was taken by assault, in , the turkish soldiers tore the precious volumes from their covers for the sake of the ornaments that were upon them. the general use of calf and morocco binding seems to have followed the invention of printing. there are many printed books, still in good preservation, that were bound in calf with oaken boards at the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries. these are mostly stamped with gold or blind tools. the earliest of these tools generally represent figures, such as christ, st. paul, the virgin, coats of arms, legends, and monograms, according to the contents of the book. afterward attempts were made to produce pictures, but these were necessarily bad. in england, the earliest binding with ornament was about the time of henry vii., when we find the royal arms supported by two angels; the heraldic badge of the double rose and pomegranate, the fleur-de-lys, the portcullis, the emblems of the evangelists, and small ornaments of grotesque animals. there are in the british museum and in the record office many english bindings which undoubtedly were executed in the time of henry vii. in the reign of henry viii., about , grafton, the printer, undertook to print the great bible. not finding sufficient men or types in england, he went to paris and there commenced it. he had not, however, proceeded far, before he was stopped in the progress of this heretical book; and he then took over to england the presses, type, printers, and bookbinders, and finished the work in . the edition consisted of copies, one of which was set up in every church in england, secured to a desk by a chain. within three years there were seven distinct editions of this work; which, supposing each edition to consist of the same number of copies as the first, would amount to , folio volumes. the binding, therefore, of so great a number of this book would alone give some importance to the art of bookbinding at that period. we know that henry viii. had many splendid volumes bound in velvet with gold bosses and ornaments. in his reign the stamping of tools in gold appears to have been first introduced in england; and some beautiful rolls, probably from holbein's designs, were used as well on the sides as on the gilded edges of books still in existence. in the reign of elizabeth some exquisite bindings were done in embroidery. the queen herself used to work covers with gold and silver thread, spangles, and coloured silk, for bibles and other devotional books which she presented to her maids of honour and her friends. from these brilliant external decorations, many of them entirely inappropriate for a book, we turn to a purer taste, the exercise of which will be found to reside within the peculiar limits of the bookbinder's art. we return to continental binding, and pass to the time of the ever-famous jean grolier. this nobleman was the first to introduce lettering upon the back; and he seems to have taken especial delight in having the sides of his books ornamented with very beautiful and elaborate patterns, said to have been drawn by his own hand. many of them exist at the present day, either original groliers or copies. books from his library are eagerly sought for. all grolier's books were bound in smooth morocco or calf, the pattern being formed of intersected line-work, finished by hand with a fine one-line fillet and gouges to correspond, with the occasional introduction of a conventional flower. sometimes also the patterns were inlaid with morocco of different colours; and it is our opinion that no style of book-ornamentation has been since introduced that is worthy of entirely superseding the grolier, a specimen of which will be given when treating on style. very many of the chevalier's volumes have the latin inscription "johanni grolierii et amicorum" at the bottom, signifying that grolier wished his books to be used by his friends as well as by himself. connoisseurs rejoice when they meet with a work from the library of maioli, a disciple of grolier, or those of diana of poictiers, the mistress of henry ii., and whose books, in consequence of her influence and taste, are elegantly bound. it is supposed that the bindings for diana of poictiers were designed by petit bernard. they were bound in morocco of all colours, and usually ornamented with the emblems of the crescent and bow and quiver. among the earliest french binders must be mentioned padeloup, derome, and de seuil. pope celebrates de seuil in one of his poems. derome's plain morocco bindings are excellent; they are sewn on raised bands, are firm and compact, and the solid gilding upon the edges is worthy of commendation; his dentelle borders are fine, but unfortunately he was not careful of the trenchant steel. padeloup's tooling or ornaments consist chiefly of small dots, and the forms he invented are elegant. when met with in good state, they look like gold lace upon the sides and backs of the books. the bindings of books which belonged to de thou are highly prized. he possessed a magnificent library, mostly bound in smooth deep-toned red, yellow, and green morocco. de thou died in . the chevalier d'eon used to bind books in a sort of etruscan calf, the ornaments on which were copied from the etruscan vases. the use of the black and red dyes have very frequently corroded the leather. we must now resume our account of binding in england. during the early part of the last century the general bindings were, with the exception of what was called cambridge binding, (from being executed at that place,) of a depreciated character, many of them very clumsy, and devoid of taste in their ornament. toward the middle some degree of attention had begun to be paid to the improvement of bindings, the general kinds being, up to the end of the eighteenth century, nearly all executed to one pattern,--viz.: the sides marbled, the backs coloured brown, with morocco lettering-pieces, and gilt. the artists of the earlier part of the period of which we have been treating must have been numerous; but few are known. two german binders, of the name of baumgarten and benedict, were of considerable note and in extensive employment in london during the early part of this century. the bindings of oxford were also very good at this period. who the distinguished parties at oxford were has not been recorded; but a person of the name of dawson, then living at cambridge, has the reputation of being a clever artist, and may be pronounced as the binder of many of the substantial volumes still possessing the distinctive binding we have before referred to. baumgarten and benedict would, doubtless, be employed in every style of binding of their day, but the chief characteristics of their efforts are good substantial volumes in russia, with marbled edges. to these succeeded mr. john mackinlay and two other binders, named kalth[oe]ber and staggemier; but to mackinlay may, perhaps, be attributed the first impulse given to the improvements which have been introduced into bindings. he was one of the largest and most creditable binders in london of the period of which we are treating. several specimens of his, in public and private libraries, remain to justify the character given of him; and of the numerous artists that his office produced, many have since given evidence, by their work, that the lessons they received were of a high character. the specimens alluded to exhibit a degree of care, ingenuity, and skill, highly creditable to them as binders. though well executed, they did not pay the time and attention devoted, in later times, to the finishing or gilding of their work, and it was not till roger payne exhibited the handiwork of the craft, that any decided impulse was given to the progress of the art, which has gone on, under able successors, from one improvement to another till there exists much doubt whether or no we have not now, so far as mechanical execution depends, arrived at perfection. about the year roger payne went to london, and, as his history is an epoch in the history of the art, we will devote some space to it. the personal history of roger payne is one among the many of the ability of a man being rendered nearly useless by the dissoluteness of his habits. he stands an example to the young, of mere talent, unattended with perseverance and industry, never leading to distinction,--of great ability, clouded by intemperance and consequent indiscretion, causing the world only to regret how much may have been lost that might have been developed had the individual's course been different and his excellences directed so as to have produced the best results. roger payne was a native of windsor forest, and first became initiated in the rudiments of the art he afterward became so distinguished a professor of, under the auspices of mr. pote, bookseller to eton college. from this place he went to london, where he was first employed by mr. thomas osborne, the bookseller, of holborn, london. disagreeing on some matters, he subsequently obtained employment from mr. thomas payne, of the king's mews, st. martin's, who ever after proved a friend to him. mr. payne established him in business near leicester square, about the year - , and the encouragement he received from his patron, and many wealthy possessors of libraries, was such that the happiest results and a long career of prosperity might have been anticipated. his talents as an artist, particularly in the finishing department, were of the first order, and such as, up to his time, had not been developed by any other of his countrymen. he adopted a style peculiarly his own, uniting a classical taste in the formation of his designs, and much judgment in the selection of such ornament as was applicable to the nature of the work it was to embellish. many of these he made himself of iron, and some are yet preserved as curiosities and specimens of the skill of the man. to this occupation he may have been at times driven from lack of money to procure them from the tool-cutters; but it cannot be set down as being generally so, for, in the formation of the designs in which he so much excelled, it is but reasonable to suppose, arguing upon the practice of some others in later times, he found it readier and more expedient to manufacture certain lines, curves, &c. on the occasion. be this as it may, he succeeded in executing binding in so superior a manner as to have no rival and to command the admiration of the most fastidious book-lover of his time. he had full employment from the noble and wealthy, and the estimation his bindings are still held in is a sufficient proof of the satisfaction he gave his employers. his best work is in earl spencer's library. his reputation as an artist of the greatest merit was obscured, and eventually nearly lost, by his intemperate habits. he loved drink better than meat. of this propensity an anecdote is related of a memorandum of money spent, and kept by himself, which runs thus:-- for bacon halfpenny. for liquor shilling. no wonder then, with habits like these, that the efforts of his patron, in fixing him, were rendered of no avail. instead of rising to that station his great talent would have led to, he fell by his dissolute conduct to the lowest depths of misery and wretchedness. in his wretched working-room was executed the most splendid specimens of binding; and here on the same shelf were mixed together old shoes and precious leaves--bread and cheese, with the most valuable and costly of mss. or early-printed books. that he was characteristic or eccentric may be judged by what has been related of him. he appears to have also been a poet on the subject of his unfortunate propensity, as the following extract from a copy of verses sent with a bill to mr. evans, for binding "barry on the wines of the ancients," proves. "homer the bard, who sung in highest strains the festive gift, a goblet for his pains; falernian gave horace, virgil fire, and barley wine my british muse inspire. barley wine first from egypt's learned shore; and this the gift to me of calvert's _store_." the following bill is, like himself, a curiosity:-- "vanerii praedium rusticum. parisiis. mdcclxxiv. bound in the very best manner in the finest green morocco. the back lined with red morrocco. "fine drawing paper and very neat morrocco } joints inside. their was a few leaves stained } : : at the foredge, which is washed and cleaned... } "the subject of the book being rusticum, i have ventured to putt the vine wreath on it. i hope i have not bound it in too rich a manner for the book. it takes up a great deal of time to do these vine wreaths. i guess within time i am certain of measuring and working the different and various small tools required to fill up the vine wreath that it takes very near days' work in finishing the two sides only of the book--but i wished to do my best for the work--and at the same time i cannot expect to charge a full and proper price for the work, and hope that the price will not only be found reasonable but cheap : : " roger commenced business in partnership with his brother thomas payne, and subsequently was in like manner connected with one richard weir, but did not long agree with either, so that separation speedily took place. he afterward worked under the roof of mr. mackinlay, but his later efforts showed that he had lost much of that ability he had been so largely endowed with. pressed down with poverty and disease, he breathed his last in duke's court, st. martin's lane, on the th of november, . his remains were interred in the burying-ground of st. martin's-in-the-fields, at the expense of mr. thomas payne, who, as before stated, had been his early friend, and who, for the last eight years of his life, had rendered him a regular pecuniary assistance both for the support of his body and the performance of his work. of the excellencies and defects of his bindings, dr. dibdin, in his "bibliographer's decameron," has thus recorded his opinion:-- "the great merit of roger payne lay in his taste--in his choice of ornaments, and especially in the working of them. it is impossible to excel him in these two particulars. his favourite colour was that of _olive_, which he called _venetian_. in his lining, joints, and inside ornaments, our hero generally, and sometimes melancholily, failed. he was fond of what he called purple paper, the colour of which was as violent as its texture was coarse. it was liable also to change and become spotty, and as a harmonizing colour with olive it was odiously discordant. the joints of his books were generally _disjointed_, uneven, carelessly tooled, and having a very unfinished appearance. his backs are boasted of for their firmness. his work excellently forwarded--every sheet fairly and _bona fide_ stitched into the back, which was afterward usually coated in russia; but his minor volumes did not open well in consequence. he was too fond of thin boards, which, in folios, produces an uncomfortable effect, from fear of their being inadequate to sustain the weight of the envelop." though roger payne's career had not been successful, so far as he was personally concerned, it had the effect of benefiting the whole race of english bookbinders. a new stimulus had been given to the trade, and a new and chastened style introduced among the more talented artists of the metropolis. the unmeaning ornaments we have before alluded to were discarded, and a series of classical, geometrical, and highly-finished designs adopted. the contemporaries of roger--kalth[oe]ber, staggemier, walther, hering, falkner, &c.--exerted themselves with a generous rivalry to execute the most approved bindings. mr. mackenzie deserves to be mentioned with respect among modern binders. charles lewis, so highly eulogized by mr. dibdin, attained great celebrity, and his bindings are much prized. his style of ornament was very neat, the panels of the backs generally double-mitred, and the sides finished in a corresponding manner. mr. clarke deserves especial commendation; for tree-marbled calf he stands unrivalled, although mr. riviere has executed some beautiful specimens. mr. bedford also enjoys considerable reputation; but it is to mr. hayday that the leading position among the london artists is now generally assigned. his quaint old-fashioned morocco bindings are inimitable. lady willoughby's diary has been extensively copied, but not equalled. his bibles and prayer books are well forwarded; the edges are solidly gilt with gold of a very deep colour, while the finishing is rich and massive without being gaudy. a book in the library of j. w. king eyton, esq., bound by hayday, is thus described:-- "the work is a large paper copy of the late mr. blakeway's 'sheriffs of shropshire,' in imperial folio, with the armorial bearings beautifully coloured. the binding is of blood-coloured morocco, extending an inch and a half all round the inside of the cover, on which is placed a bold but open border tooled in gold, forming a fine relief to the rest of the inside, which is in purple, elegantly worked all over in hexagons running into each other in the venetian style. in each compartment is placed the lion rampant and fleur-de-lis alternately. the fly-leaves are of vellum, ornamented with two narrow gold lines, and the edges are tooled. the back consists of hexagons, inlaid with purple, containing the lion and fleur-de-lis aforesaid, but somewhat smaller than those in the interior. the design on the outside is a triumphal arch, occupying the entire side, highly enriched, with its cornices, mouldings, &c. executed in suitable small ornamental work; from its columns, (which are wreathed with laurel,) and other parts of the structure, are suspended the shields of the sheriffs, seventy in number, the quarterings of which, with their frets, bends, &c., are curiously inlaid in different colours of morocco, and, with the ornamental parts of the bearings, have been blazoned with heraldic accuracy on both sides of the volume. when we state that more than , impressions of tools have been required to produce this wonderful exemplar of ingenuity and skill, some idea may be formed of the time and labour necessary for its execution." this volume was finished by thomas hussey, who is now employed in philadelphia, and who has in his possession the patterns executed upon the sides and back. the french degenerated in binding from the time of louis xiv. until they became far inferior to the english. this continued to the beginning of the present century; the books bound for the emperor napoleon, upon which no expense appears to have been spared, are clumsy, disjointed, and the tools coarse and unevenly worked. they were generally bound in red morocco, with morocco joints, lined with purple silk, upon which the imperial bee was stamped repeatedly. thouvenin enjoys the honour of rescuing the art from its long-continued degradation in france, and of founding a school whose disciples are now acknowledged to rank with the great masters of the art. his tools and patterns were designed and cut by artists in his employ; his establishment was on a large scale; but at his death he left nothing behind him but his reputation as an artist, to stimulate others to attain excellence in workmanship and a cultivated taste in ornament and design. among the most celebrated binders of the present day in france are, trautz et bauzonnet, niédré, duru, capé and lortic. the books of these artists are distinguished for solidity, squareness, freedom of the joints, firmness of the heads and back, and extreme nicety of finish. the fore-edges are gilt with the round in them, giving them a solid rich appearance, as yet unequalled. the material employed is of the choicest kind,--soft, rich levant morocco being the favourite covering for choice books. this leather, in the hands of an ordinary workman, would make a clumsy covering upon account of its great thickness; for it cannot be shaved down by a skin-dresser without destroying the natural grain of the leather, and, with it, its velvet-like richness and beauty; and yet, under the manipulations of these french artists, it becomes one of the most plastic of materials; rare volumes of the smallest dimensions, containing but one or two sheets, are not only covered on the exterior, but the interior of the boards, and even the joints are of levant morocco. there are many specimens of binding executed in france for gentlemen of taste and lovers of the art in this country; and, in speaking of the productions of french artists, it is to these that we refer. as a binder, lortic appears to be the least known; but he will probably become more so. capé is rapidly growing into favour. duru is celebrated for the excellence of his forwarding. in this respect he cannot be surpassed. the full morocco specimens that we have seen have generally been bound _à la janseniste_, and were truly exemplars. in exterior gilding he is not so happy as some of his brethren. niédré possesses fine taste; his styles of finishing are varied and graceful in design, and the execution admirable. the reputation of trautz et bauzonnet has been established principally by the senior partner, bauzonnet, trautz being his son-in-law, and whose name has recently been placed at the head of the firm, perhaps to anticipate others in claiming to be the inheritors of the skill, and pupils of his father-in-law's school. bauzonnet's bindings combine excellence in every department. they are specimens of the art in its highest state, being solid, firm, and square in every portion of the forwarding department. the covering, joints, and inside linings are matchless. the finishing may safely be pronounced perfection, so far as any thing produced by human agency can be. in style of finishing he generally confines himself to modifications of the grolier, or to a broad border, composed of fine tools; and in the tooling the execution is faultless. those who are accustomed to english bindings are apt to find fault with the firmness of his backs, as they do not throw out like english loose backs; but this subject of loose backs is but little understood; for, when it is known that what is generally esteemed an excellence is often but an indication of weakness,--that, in order to make the book throw out and lie open flat, the substance by which the sheets are secured together is a single strip of paper,--and that, where the band upon which the book is sewn can be plainly seen upon the opening of the volume, there is a strain upon it, the result of which must be its breakage, if in constant use, (a catastrophe that will never happen to one of bauzonnet's books,)--the firm back will be preferred. in tracing the progress of the art, and upon comparing the merits of artists of ancient and modern times, it is to the moderns that we assign the palm of superiority, especially for perfection of detail in the ornamentation. manual of the art of bookbinding. part i. sheet work. as the gathering of the sheets of a book, after they have been printed and dried off, is nearly always performed at the printer's, it will not be necessary to enter into any details on that subject, but to consider, as the commencement of binding, the operation of folding, which is of great importance, the beauty of a book depending on its being properly and correctly folded, so that, when it is cut, the margin of the different pages may be uniform throughout, and present no transpositions, to the inconvenience of the reader and deterioration of the work. the various sizes of books are denominated according to the number of leaves in which the sheet is folded; as folio, quarto, octavo, mo, mo, mo, mo, mo, &c. each form presents a certain number of pages, so disposed that, when the sheet is properly folded, they will follow the numeric order. in commencing the folding of any work, particular attention should be paid, in opening out the quires or sets, to observe that the _signatures_ follow each other alphabetically, and, if consisting of two or more volumes, that the whole of the sheets belong to the right one. although each form is folded in a different manner, it will not be requisite to detail the whole, as a description of the octavo and twelvemo will amply furnish an idea of the proper way of folding the larger and smaller sizes. _octavo._--the sheets being placed on the table with the signature, which will be seen at the bottom of the first page, turned towards the table at the corner nearest to the left hand of the workman, will present pages , , , , below, and above, with their heads reversed, pages , , , , (reading from left to right.) the sheet is then taken with the left hand, by the angle to the right, and creased with the _folder_ in the right hand, in the direction of the _points_ made in the printing, taking care, by shading to the light, that the figures of the pages fall exactly one on the other, which will be upon , and upon , and thereby presenting uppermost pages and , and above and . the top part of the sheet is then brought down, with the left hand, upon the lower, pages and falling upon and , directed properly, and again folded. the sheet then presents pages and , which are then folded evenly, upon , forming the third fold and finishing the sheet. _twelvemo._--the signature to this size, when placed before the workman, should be at the top, on his left hand, and towards the table, the sheet presenting pages , , ; , , ; , , ; , , . on the right, pages , , , , are separated from the others by a larger space, in the middle of which are the points, indicating the proper place where the pages should be cut off. the _folder_ detaches this part, and, placing page upon , makes a fold, and upon , which will be uppermost, finishes the folding of what is called the _inset_, and which bears the signature of the sheet it has been separated from, with the addition of a figure or asterisk, as a or a*. the remaining eight pages are folded in the same way as the octavo, and when done the inset is placed in the middle of it, taking care that the head-lines arrange properly. books are sometimes printed in what is called half sheets, but they are folded the same, after cutting them up; the octavo in the direction of the points, the twelvemo in _oblong_ direction of the paper, and laying them apart from each other. there are also oblong octavos, which are folded in the middle in a line with the points, the second fold in the same direction between the heads of the pages, and the third on the length of the paper. in the first fold of the octavo sheet is shown the manner of folding the folio, and in the second the quarto; the twelvemo also presents us with the eighteens, after the sheet is cut into three divisions. little or no difficulty will be experienced in folding any other size that may occur, attention to the disposition of the pages and signatures being only required. it will often be found necessary to refold a book which, previous to being bound, may have been done up in boards, sewed, or otherwise. this should in all cases be carefully attended to, after the book has been taken to pieces, the back divested of the glue and thread, and the corners or other parts which may have been doubled turned up. this is usually done by examining if the margin at the head and fore-edge is equal throughout, bringing those to their proper place that are too short, and cutting those that are longer than the general margin. by these means a uniformity will be presented after the edges of the book are cut, which could never be attained if not attended to while the book is in this state. the sheets of the book, being all folded, are then laid out along the edge of the gathering table, in the regular order of the signatures; the gatherer then commences at the last sheet or signature, takes one sheet from the parcel, one from the next, and so on until the first sheet or title is placed upon the top of the rest. the sheets are then held loosely in the hand, and allowed to fall lightly upon their backs and heads upon a smooth board, until they arrange themselves in an even, uniform manner. they are then collated, to see that the whole of the sheets belong to the same work and volume, as also that none are wanting. this is done by taking the book in the right hand by the upper corner of the fore-edge, and with the left opening the sheets on the back and letting them fall successively one after the other. the signatures will be thus seen in alphabetical or arithmetical order, as a, b, c, &c., or , , , , &c., to the last, which should always be examined to ascertain that it is the completion of the book. by these means any sheet incorrectly folded is also detected. books in folio and quarto are generally collated with a needle or pricker, by raising the sheets singly from the table; but this practice should be resorted to as little as possible, as the work is liable to be damaged. if any sheet is wanting, or belongs to another volume, or is a duplicate, the further progress of the work must be suspended till the imperfection is procured or exchanged. those that have been wrong folded must be corrected, and any _cancels_ occurring in the work cut out and replaced by the reprints, which will generally be found in the last sheet of the book. it is usual also with some binders to place any plates belonging to the volume, at this period; but as the liability of damage to them is great in the process of _beating_, or rolling, it will be much better to perform that operation after the book is brought from the stone, for which directions will be given. the book, being found correct, will be ready for the beating-stone, which, although it has been almost entirely superseded by the introduction of machinery, will always be invaluable to a binder of limited means; and the amateur will find it to be an essential process to secure the first great requisite of good binding,--solidity beating, pressing, etc. the first operation is commenced by shaking the volume upon the stone by the back and head, so as to make the whole even and facilitate the division of it into as many equal parts, which are called _sections_ or _beatings_, as may be judged necessary according to the thickness and other circumstances. a section is then taken and well beaten over, drawing it with the hand towards the body so as to bring the various parts successively under the hammer, and carefully avoiding striking more blows in one part than the other, except giving the edges a slight extra tap round. the section is then turned, and the like proceeding gone through; as also on each side after it has been separated and the bottom part placed on the top, the middle of the section being thereby brought under the action of the hammer. this being done, the sheets are replaced in their proper order, and two or three taps of the hammer given to make them lie even. in beating those books with which, from their value, greater care is required, it is usual to place a guard or waste leaf of paper on each side of the section, to avoid any stains or marks which the stone or hammer might be liable to make. it requires more skill than actual strength in beating, the weight of the hammer being nearly sufficient for many works. attention must be paid to the hammer descending parallel to the surface of the stone, to avoid marking or cutting the sheets with the edge. [illustration] before beating a book, care should be taken to observe if it has been recently printed, for if so it would _set off_ by being beaten too much. this will be easily ascertained by referring to the date at the foot of the title, or by smelling the ink it has been printed with, which, being composed partly of oil, will not have got perfectly dry. this will particularly be the case with machine-printed works. as, however, it is frequently necessary to bind a volume immediately after being printed, it will be requisite to take every precaution against its setting off, which would destroy the beauty of the work. it is the practice of some to put the book into an oven after the bread has been taken out, or into a stove heated sufficiently to dry the ink and make it search into the paper; but, as these means are not without danger of getting the paper blackened or soiled, it is a better plan to interleave the sheets with white paper, which will receive all the ink set off. should the sheets have been hotpressed, which is readily distinguished, this precaution will not be necessary. when employed at the beating-stone, the workman should keep his legs close together, to avoid _hernia_, to which he is much exposed if, with the intention of being more at ease, he contracts the habit of placing them apart. a rolling-machine has been invented as a substitute for the beating which books require previous to being bound. the book is divided into parts, according to the thickness of the book; each part is then placed between tins, or pieces of sole-leather; the rollers are then put in motion, and the part passed through. this is repeated until the requisite degree of solidity is obtained. the great objections to the rolling-machine are the liabilities to cause a set-off, or transfer of the printing-ink, upon the opposite page, by the friction which is produced by passing between the rollers, and the bow-like appearance which they give the book, and which is to the forwarder a serious cause of annoyance, and sometimes all his skill and care are insufficient to remedy the evil caused by the rollers. a powerful embossing press, technically called a smasher, has lately been employed with great advantage. a book is placed between tins, the platen is adjusted to a proper height, and the large fly-wheels set in motion. the platen descends in a perpendicular manner; then, upon its ascending, by means of a small handle the distance between the platens is decreased; the wheels still continuing in motion, the book, upon the descent of the platen, is compressed more forcibly than at first. the operation is repeated until the book has experienced the whole power of the press. it has been calculated that by this process a single volume will, if necessary, undergo a pressure equal to a weight of from fifty to eighty tons. this process has an advantage over every other hitherto employed in which machinery has been engaged; and it is, in some respects, preferable to beating, as the book is of the same thickness in every part, while in beating there is a great liability to beat the edges thinner than the centre; and the air appears to be as completely forced out as if the beating-hammer had been used; and there seems to be no disposition in the book to swell up again after undergoing this crushing process. in some binderies a hydraulic press is relied upon for compressing the sheets, without their undergoing the beating or rolling process. for publishers' work it has been found to answer the purpose for which it is employed, as the press can be filled up by placing the books in layers of from one to four or eight, according to their size, between iron plates; and the immense power of the press is thus evenly distributed through a large quantity of sheets at the same time. [illustration: hydraulic press, from the manufactory of isaac adams & co., boston.] the power of compression is derived from the pump to the left of the press, which is supplied with water from a cistern sunk under it. the water thus sent, by means of the tube seen passing from it to the centre of the foot of the press, causes the cylinder to which the bed is fixed to rise and compress the books or paper tightly between the bed and head of the press. when it is forced as high as can be by means of the pump-handle seen, a larger bar is attached and worked by two men. the extraordinary power of this press is so great as to cause, particularly in common work, a saving of more than three-fourths of the time required in bringing books to a proper solidity by the common press. when it is wished to withdraw the books, the small cock at the end of the tube at the foot of the press is turned, the water flows into the cistern below, and the bed with the books glides gently down in front of the workman. two presses are frequently worked by the same pump, one being on each side. the hydraulic press is manufactured by nearly all the press-makers, differing only in the general design, the application of power being the same. after beating, should there be any plates to the work, they, as before stated, must now be placed among the text. great care must be taken to make the justification of the plates uniform with the text, by cutting off any superfluity at the head or back, and by placing them exactly facing the pages to which they refer, pasting the edge next to the back. any that may be short at the head must be brought down, to preserve a uniformity. it is advisable to place a leaf of _tissue-paper_ before each plate, particularly when newly printed, as the ink of copper-plates is longer in drying than that of letter-press. when a work contains a great number of plates, which are directed to be placed at the end, they are sewn on the bands by overcasting, which operation will shortly be treated of in full. the book, being now ready for pressing, is taken in sections, according to the work and the judgment of the workman, and placed between pressing-boards the size of the volume, one on the other, and conveyed to the _standing-press_, which is pulled down as tight as possible by the _press-pin_, or fly-wheel, according to the nature of the standing-press; although it must be premised that when a book has been through the smasher, no further pressing will be required until it reaches the hands of the forwarder. after the book has been sufficiently pressed, it will be necessary again to _collate_ it, to correct any disarrangement that may have taken place during the beating and pressing. it is then ready for being sawn out. sawing the backs. this operation is performed in order to save the expense of sewing upon raised bands, and also to prevent the bands on which a book is sewn appearing on the back. after beating the book up well on the back and head, it is placed between two _cutting-boards_, the back projecting a little over the thick edge, and tightly screwing in the _laying_ or _cutting-press_, the whole being elevated sufficiently to prevent the saw damaging the cheeks of the press. then with a _tenant-saw_ the proper number of grooves are made, in depth and width according to the diameter of the band intended to be used, which will depend on the size of the book. a slight cut must also be given above the first and under the last band, for lodging the _chain_ or _kettle-stitch_. it is very necessary that the saw should be held parallel with the press, without which precaution, the grooves being deeper on one side than the other, the work will present, when opened, a defect to the eye. the _end-papers_, which should consist of four leaves of blank paper, folded according to the size of the book, are now prepared, and one placed at the beginning and end of each volume. sewing. according to the number of _bands_ wanted, must be attached to the loops on the cross-bar of the _sewing-press_ as many pieces of cord, of proper length and thickness, and fastened with the aid of the _keys_ in the groove of the press as nearly equal in tightness as possible. when this is done, the back of the first sheet in the book is placed against the cords, which must be moved upwards or the contrary to the marks of the saw, when the small screws at each end under the cross-bar must be moved upwards till the strings are equally tight. all this being disposed, the book is commenced sewing by placing the end-paper, which has no marks of the saw, on the sheet before laid down, and sewing it throughout, leaving a small end of thread to form the knot, after sewing the first sheet, which is then taken from under and sewn the whole length. [illustration] there are various ways of sewing, according to the size and thickness of the sheets of a book. a volume consisting of thick sheets, or a sheet containing a plate or map, should be sewn singly the whole length, in order to make the work more secure and solid. great care should also be taken not to draw the thread too tight at the head or foot of the book. the thread, in order to keep the book of the same thickness at the ends and centre, should be drawn parallel with the bench, and not downwards, as is too frequently the case. upon the proper swelling of the back mainly depends the regularity of the round and firmness of the back in the after-stages of the binding. when a book is sewed _two sheets on_, three bands are generally used. taking the sheet and fixing it on the bands, the needle is inserted in the mark made for the kettle-stitch and brought out by the first band; another sheet is then placed, and the needle introduced on the other side of the band, thus bringing the thread round it, sewn in like manner to the middle band, and continued to the third, when, taking again the first sheet, it is sewn from the third band to the other kettle-stitch, where it is fastened, and another course of two sheets commenced, and so continued to the last sheet but one, which is sewn the whole length, as directed for the first sheet, as also the end-paper. three bands are preferable to two, the book being more firm from being fastened in the middle, which is the only difference in sewing on two and three bands. half-sheets, to obviate the swelling of the back too much, are usually sewn on four bands, which admit of three on a course: the first sheet is sewn as in three bands, from the kettle-stitch to the first band, the next to the second, and the third takes the middle space; then the second sheet again from the third to the fourth band, and the first from thence to the other kettle-stitch. the third sheet having only one stitch, it is necessary that, in sawing, the distance from the second to the third band should be left considerably longer than between the others. quartos are generally sewn on five bands to make the work firmer, but if in half-sheets, as in the folio size, six or more are used, sewing as many sheets on as bands, giving each sheet but one tack or sewing, and piercing the needle through the whole of the course at each end or kettle-stitch before fastening the thread. this, which gives sufficient firmness, is necessary to prevent the swelling of the back which a less number of sheets in a course would make and spoil the appearance of the binding. when the book is composed of single leaves, plates, or maps, or, as in the case of music, where, from the decayed state of the back, it is necessary to cut off a portion with the plough in the manner pointed out for cutting edges, the whole must be attached to the bands by what is called whipping or overcasting. this is by taking a section, according to the thickness of the paper, and forcing the needle through the whole at the kettle-stitch, and on each side of all the bands, at a distance sufficient to secure the stitches from tearing, bringing the thread round each band, as before directed, and fastening it at the end before proceeding with another course. to keep the whole of the sheets properly even, the back is sometimes glued immediately after cutting, and when dry divided into sections. atlases and books of prints, when folded in the middle, will require a guard, or slip of paper, to be pasted to them, so as to allow them to open flat, which they could not do if attached to the back, and which would destroy the engraving. these guards must be of strong paper about an inch in breadth and folded to the right size. they are sewn by overcasting, as above directed. a better method for books of plates, or single leaves, is, after cutting the back evenly with the plough, to lay it between boards and glue the back evenly over with thin glue. after it has become dry and hard, separate it into thin sections; then let it be sawn out in the usual manner; it should then be taken and whipped, or overcast in separate sections with fine thread, care being taken in whipping the sections that it be evenly and neatly done. after the sections are all whipped, they should be sewn or affixed to the bands in the same manner as folded sheets. the old mode of sewing on raised bands combines many advantages. this style is still adopted with many works, particularly with those having a small margin; in fact, it is, both for elasticity and durability, far superior to any mode that is practised; it is, however, a very slow process, and necessarily an expensive one; and many binders who pretend to bind in this manner, to obviate this, have their books sewed in the ordinary way, and then, by sticking false bands upon the back, give them the appearance of having been sewn on raised bands. if it is intended to sew a book purely flexible, it should be knocked up even and square, placed between two pieces of pasteboard, and placed in a laying-press; then draw a line across the back, near the head, where it will be cut by the forwarder in cutting the edges. next take a pair of compasses and divide the back lengthwise into six even portions, except the bottom or tail, which should be longer than the rest, in order to preserve a proper symmetry of appearance; then draw lines square across the back with a black lead-pencil from the compass-points of the five inner divisions, for the places upon which the bands are to be sewed; then make a slight scratch with a saw about one-quarter of an inch inside of where the book will be cut, for the kettle-stitch at the head and likewise at the tail. upon taking the book out of the laying-press, take the pasteboards and saw them at the points marked by the lead-pencil of a depth sufficient to allow the cords upon which the book is to be sewn to enter. the boards will then serve as a guide to set the bands of the sewing-press at the commencement of the operation, and afterwards, during the progress of the work, will be found useful to regulate any deviations that may be inadvertently taking place. after the sewing-press is properly regulated and the end-paper sewn as previously described, the sheets should then be taken, one at a time, in their regular order, and sewn all along, from one end of the sheet to the other, or, more properly, from one kettle-stitch to the other, taking especial pains to observe that in sewing each sheet, after the first kettle-stitch has been caught, the needle must be passed to the farthest side of the nearest band, then passed to the other side of the band, and so on for each successive band. by this means the thread will have passed completely round each band, upon which the sheet will revolve as upon a hinge, without the slightest strain upon either the band or the thread. the inner margin is thus preserved its full size, and the freedom of the volume much increased. if you desire to revel in the full enjoyment of a flexible back, have it sewn with silk upon silken bands or cords, and you will have a combination of elasticity and strength that cannot be surpassed. for large volumes of engravings, the best mode of binding, so as to secure strength and also to allow the plates to lie flat when the volume is open, is to mount the plates with linen upon guards. to do this properly, select paper of the same thickness as the plates, cut it in strips an inch or an inch and a half wide, paste the back edge of the plate about a quarter of an inch in depth, from top to bottom; then lay a strip of thin linen or paper-muslin along the pasted edge of the plate, and rub it so that it will adhere. the strips of linen must be sufficiently wide to project beyond the plate as far as the width of the paper guards. one of the latter is then to be evenly pasted over and laid upon the projecting strip of linen, carefully smoothed, and laid between pasteboards to dry after they are thus mounted. the plates are then whipped along the back edge of the guard, and sewed in the usual manner. it was proposed by _m. lesne_, bookbinder of _paris_, in a memoir presented by him to the "_société d' encouragement_," january , , that in order to give to books the three essential qualities of binding, elasticity, solidity, and elegance, they should be sewn similar to the dutch method, which is on slips of parchment, instead of packthread; but to remedy the inconvenience arising from one slip being insufficient to make the back of a proper solidity, as well as being liable to break, and, if doubled or trebled, presenting a bad effect on the back when covered, he suggested the adoption of silk for the bands, which in a much less diameter is far stronger than packthread double the thickness. it is also preferable for sheets that require sewing the whole length to use silk, this being much stronger than thread, and insuring a greater solidity to the work. it will be observed that the cuts of the saw, apparent in other bindings, are not seen in opening the volume. when the volume is entirely sewn, the screws are loosened, the cords detached from the keys, and about two inches of the cord left on each side of the book to attach the boards that are to form the sides. india-rubber backs. in those instances where the leaves of a book are held together by caoutchouc cement instead of by sewing, the sheets are cut up into separate leaves, and every leaf made true and square at the edges. the back edge is then brought to a rounded form, by allowing the sheets to arrange themselves in a grooved recess or mould; and in that state the leaves are all moistened at the back edges with a cement of liquid caoutchouc or india-rubber. the quantity so applied is very small. in a few hours, it is sufficiently dry to take another coat of a somewhat stronger caoutchouc solution. in forty-eight hours, four applications of the caoutchouc may be made and dried. the back and the adjoining part of the sides are next covered with the usual band or fillet of cloth glued on with caoutchouc; after which the book is ready to have the boards attached, and to be covered with leather or parchment, as may be desired. part ii. forwarding. this branch of the art may be divided into several parts. we will give precedence to that branch or class of forwarding that requires the utmost precision and opens to the ambitious forwarder a field of exertion worthy of his best efforts. let the workman who strives to excel in his art remember that his work goes through the hands of critics and judges; that it possibly may be compared with the productions of the most celebrated artists. let him, then, look well to his laurels if engaged upon first-class job or customer work. the book being taken from the sewing-press, the end-papers and the first sheet are then turned back. a strip of paper is placed about one-eighth of an inch from the back, so as to prevent the paste from spreading unevenly, and paste is then applied with the finger along the edge of the sheet. the sheet is turned over, and the same process repeated to the first and second leaves of the end-papers, if the book is to be lined with buff or brown paper. after the papers have been cut to the proper size and evenly folded, they are pasted along the folded edge in the same manner as the end-papers were. the first leaf of the end-paper is then turned over, and the lining-paper laid full up to the back-edge of the book. if this be done carelessly, or not entirely straight and square from end to end, the future appearance of the book will be considerably marred. as much of the beauty of the joint depends upon the manner in which the lining has been performed, if it is intended to line with marbled paper, after turning over the end-leaf, place the lining as near as possible to the back-edge, so as to expose to the action of the brush almost the entire leaf of the end-paper that lies on the book. paste this lightly over; then place the lining upon it, and rub it even and smooth with the hand. in either case it should be left to dry before the end-paper is folded down to its place, as it is liable to force the lining-paper from the back. a better method is to paste the marble-paper upon the white end-paper before it is inserted in the book. the papers may then be lightly pressed, to make them perfectly smooth, and hung upon lines to dry. by this process there is no fear of the book being wrinkled by the dampness from the lining-paper. attention should be paid that such papers only as will blend well with the colour of the leather intended for the cover are used. if a joint of calf or morocco is required, all that is necessary for the forwarder to do is to tip the back-edge of the lining that goes next to the book very slightly, merely to secure it until it reaches the finisher, and place one or two guards of stout paper along the joint, to be afterwards torn out by the finisher. these matters being adjusted, the end-paper turned back to its place, and the twine on which the book has been sewn pulled tight, care having been taken to avoid pressing the twine against the end-papers, on account of their liability to tear near the bands, the bands which are intended to be laced in the boards must be opened, or the strands separated with a bodkin and scraped with a dull knife so as to bring them to a point and make them more convenient to pass through the boards which are to form the side covers. the book is now taken between the hands and well beaten up at the back and head on a smooth board, or on the laying-press, to bring the sheets level and square, as the beauty of the book, in all the subsequent operations, depends much on the care and attention paid in this place. the volume is then laid carefully upon a board, with the back to the edge of the board, a strip of pasteboard is laid on the upper side, the book placed in the laying-press, and the back evenly glued. the glue should be well rubbed in between the sheets, taking care that the sheets are even on the back and the volume equal in thickness throughout the whole length. it is then laid on a board to dry, but must not be placed before the fire, as, by so doing, the glue becomes hard and liable to crack in the process of rounding. in commencing this operation, the book is placed upon the laying-press with the fore-edge towards the workman; the left hand should then be placed flat and open upon it, the thumb towards the fore-edge. with the four fingers the volume is slightly bent and the upper portion of the back drawn towards the workman. the right hand is then engaged with a backing-hammer in lightly tapping the sheets with an upward motion from the centre of the back. the volume is then turned upon the other side, and the operation is repeated until it is evident that the book has acquired a sufficient round. the left hand is held to the back while the round is pressed into the fore-edge with the fingers of the right. the volume is then held up and the back carefully examined to ascertain if the round is perfectly regular, and, if not, it must be again submitted to light blows of the hammer until the back describes a portion of a perfect circle. care should be taken that the round be not too flat for the thickness of the volume, or, on the other hand, that it does not become what is called a pig-back,--a horrible monstrosity in binding, having a sharp ridge in the centre of the back. if the round be not regular and even from the centre to the edges, as well as from head to tail, and entirely free from twist, no after-skill or care can overcome the evil, but it will ever remain to prove the want of care or the incapacity of the workman. the next process, and equally important, is that of backing, which is done to form the groove for the reception of the boards. one of the backing-boards is placed upon the volume at an equal distance from the back, the distance depending upon the thickness of the board; then, turning the volume, the other is placed in a similar manner; the boards are then firmly grasped by the left hand across the back, and, with the assistance of the right hand, the whole carefully put into the laying-press, the edge of the boards nearest the back of the volume even with the cheeks of the press, and screwed up with the press-pin as tight as possible. the backing-hammer is then taken in the right hand and employed in turning the sheets from the centre over the backing-boards, to form the necessary groove. for this purpose the first blows should commence near the centre of the volume, and should be as light as possible, the blows glancing towards the edge, so as to merely commence the turning of the sheets, without causing any indentations or wrinkles on the inside of the volume. this should be proceeded with lengthwise of the volume, each series of blows growing gradually nearer to the edge or backing-board, and, as they approach, becoming more firm, until the sheets are turned over the backing-board, so as to form a regular and solid groove. the process is repeated up the other side, the volume examined to see if the back is regular and equal in its circle throughout, and any slight irregularities corrected by light taps of the beating-hammer; but nothing can justify a workman in striking a heavy blow near the centre of the back, as it must inevitably crush and wrinkle the paper on the inside. it serves but to prove his ignorance of the principle upon which the entire operation is based. there is nothing connected with the forwarding of a book that requires more attention, patience, and skill, than the rounding and backing, and there is nothing that contributes more to the general appearance of the volume. if well done, it gives a character and a tone to all the subsequent operations; if done badly, no care or skill that may be afterwards employed can hide it. it remains an enduring mark of a careless or inefficient workman. the volume is now ready for the boards, which have been previously prepared. this is done by cutting the sheets of milled-boards according to the size of the book, with the table or patent-shears. one side of the board is then lined with paper, the shrinkage of which will cause the board to curl towards it. if the volume be large, or a thick board be required, it will be necessary to paste two or more thicknesses of board together. place them in the standing-press, under pressure, until dry; then take them out and line them on the side of the board that has been pasted, or, if one board be thinner than the other, upon the thin board, in the same manner as the single board. boards made in this manner should always be prepared some length of time before they are used. the boards being in readiness, the volume is taken and one point of the compasses placed at the centre of the back, and the other point extended towards the fore-edge until it reaches the edge of the smallest bolt. this will give the proper size to cut the boards, as the groove or joint will give the projection or square of the board. if the volume be rare and valuable, let the workman be merciful in the use of his steel, as the cropping of ignorant workmen has impaired the value of many a choice tome. if it be intended that the leaves are to remain uncut, previous to the rounding of the volume, take a large butcher's-knife and carefully trim the extreme ends of the projecting leaves. after the size has been obtained, the next operation is squaring the boards. this is done by cutting the back-edge of the boards with a plough in the laying-press; the boards are then marked with the compasses from the edge which has been squared towards the front; the front cutting-board is placed at the compass-holes, and again put in press, with the front cutting-board or runner level with the cheek of the press, the back-board being a little higher, so as to allow the plough-knife to cut against it. the rough part is cut off with the plough as hereafter described, with this difference:--that, in cutting pasteboards, the workman cuts towards him. the boards are then taken out of press, and the square applied to the head, and marked with the point of a bodkin; this is cut off in the same manner. the volume is then opened and examined for the purpose of finding a leaf of an average length, which is measured by placing the thumb of the left hand against the edge of the head and applying against it one of the points of the compasses, carrying the other so much over the end of the leaf as will allow for the square of the boards at the tail; and if the volume be large for a portion of the square at the head, the superfluous portion is then cut off with the plough. in taking the size, let the workman recognise as a rule that every book should be cut as large as possible, lest he be suspected of having an eye more to the shaving-tub than to his reputation as a binder. among the early binders, de rome is noted for his merciless cropping. but few volumes have preserved the integrity of their margins after having been submitted to the cruel operation of his steel. a volume cut to the print is said to bleed; therefore be careful to avoid the slightest approach towards the commission of such an act of vandalism. the boards having been squared for the back, front, head, and tail, they are placed, with the lined side of the board next to the book, preparatory to the lacing in. each board is then marked with a bodkin opposite to the slips intended to be laced in; a hole in a vertical position is then made through the board, and being turned, another in the same way near to the first. the bands, having been pasted and passed in above, are returned through the other hole, and, being pulled tight, the boards will necessarily be perpendicular to the back, and confined in the groove. after cutting off the end of the strings near to the lace-holes, they must be beaten well and evenly into the board by placing the under part on an iron (called the _knocking-down iron_) fixed at the end of the laying-press, and beating above with the backing-hammer. if it be desirable that the bands should not be seen inside, the hole may be made so vertical that, by placing the bodkin in the same on the other side, another verging a contrary way to the first may be made, and the band, being passed in this one continued hole, will not be seen underneath. the liability, however, of its tearing out is an objection, and from this cause the common way, with care in beating down, is preferable. after the slips have been well beaten down, the roundness of the back must be examined, and any twist that is perceptible corrected with the backing-hammer. a piece of smooth tin, larger than the volume, must then be inserted between each board and the book, with one edge of the tin full up to the joint. the volume is next placed between pressing-boards even with the joint, and put into the standing-press, which must be screwed tight and evenly down. stewart's double-screw iron standing-press is well adapted for the purpose, and is in very general use. after the press has been screwed down, the back of the volume is then damped with thin paste, and, according to the firmness of the sewing and book, grated and scraped, and finally rubbed smooth with paper-shavings, and left to dry in the press for as long a time as possible. if a large volume, it is usual to apply a little glue to the back. when taken out of the press, the boards must be disengaged from the end-papers, where they adhere, so that they may move freely up and down in the cutting. cutting the edges. [illustration] the manner of preparing the volume for cutting is very important, as swerving from right angles in cutting the head and tail will present a disagreeable appearance. every precaution must be taken to insure the volume being cut perfectly square. the front-board is drawn down from the head just sufficient for the knife to operate upon in the cutting. a piece of trindle is inserted between the volume and the back-board for the point of the knife to cut against. the volume is then placed, with the back towards the workman, on a cutting-board in the left hand; the _runner_ or smooth-edged board is then fixed on the other side, with the right hand, even and square with the edge of the mill-board, and the whole, held tight with the left hand, put into the cutting-press, to the level of the right-hand cheek of the same, taking care that the volume hangs perpendicular to the cheeks of the press. being screwed tight with the pin, the workman then takes the plough with the right hand, by the head of the screw, and, placing it on the groove of the press, proceeds to cut the book, holding the other end of the screw firmly with the left hand, and causing the knife to advance gradually through the book by turning the screw gently as he cuts, which should be all one way,--viz.: as the arms are removed from the body. the plough must be held firm in the groove or guides of the press, to prevent the knife jumping or cutting the edges uneven; and, should the knife be found to run up or down, the defect must be remedied by removing some of the paper or boards placed under the knife where it is fastened to the plough. if there should be none required to bring the knife even with the plough, then a piece must be placed on whichever side of the _bolt_ the defect may require. the head being cut, the same operation is repeated for the tail. much precaution is necessary in cutting the fore-edge. mark the book with a bodkin on the projecting part of the end-papers, and on each side, at the head and foot, close to the square side of the boards, drawing a line from one to the other; then, laying the boards open, insert a trindle at each end of the volume, under the back, so as to throw the round out; then wind a piece of fine cord several times round from the head to the tail, to prevent the leaves returning after the back is made flat, to form the gutter on the fore-edge. this done, beat the back flat on the press, and place one of the cutting-boards at the end of the book, even with the line before made; turn it, and place the runner as much below the line on the title-side as has been allowed for the square on the fore-edge. taking the whole in the left hand, the volume must be examined to remedy any defects, should it not be regular and equal on both sides, and then put into the press, the runner as before even with the right cheek, taking care to keep the other board projected above the left, equal to the square allowed in front, so that, when cut through, the fore-edge may be equally square with the boards on each side. after the fore-edge is cut, the string is taken off, the back resumes its circular form, and the edge in consequence presents a grooved appearance, which puzzles the uninitiated to ascertain how it is produced. the method above described is called "cutting in boards," and is superior to any other. it is of the utmost importance to the young workman that he should pursue and acquire a methodical system in all his operations. select the best method, as a matter of course, and then adhere to it. do not, every time you perform one particular process, do it in a different manner. for instance: in backing or in turning up your books, it is better to always have the head towards you; in cutting head and tail, to have the back nearest you. in laying your work down, always do it in one way. let that way be the one whereby you can most conveniently take it up again. much time may be wasted, from inattention to these particulars, in the unnecessary handling and confused manner of working. it will be found that the best and most expeditious workmen are those who do their work in a systematical manner. in taking leave of this department, our parting admonition to the young workman is, strive to excel. do not be content if your work will merely pass, and say to yourself, "oh, that is good enough!" if it is possible for you to do it better, it is not good enough. employ your reasoning faculties as well as your physical powers, so that you do not sink into a mere machine. when performing a process, ask yourself the question, "why is this done? what is the object of it? can the process be improved?" you will find the hand to be an apt instrument of the mind and will, and that you will speedily be recognised as an intelligent workman. have, at least, this much ambition. the next process which the volume must undergo is the gilding or colouring of the edges. colouring the edges with one colour, equally sprinkling over, marbling, and gilding, come under this head; and the style of ornament of this description must depend on the price allowed for the work, and will vary according to the taste of the workman and wish of the employer. of colouring and sprinkling. the colours most used are brown and red, in preparing which it is necessary to grind them in water, very fine, on a slab, with a muller. each colour is then placed in a separate vase, and mixed up with a little paste and water to the proper consistency for use. to procure a better edge, two drops of oil and about an equal quantity of vinegar and water may be mixed with the paste. in colouring the edges equally over, the boards at the head of the volume must be beat even with the edges, and the book rested on the edge of the press or table; then, holding the book firm with the left hand, the colours must be applied with a small sponge or brush, passing it evenly upon the edge, proceeding towards the back one way and the gutter the other, to avoid a mass of colour being lodged in the angle of the fore-edge. this done, the other parts are similarly coloured, the fore-edge being laid open from the boards and a runner held firm above to prevent the colour searching into the book. it will be perceived that a dozen volumes may be done at the same time with scarcely more than the additional trouble of placing one above the other. for further security, and to prevent the colour searching into the books, it is advisable to put them into the laying-press and screw them moderately tight. in fact, for all good work, this must be done. in sprinkling, it is usual to tie together a number of volumes with a board on each side of the outside books, or place them in the laying-press first, with the heads upwards; then, with a large brush, similar to a painter's, dipped in whatever colour may be wished, and well beat on the press-pin over the pot till the sprinkle becomes fine, the edges are covered. the pin and brush are held sufficiently above the book, and the edge sprinkled by beating lightly at first, and stronger as the brush becomes less charged with colour, being careful that the spots are as fine as possible, the sprinkle being thereby made more beautiful. the cleanest method, and at the same time the surest to produce a fine sprinkle, is to use a wire sieve and a stiff brush, something like a shoe-brush, for convenience. the sieve should be oval in form, with a very thick wire running round the edge until they meet, then projecting about a foot from the sieve so as to form a handle, the whole somewhat resembling in shape the bat used by ball-players. fine brass wire is the best for the sieve. the wire should be about one-fourth of an inch apart. after every thing is in readiness, dip the stiff brush in the colour and lay the sieve over the pan, and rub the brush over it to get rid of the superfluous colour, which will drop into the pan; then knock off all the loose colour adhering to the sieve; then hold the sieve over the books, and rub the brush over the wires, lightly at first, and afterwards harder as the brush loses the colour. the colour will descend like a fine mist, and the effect produced upon the edge cannot be equalled by the old method. several colours are sometimes used with very pleasing effect; some of these combinations will be described, and many others will readily occur to the workman as his taste may suggest. colours. of vegetable colours, and ochres, directions for mixing which have been given above, it will only be necessary to particularize the most approved and generally-used substances. the liquid ones will require a more lengthened description. blue.--indigo and prussian blue, with whiting for lighter shades. yellow.--dutch pink, king's yellow, and yellow orpine. brown.--umber, burnt over the fire. red.--vermilion; or oxford ochre, burnt in a pan. pink.--rose-pink; to make it brighter, add lake. green.--the first and second mixed to any shade. the liquid or spirit colours will be found best for use, as the edges will not rub, which all other colours are liable to do. some of the receipts are well known; but, it being necessary to give a faithful record of the art, the whole of the colours used and modes of preparation will be presented. blue. two ounces of the best indigo, finely powdered, mixed with a teaspoonful of spirit of salts and two ounces of best oil of vitriol. put the whole into a bottle, and let it remain in boiling water for six or eight hours, and mix with water as wanted to the shade required. yellow. french berries, saffron, or faustic chips. boil with a small portion of alum; strain and bottle for use. green. the two colours above will make an excellent green used in proportions as the shade required. another green may be made by boiling four ounces of verdigris and two ounces of cream of tartar till a good colour is produced. orange. two ounces of brazil dust, one ounce of french berries, bruised, and a little alum. boil in water and strain. red. brazil dust, half a pound; alum, two ounces, well powdered; boiled in a pint of vinegar and a pint of water till brought down to a pint. strain and bottle. the red edges now in vogue are made with vermilion, mixed with vellum-size. the better class are scraped before they are coloured, and afterwards they are burnished. purple. logwood chips, in the proportion of half a pound to two ounces of alum, and a small piece of copperas, boiled in three pints of soft water till reduced a third, will make a good purple. brazil dust, submitted to the action of strong potash water, will make a good purple for immediate use, but will not keep. brown. a quarter of a pound of logwood, and the same quantity of french berries, boiled together. if a darker shade is required, add a little copperas. plain brown edges are made with burnt umber, in the same manner as that described for red edges. with these colours, edges of books may be sprinkled to almost an infinite number of patterns. a few will be given; for, though fancy sprinkles are seldom used where the binder can get the edges of extra books marbled, they will be of use to those who would find marbling a work of too great preparation and expense for a small number of books in places where there is no marbler. rice marble. this pattern has been so called from the use of rice; but linseed, or bread crumbs, will answer the same purpose. the rice is laid on the edge of the book according to fancy, and the edge sprinkled with any colour, the rice thus forming blank spaces. the edge may be coloured previously all over, or sprinkled with a lighter shade. white spot. take white wax and melt it in a pot; then with a brush throw some upon the edge of the book; when it is set, colour the edge with a sponge. take the book and give it two or three smart knocks on the end of the press, when the wax will fly off and a beautiful white spot remain. this pattern may be much varied by using two or three colours or sprinkling the edge before the wax is thrown on, and, after it is, again with other colours. whiting mixed with water to a thick consistency will nearly answer the same purpose, and is less expensive than wax. fancy marble. take a small portion of rose-pink, green, or any other vegetable colour, and well bray it on the slab with the muller, till reduced to a fine powder. prepare a dish, or other vessel, large enough to admit the fore-edge of the book, and filled with clear water; then with the _palette-knife_ mix a portion of the colours with spirits of wine, and convey with the knife some of the same to the middle of the vessel, and allow it to flow gradually on the surface of the water. the spirit of wine will cause it to spread in a diversity of pleasing forms, when the edge of the book must be dipped in the same manner as for marbling, and a very neat pattern will be produced at a trifling cost, as no more colour need be mixed than wanted at each time. gold sprinkle. after the edges of the book are stained with any of the colours above described, a good effect may be given by sprinkling with a gold liquid, made in the following manner:--take a book of gold and half an ounce of honey, and rub them together in a mortar until they are very fine; then add half a pint of clear water and mix them well together. after the water clears, pour it off and put in more, till the honey is all extracted and nothing left but the gold; mix one grain of corrosive sublimate with a teaspoonful of spirits of wine, and when dissolved put the same, with a little thick gum-water, to the gold, and bottle it, always shaking it well before using. when dry, burnish the edge, and cover it with paper till the work is finished. marbling. marbling is an art which consists in the production of certain patterns and effects by means of colours so prepared as to float upon a preparation of mucilaginous liquid, possessing certain antagonistic properties to the colours prepared for the purpose, and which colours, when so prepared, floated and formed into patterns upon the surface of the liquid, are taken off by laying thereon a piece or sheet of paper or dipping therein the smoothly-cut edges of a book. it is a process which it is not very easy to describe; and yet, to any one beholding it for the first time, nothing appears more simple or easy of execution. yet the difficulties are many; and the longer any one practises it, the more he will become convinced that there are many more discoveries to be made before the art can be brought to any thing like perfection or effects produced with that certainty which the workman could desire. in short, it may be said to be still in its infancy. when the art was first discovered, and by whom, or in what city or country it was first practised, it is hardly possible to determine. it is supposed that we cannot go farther back for its origin than the beginning of the seventeenth century, and that holland has the honour of being the birthplace of the art,--the old dutch and some drawn and antique patterns, with stormont and other spots, being considered the most original. many years ago this old dutch paper, in the size of foolscap, was imported into england, wrapped round small parcels of dutch toys, and thus passed free of duty. when taken off, it was carefully smoothed and sold to bookbinders, commanding a high price, being only used on the better kinds of work. indeed, so choice was it that you may still see in some old books the inside-linings made of pieces carefully joined together. something of the art has unfortunately been lost since that time, for both the colours and the execution of some of these old specimens far surpass the best efforts of the most celebrated modern marblers. it is proposed, however, to show, as clearly and briefly as possible, how it is done and practised at the present day by the best english workmen, and to describe the various processes in such a manner as will enable any individual possessed of a common share of understanding and discernment, to do it himself; and, where there are two ways of doing it, that will be described which experience has pronounced to be easiest and best. in describing one pattern, that will be considered sufficient to include all of the same class, or that are done in the same manner, although different colours may be used. for instance, a brown may be described, and green, being the same in every respect as regards the mixing and working the colours, may be substituted for the brown; and so in regard to other colours. colours. the colours required for marbling are the same as those ordinarily used for painting both in oil and distemper. they should be procured in a dry state, just as they are produced or manufactured, and ground by the marbler himself. a list is subjoined:-- reds. drop lake. peach-wood lake. vermilion. rose-pink. oxford ochre, burnt. blues. indigo. chinese blue. ultramarine. prussian blue. yellows. lemon chrome. dutch pink. oxford ochre, raw. blacks. vegetable lamp-black. drop ivory-black. brown. turkey umber burnt. orange. orange lead. orange chrome. white. china clay. pipe-clay. flake white. paris white. drop lake. this is the most beautiful, but the most expensive, of all the reds, and is used only for book-edges and the most superior kinds of work. there are different shades of this colour, viz.:--scarlet, crimson, and purple. the scarlet is the most expensive, and looks the best on edges, possessing a brilliancy which no other colour will produce; but there is a great quantity of a very inferior kind of drop lake about, which is of no use whatever to a marbler, for, when it comes to be worked, it is found to possess no body. in order to ascertain whether the article about to be purchased will answer, take a piece of the colour, and, breaking it, apply the broken part to the tongue. if it adhere to the tongue, it is very doubtful whether it will do; but if it hold up the moisture without any inclination to adhere, it may be tried with better expectations. this colour is sold in the form of small cones or drops, from which it derives its name, and is a preparation of cochineal; therefore the value of it depends much upon the price of that article. vermilion. this colour is but little used, on account of its great specific gravity, and seldom without being combined with some other colour. it is a preparation of mercury, and, though nominally at a much lower price than lake, yet so little of it goes to a pound, it comes nearly as dear as that article. rose-pink. this is a very useful though common colour. it is composed of chalk or whiting coloured with brazil wood; consequently it is what is termed a fugitive colour, the pink very quickly fading on exposure to the atmosphere or to heat. when combined with indigo or a little chinese blue it makes a good purple. burnt ochre. this colour is obtained in its native state from pits dug in the earth in the neighbourhood of oxford; hence, it is called oxford ochre, and sometimes stone ochre. it is in fact a kind of clay, and when made red-hot turns to a kind of red colour. it is one of the most useful colours, and, as the price is low, is extensively used. with the addition of a little black it makes a good brown; with a little blue or indigo it makes a good olive; or it is a good colour used by itself, and is not liable to change. wood lake. this is a preparation of peach-wood, and has only been introduced of late years to the notice of marblers. it is manufactured at birmingham. this colour is an exception to the rule, as it is sold in the pulp or damp state, and may be mixed and even used without grinding, being made almost exclusively for marbling. it is the best red that can be used for general purposes, and for appearance comes next to the drop lake. chinese blue. this is a very beautiful but not a very durable colour. it is, however, an almost indispensable one to the marbler, as it will produce nearly every shade of blue by the addition of certain proportions of white. this colour requires to be particularly well ground, as indeed do all the blues. it is also sold at some places in the pulp or damp state. there are some very good damp blues made. indigo. this colour is a most valuable article, and cannot be dispensed with under any consideration. it is too well known to require describing. though not a bright colour, it is one of the most durable, and for mixing and producing greens and purples of a permanent kind is invaluable. neither can a good black be made without it. care should, however, be taken to procure it of the best quality. ultramarine. this is a very beautiful colour, but must be used very sparingly, as it will not glaze or take any kind of polish, and is always inclined to rub off. the kinds now in general use are the french and german, the genuine article being far too high in price for this kind of work. prussian blue. this colour has been of late almost entirely superseded by the chinese blue, which is a much brighter colour, prussian blue being darker and heavier looking, and is a very bad colour for glazing. dutch pink. this is a common but very useful colour. it is a preparation of whiting and quercitron bark, and is used in making greens, no other colour answering the purpose so well. it is also very useful in mixing with chrome to produce the various shades of yellow required. chrome. this is of various shades, varying from a light lemon colour to a deep orange approaching to a red. it is a useful colour; but, unless you get it genuine, it is very difficult to get it to work properly. raw ochre, or oxford ochre in its native state. this may be used in certain proportions for making olive tints combined with dutch pink and blue or black. it is also of use in small quantities to mix with yellow when it is inclined to run off, this colour being of a very adhesive nature. drop ivory-black. this colour cannot be well used alone. it may, therefore, be called only an auxiliary to others. vegetable-black. this is a superior kind of lamp-black, but prepared from vegetable instead of animal matter. it is surprisingly light, and cannot be used alone, and will not produce a black for marbling except in combination with double its weight of good indigo. turkey umber, burnt. this colour produces a very good brown, but it is not required if you have the burnt oxford ochre, as, with the aid of that colour and a little indigo and black, any shade of brown may be produced. orange lead. this is a very heavy colour, and is but little used, except for the edges of account books. white. for this an article called china clay is used; also, for some purposes, the common pipe-clay. gum. of all the varieties of gum, there is but one that is of any use to the marbler, and that is called gum-tragacanth or gum-dragon. too much care cannot be exercised in the choice of this article, as much of the excellence of the work depends upon it. it should be large, white, and flaky. occasionally there will be found some very good in small white flakes; but let that in dark brown lumps be rejected at once, no matter at what price it may be offered. if used at all, it would only do for the most common kind of work; but there is, in reality, no saving in an inferior article, as one pound of a really good sort will go as far as two of a bad, and produce a far more satisfactory result. good gum ought to dissolve in cold water; it requires at least forty-eight hours soaking, being well stirred about at intervals; but some gums take longer to dissolve. good gum will produce a smooth surface, but bad gum will often yield a rough one, which is inimical to the purpose. again, some will give a smooth surface, and yet possess no strength; the colours will flow well upon it and form properly, and, when the paper is taken off, will look, at first, very beautiful, but upon looking at it five or ten minutes after it has been hung up, the colours will be found running off, causing indescribable annoyance and mortification. directions for preparing the gum. procure a large earthen pan, glazed on the inside, capable of containing from eight to twelve gallons of water. put therein one pound of gum-tragacanth, and on it pour about two gallons of soft water. stir it every few hours with a clean birch broom kept expressly for the purpose, breaking the lumps and adding more water as it thickens or absorbs that previously put in. in about forty-eight hours you may venture to use it; but seventy-two hours would be better. some gum is all the better for a longer period, as, although a considerable portion of the gum may be dissolved, yet the best properties of it are not extracted till the whole is dissolved. it must be strained through a fine hair sieve before using, and if any lumps remain, put them back into the pan until they are all dissolved. of linseed. it is possible to marble some patterns on mucilage of linseed, but it is a very objectionable vehicle to work upon, and can never be made to produce a satisfactory result. it is made either by boiling one quart of linseed in six or eight gallons of water, or by pouring the boiling water upon the linseed and stirring it until it extracts the mucilaginous properties of the seed; but it very soon decomposes or turns to water. carrageen, or irish moss. this is an article used by some, and can be dispensed with altogether: it is not a necessary article. when used, it should be picked (the white being the best) and well washed; then set it to simmer in a gentle heat for an hour or two, strain it through a fine hair sieve, and it will be ready for use; but it will require a portion of the solution of gum-tragacanth to be able to do much with it. flea-seed. this is an article but little known except to those who have occasion to use it. it is a small, brown, hard seed, in size, shape, and colour closely resembling the annoying little insect whose name it bears, and from which it may possibly derive its appellation. it produces a very strong and powerful mucilage--far stronger than that which can be obtained from linseed; and what enhances its value is that it will not so soon lose its strength or turn to water, but will keep several days. it is a great assistant, mixed with gum, in the making of french and spanish marbles, but is a total enemy to nonpareil and drawn patterns. to prepare it, put a quarter of a pound of the seed into a pan, pour upon it a gallon of boiling water, keep it well stirred for ten minutes, and let it stand for half an hour; then stir it again for ten minutes more, and in another half-hour add another gallon of boiling water, stirring it as before, at intervals, for one hour; after which let it remain, and the seed will settle at the bottom of the pan. when cold, pour off the top for use, and the seed will bear more boiling water, though not so much as at first. sometimes the seed will yield a third extract; but this must be determined by your judgment, as the seed, when exhausted, will lose its viscid property, and must then be thrown away. the seed should never be stirred up after it has cooled, for it will settle without being again heated or having more boiling water added to it. ox-gall. the surest way of obtaining this article genuine is by procuring it in the bladder as it is taken from the animal, if you are acquainted with any butcher upon whom you can depend. the gall from some animals is very thick, but will, after keeping some time, get thin, without at all losing its properties; in fact, gall is all the better for being kept, and is none the worse for a strong smell. water. soft or rain water, when it can be procured, is the best adapted for all the preparations in marbling. of the preparations or vehicles required for marbling upon. for spanish, french, italian, west end, and british patterns, there will be required a mixture of gum-tragacanth and the mucilage of flea-seed, in the proportions of one quart of the latter to two gallons of the former. beat them well up together till they are thoroughly mixed or incorporated with each other, strain it through a fine hair sieve into the trough, and it will be fit for use. for dutch, nonpareil, curls, antiques, and, in short, all patterns which require to be formed with any kind of instrument on the preparation in the trough, use nothing but the pure solution of the gum-tragacanth; in fact, you may marble all the patterns on this alone, so that if there be any difficulty in procuring the other articles, and you can procure good gum, you may do any or all of the patterns upon it, although some of them are improved by the addition of the mucilage of the flea-seed. as some gum is stronger than other, it is hardly prudent or possible to give any exact weight of gum to any certain quantity of water. practice and your own judgment must determine this. besides, if the gum be not sufficiently soaked or beaten up, it will not yield so much or so good size as it would were it in its right state. the following will give some idea to guide in the matter:--if, on skimming the surface and sprinkling on the colours, they lose their shape and appear to turn round on the solution, especially in the corners of the trough, it is a sign that it is too thin; if, on the other hand, on skimming there is a great resistance when the skimmer is drawn along, and, upon sprinkling on the colours, they crack, and are a long while spreading out, it is a sign it is too thick; but a little practice will soon enable the learner to form a correct judgment in this matter. of grinding the colours. on this head you must be very particular indeed; for, if the colours are not finely or properly ground, it cannot be expected that the work will look well. when a large quantity is required, a colour-mill is the most advantageous method; but if on a small scale, or for edges, the ordinary stone and muller will be best adapted for the purpose. indeed, all colours required for edges ought to be most particularly well ground upon a slab, with a muller, the mill not grinding so finely as by this method. the colours must all be ground with a preparation of beeswax, in the average proportion of one ounce of the prepared beeswax to one pound of colour. blues and greens require rather more. this will prevent the colour rubbing off on the hand, and will make it burnish or glaze easily. directions for preparing the wax for grinding. to attempt to grind beeswax in its native state would be a fruitless task, as it would stick to the stones and not unite with the other ingredients. to obviate this, prepare it in the following manner: take of the very best beeswax two pounds, put it in an earthen pipkin, and with it a quarter of a pound of the very best curd-soap cut into small or thin pieces; place it in a moderate heat, and when both soap and wax are quite dissolved, (but be sure they are not boiling,) put the pipkin containing the hot liquid upon a table, take in one hand a pot of cold water, and, gently stirring the melted wax with the other, pour in the water, a little at a time, keeping it constantly stirred, and it will gradually thicken, until at last it can hardly be stirred at all. care must be taken not to have it too hot when the water is poured in, as there is danger of it flying out of the pipkin and scalding the workman. if properly mixed, when cool, it can be pulverized between the finger and thumb; and in this state it will mix or grind with the colour easily, but ought to be rubbed or worked in with the dry colour before wetting it for grinding. troughs. the troughs should be made of wood, perfectly flat and smooth at the bottom, and of sufficient thickness to keep them from warping. they should be about two and a half inches deep inside, and about two inches larger than the sheet of paper you intend marbling, or your edges will be imperfect. there should be about three inches parted off on the right-hand side by a sloping partition, which should be about an eighth of an inch below the sides, that the waste may be skimmed over it without running it over the top. the whole should be perfectly level and true; and, if the joints are stopped with white lead, be sure it is quite dry and hard, or it will entirely spoil the solution, and will fill the pattern with white. french or shell marble. to commence with the easiest and most common kinds of marbled papers:--the colours being properly ground, and the trough placed on a level table or fixed bench of convenient height, with some feet of spare room on each side, place the pots containing the colours on the right-hand side, and the paper or books to be marbled on the left. let there be a small brush in each of the pots of vein-colours, and a larger one in the last or body-colour. have a small iron rod or bar about twelve or fourteen inches long, placed so that you may be able to take it up when required with the left hand. fill the trough to about one-half or three-quarters of an inch from the top with the solution of gum-tragacanth and flea-seed, as previously described, and proceed to mix the colours. [illustration] for convenience of reference, the various patterns described and processes employed will be numbered. no. .--large brown french or shell, with three veins, viz.: red, yellow, and black. mix together ox-gall and water in the proportion of one-eighth of the former to seven-eighths of the latter. mix the vein-colours with this mixture, putting in a little at a time, and gently stirring it about with the brush (but be careful not to make it froth by too rapid stirring) until you arrive at the proper consistence, which must be ascertained by sprinkling a little colour on the solution in the trough. if the colour sinks, and does not spread out, add a little neat-gall; but, should it spread too far and open too much, mix a little more colour with water only, and put it to that which spreads too much. the brown will require more gall, less water, and a few drops of the very best olive-oil, which will cause it to form itself into rings or shells as it falls on the solution in the trough. this colour will require to be thicker than the vein-colours, and, when thrown or sprinkled, should drive or force the other colours into the form of veins. by increasing the quantity of gall in the last colour, it will bring the veins to almost any degree of fineness; but there is a point beyond which it is not advisable to go. if the brown does not shell enough, but forms in holes, add a few more drops of oil, and well mix it; but if there be too much oil it will spoil the effect of the shell altogether, which cannot be counteracted in any other way than by mixing some more colour without any oil, and adding it thereto. having, then, all in readiness, first skim the surface of the solution lightly all over, and immediately (for when you begin it is necessary to move quickly till all the colours are on) sprinkle on the colours, beginning with the red, next yellow, thirdly, black; then with the principal or body-colour go well and equally all over, taking care to throw as much colour on one part of the surface as another; then take up a sheet of paper by the two opposite corners, and let the corner between the finger and thumb of the right hand touch the surface first, while with the left you let the paper gradually descend, till it lies flat upon the liquid. if it is let down too quickly, or the paper gets rumpled, so as to allow the air to get under it, white blotches will appear when it is taken out of the trough; and if the paper be allowed to lie long enough upon the size to draw out the blisters, still the marks will show. in order to take the paper out, lay a lath or thin stick across the centre of the paper as it lies in the trough; let it be long enough for the ends to rest upon the edges of the trough; then take hold of the paper by the two parallel corners, lay it back over the stick, lift it out of the trough by the stick, in the same manner as it might hang across a line, and place it on a rack to dry. no. .--small brown french. this pattern is produced with precisely the same colours as no. , by using the iron rod previously described. it is held in the left hand, and the brush knocked against it, which causes the colour to fall in small spots, and reproduces the no. pattern, as it were, in miniature. no. .--brown french, with light spot. this pattern has but two vein-colours--the red and the black. these are mixed with the mixture of gall and water, as described for the veins of no. . it has also two other colours. the brown is mixed in a similar manner to the brown for no. , but not quite so much gall and oil, to allow for the other colour flowing out upon it; and the last, or light spot, is composed of raw or unburnt oxford ochre, and is mixed with gall, water, a few drops of olive-oil, and a portion of spirits of turpentine. no. .--small yellow shell. this is done in the same manner as no. as regards the mixing and working, the only difference being in the body-colour. no. .--brown and purple shell. this pattern has three veins and two french colours, or colours that have been mixed as french,--that is, with oil in them,--the last of which, in this instance, is the purple. being mixed with a little more both of the gall and oil than the other, in order to make it flow out, over, and drive up the other colours, a marbler will be able, if he follows these instructions, to imitate any french pattern, whether there be more or less colours in them. no. .--blue stormont is an old pattern, but well worthy of being revived. though apparently very simple and easy of execution, it is nevertheless very difficult to keep in order, in consequence of the speedy evaporation and the chemical changes which are continually taking place among the ingredients with which it is mixed. it requires great quickness and acute observation on the part of the workman. there is but one vein-colour, (red,) and the ground or body-colour is blue. the same preparation of gum and flea-seed is used for this as for the french marble. mix the red for vein, as usual, with gall and water. the other colour must consist of good indigo alone, without which the proper effect cannot be produced. the indigo being ground, as before directed in the instructions for grinding the colours, proceed to mix the indigo with gall, water, and spirits of turpentine,--of which last ingredient it will require a considerable proportion, in order to make it break full of little holes. the acme of this pattern is to make it look like fine network. sometimes it will happen that at first mixing it will not work, but after standing a day or two it will work well, while at other times it will work immediately. if the holes come too large from an excess of turpentine, (for they will sometimes come too large from not having enough,) add a little more gall and some fresh indigo, putting in a few drops of alum-water; but be very careful of this; for, if there be too much, it will make the colour thick and clotted: in which case have recourse to a little of the solution of potash; but it is best, if possible, to do without either of them. no. .--light italian. a very pretty though simple pattern, but requires great cleanliness of working to turn it out well. the colours being ground as before directed, proceed to mix them with gall and water only, as though they were for veins. the last colour is white; this requires a greater proportion of gall than the other colours, and a larger brush, as in the french patterns. [illustration] after skimming the size, proceed by beating or knocking on the colours,--viz.: red, green, and black, as in small french, taking especial care to have the rings of the brushes free from any accumulation of colour, or they will cause large spots or blotches, which will spoil the appearance of the work. one difference between this and the small french is that there is no oil used in any of the colours. [illustration] another method is to use a mixture of weak gall and water instead of the white colour, and which must be firmly knocked or beaten on, proportioned by the judgment of the marbler. this method is preferable to the former for edges, and will answer quite as well for paper. no. .--small green italian. a very neat pattern, may be made of one colour only, which must be mixed with gall and water sufficiently strong to cover the whole surface of the solution on the trough; after which, beat on the white, or gall and water, as before. the same size, or preparation of gum and flea-seed, will do for this as for the previous marbles; it must, however, be kept clean, to make the work look nice and bright. no. .--west end, (brown, with light spot.) this pattern consists of two prominent colours besides the veins; one of these is dark and dotted all over with small white spots; the other, which is the last or top colour, is light, and is made by taking a portion of the darker colour and mixing a quantity of white with it, sufficient to bring it to the desired tint. mix the colours for veins in the ordinary way, viz.: with the usual proportions of gall and water; then mix the brown with a larger proportion of gall, and sprinkle it on as full as to drive the other colours into veins; then take the white, or gall and water, as in italian, and beat it finely and equally all over, but not so much as for the italian pattern. lastly, take the light or top colour, which will require to be stronger in gall than any of the others, and must be sprinkled lightly and evenly over the whole; lay on the paper as quickly as possible. this pattern is known by the name of west end, and is in every respect similar to the spanish in the working, only it is not shaded. no. .--west end, (green, with light spot.) an excellent pattern may be made similar to no. in all the details of mixing, working, and putting on the colours, the only difference being in the colours, which may be made of two shades of green or olive, and the veins red, yellow, and blue. [illustration] no. .--curl. the pattern called french curl, after the description of the french marble (see no. ) will not require much explanation, the only difference in the working being, that there must not be any of the preparation of the flea-seed with the gum; but it must be done on the solution of the gum alone, without any admixture. it will also require a frame with as many pegs as you may require curls on the paper; these pegs must be about three inches long, and about the thickness of a stout goose-quill, tapering toward a point. throw on the colours the same as for no. large french; take the frame of pegs, and, holding it with both hands, put the pegs down to the bottom of the trough, give it a slight rotary motion, then lift it out quickly, so that no drops fall from the pegs into the trough, and lay on the paper as usual, taking care to lay it down straight and even, or the whole pattern will be askew. no. .--brown curl. a pattern of curl may be made of one colour only, mixed with the same ingredients as the ordinary french; it is the easiest of the two to make. no. .--red curl. a curl pattern may be made of the same colours used for nonpareil, only the colours and gum are both used rather thicker than for the french curl, and the colours must have no oil in them. spanish. this marble is distinguished from all others by having a series of light and dark shades traversing the whole extent of the sheet of paper in a diagonal direction. and, as it is the design of this work to simplify as much as possible, the marbler will bear in mind that all the plain spanish patterns may be worked and managed without the aid of any other agents than ox-gall and water, of course presuming that the colours are ground and prepared as before directed. no. .--olive, or light green, spanish. one of the most simple and easy patterns is called olive spanish, with red and blue veins. the veins are mixed with gall and water, as in the previous kinds of marbling, till they are brought to the proper consistence; and, as it is not possible to state any given measure for proportioning the gall and water exactly, some gall being stronger than other, that must be determined by observing the effect produced in the colours as they are tried on the solution. but each successive colour requires more gall than the one which preceded it, and the principal or body-colour requires to be both thicker in itself and stronger in gall than any of the others. this rule is almost without an exception. [illustration] having, therefore, mixed and prepared the colours,--having the preparation of gum and flea-seed in the trough,--proceed to throw on, first the red, then the blue, and lastly, with a large brush full of colour, the olive; beginning at the left-hand corner of the trough, farthest from you, and working down and up closely all over, taking care not to go twice over the same place, or you will produce rings by the falling of one spot upon another, which is considered objectionable. it cannot, however, be entirely avoided. now take up the paper by the two opposite corners, and, holding it as nearly upright as possible, yet with a degree of ease and looseness only to be attained by practice, let the corner in the right hand gently touch the colour on the trough, while, at the same time, you shake or move it to and fro by a regular motion, at the same time, with the left hand, letting the sheet regularly and gradually descend till it lies flat upon the surface of the solution. practice will be required before the stripes or shades will be produced with certainty and regularity. we will next take a pattern with three veins. no. .--blue or slate spanish. this is performed in a similar manner to the one just described. first, throw on red, next yellow, thirdly blue, and lastly the slate, or body-colour, which is composed of indigo, chinese blue, and a portion of white. we now advance a step further and take up a pattern with four veins. no. .--brown spanish. this is a well-known pattern. perhaps as much or more of it has been made than of any other, and it always will be a standing pattern. proceed in the same manner as before, throwing on first, the red; then yellow; thirdly, blue; fourthly, black; and lastly, the brown, which should be composed of good burnt ochre, darkened with a little black. no. .--double brown spanish. this pattern has four colours for veins and two body-colours, the last or top colour being a dilution of the other with white. the veins are thrown on in the following order:--first, red; then black; next yellow, (some work the yellow before the black;) fourthly, green; then the brown, which must not be quite so powerful or put on quite so heavy as for brown spanish, and on this sprinkle the light or top colour, which requires to be stronger in gall than the others. no. .--fancy spanish. the pattern so designated has something of the appearance of a spanish being worked over an italian. it requires seven colours and brushes to execute this pattern, although it may be made of less. commence, as usual, with red first; then black; thirdly, yellow; fourthly, blue; fifthly, green. these being all thrown or sprinkled on, next throw on the white, by using the iron rod, as for west end or italian, and beat or knock it on very firmly all over these colours, but not so much as you would do for italian; and lastly, the principal or body-colour,--say dark olive-green. shade it by shaking or waving the paper in the same way as for other spanish. no. .--fancy spanish. another compound or fancy spanish pattern is made by introducing a small french pattern instead of veins. in doing this, be careful not to have so much gall or oil in the colours as though you were going to make french only, and the top or body-colour will require more gall than any of the plain patterns in order to make it work over the french colour. beautiful effects may be produced by folding the paper in squares or bending the sheets in various parts before shading, some of which cause the shades to assume an undulating appearance, as though it had been watered like silk. no. .--drag or extra spanish. to do which you must have a trough twice the length of the sheet of paper; as, in order to produce the elongated form of spots, you will have to drag or push it from one end of the trough to the other in the course of laying down the sheet of paper. the colours and preparation are the same for this as for the other spanish, only the colours are used considerably thinner, as they would get so thick upon the paper, from one sheet being drawn over and taking up a surface of colour usually allowed for two, that it would peel and crumble off and not burnish. [illustration] [illustration] no. .--nonpareil or comb. we now come to this well-known and very popular pattern, which has had a most extraordinary run, and which some people hardly seem tired of, although it has become so common of late as to be used on almost every kind of work. for this description of marbling use the solution of gum alone in the trough. mix the colours with gall and water, taking particular care to avoid all oil and grease of every description; but the colours will require to be thicker, and more colour thrown on, than for spanish, with the exception of the last, which will not require to be so heavily thrown on as the last spanish colour. let all the colours be thrown on in about equal proportions. in commencing, proceed as usual:--first, skim the surface of the solution, and immediately follow with the red so as to well cover the whole surface of the solution; then black; next, orange or yellow; fourthly, blue; and, lastly, the top colour, of whatever shade it may be required. now take the peg-rake, which must be as long as the trough from right to left, and which consists of a piece of wood having pegs inserted about an inch and a half apart and about three inches long, tapering towards the point, and having the appearance of the head of a rake. pass this once up and down through the colour from front to back, taking especial care that when you draw it back the teeth come exactly between where they went up. having raked the colour into the proper form, take the comb, which must reach the whole width of the trough from front to back, and draw it steadily through the colour, and the pattern is ready for the laying on of the paper, which must be done with a steady hand, or there will be shades in it. no. .--raked nonpareil. a very good pattern is made by following the directions for no. until the colours are properly raked, then beat a little white evenly over it, and it is ready for the paper. no. .--nonpareil, (reversed.) another pattern is made by precisely the same process as no. , till the colours have been raked with the peg; then take the comb, which should be a much larger one, and draw it through the colour from left to right, then immediately reverse it and draw it back again from right to left, and the desired effect will be produced. no. .--antique. the antique marble is executed thus: after the three first colours have been thrown on, namely, red, black, and yellow, rake it once up and down with the peg-rake, after which proceed to throw on the green, follow with the pink spot, and lastly, beat or knock on small white spots. some antique patterns are made with a blue or other coloured spot, in lieu of the pink here described, but the process is the same. no. .--antique, (zebra.) this is done with colours prepared the same as for ordinary nonpareil; throw on four colours, viz.: red, black, yellow, and blue; then rake the same as for nonpareil, after which throw on a light colour for a spot; lay on the paper the same as for spanish. sometimes it is made without shading, and passes for another pattern. no. .--wave. in this pattern the colours are drawn into an undulating form, the points of each row meeting each other. the colours are prepared the same as for nonpareil. the red, yellow, blue, and green are thrown on, over which is beaten or knocked a small white, but not too abundantly; there is now required a kind of double rake or frame, with teeth of stout wire about three or four inches apart, and let the teeth of the hinder one be so adjusted as to be exactly in the centre of the spaces left open by the first one; the second or hindmost row of teeth should be an inch and a half behind the former, the two forming but one instrument. draw this through the colour similar to a comb, from left to right, but with an undulating or see-saw motion, just sufficient to make the top of the hindermost wave catch or touch the bottom of the foremost one, by which means it will produce a uniform appearance all over the sheet, something in the appearance of irregular squares. there are some other patterns of a similar kind made without a small white spot, and the same design is sometimes worked upon a french marble, but these require no additional explanation. we now come to no. .--british. the pattern so called is by no means easy to execute, as it requires a considerable amount of judgment to maintain any thing like uniformity. some british patterns are made with and some without veins. they require a trough double the length of the paper, as it is dragged or pushed from one end of the trough to the other in the same manner as the drag spanish, (no. ;) and the size or preparation must be the same as for that kind of work. a good pattern may be made of one colour,--viz.: black. the colour for this description of marbling will be all the better for being mixed and well stirred about a few days before using, so as to become mellow for working. two jars or pots, and a large common plate, will be required. mix the colour in one of the jars, as if for ordinary spanish, but not with quite so much gall; then pour a little of it into the other jar, and add to it a considerable portion of gall and water, so as to make it very thin and strong; now pour a small quantity of the strong colour (about a teaspoonful) on the plate, and, taking the brush out of the thicker colour and pressing it hard on the plate, take up with it a portion of the strong colour, and proceed to sprinkle it on quickly all over the trough. the dark and light spots will fall together, intermingling with each other and producing that variegated effect which is characteristic of the pattern. lay on the paper the same as for drag spanish. brown, green, and other colours, are done in the same manner; but the colours require to be mellow and the paper soft-sized, or they are apt to run off. no. .--dutch. the pattern now under consideration is one of the oldest and at the same time most difficult patterns, and is performed by a very different process to any of the preceding. upon examining this pattern, it will be perceived that the colours are not scattered here and there in an indiscriminate manner, but follow each other, in a kind of regular succession, in a diagonal direction across the sheet, red being the preponderating colour. in order to make this well, the colours must be particularly well ground, and of the first quality. they ought to be mixed a few days before using. it will be useless to expect a satisfactory result with either inferior or badly-prepared materials. in order to accomplish this pattern, there will be required a number of little tins or pots, an inch and a half wide and about the same, or two inches, in depth. it will also require two frames the size of the paper, with wooden pegs in them, slightly tapering, about a quarter of an inch in thickness, and fixed about three inches apart, at regular distances, over the whole extent of the space required. the colours will be all the better for this class of work by the addition of a little spirits of wine. with this exception, the colours will not require any different treatment from the nonpareil. mix each of the colours in a large jug, having a spout, so that you may be able to pour them out into the small tins before mentioned. the colours required will be red, yellow, green, blue, and white. the two frames of pegs must be made exactly alike. one ought to be an exact duplicate of the other. having mixed the colours, and tried them by dropping a little of each on the solution in the trough, proceed to fill as many of the little pots with colour as there are pegs on the frame, and arrange them about three inches apart, so that the pegs in the frames may drop into the centre of each pot, and, when lifted out, (which will require to be done with great caution,) will convey one large drop of colour on each peg, with which the surface of the size is to be gently and evenly touched, taking care not to put them in too deep, but at the same time being quite sure they all do touch the size. the tins or pots of colour must be arranged as in the following diagram, about three inches apart:-- g y g y g y g y b y b y b y g y g y g y g y b y b y b y g y g y g y g g standing for green, y for yellow, and b for blue. then fill the same number of tins or pots with white, which must be composed of pipe-clay ground and prepared as the other colours, and arrange them in precisely the same manner, using the second or duplicate frame of pegs to these. having arranged all these, commence operations by first skimming the size, (which must consist of gum-tragacanth alone,) and then well cover the whole surface with red, which must be thrown on plentifully with a brush. then carefully lift the first frame standing in the pots of the three colours, giving it a slight rotary motion, so as to stir the colours, which soon settle, being careful not to upset them. let one drop from each peg touch the surface of the red upon the size, then quickly take the one with the white and drop that just in the centre of the spots already placed on the trough; next take a rounded piece of tapering wood, (a brush handle is as good a thing as any,) and pass it up and down through the colours as they are now disposed in the trough, from front to back, at regular distances, till the whole extent of the trough has been gone over; then pass the comb through it from left to right, and lay on the paper. as soon as you have hung it up, pour over it, from a jug with a spout, about a pint of clear water, to wash off the loose colour and gum and make it look clean and bright, after which, when dry, it will require sizing before it can be burnished. when curls are required, it will be necessary to have a third frame, with as many pegs as you may require curls upon the sheet of paper. no. .--antique dutch. is done in a different manner to any of the processes hitherto described. the colours used for this kind of work must be of first-rate quality, and must be ground with spirits of wine or extra strong gin, and mixed up with the same and a little gall, just sufficient to make them float and spread to the extent required. instead of brushes, have a tapering piece of wood, about the thickness of a little finger, in each pot of colour, (small pots will do, capable of holding about a tea-cup full.) the colours required are red, orange, blue, and green. the red must be the best scarlet lake; the orange, orange lead; the blue, ultramarine and indigo; and the green, indigo and dutch pink. these must be ground and mixed, as before directed, to the consistence of cream. the lake should be ground one day and the other colours a few days before using, and kept moist. the gum will require to be used thicker for this work than for any other. having every thing in readiness, take a pot of colour in the left hand, and with the right proceed to lay on the colour with a piece of wood or with a quill, in sloping stripes, like those made by a school-boy in learning to write. commence with the red and make two strokes almost together, leaving a small open space, and then making two more, and so on, until the required extent has been gone over. next take the orange, and make one stripe between the two stripes of red; then proceed to fill up the wider space with a stripe of green and a stripe of blue. perhaps the following may more clearly illustrate the order in which the colours should be arranged on the trough:-- g b r o r g b r o r g b r o r g b as in the former instance, the initial letters signify the colours. draw the comb through and the pattern is complete. edges. the patterns for edges are produced in the same manner as those for paper; and having already devoted so much space to this beautiful art, hitherto confined to a few, it would be useless to repeat the processes. yet there are some things in regard to edges which every good marbler should understand. when plates are interspersed in any book along with the letter-press, it will require particular care in marbling, or the colour and size will run in and spoil the appearance of the plates. to obviate this, keep the book tightly compressed, and where the plates are at the beginning of the book only, lay it down, when marbled, the beginning side-upwards. for edges you may do with a smaller trough, also a smaller quantity of colour than for paper. the solution to work upon had better be gum-tragacanth alone. colours for edges will look all the brighter by the addition of alcohol, spirits of wine, or whiskey; but they will evaporate more quickly. having every thing in readiness, take the book, or, if more than one, as many as you can conveniently manage to hold tightly, with the backs in the right hand and the fore-edge in the left, and let them touch the colour, the back first, allowing them gradually to descend till the whole end is covered; but be very careful that none of the size or colour comes over the fore-edge, which it will do if dipped too deep, and leave a nasty unsightly mark, and greatly disfigure the book. in doing the fore-edge, the beginner had better place the volume between a pair of cutting-boards, and, having thrown out the round, turn back the boards, and proceed as with the end; when done, wipe off the superfluous size from the boards with a sponge, put the boards back in their place, and let the volume dry. glazing or burnishing. the sheets of paper are burnished by a machine constructed for the purpose. a smoothly-faced flint is fixed in a block of wood, in which is inserted one end of a pole about five feet in length, the other end being attached to and working in a cavity in a spring-board fixed overhead, allowing it to work backwards and forwards upon a plank hollowed out for the purpose. the paper is moved over the plank, and the friction of the flint in passing to and fro over the surface of the paper produces a high polish. sometimes the paper is calendered by means of friction cylinders--a superior method. combs. these are made in various ways, some to be worked on the top of the trough and called top-combs, others to be worked by putting the points down to the bottom of the trough and called bottom-combs. the best thing for making them is of brass pin-wire. the comb for small nonpareil ought to have from twelve to fourteen teeth to the inch, for the second size eight, and for large, four. sizing the paper. it is sometimes necessary to size the paper after marbling. the way of making the size is as follows:--take of the best white soap two pounds, put it in a large copper with about twenty gallons of water; when it is quite dissolved, add thereto about four pounds of the best glue, keeping the whole constantly stirred, to prevent the soap and glue from burning; when both are quite dissolved, strain it into a tub, and when cool, it is ready for use. should it be found too thick, add more hot water. the best way of sizing is to fill a trough with the liquor and to lay the marbled surface of the paper down upon it, then hang it on the sticks to dry. patent marbled cloth. this is an article recently introduced, and in some quarters meets with considerable favour. there are as yet no manufactories of it in this country. it, however, possesses no advantages over good marbled paper, and for outsides will not compare with the _papier d'anonay_ for durability. addenda. in taking leave of the subject of marbling, there is but little more to add. for, when the learner is master of all this book teaches, he will have attained such proficiency in the art as to require nothing further in the way of instruction. should some new pattern come up, let him apply the principles that govern in mixing and distributing the colours, and, with the aid of his own experience, his chance of accomplishing it will be as good as any one else's. as a step to the attainment of mastery in the art, let the workman divest himself of the various nostrums he has been put in possession of by interested parties, and give himself up with assiduity to the directions here laid down. what is here given is the result of twenty-five years' actual experience of c. w. woolnough, of london, whose marbles rank among the most beautiful productions of the present day. therefore let the workman adhere to the instructions, and ultimate success will crown his efforts. should there be any difficulty in obtaining any of the articles described, they may be procured from mr. charles williams, no. arch st., philadelphia. the specimens of marbled paper accompanying these pages, illustrate the prominent classes or patterns of marbling. they were executed by him, and show his mastery of the art. burnishing. the edges are burnished by placing the volume open, with the fore-edge between boards, similar to backing-boards, in the laying-press, and screwing it tightly therein; then with the burnisher rubbing the edge firmly and smartly over till it presents a uniformly bright surface, and free from any dents or inequalities. when the fore-edge is finished, the volume must be taken out of the press, and the head and tail burnished in a similar manner, the ends of the boards resting in the groove by the joints, the covered boards of the volume being open. common calf, sheep, and half-binding, may be burnished with the boards closed, six or eight together, but it will be necessary to delay pasting the sides on the latter till after the operation, to avoid the liability of tearing. gilt edges. this description of edge is the best preservative against external injury and damp. previous to laying on the gold, the workman must have in readiness the articles necessary to form the groundwork and cause the gold to adhere to the edge. the first is a mixture of red bole or chalk and black lead, well-ground and reduced by water to a fluid consistence, after having added to it a few drops of muriatic acid or vitriol. the size used by some is made from the white of an egg in five times the quantity of water well beaten together; but that most generally used is made from parchment or vellum shavings boiled in water to extract the gluten. it is then passed through a piece of fine muslin and set aside to cool. when cold it is very easy to judge of its strength. some use ice in summer-time to chill it, as a test of its strength. if too strong or thick, add water, then warm it to melt the size and allow the water to become incorporated with it. to become a good gilder requires considerable judgment, as every variety of paper requires a different treatment. no rule can be laid down that will answer in every case; but if the workman will but pay attention to the directions here given, exercise patience, and above all reflect upon the effects of his operations, ultimate success will be certain. english books are made from linen rags, and the paper is sized. they gild more easily and the edge looks better than american books. they do not require as strong a size for gilding as books printed on paper made from cotton. books printed in this country are generally made from cotton rags. quantities of alum and lime are employed in bleaching the pulp, to the sore annoyance of many a gilder, who has found that a damp day would invariably put both his skill and patience to the test. the best qualities of american paper are sized; the generality, however, is not. to determine whether the paper is sized or not, apply the tip of the tongue to it; if it adhere to the tongue, it is not sized, and will consequently require a stronger size for gilding than if it were sized paper. the liability of parchment size to decompose or turn to water in hot weather can be entirely counteracted by adding a very small portion of oxalic acid. having every thing in readiness, put the book in the laying-press, between the gilding-boards, placed even with the fore-edge of the book and with the cheeks of the press; screw up as tightly as possible with the press-pin. then commences the most difficult operation, and one upon which the beauty of the edge almost entirely depends--namely, that of scraping. this is done with a steel scraper. a piece of saw-blade answers the purpose very well. after being ground square on the edge and rubbed perfectly smooth upon the oil-stone, it is kept in order by a smooth steel. the edge must be scraped perfectly smooth, so as not to show the marks of the knife in cutting, or of the scraper. after this is done, it must be coloured lightly over with the bole or chalk, rubbed immediately dry with fine clean paper shavings. this process will have to be repeated three times; it is then well burnished with the agate, and, with a broad, flat camel's-hair pencil, or piece of soft sponge, a coat of size laid evenly on the surface. the gold is next cut on the gold-cushion to the size required. a slip of paper larger than the edge is drawn over the head of the workman, and by a light pressure upon the cushion the gold will attach itself to the paper; it is then turned, with the gold upwards, (care being taken to have sufficient upon the paper to cover the entire edge,) and laid upon the cheek of the press; then pass a flat camel's-hair pencil, dipped in clean water, evenly over the edge, and immediately lay on the gold by taking up the paper, turning the gold towards the edge, and presenting it with sufficient celerity not to allow the gold to be drawn from the paper in portions by the size. to do this well will require some practice and a steady hand. should there be any breaks in the gold, other portions must be applied, and, if dry, moisten with water applied by a fine pencil, and lay on the gold. after the edge is entirely dry, which generally happens in from one to two hours, it must be burnished. for this purpose a flat bloodstone burnisher is the best, to be afterwards followed by a flat agate. let there be no marks of the burnisher, but spare no pains in burnishing to have the edge perfectly uniform and clear. the head and tail of the volume must be gilt with the same precaution, the back towards the workman. the foregoing direction have been derived from the practical experience of mr. james pawson, one of the best gilders in this country. should the work be of such a nature that it is desirable to give it the character of the period in which the book was written, or an additional degree of beauty and elegance, this part of book-ornament may be pursued farther in the manner we shall now describe. antique style. after the edge is finished as above directed, and before taking out of the press, ornaments, such as flowers, or designs in compartments, must be stamped upon it in the following manner. a coat of size is passed quickly over with great precaution and lightness, and only once in a place, to avoid detaching any of the gold. when dry, rub the edge as lightly as possible with palm-oil, and cover with gold of a different colour to the first; then with the tools used in gilding leather, warmed in the fire, proceed to form the various designs by firmly impressing them on the edge. the gold that has not been touched by the tools is then rubbed off with a clean cotton, and there remains only the designs the tools have imprinted, which produce a fine effect. this mode is, however, now seldom used, though almost all the books in the original binding of the sixteenth century are so executed. gilding upon marbled edges. this edge, which dr. dibdin, in his "bibliographer's decameron," calls "the very luxury, the _ne plus ultra_ of the bibliopegistic art," is one requiring great care and expertness in the execution. the edges must be scraped before marbling. after the edges have been tastefully marbled, and not overcharged with colour, the book must be put in the press, and well burnished as before directed. the size must then be laid lightly on, to prevent unsettling the colour of the marble, by which the edge would be destroyed, and the gold immediately applied and finished off as in other edges. when dry the marble is perceived through the gold, and presents an appearance of great beauty. gilding on landscapes, etc. when the edge is well scraped and burnished, the leaves on the fore-edge must be evenly bent in an oblique manner, and in this position confined by boards tied tightly on each side, until a subject is painted thereon in water-colours, according to the fancy of the operator. when perfectly dry, untie the boards and let the leaves take their proper position. then place the volume in the press, lay on the size and gold, and, when dry, burnish. the design will not be apparent when the volume is closed, from the gold covering it; but when the leaves are drawn out it will be perceived easily, the gilding disappearing, and a very unique effect will be produced. the time and labour required makes this operation expensive, and it is consequently very seldom performed. it is, however, considered necessary to describe the proceeding, as the taste or wishes of some may render it necessary that the workman should know how to operate. after the volume is gilt, the edges must be enveloped in clean paper, by glueing the extremities one upon the other, to preserve the edges from injury in the subsequent operations. this is taken off when the volume is completed. black edges. books of devotion are generally bound in black leather, and, instead of being gilt on the edge, blacked to correspond with the covers. it will therefore be necessary in this place to describe the process. put the book in the press as for gilding, and sponge it with black ink; then take ivory-black, lamp-black, or antimony, mixed well with a little paste, and rub it on the edge with the finger or ball of the hand till it is perfectly black and a good polish produced, when it must be cleared with a brush, burnished, and cased with paper. coloured edges, to look well, require to be scraped in the same manner as for gilt. to lay the colour on evenly, and produce a high burnish, requires more labour than gilding. they are therefore quite as expensive. after the colouring or gilding of the edges, the next process is to attach the register, to do which the back, near the head, is lightly touched with glue, and one end of a piece of ribbon proportioned to the volume is affixed. the leaves are opened, and the other portion of the ribbon placed between the leaves; the portion intended to hang out at the bottom being turned back until the book is completed, to prevent its being soiled. headbands. the headband is an ornament in thread or silk, of different colours, placed at the head and tail of a book on the edge of the back, and serves to support that part of the cover projecting above in consequence of the squares of the boards, giving to the volume a more finished appearance. thus it will be seen that the headband must equal the square allowed for the boards. for common work, the headband is made of muslin pasted upon twine; but for extra work, and volumes requiring greater durability, it is made of thin board and parchment pasted together and cut into strips of the breadth required. these flat headbands produce a much better effect than the round ones. there are two kinds of headbands,--viz.: single and double. for ordinary work, cloth pasted round the band, or common thread, is used; for extra, silk and sometimes gold and silver thread. if the volume is small, it is placed, with the boards closed and drawn down even with the edge, between the knees; or, if larger, placed at the end of the laying-press, with the fore-edge projecting towards the body of the workwoman. (the headbands are usually worked by females.) single headband. take two lengths of thread or silk, of different colours, threading one in a long needle, and tying the ends of the two together. supposing red and white to have been taken, the white attached to the needle, it is placed in the volume five or six leaves from the left side, and forced out on the back immediately under the chain-stitch of the sewing, and the thread drawn until it is stopped by the knot, which will be hid in the sheet; the needle is then passed a second time in or near the same place, and, after placing the prepared band under the curl thus made, the thread is drawn tight, so as to hold it firm. before placing the band, it must be bent with the fingers to the curve of the back of the book. the red thread is now taken with the right hand, and, bringing it from the left to the right, crossed above the white thread, passed under the band, and brought round to the front again and fastened by passing over it, in the same way, the white thread, taking care that the bead formed by these crossings touches the edge of the volume. in repeating thus alternately the operation, crossing the two threads and passing each time under the band, which is thereby covered, it must be occasionally fastened to the book by inserting the needle, as before directed, once in as many places as the thickness of the book may require, and giving it a double tack on the right side on completing the band, fastening it on the back with a knot. these fastenings give firmness to the headband and the exact curve of the back. the two projecting sides of the band must be cut off near the silk, giving the band a slight inclination upwards, to prevent the work slipping off before covering. double headband. this headband is made of silk of various colours, and differs from the single, both in being composed of two bands, a large and small one, and in the manner of passing the silk. it is commenced in the same way as the single; but, when the bands are fastened, the smaller above the larger, the red silk is taken with the right hand and passed above the white, under the bottom or larger band, brought out under the upper or small one, carried over it, brought out again over the large band, and the bead formed, as above directed, near to the edge of the book. the white silk is then passed in the same way, and so on alternately till the whole is completed. gold and silver headband both single and double made as above, the only difference being in the use of gold or silver thread. great care must be here observed in tightening the thread at the bead. ribbon headband. this style varies but little from the other, the same-coloured thread being only passed several times round, instead of alternately with the other, and making the bead at each turn, taking care that the under thread is not observed, and then passing the other colour, in a similar manner, as many or more times than the former. this will produce a band--from which it is named--having the appearance of narrow ribbons of various colours. three or more colours may be used in a pattern. covering. the skins prepared for binding are dressed in a peculiar manner. they are soft and of equal thickness throughout. the cutting out of covers is an important operation, as by attention much economy may be effected. for this purpose patterns in pasteboard of all the sizes of books should be made, and such as are required placed on the skin, turning them every way, so as to obtain the greatest number of pieces possible, allowing about an inch round for paring and turning in. should the books be of the same size, a volume taken by the fore-edge and the boards laying open on the leather will enable the workman to judge to a nicety the most advantageous way to cut. the narrow pieces, &c. left on the sides will do for the backs and corners of half-bound work. the leather must be cut out dry, except russia, which must be well soaked with warm water, care being taken to avoid creasing. it will also require to be well rubbed out on a marble slab with the folder. if the russia is grained properly in the skin, it will not require wetting or rubbing. each cover must be pared round the edges with a long knife, called the paring-knife; and great care and skill are requisite in order to do it well. the french binders use a knife for this purpose somewhat similar to a chisel, and it must be confessed that their bindings surpass in this respect those of any other country. it is impossible to determine the precise point at which the paring commences. the declension is so gradual that it cannot be perceived. as an illustration of this fact, there is a specimen of bauzonnet's in the possession of a connoisseur of this city, covered with very thick levant morocco, with a joint of the same material, and the interior of the board lined with morocco, thus making three different pieces. and the paring is so exquisitely done that, were it not for the colours, it would be impossible to tell where they joined. the whole interior of the board is as level as a piece of polished marble. whatever may be the substance or material with which a book is covered, the manipulations are the same. it is well pasted over with the brush and placed on the volume in the same way, care being taken to preserve from stains those that are costly and delicate, particularly morocco and calf. the cover should be placed on a board, and the side of the skin which is to be applied to the volume pasted well and evenly upon the surface, leaving no more than what is necessary to make it adhere. the cover being then laid on a table, or clean milled board, the volume is taken in the hands, the squares at head and tail equally adjusted, and placed upon the nearest side of it, in such a position that the back of the volume, which is from the workman, will be in the middle. the far part is then brought over to the other side, and care taken not to disarrange the squares. the cover, which now projects an inch all round the volume, is drawn tightly on the back with the open hands, by turning the projecting portion of the cover outward and resting the book on the fore-edge, at the same time working the leather in such a manner that it will adhere closely to the sides of the raised bands as well as to the back. a square band, with the leather fitting closely and evenly to the back on each side of the band, is a great point to attain, and any thing short of it is a blur upon the binding. after the back has been sufficiently manipulated, lay the cover perfectly smooth upon each side, then open the boards and lay one upon the paring-stone, and pass the paring-knife between the board and the cover diagonally across the corner of the latter, in such a manner that, when the leather is turned over, one edge will merely fold over the other; turn the book and operate in a similar manner on the other corners. the cover at the head and tail of the book must next be turned in, by taking it by the fore-edge and placing it upright on the table with the boards extended, and with the hands, one on each side, slightly forcing back the boards close to the headband, and folding the cover over and into the back with the thumbs, drawing it in so that no wrinkle or fold is seen. having turned in the cover the whole length of the boards, the volume must be turned and operated on at the bottom in a similar manner. the volume is then laid flat upon one side, and the cover turned over the fore-edge of the other, the corners being set by the aid of the thumb-nail and folder as neatly as possible; the same operation is repeated upon the other side. any derangement of the square of the boards that may have taken place in covering must also be rectified. the setting of the headband is the next operation, which is very important to the beauty of the binding, by properly forming a sort of cap over the worked headband of the leather projecting across the back a little above a right line from the square of one board to the other. with a small smooth folder, one end a little pointed, the double fold of the leather must be rubbed together to make it adhere, and, if the boards have been cut at the corners, the hand applied thereon, and finally forcing the headband close to the leather, staying it even on the back with the finger, and forming a neat cap of the projecting part on the top of it. the folder is then applied on the edges of the boards, to give them a square appearance and make the leather adhere. one board is then thrown back, the folder placed lengthwise along the joint or groove, holding it firmly by the right hand; the board is then gently forced by the left hand until it projects slightly within or over the joint. upon this depends the freedom and squareness of the joint,--one of the most charming features of a well-bound book. after this operation has been performed upon both boards, the headbands will again require attention; and, in order to set them firmly, pass a piece of sewing-thread around the book between the back and the boards, and, after it is tied, manipulate the head as before, so as to make it perfectly square and even with the boards and back. the volume is rubbed alongside of the bands, and then set aside until nearly dry, when the thread is taken off and the boards again set in the joint. if the book has been sewn on bands, or if the artificial bands are large, it is sometimes necessary, to make the leather adhere to the back, that the volume should be _tied up_, which is done by placing a board, longer than the book, on each side, projecting slightly over the fore-edge, and tying them tightly with a cord from end to end. then, with a smaller cord, the leather is confined to the sides of the bands, by crossing the string. for example: suppose the book had three bands, one towards the head, one towards the tail, and the other in the middle; the book would be taken in the left hand, the head upwards, the cord by the help of a noose passed round close to the inside of the band nearest to the tail and drawn tight, then carried round again and brought close to the other side. the string, tightened, is thus crossed on the other side of the volume, and the band held between it. the cord is in like manner carried on to the second and third bands, fastened, and the whole set square with the folder. it will be best understood by the following engraving. [illustration] for morocco, and books in other substances, having but small bands, tying up is not resorted to, being generally rubbed close in with the folder, or a box stick for the purpose. antique work having high, narrow bands, must have the leather well worked in between the bands by the hands, and then the bands must be compressed by the band-nippers. for morocco, however, where the beauty of the grain is liable to be destroyed, great care must be taken, as the slightest mark or scratch is indelible. a few observations must not be omitted relative to morocco, velvet, silk, and coloured calf, which, from their nature, require the greatest neatness to avoid stains and alterations in the colours. covers of the former description must not be drawn on too tight or rubbed with the folder, as the grain or pattern of the material would thereby be destroyed; and extra care must be taken with the coloured calf to prevent damage. they must be drawn on with the hands on each side at the same time. the table should be covered with a marble slab, and the hands kept perfectly clean. silk should be prepared previously, by pasting a piece of paper thereon, and be left to dry, so that, when pasted for covering, the dampness will not affect its appearance. velvet will require great care, from its peculiar texture making it necessary that it be rubbed one way only in covering. from this cause, having ascertained the direction of the _nap_, the back of the book is glued and laid upon it and drawn smoothly; then the sides are in like manner glued over, and afterwards the edges turned in. this proceeding causes the whole to lie perfectly smooth, which velvet would not do if drawn in a contrary way to the grain or nap, or if the glue was applied to the velvet. half-binding. half-binding--so called from the backs and corners only being covered with leather--has come so much into vogue that it may now be said to be the favourite style of binding. this is not to be wondered at; for, while it combines economy and durability, it can also be made to exhibit a great deal of neatness. to do this, however, requires more care and skill in paring the back and corners than is generally required for full binding. the transition from the thick morocco to the paper used on the sides can be made almost imperceptible to the touch by a skilful use of the paring-knife or chisel. the general directions for covering will be sufficient for the class of work under consideration. after the back is lettered or finished, the corners may then be put on; and, after carefully marking and cutting the paper selected for the purpose, the sides should be glued carefully over and affixed to the boards, having sufficient projection to turn inside of the board far enough to be covered by the end-papers. the width of the back should be governed by the size of the volume. a narrow back gives a very meagre appearance to a book. the size of the corners should be determined by the width of the back. the end-papers are pasted down and the work finished in the same way as will be pointed out for binding in general. the colour of the paper used for sides should harmonize with the colour of the leather. the english generally prefer the inside-paper, the edges, and the outside-paper, to match; and it must be confessed that, when the paper is of good quality and the edges correspond, the effect is extremely good. the french generally use a light tint of marble-paper for the inside, and a darker shade for the outside. for durability as an outside-paper, there is nothing equal to the _papier d' anonay_, vellum being one of its components. of this article there are many worthless imitations, which yet in external appearance are well calculated to deceive. the real article will wear as well as the morocco used for the back and corners. the best class of half-binding for amateurs is the font hill style, half morocco, of the best quality; uncut leaves, so as to preserve the integrity of the margin; top-edge gilt, as a protection from dust; lined with the best english paper; worked-silk headbands; outside-paper to harmonize with the back; no gilding on the back except the lettering. this style requires extra pains in the forwarding and covering, as the slightest defect in these particulars cannot be remedied by the finisher. in other bindings, the brilliancy of the gilding often serves to conceal or to allure the eye from those portions of the binding that a workman would pronounce to be "botched." uncut books are trimmed to a general line with a large knife, similar to a butcher's-knife, previous to being glued up. they are the special favourites of book-collectors. an uncut copy of a scarce work will always command a higher price than one that has been cropped. stationery or vellum binding. this branch of the art of bookbinding, in large towns, is a distinct business, and presents some difference in the mode of proceeding in several of the manipulations required. these, as in previous parts of the work, will be minutely entered into for the instruction of the young workman, while those which are executed in the same manner as directed for printed books will be merely referred to in the order they will be required to be executed. stationery binding includes every description of paper-book, from the _memorandum_, which is simply covered with marble-paper, to the most firm and elaborately bound book used in the counting-house of the merchant and banker. of the more simple and common bindings, it will not be necessary to enter into minute details, the proceedings being the same as for others, only omitting the more expensive operations, the price allowed making it necessary to bind them in a more simple manner. the first proceeding, should the work require it, will be the ruling. this is done by a machine. formerly it was done by hand. after the pens are properly adjusted, the paper to be ruled is placed upon the table in front of the ruling-machine, and the rollers set in motion. the sheet is caught and passed under the pens. it is then carried by the cloth and cords and laid away to give place to another. the most elaborate patterns can be executed upon the ruling-machine. although machine-ruling has almost entirely superseded the old process of ruling by hand, yet to some a brief description of the process may not be unacceptable. the paper, which is generally procured from the wholesale stationers ruled with blue lines, must be opened out by breaking the back of the fold, and refolded evenly in small sections. the pattern for the red lines being placed in front, the whole must be knocked evenly up at the back and head, put between boards, the top of the paper projecting, and screwed in the laying-press. then, with the saw, let the marks of the red ink on the pattern be sawn across the whole, which will denote the places for the lines on the right-hand side pages throughout the book. in like manner, placing the pattern on the other side, and sawing the bottom of the paper, will the marks of the left-hand pages be denoted. care must be taken to leave a larger space on the fore-edge, to allow for cutting. should a head-line be required, it must be similarly marked on the fore-edge of the paper. this done, reopen the whole of the sections, and, with a round ruler and tin pen, proceed to rule the whole of the head-lines on one side of the paper. this, as well as every division of $ cts., or other distinct column, must be ruled double, as close as possible, taking care that both are distinct, and that they do not run into each other. the head-line being completed on one side, turn the whole of the paper, and operate in like manner on the other. then, turning the paper, so as to have the head-lines to the left, proceed to rule the columns marked for the _date_, _amount_, &c., taking especial care that the pen always commences by the line at the head, and that it never entrenches on the space above, which would disfigure the work. as for the head-line, so here the whole of one side of the paper must be completed before the other is commenced, attention being paid to each line being perpendicular, clear, and as even in colour as possible. the cut on the following page represents a machine for printing the figures upon the head of the pages, formerly done by the accountant with a pen; but now no blank bindery is considered complete without a paging-machine. these machines are manufactured by h. griffin, new york. the sheets are paged by this machine before they are sewed together. there are other machines in use that page the leaves after the volume is bound, the principal objection to which appears to be the liability to soil or otherwise injure the binding; notwithstanding this there are some binders who give them the preference. those who have used the machines of mr. griffin speak of them in the highest terms. [illustration] inks. to give to the work the best effect, it will be necessary to be provided with good inks, and, it being connected with the subject, some receipts for their preparation are subjoined. red ink. mix together a quarter of a pound of brazil dust, a quarter of an ounce of cochineal, a small piece of lump-sugar, and two quarts of vinegar: let these steep ten hours, and afterwards boil them on a slow fire till of a good red colour. when settled, strain the ink through a piece of fine cotton, and bottle it for use. another. boil in a quart of soft water a quarter of a pound of brazil dust; when boiled, put in one ounce of ground alum, one ounce of white stone crystal, and boil for three minutes, and strain. blue ink. a good blue ink may be obtained by diffusing prussian blue or indigo through strong gum-water. the common water-colour cakes, diffused also in gum-water, will produce a tolerably good blue for common purposes; but dyer's blue, diluted with water is preferable to either. black. half a pound of nutgalls, a quarter of a pound of sulphate of zinc, (white vitriol,) two ounces of gum-arabic, and a handful of salt. boil the nutgalls half an hour in three quarts of soft water, then put the whole together, and let stand for use. another. for making a larger quantity, put in ten gallons of rain-water, five pounds and a quarter of nutgalls, well bruised, one pound and a half of logwood chips, the like quantity of copperas, and a quarter of a pound of alum. let them stand a few days, and then add two ounces of gum-arabic and an ounce and a half of verdigris. stir them all well together two or three times a day for a fortnight or three weeks, and the ink will then be fit for use. folding. the whole being ruled, it will be proper to fold the book to the size required into sections for sewing. the number of leaves in each must depend on the thickness of the paper and size of the book, taking care that there are not so many as, when cut, to cause the leaves to start, or so few that the backs will be swollen too much by the thread. then place the whole evenly in the standing-press for some time, and prepare the end-papers, which must be of blank paper, and outsides, unless the work is of a superior description. should leather or cloth joints be placed, it will be necessary to sew them on with the end-papers, as before directed. sewing. the sewing of stationery differs much from that of printed books. to allow of the greatest possible strength, elasticity, and freedom, they are sewn on slips of vellum without being marked with the saw, and the whole length of each sheet, with waxed thread. for small books, two slips will be sufficient; for foolscap folio, three will be required; and, where larger, the number must be increased, according to the length of the back, leaving a space of about two inches between each. the plan laid down by _m. lesne_, (page ,) might, perhaps, be adopted here with fine and light work to great advantage. the slips should be cut about an inch wide, and of sufficient length to extend about an inch over each side of the back. this portion being bent down at one end of the slips, they must be placed under the end-paper on the table at such places as may be deemed proper, and the section sewn the whole length; and so followed by every portion till the whole are attached in the same manner, taking care that the slips retain a perpendicular position and that the back be not too much swollen. should a morocco joint have been inserted, it must be sewn on with strong silk of the same colour. when finished, the coloured end-papers, if any, must be pasted in, and the first and last ruled leaves similarly attached to the end-papers. if joints, the same precautions must be adopted as before directed. the book may then be beat even on the back and head, placed again in the laying-press, and glued up, working the brush well on the back, so as to force the glue between the sections. cutting. when the ends and back are dry, this will be the next operation. here the fore-edge must be cut first. it is done before altering the form of the book, paying great attention to the knife running evenly across, so that the column nearest the front is not cut too close, and is parallel to the edge. when taken out, the back must be rounded with the hammer, in a greater degree than for other bindings, and placed again evenly in the standing-press. after remaining a short time the head and tail must in like manner be cut, but offer no difference in operation. the book will now be ready for colouring the edges, the processes of which have been already described. in england, the large dutch marble is generally used for stationers' work. boarding. the next operation will be the preparation of the boards for the side-covers, which should be formed of two or three thin milled boards pasted together. these must be cut to the proper size with the plough, so as to leave a perfectly even edge, and will require to have a larger square allowed for than is usual in printed books. when cut they must be pasted together, leaving, if the book is heavy and the slips on which it is sewn thick, a space at the back to place them in. the book must now be head-banded, and then it will be proper to strengthen the back of the book by glueing across, on the spaces between the slips, strong pieces of canvas, and at the head and tail a piece of calf, leaving projections on each side to be attached to the board. for additional firmness, it was formerly usual, where the work was of a superior description, to sew the length of the book with catgut in about ten or fourteen places, according to the thickness. this is done by placing three strips of strong leather in spaces between the vellum ones, and sewing as at first, by which means the gut, crossing over the leather and under the vellum slips on the back, appears inside on the spaces where no thread has before passed. for ornament, another thread is twisted round the gut on the back, so as to present the appearance of a double cord. these matters being adjusted, the slips of calf at the head and tail must be let in by cutting the end of the waste leaf and placing them under. the other slips, of every description, after trimming, must then be put into the space left between the boards, which should be previously well pasted or glued, the boards placed nearly half an inch from the back, and perfectly square on the sides, and the whole screwed tightly in the standing-press for some time. the spring-back. there are numerous ways of forming this description of back, and as generally adopted in different offices. as in other particulars, two or three of the best will here be given: . having ascertained the width and length of the back, and provided a piece of strong pasteboard, or thin milled board, of little more than twice the width, fold one side rather more than half, and then the other, so that the middle space left will be the exact size required, which should be about a quarter of an inch wider than the back of the book; then cut evenly another piece, a little less than the width, then another still less, and so on for six or seven, lessening the width each time till the last is merely a narrow slip. let the edges of the first, or cover for the whole, be pared, and laid open on the table; then glue the middle space, and place thereon the largest slip, which also glue, and add the next in size, proceeding in like manner till the smallest is fixed, taking especial care that each occupies the exact centre of the one on which it is placed. finally, glue the whole space and the two side-slips of the first, which must be brought over and firmly rubbed down. shape it to the curve of the back of the book, either on the back or a wooden roller of the same size, and leave it to dry, when the head and tail must be cut to the proper length with the shears. for greater security the whole is often covered with linen cloth. . cut a piece of firm milled board to the size required, and pare down the edges; then hold the board to the fire till it is found soft enough to model almost into any shape, and form to the back as above directed. the board is sometimes wetted, but does not answer so well. . a beaten iron plate of the exact size, and covered with parchment or leather. numerous patents have been obtained for this description of back, but none have been found to answer the purpose, on account of the metal cutting through the parchment or leather. the spring-back is only used for the superior kind of account-books; for common work, a piece of thin pasteboard is merely laid on the back before covering, the stress on the back being small. to prevent the manufactured back slipping during the operation of covering, it is laid on, and a piece of cloth glued over and attached to the sides, similarly to the back of a half-bound book. this tends also to materially strengthen the back. covering. the materials generally used for stationery-binding are russia, rough calf, green and white vellum, and rough sheep, according to the value of the work. previous to pasting on vellum, the book should be covered with a piece of strong paper, as if for boards. the process is the same as for other bindings; but when completed, it will be necessary to put the book in the standing-press, having pieces of cane or wood for the purpose placed between the boards and the back, so as to form a bold groove, and force the leather close on the edge of the spring-back. previous to and after pressing, the headbands must be squarely set, taking care to rub out any wrinkles that may have been formed in turning in the cover. should the book be very large, it may be advisable to give it a nip in the press immediately after folding in the fore-edges of the boards, and then finish the covering by turning in the head and tail. as circumstances--such as the fancy of some previous workman, or coloured vellum not to be obtained so early as required--may make it necessary to execute the proper colours, the proceedings are here given. green. put one ounce of verdigris and one ounce of white wine vinegar into a bottle, and place them near the fire for five days, shaking it three or four times each day. wash the vellum over with weak pearlash, and then colour it to the shade desired. red. to one pint of white wine vinegar, put a quarter of a pound of brazil dust and a piece of alum. cork the mixture up; let it stand in a warm place for two or three days. purple. proceed as for the _red_, substituting logwood chips for the brazil dust. yellow. half an ounce of turmeric to half a pint of spirits of wine, prepared as above. black. wash the vellum over three times with the red, and while wet colour with strong marbling-ink. marbles and other designs may be formed on white vellum; but, as the proceedings have been so fully entered into before, it will not be necessary here to repeat them. where russia bands are not added, the end-papers must now be pasted down, and the lettering, &c. proceeded with. if bands are attached, the pasting down of the end-papers and joints must be deferred till they are executed. russia bands. to give to large books the greatest possible degree of strength, it is usual to affix russia bands to them. they are called _single_ when they extend about half-way down the sides, and _double_ when those at the head and tail reach to the corners of the boards, and are turned over the edges in the same manner as the cover. for _single_;--having ascertained the breadth by dividing the back with the compasses into _seven_ spaces, cut three pieces of russia perfectly square and the exact size of the spaces they are to occupy, and paste them on the _second_, _fourth_, and _sixth_ divisions of the back, thereby leaving in sight the first, third, fifth, and seventh spaces with the cover only; draw them squarely on the sides, and place the volume in the press, with the rods fixed to force the russia into the joints, as before directed, and then leave to dry. when _double_ bands are to be placed on a book, divide the back into five spaces, or seven if four bands. the middle band or bands will be short, like those above, and placed on in the same manner; but those at the head and tail, which extend their whole length, to the fore-edge of the boards, will require paring on the edge intended to be turned in at the headbands and over the boards of the book, cutting the corners and squaring the edges as in covering. when done, press the whole with rods as before, to cause the russia to adhere well and evenly to the vellum or calf, and leave it to dry. clasps, corners, and brass bands. clasps are sometimes affixed to the better kind of stationery books, as keeping them closed when not in use tends much towards their preservation. and for still greater security, they are often further protected with brass corners or bands. to hide the projection the clasps would make on the fore-edge, that part of the board must be cut away to admit the clasp, so that when fixed it will be even with the edge of the board. for the corners and bands this is not done; but, to insure a finished appearance in the whole, the workman's attention must be directed to their fitting exactly in every particular of length, breadth, and thickness. the clasps may be purchased of the makers, but it may be found necessary to place the making of the bands and corners in the hands of the brass-worker, to whom particular directions and sizes must be given. they must fit tightly to the boards, run exactly parallel with the edges, and have the holes for the rivets drilled through previous to placing on. where corners are put on, no bands will be required. bands which extend from the back to the fore-edge and form a corner equal to the breadth of the band, being squarely soldered in front, are placed at the head and tail of the book, and fastened with rivets in the following manner, as are also the clasps and corners:--pierce the boards with a fine bodkin in such places as are previously drilled in the brass, and force through brass rivets of a length sufficient to project about the eighth of an inch, and with heads made to fit exactly to the cavities formed in the bands; then fasten them firmly, by placing the heads of each on an iron and beating down with a hammer the part projecting inside, till it is smooth and even with the surface. bosses, which are seen fixed on the middle of the boards of old books, particularly of early-bound bibles, &c., in churches, are fastened in the same manner. finishing. the placing of lettering-pieces, gilding, and blind-tooling, is exactly the same as for printed books. rough calf must be dressed with pumice-stone, cleaned with a brush, and ornamented blind, with the tools very hot, to form a dark impression. vellum will require the tools cooler than calf. the book now being ready for the use of the accountant necessarily closes the details of this description of binding. boarding. in large places, this is another distinct branch of the art, and consists of simply covering the book with coloured paper or other common substance. in small towns, it must necessarily be executed jointly with the other branches; but so ample and minute has been the detail of the various manipulations in a previous part of this work, that, in attempting a description of boarding, little can be said without repetition. this style, too, being the commonest mode of doing up books in this country, also places the subject, under any circumstances, in a position requiring but little remark. previous, therefore, to speaking of the few processes that are peculiar to boarding, it will only be necessary to observe that the folding, pressing, sewing, backing, boarding, covering, and pasting down, are the same as for regularly-bound books. it remains, then, to add that the books will not require beating, and, for common boards, are never cut round the edges. the leaves are only dressed with the trimming-knife previous to rounding the back, so as to present as neat an appearance as possible, by removing every portion of the paper projecting over the general line. for greater strength to the back, a piece of paper must be pasted in the centre of the coloured paper previously to applying it on the volume. when covered and pasted down, the printed label must be fixed evenly on the back, and the book will be finished. cloth-work. in the year a great revolution in boarding was begun by the introduction of cloth covers in place of the drab-coloured paper previously in use. the late archibald leighton, of london, was the inventor; and mr. pickering was the first publisher who adopted it. the first cloth covers had printed labels; but very soon mr. leighton made the discovery that cloth could be stamped with gold very beautifully. lord byron's works (the edition in volumes) were the first books to which gold-lettering on cloth was applied. cloth-work is now done with full gilt sides and back and gilt edges; but, from the temporary character of this style, the question may arise whether it is not a useless expenditure of time and money to produce it. but, so long as the public remain unacquainted with its want of capability for use, and desire a mass of gold upon the sides,--so long, in fact, as there is a large class who desire books for mere show and not for use,--it will be the interest of publishers to gratify them by furnishing cloth-gilt work. expedition being so important in cloth-work, a machine has been introduced to facilitate the operation of sawing the backs, and it is now in general use for the purpose. the appended cut gives an accurate idea of the machine as manufactured by w. o. hickok, harrisburg, pa. [illustration] for this and all other species of case-work (morocco is sometimes done in this manner) the lining-papers are inserted and pasted over so as to adhere to the end-paper, and the slips, having been cut short, are scraped or rubbed smooth. the volumes are then knocked up and touched on the back in one or two places with the glue-brush. they are then cut upon the fore-edge, by being placed between two boards, one of which is precisely the width that it is intended to cut the volumes; the boards and books are placed upon the laying-press, and the backs knocked evenly up; the whole is then placed in the laying-press, and cut with the plough. the back-board being wider than the front, the knife cuts against it. if the volumes are small, a number may be cut at the same time. this mode of cutting is called "steamboating." after the whole lot that the workman "has on" have been cut on the fronts, they are then placed between cutting-boards again, of the proper size, and knocked up on the head; they are then laid upon the press, with the runner or front-board up; the board is then moved about a quarter of an inch below the heads of the volumes as they are arranged in layers or piles. the workman will then grasp the boards firmly, so as not to allow the books to slip, and place them in the cutting-press, and, after screwing it up tightly with the press-pin, proceed to cut the heads in the same manner as the fronts. after this is done, unscrew the press partially, so as to allow the volumes to be turned without slipping in the tub; then, with one hand beneath the press, depress one end of the boards, while the other is elevated, until the whole is turned completely over, with the tails upward. the runner is adjusted even with the cheek of the press, the press is screwed up, and the volumes cut at the tail. if the edges are to be gilt, they are now prepared for that operation. afterwards they are glued upon the backs and rounded, care being taken not to start the sheets or mark the gilding upon the fore-edge with the thumb. they are then backed in the same manner as bound books, except that they have larger joints. care is requisite at the ends, or the blows of the hammer will crush the paper and thus give the gilding an unsightly appearance at the joints. a machine has been invented for the purpose of backing books, and it appears to be growing in favour for cloth-work, and, in fact, for all work where expedition is a primary essential. it is the invention of mr. sanborn, of portland, maine. the annexed cut gives an idea of the general appearance of the machine. [illustration] the next process is lining the backs, which is done by pasting strips of paper or muslin upon the back, having it of sufficient width to cover the joints on each side. the volumes are then prepared for the cases, which have been previously got ready. the boards are cut to a uniform square size by the table-shears. the cloth covers, after having been cut out, have the corners cut off to a pattern made for the purpose, just sufficient to allow them to lap when the cloth is turned over the edge of the boards. the cover is then glued equally over, and the t square laid upon it,--the square having been made of the proper width to allow for the back, joints, and groove of the volume. a board is then laid on each side of the centre of the square; the latter is then lifted off, and a strip of paper, of the length of the boards and nearly the width of the back of the book, placed between the boards. the cloth projecting beyond the boards is then turned over their edges. the cover is then turned over, and the cloth rubbed smooth on the sides by means of a woollen or cotton pad. it is then placed between pasteboards to dry. after the cases are all made and have become perfectly dry, they are ready for stamping. cloth for ordinary stamping requires no preparation, but if the stamp be large or very heavy it will be safer to use a coat of size. for this purpose russian isinglass is preferable; fresh glaire will answer the same purpose. after the cases are stamped, the volumes being ready, they are arranged with their heads the same way, and the end-paper of the volume is pasted equally over. the book is then laid, pasted side downwards, upon a case, adjusting the squares properly at the same time; the other end-paper is then pasted, and the other board or side of the case drawn over the back and placed upon the volume. after a number are pasted, they are placed in pressing-boards having a brass band affixed to the edges of the boards. the band, being rather wider than the thickness of the board, causes a slight projection. the volumes are adjusted in the pressing-boards in such a manner as to cause the back and joint of the volumes to be on the outer, while the pasteboard is on the inner, side of the brass rim. in this position the volumes are placed in the standing-press and screwed tightly down; they are then tapped lightly at the heads with a small backing-hammer, and allowed to remain until dry. they are then taken out, and the end-papers opened up or separated with a folding-stick. they are then ready for the bookseller's shelves. [illustration table-shears.] part iii. ornamental art. in treating upon this subject, we are led back to the land of the pharaohs; for the earliest art records that have come down to us (and, perhaps, the most perfect) are from the banks of the nile, remarkable for their severely massive character, calm and frigid. the few ornamental details are chosen rather for their symbolical than æsthetic beauty, consisting of local forms slightly conventionalized and heightened with colour. their ornaments were types and symbols intended to address themselves to the eye, heart, and soul of the beholder, the most frequent in recurrence being the winged globe,--a sacred emblem the egyptians used in their ornamental designs,--the human figure, their sacred animals, and the lotus, reed, asp, and papyrus. upon the capitals of egyptian columns are represented nearly all the flowers peculiar to the country, the petals, capsules, pistils, seeds, and most minute parts, being often exhibited. capitals are often seen resembling a vase, and at other times a bell reversed. there is little in this style applicable to the decoration of books, unless it be upon works relating to egypt. then its symbols afford the binder an opportunity to employ its symbolic ornamentation. assyrian and ancient persian. of this style it is only lately that we have become slightly acquainted; and, though partly coeval with the egyptian, the assyrians have borrowed little from them, the details being remarkable for their classic character, at times approaching the ionic, but greatly dependent upon animal forms for its ornamentation, and upon painting and sculpture for its expression. the forms, often graceful, are less arbitrary than the egyptian, (where symbolism is paramount,) containing those elements afterwards elaborated into beauty by the greeks. there is an appropriate fitness in assyrian ornament that constitutes one of its prominent characteristics. in addition to animals, the pomegranate, fir-cones, lotus-flower and reeds, rosettes, and a fan-shaped ornament supposed to be the origin of the greek honeysuckle, distinguish the assyrian style. greek. under the ancient greeks, art attained a refined and exalted character, material beauty being developed to the utmost; elegance of proportion, chaste simplicity, and conventionalism, triumphant; symbolism disregarded. the principal elements of greek ornament were the honeysuckle, the lotus-leaves, the wave-line and scroll, the zig-zag, and the universal fret. the beauty of grecian ornament consists in its equality of foliage, starting-points, stalks, and groundwork. its running figures are well adapted to and are employed for rolls, in side-finishing, and the proportions of this style of art should be carefully studied by the finisher. etruscan. simplicity and elegance of form, combined with strong contrast in colour, constitute the distinguishing marks of this style. the etruscan vases still form models for the artist. the novel appearance of these vessels, all uniformly painted with a tracery of black on a natural groundwork of brownish red, is extremely pleasing, proving the high artistic capability of their makers. in the british museum there is one room entirely devoted to a collection of these remains of ancient art. this style is approached in its effects by inlaying with black upon a brownish red. a copy of caxton's "recuyell of the historyes of troye," bound in this style by whittaker, has been highly extolled. it is in the possession of the marquis of bath. the general effects of this style are represented by a style now much in vogue, called antique, a reddish-brown morocco being stamped upon so as to produce a dark or black figure thereon; but the character of the ornaments are generally dissimilar. roman. roman art is a redundant elaboration of the greek, in which purity gives way to richness, grotesque combinations become common, and false principles creep in. mosaic pavements are rendered pictorial by the introduction of light and shade, the flat and round not kept distinct. in the remains of pompeii we find the degradation of classic art by the violation of true principles. there is nothing in this style to commend it to the artist, especially in decorating books. byzantine, lombard, norman. these varieties of kindred ornament, commencing with the rise of christianity, were founded on classic details, having a distinct expression of their own. there is much symbolism in the byzantine, but all are appropriate to their several wants,--the parts rich, judiciously disposed, and purely conventional. in these styles, so intimately connected, we find the interlaced strap-work that suggested gothic tracery to the great mediæval artists. moorish. the decorative art of the arabs is more conventional than any other, it being in most cases extremely difficult to trace the origin of their forms. all animal representations are strictly excluded by the religion of mohammed. the union of geometrical with floral forms seems to have supplied the expression, many ornaments resembling the ovary of plants, transversely cut and connected with crystalline shapes. the abstract and superficial treatment is perfect, the forms are extremely graceful, and the colouring gorgeous. the interlaced strap-work is highly elaborated. this style is sometimes called the arabesque, and forms the chief decoration of the alhambra, an ancient fortress and residence of the moorish monarchs of granada. for grace and liveliness this style is unrivalled, and it affords many useful and beautiful hints to the finisher in his hand-tooling, and is well calculated to produce fine effects in stamps designed for the embossing-press. gothic. the gothic is founded upon geometrical forms. the strap-work of former styles is elaborated into tracery, the main lines being circular or curved, starting from vertical lines, ending in points, enclosing spaces divided and subdivided in the same manner, further decorated with conventional ornaments derived from local nature. for bookbinding it is sometimes employed, but without much judgment. the judicious finisher will reject it on account of its inapplicability to superficial decoration. the renaissance. the renaissance or revival arose in italy in the fifteenth century, by the appropriation of classic details in connection with prior styles, the traditionary giving way to selection and freedom; art gaining but few entirely new forms, rather subjecting all that had gone before to a new treatment, which in the hands of the great artists of the period produced agreeable results, showing the importance of general design, rendering even incongruous materials pleasing from that cause alone. the cinque-cento has been considered the goal of the renaissance and its characteristics,--strap, tracery, arabesque, and pierced scroll-work, a mixture of the conventional with natural forms, and every detail of ancient art,--producing, under different masters, varied results. thus, in raphael's loggie of the vatican are to be found, as at pompeii, elements piled one above the other, without any regard to construction. the same with the works of julio romano at mantua,--painted imitation of bas-reliefs suspended above fountains, temples, &c., the parts often finely drawn and treated, but, taken as a whole, little removed from the absurd, quite unlike the works of the greeks and etruscans they sought to rival. elizabethan. the elizabethan was an english version of the renaissance, being a special elaboration of the strap and bolt-work, and has been highly useful to the stamp-cutter. many of its forms can be advantageously employed by the finisher. louis quatorze. this distinct expression of art is of italian origin, being the last of the renaissance, and end of ornamental styles. it consists of scrolls and shells, an alternation of curves and hollows, the concave and convex in contrast, the broken surfaces affording a brilliant play of light and shade. the effect when gilt being extremely magnificent, colour was abandoned, construction hidden, and symmetry often disregarded, especially in its decline. as to superficial treatment, flat surfaces were studiously avoided, and the few that remained were treated pictorially, in a mellifluous, pastoral style, known as that of watteau. under louis xv. the forms degenerated: symmetrical balance and flow of line were disregarded, giving way to the degraded ornamentation called the rococo--the prevailing style of the last and earlier part of the present century--depriving europe for more than one hundred years of true superficial decoration, without which no art can be considered complete. an attempt at this style may be seen upon the sides of some of the gaudily-gilt albums and books of like character. no finisher need cultivate a love for it, for it is the aversion of all refined artists. finishing. taste and design. it is of the utmost importance to a young workman that he have correct ideas in regard to taste, and be able to distinguish it from caprice or mere fancy. it is in the power of all to acquire a correct taste, for it is governed by laws that can be easily learned, and they are unchangeable. taste may be said to be a perception and an appreciation of the principles of beauty and harmony as revealed by nature through art. nothing contrary to nature, no violation of any law of proportion or of fitness, can be in good taste. the amateur and book-collector, in commencing the foundation of a library, will do well to pause before they adopt a species of binding that will in after years create a feeling of annoyance, and perhaps lead to pecuniary sacrifice. a recent writer upon the new york exhibition of the industry of all nations discourses thus:--"we call bookbinding an art; and when we consider all that is necessary to the perfect covering of a fine book, it must be admitted to be an art; less important, it is true, but similar in kind to architecture. "the first requisition upon the skill of the binder is to put the book into a cover which will effectually protect it, and at the same time permit it to be used with ease. if he do not accomplish this, his most elaborate exhibition of ornamental skill is worth nothing; for he fails in the very end for which his services are required. it was in this regard, too, that most of our binders failed in past years. who that remembers the hideous, harsh, speckled sheep covers which deformed our booksellers' shelves not long ago, can forget the added torment which they inflicted upon their unhappy purchaser, by curling up palpably before his very eyes, as he passed his first evening over them, and by casting out loose leaves or whole signatures before he had finished his first perusal? in those days, too, there was morocco binding, with a california of gold upon the sides; and such morocco! it felt to the fingers like a flattened nutmeg-grater, seeming to protect the book by making it painful for any one to touch it. this was as useless as the humbler though not more vulgar sheep. it would hardly last through the holiday season on the centre-table which it was made to adorn. "the binder's next task is to give his work the substantial appearance without which the eye of the connoisseur will remain unsatisfied. the volume must not only be well protected, but seem so. it should be solid, compact, square-edged, and enclosed in firm boards of a stoutness proportionate to its size, and these should be covered with leather at once pliable and strong. unless it present this appearance, it will be unsatisfactory in spite of the richest colours and the most elaborate ornament. thus far the mere mechanical skill of the binder goes. in the choice of his style of binding, and in the decoration of his book, if he perform his task with taste and skill, he rises to the rank of an artist. "the fitness of the binding to the character of the volume which it protects, though little regarded by many binders, and still less by those for whom they work, is of the first importance. suppose moore's lalla rookh bound in rough sheep, with dark russia back and corners, like a merchant's ledger, or johnson's folio dictionary in straw-coloured morocco elaborately gilded, and lined with pale blue watered-silk, is there an eye, no matter how uneducated, which would not be shocked at the incongruity? each book might be perfectly protected, open freely, and exhibit evidence of great mechanical and artistic skill on the part of the binder; but his atrocious taste would insure him a just and universal condemnation. and yet there are violations of fitness to be seen daily, on the majority of public and private shelves, little less outrageous than those we have supposed. books of poetry, and illustrated works on art bound in sober speckled or tree-marbled calf, with little gold upon the backs and sides, and none upon the edges! histories, statistical works, and books of reference, in rich morocco, splendidly gilded!--the idea that the styles ought to change places seeming never to enter the heads of the possessors of these absurdly-covered volumes. but a little reflection by any person of taste, and power to discern the eternal fitness of things, will make it apparent that there should be congruity and adaptation in the binding of books. sober, practical volumes should be correspondingly covered; calf and russia leather, with marbled paper and edges, become them; while works of imagination, such as poetry and books of engravings, demand rich morocco, fanciful ornaments, and gilding. to bind histories, philosophical works, dictionaries, books of reference and the like, in plain calf or dark russia,--travels, novels, essays, and the lighter kind of prose writing, in tinted calf or pale russia with gilding,--poetry in full morocco richly gilded, and works on art in half morocco, with the top edge only cut and gilded,--seems a judicious partition of the principal styles of binding. the margins of an illustrated work on art should never be cut away, except where it is absolutely necessary for the preservation of the book from dust, and the convenience of turning the leaves--that is, at the top. it is well here to enter a protest against the indiscriminate use of the antique style of binding, with dark-brown calf, bevelled boards, and red edges. this is very well in its place; but it should be confined to prose works of authors who wrote not later than one hundred and fifty years ago. what propriety is there in putting scott, or irving, or dickens, or longfellow, in such a dress?" hartley coleridge's opinion on the subject of taste in bookbinding is thus given:--"the binding of a book should always suit its complexion. pages venerably yellow should not be cased in military morocco, but in sober brown russia. glossy hot-pressed paper looks best in vellum. we have sometimes seen a collection of whitey-brown black-letter ballads, &c. so gorgeously tricked out that they remind us of the pious liberality of the catholics, who dress in silk and gold the images of saints, part of whose saintship consisted in wearing rags and hair-cloth. the costume of a volume should also be in keeping with its subject, and with the character of its author. how absurd to see the works of william penn in flaming scarlet, and george fox's journal in bishops' purple! theology should be solemnly gorgeous. history should be ornamented after the antique and gothic fashion; works of science, as plain as is consistent with dignity; poetry, _simplex munditis_." and it may not be irrelevant here to introduce the opinion of dr. dibdin, whose connection with some of the first libraries in england, and whose intimate knowledge of all the great book-collectors of the same, must tend to stamp him as a good authority on the subject:-- "the general appearance of one's library is by no means a matter of mere foppery or indifference; it is a sort of cardinal point, to which the tasteful collector does well to attend. you have a right to consider books, as to their _outsides_, with the eye of a _painter_; because this does not militate against the proper use of the contents. "be sparing of red morocco or vellum. they have each so distinct, or what painters call spotty, an appearance, that they should be introduced but circumspectly. morocco, i frankly own, is my favourite surtout; and the varieties of them--_blue_, (dark and light,) _orange_, _green_, and _olive-colour_--are especially deserving of your attention. "the colour of the binding may often be in harmony with its contents. books of poetry may be red, or light green, or blue, and have as much ornament as may be desired. and fine art books, above all others, ought to rejoice in beautiful coloured moroccos and gorgeous ornaments. in the british museum, books of divinity are bound in blue, history in red, poetry in yellow, and biography in olive. "let _russia_ claim your volumes of architecture or other antiquities, of topography, of lexicography, and of other works of reference. let your romances and chronicles aspire to _morocco_ or _velvet_; though, upon second thoughts, _russia_ is well suited to history and chronicles. and for your fifteeners, or volumes printed in the fifteenth century, whether greek, latin, italian, or english, let me entreat you invariably to use _morocco_: for theology, _dark blue_, _black_, or _damson-colour_; for history, _red_ or _dark green_; while, in large paper quartos, do not fail to remember the _peau de veau_ (calf) of the french, with gilt upon marbled edges. my abhorrence of _hogskin_ urges me to call upon you to swear eternal enmity to that engenderer of mildew and mischief. indeed, at any rate, it is a clumsy coat of mail. for your italian and french, especially in long suites, bespeak what is called _french calf binding_, spotted, variegated, or marbled on the sides, well covered with ornament on the back, and, when the work is worthy of it, with gilt on the edges. let your english octavos of history or belles-lettres breathe a quiet tone of chastely-gilded white calf with marbled edges; while the works of our better-most poets should be occasionally clothed in a morocco exterior." the further opinion of the doctor on the style of ornament, &c. in gilding, will be given in its proper place, and which, with that cited above, may be safely acted upon by the binder, blended with such additions as his own taste may dictate. it is in this state that the defects of forwarding will become more apparent, and which no tact or ingenuity of the finisher can effectually remedy; for, unless the bands are square, the joints free, and the whole book geometrically just, the defect, whatever it may be, will appear throughout, and tend to destroy the beauty of every subsequent operation, from the constraint required to make the general appearance of the work effective. before proceeding to a description of the various manipulations required in gilding a book, it will be necessary to direct the attention of the young workman again to what has been advanced relative to care and attention in previous parts of this work, and follow up the remarks there made with others on the taste necessary to be displayed in this most important part of the art of bookbinding. when it is considered that the most celebrated artists have arrived at the eminence awarded to them not only through the elasticity, solidity, and squareness of their bindings, but also from the judicious choice of their ornaments for gilding, and the precision and beauty with which they have been executed, it cannot be too strongly impressed on the workman that this should ever occupy his first attention. nothing is so disagreeable to the eye as injudicious or badly-executed ornaments; while with chaste and classical embellishments, tastefully applied, an appearance of richness is produced on the volumes that cannot fail to give satisfaction to the most fastidious critic. the sides of the volumes present the field most favourable for the display of ornamental taste, admitting, from their extent, the execution of the most complicated designs. this elaborate style of ornament has been carried to such perfection and splendour as, in many instances, to have occupied several days in the execution of one side alone; but it is only by the most vigorous application, greatest care, and correct taste, that proficiency therein can be attained. with these, success will soon crown the endeavours of the workman; and he will have the satisfaction of finding himself able to imitate any pattern, however difficult, as well as to execute many new designs and compartments, of which, till he applied himself, he had not previously an idea. as regards the style of ornament, it must be left to taste; but, as before promised, it will now be proper to introduce the remarks of dr. dibdin on the general effect of gilding and blind tooling, leaving the detail to be suggested to the mind of the gilder. "first, let your books be well and evenly lettered, and let a tolerable portion of ornament be seen upon the backs of them. i love what is called an _overcharged back_, at first the appearance may be flaunting and garish; but time, which mellows down book ornaments as well as human countenances, will quickly obviate this inconvenience; and about a twelvemonth, or six months added to the said twelvemonth, will work miracles upon the appearance of your book. do not be meagre of your ornaments on the back, and never suffer _blind tooling_ wholly to pervade a folio or quarto; for, by so doing, you convert what should look like a _book_ into a piece of mahogany furniture. "in large libraries there should not be too much blind tooling or too great a want of gilt. no doubt the ornament should be as appropriate as possible to the book. one could not endure gingerbread-gilt _bibles_ and _prayer-books_, or _chronicles_ or _dictionaries_, or other books of reference. let these have a subdued decoration on their backs; bands only full-gilt, or a running edge-tool in the centres of them, with small ornaments between the bands. "i would recommend the lettering of a volume to be as _full_ as possible; yet sententiousness must sometimes be adopted. the lines should be straight, and the letters of one and the same form or character within the line; yet the name of the author may be executed a size larger than that of the date or place of its execution, and the lettering may be between the top and bottom bands, or it may occupy the spaces between three bands, or even more. re-letter old books perpendicularly, as was the custom. in all fresh bindings, however, prefer horizontal to perpendicular lettering."[a] [footnote a: we sometimes fear that dr. dibden's commendation of an overcharged back has produced a bad effect. it should be borne in mind that, when the doctor wrote, calf was the prevailing material employed in binding, and that of a light colour.] it remains to urge that particular attention be paid to the lettering of books being their right titles, as the contrary will present to the judicious an effect the most disagreeable, and may be the cause of producing dissatisfaction with the whole of the binding in the mind of the owner; and also to avoid the contrast which the different shade or colour of new lettering-pieces will give to some bindings. as it is requisite that the workman should form an idea of the style and design to be executed on the volume before he prepares it for gilding, we will proceed to point out the peculiarities of some of the most prominent styles and of the tools required to produce them. we hope to convey a faithful idea of the latter with the aid of the tools and ornaments executed expressly for this work by gaskill, copper & fry, bookbinders' tool-cutters, philadelphia, who have secured for themselves, by their taste and skill, an enviable reputation as artists. plate i. contains an illustration of the species of ornament termed the aldine style, which derives its name from a noted printer named aldus manutius, a roman by birth, who was born in the year or . his christian name, aldus, was a contraction of theobaldus; and to this surname he sometimes added the appellation of pius, or bassianus, or romanus. the first of these appellatives was assumed by aldus from his having been the tutor of albertus pius, a prince of the noble house of carpi; and the second was derived from the birthplace of the printer--namely, bassian, a small town in the duchy of lermonetta. aldus is supposed to have taken up his residence at venice, as the favourite city wherein to mature his plans, about the year ; and about - he there put forth the first production of his press. he introduced roman types of a neater cut than had previously been in use, and invented that beautiful letter which is now known as _italic_, though, in the first instance, it was termed _venetian_, from manutius being a resident of venice when he brought it to perfection; but, not long after, it was dedicated to the state of italy, to prevent any dispute that might arise from other nations claiming a priority, as was the case concerning the first inventor of printing. prior to the time of aldus, the only points used in punctuation were the comma, colon, and full-point or period; but he invented the semicolon, gave a better shape to the comma, and connected the punctuation by assigning to the various points more proper places. about the period of his marriage, (in ,) he invented a mode of imposing a work in such a manner that two languages might be interleaved and bound together, or separately, at the option of the purchaser; and, about the same date, he printed the first leaf, in folio, of a proposed edition of the bible in the hebrew, greek, and latin languages; so that he has the honour of having first suggested the plan of a polyglott bible. however, the plan failed of being then carried into effect. printing different languages in opposite columns was not accomplished till . the mind of aldus was entirely engaged in the care of his printing-house; for, as soon as he had ordered his other necessary affairs, he shut himself up in his study, where he employed himself in revising his greek and latin mss., reading the letters which he received from the learned out of all parts of the world, and writing answers to them. to prevent interruption by impertinent visits, he caused the following inscription to be placed over his door:--"_whoever you are, aldus earnestly entreats you to despatch your business as soon as possible, and then depart: unless you come hither, like another hercules, to lend him some friendly assistance; for here will be work sufficient to employ you and as many as enter this place._" the mark or device which aldus--who died in --made use of to distinguish works issued from his press was an anchor, round which a dolphin seemed to twist. it must be familiar to every amateur,--mr. pickering, the london publisher, having adopted the aldine anchor as his device. to attempt any description of the aldine class of tools would be superfluous after so fair a specimen in the illustration. it will be perceived they are entirely free from shading, and, consequently, much more effective for that description of work for which they are generally used,--viz., blind tooling. both tools and patterns are much lighter and more ornamental than the old monastic school, of which the aldine in some degree partook. upon the same plate there is exhibited the arrangement of a back-panel and tools in the montague style, which derives its name from montague, (of the firm of montague and johnson,) a bookbinder of considerable eminence, who flourished about the year . the chief features of this style are corners and centre, filled up with stops, &c. similar to illustration. the tools are of an open, leafy description, flowing from a stem free from any thing of the scroll or curl. the panel given has been copied from a book supposed to have been done by montague himself. the bar, or barleycorn, on the head and tail and on the bands, likewise on the insides and edges. books in volumes, pieced red and green on adjoining panels, frequently a lozenge of red on the second piece, and filled up with corners and stops similar to the other panels; sometimes both pieces green; sides generally plain, or a flowery flowing roll, for which a two-line is now usually substituted; sewed on raised bands; colour, brown calf, sometimes highly sprinkled. there is also upon plate i. an illustration of the harleian style, a style not behind montague in beauty of ornament, and superior in elegance and variety of arrangement. before entering into a description of the style, we will give what information we have gained respecting its founder, trusting that it will not be unacceptable. we find that "robert harley, esq., of frampton-bryan, in the county of hereford, (the gentleman from whom the style derives its name,) was in chosen speaker of the house of commons, and in may, , he was created earl of oxford and mortimer, and five days afterwards was promoted to the important station of lord high-treasurer of great britain." in the preface to the harleian mss., now in the british museum, speaking of mr. harley, it states that "his innate love of books was such as to determine him in early life to undertake the formation of a new library, regardless of the disadvantages with which he must contend, as great exertions had previously been made in collecting mss. for the bodleian, cottonian, and other valuable though smaller collections, so that the prospect of forming a new library with any considerable number of mss. was indeed very unpromising. but, urged on by a love of learning, and a strong desire to search into the transactions of former ages, determined mr. harley to purchase whatever curious mss. he could meet with, more especially such as might in any wise tend to explain and illustrate the history, laws, customs, and antiquities, of his native country. the principal point which the founder of the harleian library had in view was the establishment of a ms. english historical library, and the rescuing from oblivion and destruction of such valuable records of our national antiquities as had escaped the diligence of former collectors. "at the decease of his son, (edward lord harley, in ,) who had been a powerful auxiliary in enriching the collection, the ms. library consisted of nearly volumes. at the death of mr. harley, his library was bequeathed to the university of oxford. to such men we owe a debt of gratitude for the improvement of the art and for introducing a style of finishing that still remains the admiration of the connoisseur. "the books in the harleian collection are principally bound in red morocco, well sewed on raised bands, tight backs, (as were all the books of that period,) dutch marble end-papers, and gilt edges." harleian tools are more wiry and much closer than the montague, interspersed with fine-line curls, fine pinhead curve-lines, rosettes, acorns, solid stops, single rings, and cross-buns. the border upon the same plate illustrates the harleian pane-side. in the harleian style there are three distinctly different arrangements for sides and backs, (independent of the flights of fancy in which finishers indulge.) there are on the sides,--first, the two or three-line fillet, stopped; second, the harleian tooled or spikey border,--a style of finishing peculiarly neat and rich, and well adapted for nearly every description of books. on original harleys the tooling went right on from corner to corner, as if worked by a very broad roll; but modern finishers prefer a made-up corner,--that is, a tool or tools projecting at right angles with the corner, up to which the border-tools are worked, thus rendering the whole more harmonious and perfect. the spikey border is worked up to a two or three-line fillet, with the cat-tooth roll worked on the outer line towards the edge of the board. (we may here mention that the cat-tooth, although purely french, may be also considered harleian, as it is on all the originals we have seen, and accords well with the style.) third, the pane or panelled side, similar to the illustration. sometimes a double pane was formed by throwing in a two-line fillet and working a roll on the inside. on the backs there is the upright centre, the diamond centre and corner, as in the illustration, and the semi-circle with open centre. the diamond centre was not much used on books of light reading, such as novels, but rather on works of a graver nature, such as divinity, philosophy, and history. it seems to have been the favourite style of the earl's binders; and we must acknowledge that a book never looks so like a book as when finished with a good diamond centre and corner. in forming the diamond centre, the spikes ought to project beyond the stops, as it is then more graceful and pleasing to the eye than when the stop and spikes are flush one with the other. the fonthill style. the following account of fonthill abbey will, no doubt, be acceptable, in connection with our description of the "style" which has derived its name therefrom. "fonthill abbey, in wiltshire, justly ranks as one of the grandest structures in the united kingdom, combining all the elegance of modern architecture with the sublime grandeur of the conventual style. it was built about the end of the last century, at an expense of £ , , by mr. william beckford, son of the public-spirited lord mayor of london of that name, whose statue now stands in guildhall, with a copy of the memorable speech and remonstrance which he addressed to george iii. in . succeeding to almost unbounded wealth, (nearly £ , a year,) endowed with an extraordinary mind, literary talents of the highest order, and an exquisite taste for the arts, the young owner of fonthill abbey determined to erect an edifice uncommon in design, and to adorn it with splendour; and, with an energy and enthusiasm of which duller minds can form but a poor conception, he soon had his determination carried into effect. "the gorgeous edifice reared for mr. b. contained many magnificent suites of apartments. we need only notice two, denominated st. michael's, and king edward the third's gallery. they are of the most stately and interesting description that can be conceived or imagined: the former filled with the choicest books and many articles of _vertu_; the latter also employed as a library, but enriched with a much greater number of choice and curious productions, and terminating in an oratory, unique for its elegant proportions and characteristic consistency. it is at once rich and luxurious as the temple of which it forms an appendage,--sombre and soothing as the religious feelings with which its designation associates it. 'meditation here may think down hours and moments; here the heart may give a useful lesson to the head, and learning wiser grow without its books.' it is but the drawing of a curtain, and not only all the glitter of the adjoining splendour, but all the pomps and vanities of the world seem to the meditative mind to be shut out forever. perhaps its pensive cast is more deeply experienced from the immediate contrast: dazzled with objects of show, fatigued with the examination of rare and costly commodities, and bewildered with the multitude of precious devices which everywhere surround him, the soul of the visitant retires with tenfold delight to the narrow walls of the oratory." our brief description of the fonthill style cannot fail to strike the reader as being remarkably appropriate to the sombre character of that part of the abbey which contained the library,--the one being in strict keeping with the other. half-bound olive-brown morocco; sewed on raised bands; gilt tops; marble-paper sides and insides; with no finishing whatever, except the lettering and date at bottom. À la janseniste. this chaste and beautiful style is said to be derived from a religious order, and is highly esteemed by amateurs. books bound à la janseniste are full-bound turkey or levant morocco, with a broad turn in on the inside of the board, gilt edges with a fine one-line fillet each side of the bands and head and tail, and neatly mitred on the side, all in blind, there being no gilding on the outside but the lettering; on the inside a broad-tooled border of very fine tooling in gold, a fine two-line in gold on the edges of the boards, and the cap of the headbands tipped with the same. the cambridge style is practised, we may say exclusively, on theological works. at what period it gained its name is uncertain; doubtless, it was the style in which some of the university libraries were chiefly bound; and, in all probability, the idea of the harley paned side was first copied from it. books bound in this style are sewed on raised bands, brown calf, pane-sprinkled sides, dutch marble end-papers, and red edges. back pieced with red russia, and a two-line fillet head and tail, and on each side of the bands, _blind_. sides, two-line fillet close to the edge and on each side of the pane, with a narrow flower-roll worked on each side of the pane, close to the lines. the fillets in the pane to be connected together at the corners with the two-line fillet, and a tool worked from the corner of the pane towards the edge of the book, _all blind_. bar-roll on the edges, in gold. [illustration: . _modern monastic._] modernized monastic. this style is now in great vogue, under the appellation of the antique. the materials employed are divinity calf and brown or carmelite morocco, with very thick boards, edges either red, brown, or matted gilt; very high raised bands. the style of ornament is illustrated by plate ii., intended for a side-stamp to be done by the press. it can also be done by hand, with rolls, fillets, and hand-stamps, omitting the broad and narrow fillet, and substituting either a one or two-line, working the circles with gouges. the tools are all worked blind. this style of binding, when appropriate to the book, produces a very pleasing effect. arabesque. "the term is more commonly applied to the species of ornament used in adorning the walls, pavements, and roofs of moorish and arabian buildings, consisting of an intricate heterogeneous admixture of fruits, flowers, scrolls, and other objects, to the exclusion of animals, the representation of which is forbidden by the mohammedan religion. this kind of ornament is now frequently used in the adorning of books, plate, &c. foliage very similar to that used by the arabians, intermixed with griffins, &c., were frequently employed on the walls and friezes of temples, and on many of the ancient greek vases; on the walls of the baths of titus, at pompeii, and many other places."--_craig's universal dictionary._ as regards book-finishing, we have looked into more than one authority, and are really unable to define what the "arabesque" style is or ought to be. the well-understood term "roan embossed" is, in our opinion, the nearest approach to it at the present day. plate iii. is an adaptation of an old german design for embossing. the figure is raised, the plate being worked with a counter, in a powerful press. [illustration: . _old german style for embossed work._] this style can only be executed upon publishers' work where there is a quantity of the same book to be done in this style. by it a good effect is produced upon an inferior material and at a trifling cost. the covers are embossed before they are applied to the volumes, and in order to preserve the sharpness of the design they must be covered with glue and not pressed afterwards. antique oak and other bindings. great varieties of style in the covers of bindings have been introduced within the last few years; but these must be left to the imitative powers of the skilful workman, as no written description would give the requisite information and guidance. should he be desirous of executing these, he will do well to study some good specimen. among others may be mentioned the antique oak bindings, adopted by mr. murray, for his "illuminated prayer-book," and messrs. longman and co., for "gray's elegy." also the iron binding,--viz.: covers in imitation of cast-iron,--in which messrs. longman and co. have had bound the "parables of our lord." bibles and prayers are now frequently bound to imitate the antique, having heavy boards with clasps and corners, and finished in the monastic style. grolier style. this beautiful style of ornament is so well illustrated by plate iv. that it scarcely needs any remark. we will merely observe that this style is well calculated for hand-work, being entirely superficial in character. the pattern presented can be worked with a one-line fillet and gouges, with a few leaves of a conventional character. the design should be first traced upon paper of the proper size, the paper lightly tipped at the corners with paste upon the side, then worked with the fillet and gouges through the paper upon the leather. the paper is then removed, and the blind impression appears upon the side. all vestiges of the paper are carefully washed off, and the pattern pencilled in,--that is, each portion of the figure is carefully traced with a fine camel's-hair pencil saturated with glaire. when dry it is lightly passed over with a piece of cotton in which sweet oil has been dropped, and the gold leaf laid on. the pattern is then reworked upon the gold. [illustration: . _grolier about ._] the design upon plate v. is a modern elaboration of the grolier, and is intended for a side-plate, to be executed by the stamping-press. it is well calculated for blind or blank stamping, the solid line producing by its intersections a fine effect. by omitting the inner and working the out lines, this elaboration of lines and circles can be worked by hand. [illustration: . _modernized grolier._] the louis quatorze is illustrated, by a pattern for a back, upon plate vi. this can be worked either by hand-stamps or by the press. the centre pattern is a very pretty illustration of the prevailing style of backs for case-work. this must be stamped before the cover is applied to the book. the third pattern for flat backs is adapted for hand-tools, and when executed upon light-coloured english calf produces a beautiful appearance. from its light, graceful character, it is well suited to modern poetry and light literature in general. this style gives scope to an almost endless variety of patterns, regulated only by the taste of the finisher. [illustration: _ ._ _louis xiv._ _modern._ _french._ ] plate vii. is a design drawn by holbein for a side-ornament in metal. this beautiful pattern can be adapted either to hand or press work. its graceful and harmonious proportions should be well studied by the young workman. [illustration: _ ._ _drawn after a design by holbein a.d. ._] upon plate viii. will be found specimens of rolls and hand-stamps used in finishing. the numbers affixed refer to the order of arrangement in the book of patterns published by gaskill, copper & fry, containing over two thousand specimens with their prices attached. they have also an immense number of patterns, executed since the publication of their book for binders in various parts of the country. [illustration: _ ._ _selection from gaskill, copper & fry's book of patterns ( minor s^t.)_] having given the prominent distinct styles,--of which there are, however, many combinations, both of style, ornament, and tooling, originating more nondescripts than we have space to treat upon,--we proceed to the gilding, trusting that what has been pointed out to the attention of the young workman will induce him to neglect no opportunities of becoming acquainted with the works of artists of celebrity, not for the purpose of servile imitation, but to examine their adaptations of ornamental art as a study, to enable him to trace superficial decoration back to its originators. having acquired this knowledge, he may by his treatment of ornament take rank as an artist. the examples given will be sufficient for the intellectual workman to conceive many patterns which his taste will suggest, forming an infinite variety of beautiful designs. in all combinations, a rigorous observance of the symmetrical proportions of the tools must be his first care, so that the union of any number of designs present a form agreeable and chaste. it would be superfluous to add more; but from the importance of the subject, on closing the directions for the ornamental department of binding, it may be repeated that there is no greater evidence of the ignorance or carelessness of the workman than an ornament of any kind unevenly or unequally worked. let the young binder especially bear this in mind: it is a defect which nothing can effectually remedy; instead of an embellishment it is a detriment to the binding, and his reputation as a clever workman is consequently placed in jeopardy. preparatory to gilding, the back must be compassed off and carefully marked with a folding-stick and a straight-edge or piece of vellum, wherever it is intended to run a straight line. this serves as a guide when the gold is laid on. for work of the best class, the fillets must be first put in blind, and the tooling done in the same manner. for sides where the design is elaborate, or a degree of perfection in the tooling is desirable, the entire pattern must be first worked in blind, and, after being washed with a dilution of oxalic acid or a thin paste-wash, it must be carefully pencilled in with the glaire-pencil; but this comes more appropriately under the head of preparations for gilding. to operate successfully, it will be necessary that the workman provide himself with good size, glaire, and oil. the first is prepared by boiling fine vellum slips till a good size is produced, of a consistency that will lie equally on the volume without blotches or ropes, and must be used warm. the glaire is formed of the whites of eggs, beaten well with a _frother_ till it is perfectly clear, and the froth taken off. this liquid will improve by keeping, and should never be used new if it can possibly be avoided. for morocco bindings, the glaire is sometimes diluted with water. the oil adopted by various binders is different. some use palm-oil for calf, sweet oil for morocco or russia; others prefer hog's lard, or fine mould-candle, for light-coloured calf; but sweet oil is well adapted for almost every kind of leather. vellum-size is the best preparation for coloured calf. on books thus prepared, the glaire must be applied two or three times, taking care that each coat is quite dry before the next is added, and that it lies perfectly even on the whole surface, free from globules or any substance whatever. great care is required in preparing coloured calf; for, if there be too much body in the preparation, it will crack on the surface and present a bad appearance. morocco and roan will not require more than one coat, and, where practicable, only on such parts of the morocco as are to be gilt. the state of the weather must ever determine the number of volumes to be proceeded with at one time, as in the winter double the number may be glaired to what the dryness of a summer's day will admit of, so as to work with safety and produce effect. a good paste-wash before glairing is always advisable, as it prevents the glaire from sinking into the leather. in preparing glaire from the egg for immediate use, a few drops of oxalic acid added thereunto will be found to be of essential service. the volumes being thus prepared, the operation of gilding the back is commenced by oiling slightly, with a small piece of cotton, the whole length of the back. if the book is merely intended to be _filleted_ for the economy of the gold, small strips are cut on the gold-cushion, attached to the heated fillet by rolling it slightly over, and affixed to the volume by passing it firmly on the lines previously marked. but if the back is to be fully ornamented, it will be necessary to cover it entirely with gold-leaf. the hand-stamps should be disposed on the table before him, so as to be selected with the greatest facility, and in readiness for every purpose for which they may be required. to lay on the gold, the workman takes a book of the metal, opens the outside leaf, and passes the knife underneath the gold; with this he raises it, carries it steadily on to the cushion, and spreads it perfectly even, by a light breath on the middle of the leaf, taking care also that not the least current of air has access to the room he may be operating in. afterwards the gold must be cut with the gold-knife to the breadth and length of the places to be covered, by laying the edge upon it and moving the knife slightly backwards and forwards. then rub upon the back the oil, and apply the gold upon the places to be ornamented with a cotton or tip, rubbed on the forehead or hair to give it a slight humidity and cause the gold to adhere. but if the whole of the back is to be gilt, it will be more economical to entirely cover it by cutting the gold in slips the breadth of the book and applying the back on it; afterwards press it close with the cotton, with which any breaks in the gold must also be covered, by placing small slips where required. the humidity of the hair or forehead will be sufficient to make the gold adhere to the cotton or other instrument with which it may be conveyed to the book. the fillet or roll must then be heated to a degree proper for the substance on which it is to be worked. calf will require them hotter than morocco and roan, and these warmer than russia and vellum. to ascertain their proper heat, they are applied on a damp sponge, or rubbed with the finger wetted, and by the degree of boiling that the water makes, their fitness is known; but a little exercise and habit will render this easy of judging. to further insure this, the roll or pallet is passed over the cap of the headband; if too hot, the gold will be dull; if too cool, the impression will be bad, from the gold not adhering in every part. after the gold is laid on, the volume is laid upon the side, with the back elevated, and the workman proceeds to mitre the fillets that run lengthwise of the back, commencing at the line that has been traced across the back, by pressing lightly with the point of the mitred roll and running it carefully till near the line that marks the end of the panel; then lift the fillet and turn it with the finger until the other or reverse mitre, or nick in the fillet, is reached; then place the fillet in the lines already gilt, adjusting it with the left hand until the extreme point of the mitre will just reach the line traced across. after both edges of the back have been done along the joint in this way, the volume is then placed evenly in the finishing-press, and the panels completed by mitreing the fillets that run across the back. the entire operation requires the utmost care, in order to have the lines parallel and the mitres perfectly even and true. no ornament that may be afterwards worked upon the back, beautiful as it may be, can atone for negligence or want of skill in the mitreing and running of the fillets. as a matter of economy, sometimes the back is run up; that is, instead of stopping where the lines or bands intersect, the roll is run up the back from one end to the other, without stopping; and, after wiping the gold off along the joint outside the fillet, it is run across the back on each side of the bands, and head and tail in the same manner. after the back is mitred, the finisher will proceed with the ornamental tools, and work them carefully off. in placing them, great attention should be paid to their occupying precisely the same place in each panel; and, in order to present an agreeable effect, the tools should correspond in detail, and there should be a geometrical fitness governing the selection and arrangement of the tools. the judicious choice of ornaments for the back is of the utmost importance. for instance, such as represent animals, insects, or flowers, which are only proper for works of natural history, entomology, and botany, should never appear on the backs of works on general literature, as it would be an evidence of bad taste or carelessness. every tool should be beautiful in itself, because no accumulation of misshapen tools can make one beautiful ornament. there is no objection to scrolls, leaves, flowers, stops, or any of the usual kind of ornaments; only let them all be in themselves beautiful. it is appropriate to introduce a harp on a book of songs, a stag's head on a book on hunting, a recognised ecclesiastical pattern upon a book of divinity or a prayer-book; a greek or roman design upon a classical work, or a gothic design upon a book on gothic architecture. should it be desired to present on the back simply an ornamental lettering-piece at the head, diverging to a point towards the middle of the book, and the rest of the volume left plain, it will be necessary to impress the tools previous to glairing, and then apply the glaire with a camel's-hair pencil in the indentations the tools have formed. when dry, cover with gold and reimpress the tool in the marks previously made, and letter the title. this proceeding is adopted in every pattern where part of the back is intended to be left dull by being free from glaire. the title must next engage attention, and the letters placed thereon, either singly or together, with brass type properly fixed in the hand-chase. if with single letters, the tail of the volume must be lowered about an inch, and the workman draw a thread of silk across the gold to direct the heads of the letters. taking each singly, he places them on the back with the right hand, steadying the letter with the forefinger of the left. if the title is set in the chase, place the volume evenly in the press, and apply the title, guided by the thumb, firmly across. the title in either case must be justified, to produce the best effect, taking care to avoid, if possible, having two lines of the same length; and, where the title can be measured, as in the type it may, the exact centre should be ascertained before applying it heated on the gold. the back may now be considered finished. the gold which has not been impressed by the gilding tools must be well rubbed off with the _gold-rag_ and minutely cleared off with a piece of fine flannel or india-rubber, so as to display the delicate lines of the ornaments as perfectly and clearly as possible. attention should be paid to this particular; for, let a book be finished in the most tasteful manner possible, unless well cleared off the effect is entirely lost. if in calf, it must now be polished, and the squares and edges of the boards proceeded with. gilding the squares, etc. for gilding the edges of the boards, the gold may be taken as for the bands,--on the roll,--and the volume held firmly with the left hand; but, if large, put into the press between boards, so as not to injure the back. where the ornament of the inside-square is simple, the like proceeding of applying the gold will be proper, resting the board open on an elevation equal to the thickness of the book. but if the square has been left large, with a leather joint, so as to admit of being more elaborately filled up, the gold must be laid on the whole space with the tip and pressed close with the cotton. the gilding is then proceeded with in the same manner as detailed in the directions for the side-ornaments. gilding the sides. the sides, from affording more ample space, are the part of the volume whereon the workman can and is expected to show his taste and skill in gilding. the proceedings are the same as before pointed out where a simple roll is the only ornament round; but where the pattern is extensive and the details minute, it is necessary to have the whole worked blind upon the volume before glairing, and then apply the gold. if one side is done at a time, the book is taken by the leaves with the left hand, the board intended to be covered resting on the thumb, and the gold laid on as for the squares, either over the whole side or on such parts as the pattern indicates. if the volume be small, the gold may be laid on both sides and the leaves of the volume placed in the finishing-press, allowing the boards to rest on its surface. this affords greater facility for placing uniformly and systematically the fillets, rolls, and tools necessary to complete the design on each side. where the pattern has not been marked, and one side only proceeded with, the roll is run in a straight line, which should be made, previous to covering with gold, on the board by the joint of the back, the volume turned for the head and tail, and laid open upon the board for the fore-edge, to give it the firmness necessary. directions for executing the most elaborate designs have been previously given, whereby it will be perceived that it requires but taste, and a just observation of similarity of design and the geometrical proportions of the ornaments, to execute them to any extent. one variation from this rule will destroy the effect of the whole pattern: it will therefore be to the benefit of such as are not conversant fully with the art, to assist themselves with designs drawn on cartridge-paper, which may be marked through on the leather and the pattern executed in gold or blind as required. in all, the gilding will be the same, either to glaire over the whole cover after the design is stamped, or, if the plain part is to be left dull, by glairing the impressions only with a camel's-hair pencil. gilding on silk and velvet. the proceedings necessary to be adopted for gilding on silk and velvet are, from the delicate nature of these substances, different from those laid down for gilding on leather. the glaire used on the latter would tend to stain, and therefore it is necessary to employ other means for fixing the gold. this is by drying the whites of eggs and reducing them to a powder, which is put into a small bottle and tightly tied over with a piece of fine muslin, by which means it is equally distributed on the space intended to be gilt. gum-sandarac is now, however, more generally used for this purpose, although some use gum-copal. the powder being applied, the gold is cut in slips and taken on a roll of a circumference equal to the length of the space intended for it to be applied on. the design is then firmly impressed, and the superfluous gold brushed off with a soft brush or clean piece of cotton, and the other side alike executed. in lettering, or fixing single tools on the back, the same proceedings must be adopted, by taking the gold thereon and applying it to the back or side of the volume. where the design is large, or elaborate work is required, it will be better executed in the following manner:--the design must be drawn on paper, and worked through on silk, after which the impression must be carefully glaired with a camel's-hair pencil; when dry, rub the parts intended for the gold with the finger passed through the hair or with a clean rag slightly oiled, and, after laying on the gold as directed for other styles, reimpress the tools, and _whip_ off the superfluous gold with a clean flannel. as there is no moisture in silk, the workman must not lay on at one time so much as he does on calf and other substances. illuminated binding. this style, an invention of the french, was for some time kept by them with the greatest secrecy. it is a binding of the utmost magnificence, uniting the varied beauties of the arabesque and gilt ornament, blended with the illuminated decorations seen on early mss. before the invention of printing. when executed in the best manner, nothing can exceed the beauty of the whole _coup-d'[oe]il_, rivalling, as it does, in splendour, the most elaborately-finished design of the painter. the time required to be devoted, on its first introduction, to a single specimen, appeared likely to confine this sort of ornament to the finest treasures of literature, and even to them in a limited degree. the improvements, however, in machinery and the rapid advance of the arts have, in a few years, brought this style into very general use for albums and other works where embellished covers are adopted; and even on the cheap roan bindings used for bibles, prayers, &c. it may be seen; though in effecting this cheapness it must be premised that a less durable method is adopted. to execute the more elaborate designs, practice and a taste for the arts will here alone serve the workman; without these requisites it would be futile to make the attempt. but, as the proceedings require to be executed with the utmost care, we shall enter fully into such as are new, and, from their importance, at the risk of being considered prolix, again touch on those that may have been before treated of. the description of one side will serve the purpose of making the proceedings fully understood. whether the material be of morocco or white vellum, it must be washed, if required, perfectly clean, and left to dry. the first operation will be--if it be for stamp-work--to place the side on the bed of the stamping-press and boldly impress the design thereon. the most elegant, and capable of the greatest display of colour, are subjects of botany and natural history. the next step will be to glaire with a camel's-hair pencil such parts of the impression as it is intended shall be afterwards covered with gold. this done, the delicate operation of colouring may be proceeded with. in london and paris this is executed by professed artists in no way conversant with book-binding. the colours to be used must be such as do not at all, or very slightly, fade on exposure to the air or sun, such as carmine, ultramarine, indigo, burnt sienna, gamboge, and sap-green. these must be prepared, with fine gum, in the same manner as for painting, and be lightly and delicately laid on such parts of the design as it is intended the colour should occupy, taking care that the ground-colour or leather is entirely hid. let every thing be true to nature, each bird, plant, and flower its proper colour, and a general harmony prevail throughout. when finished, let the whole perfectly dry, and then, in the manner directed, lay gold on such parts as it is intended, in the reimpression of the plate, should be further embellished. heat the plate, place the side again under it, and give it a firm and sharp impression. rub off the superfluous gold, and the whole of the delicate lines of the ornament will be found beautifully gilt, the colours firmly fixed by the heat of the plate, and the rough edges of the colour completely effaced by the reimpression of the original design. in executing the less expensive and more simple designs, the plate is impressed in gold on the side, and the parts left ungilt on the leather; afterwards coloured according to the taste of the workman. for the best class of work, after the design is impressed, either by hand or the press, pieces are cut out of variously-coloured morocco, pared thin, and neatly pasted on the side, the design, when worked, entirely concealing the edges of the morocco. this is termed inlaid work. blind tooling. this is an ornamental operation, applied either before or after the book has been gilt and polished, and, if judiciously intermingled with the gold, will not fail to present a good effect. it is a style that has been much used of late years, and is executed in the same way and with the same tools as for gilding, but without any gold applied on the places thus ornamented. the rolls, pallets, and smaller tools, are applied by the hand, and the large plates with the press, with the same precautions as indicated in the previous section. if the pattern consists of straight lines, and the workman possesses a good eye, the best manner of executing it is by making use of a pallet, placing it firmly on the book, and sliding it to the opposite point. it remains, therefore, to consider such matters as more immediately apply to this style of decoration. the tools for blind tooling should not be so warm as for gilding, and particularly for morocco. if it is wished to be left dull,--that is, free from glaire,--the particles attaching themselves over the edge of the gold ornaments must be removed with the end of the finger, wrapped over with a piece of fine cloth, and wetted. this will soon wash it clean, and when dry the blind ornaments may be proceeded with. graining may be properly considered as a blind ornament. this is where, by the means of wooden or metal plates, the sides of a book are marked with lines crossed over each other, so as to form innumerable small squares in imitation of russia, or in imitation of the grain of morocco, scales of fish, and other substances. the operation is performed by placing the volume between the two plates even by the groove of the back, in the standing-press, and pressing it tightly down, and so even that the plate will be impressed equally over the whole surface. nothing will look worse than a bold impression in one place and a slight one in another; and therefore it becomes of importance to see that it is evenly pressed, as a second application of some kind of plates will never be found affixed to the same places. modernized monastic or antique. this style, whether done by the hand or the press, is one that requires care and patience on the part of the workman, so as to bring up the tools black, without burning or otherwise injuring the leather. we have spent much time in experiments, so as to arrive at the most certain and perfect mode of producing the desired result. the style emanated from mr. hayday's bindery; and a volume executed in this style for a connoisseur in this city, with tooling of a brilliant black, fell into our hands some years since, and we at once set about attempting to produce the same effects. our efforts were confined to hand-tooling for some time; and, although inferior in effect, they were generally well received; but we were far from being satisfied. we tried every substance that could be thought of, made the leather and tools hot and dry, or wet and cold, as reason seemed to point to one or the other as the proper method. we will now communicate the results of our labours:--in the first place, the material is of the greatest importance; and the finest effects cannot be produced except upon english calf or morocco. american calf is entirely out of the question for the purpose, as the morocco is too hard on the surface, and there is not sufficient colour in the body for the tools to draw and affix it by heat to the surface; but some kinds are better adapted for the purpose than others. to test this, apply the tip of the tongue to the leather, and if the dampness lies on the surface, without sinking in, reject it; but if the dampness strikes instantly into the leather,--the quicker the better,--the workman may proceed with some hopes of success. after the volume is covered and ready for finishing, wash it evenly over with clean water; and, as soon as the water ceases to lie upon the surface, apply the tool moderately heated; this will bring up the dark colour. afterwards go over it again with the tool, so as to make the impressions clear and bright. there are, however, some colours, as well as particular manufactures, that will not come up black; and we were long satisfied that some colouring-matter was employed. we wrote to a friend in london, who sent us the material and the method of its use. the material was common printers' ink. his communication we now make public. "in the first place, the leather should be quite damp, and the tools used should be as hot as possible without the printers' ink. then again impressed with the printers' ink upon the tools. we put the larger tools in again without ink. when the ink is used upon the tools, the leather should be rather damp, and the tools not very hot. when the pattern is worked in the manner described, it should be left until dry, and then brushed with a brush, not very stiff, which will give a brilliant gloss to the tooling." when using printers' ink, be careful not to get too much on the tools. let the young workman but follow the directions given, and, with a little patience and reflection, he will be able to do work of the character under consideration, fully equal to the efforts of the best workman, provided that the tools be worked true and even. polishing. the details of this operation, which is performed immediately after the gold ornaments have been worked, have been reserved in order that the whole of the ornamental department might be kept together. morocco, roan, silk, and velvet, and the blind ornaments on any substance, must never be submitted to the action of the polisher. a smart rubbing with a piece of rough calf will be sufficient for the two former, and the velvet or silk will merely require cleaning with any smooth substance or with india-rubber. there are two polishers,--one for the back and bands, and another for the sides. the oil applied on the cover previous to laying on the gold will be sufficient to make the polisher glide easily over the surface. the polisher must be heated, and well cleaned on a board, and passed quickly and evenly on the back, sides, or joints, as the case may be, taking especial care that it is not too hot, as the glaire would thereby be turned white and the work damaged in appearance, nor so cold as to give a bad polish. the book, as gilt, must be first polished on the back, by taking it with the left hand, resting it on the table, and polished with the right hand by gliding backwards and forwards the smooth part of the polisher on the whole extent of the back. this not only polishes the surface, but smooths down the indentations formed upon the leather by the gilding-tools, bringing up the gilding to the surface. the polisher must be passed on such places only as it is wished to make brilliant, and great care taken not to touch the places intended to be left dull. the sides are similarly polished, by laying the volume on the table, covered with baize, and passing the large iron quickly over, first from the fore-edge towards the groove, and then, by turning the volume in a contrary way, from the tail to the head. if the joint requires polishing, the book is laid before the workman, the tail towards him, and the iron applied on the side next the groove, polishing the whole length of the board; then, turning round the volume, and bringing the fore-edge towards him, he polishes the side on the fore-edge, and, turning again, completes the whole by polishing the parts at the head and tail. in addition to polishing, it is desirable to give to the sides the greatest possible smoothness by pressing them between polished tins or horns. these are placed on each side of the book even by the groove, put between pressing-boards, and screwed tightly in the press, and left for some time. colouring. calf-skins of uniform tints, and also sprinkled, can now be obtained of english manufacturers; yet in many localities they are difficult to obtain. we therefore make known the chemical substances and ingredients required to execute them in the best manner. marbling is a process that must be executed by the binder upon the cover, and, with many other revival styles, is again coming into vogue. the recipes given for the superior marbles and designs will, it is presumed, present this branch of the art on a higher footing, in a general point of view, than is usually accorded to it; and it is confidently asserted that not one of them will prove a failure, if attention to the directions be only given. nothing has been omitted in the description of the substances best for use, the mode of preparing them, and the proceedings to be adopted, that can tend to give to the covers all the elegance and splendour of which they are susceptible. by the aid of these, assisted by some taste, the workman may vary the designs almost to infinity; but it must be admitted that, unless he is devoted to his art, no mere directions or casual advantages will enable him to succeed in the more complicated or delicate operations, while, with an ardour for it, all difficulties will be easily overcome. chemical preparations. under this head is included _aqua regia_, or killed spirits, _nitric acid_, _marbling-water_, and _glaire_ prepared for marbling. aqua regia, so called from its power to dissolve gold, is a mixture of nitic acid (aquafortis) and muriatic acid, (spirits of salts,) deprived of its burning qualities by block-tin, which it dissolves. it is called by the chemist _acid nitro-muriatic_: the muriatic also contains a portion of alkali, which gives to red a vinous tint, and for which colour it is principally used. the two substances should be of the purest quality, of a concentration of thirty-three degrees for the nitric acid and of twenty degrees for the muriatic. they must be mixed with the greatest precaution. having provided a clear glass bottle, the neck rather long, capable of holding twice the quantity to be prepared, place it upon a bed of sand, the opening at top, and pour in _one part_ of pure nitric acid and _three_ of muriatic. let the first vapours dispel, and then cover the orifice with a small phial, which must not confine the vapour too closely, as the bottle would be liable to burst, but which retains as much as possible without risk. of block-tin, an eighth part of the weight of the acid must then be dropped into the bottle, in small pieces, a little at a time, covering the orifice with the phial. the acid will immediately attack the tin and dissolve it, when a second portion must be put in with the same precaution, and so on till the whole is dissolved. _malacca_ tin is the best for use, and if pure there will be no sediment; but, as it cannot always be obtained, a black sediment will be left. the vapour having ceased, the acid must be poured into bottles and secured with glass stoppers, to preserve it. when used, a part is taken and mixed with _one quarter_ of its weight of distilled water. it is usual with some workmen to perform this operation in a common drinking-glass; but, as the vapour is thereby all dispersed, the composition loses a considerable portion of its best quality, for it will be observed, if performed in a bottle as above directed, that the vapour assumes a red tint, which does not escape if the neck of the bottle be of sufficient length. another. some binders adopt the following method; but, as it is not capable of producing an equal beauty and clearness of colour with the one above given, it will not be advisable to use. the former, too, will be equally effective to an indefinite period, while this will not preserve more than two or three months. put in a brown freestone pot two ounces of powdered _sal-ammoniac_, six ounces of fine _malacca tin_, in strips or drops, twelve ounces of distilled water, and, last, a pound of _nitric acid_, of thirty-three degrees. leave the whole till the tin is dissolved, and then pour off and bottle as above directed. vitriol-water. vitriol, as sold in the pure state, will not be proper to use in marbling or sprinkling, as it would corrode and destroy the leather. it must be weakened at least in proportion of one ounce of vitriol to three of water. marbling-water. it is usual with many to use the water pure; but a few drops of _potash liquid_ mixed with it will be found to produce better effect, the marble being rendered more distinct. glaire. put spirits of wine in a proportion of two drops to the whites of twelve eggs, and beat the whole well together till perfectly clear. preparations of the colours. the preparations used by different binders vary much, as will be seen by the recipes given for the same colours, which we judge necessary to put on record, that nothing connected with the subject should be omitted, premising that each colour may be depended upon for producing the most satisfactory results. it may be proper also to observe that the whole of the woods and other ingredients used should be previously powdered or reduced to small pieces, the colours being thereby much better extracted. black. . dissolve half a pound of green copperas in two quarts of water. the oxide contained in the sulphate of iron will combine with the tanning of the leather, and produce a good black. . boil in a cast-iron pot a quart of vinegar, with a quantity of rusty nails, or steel-filings, till reduced one-third, taking off the scum as it rises to the top. this liquid improves by age. to keep up the quantity, boil with more vinegar. . a cheaper liquid may be produced by boiling two pints of beer and two pints of water with two pounds of old iron and a pint of vinegar, scumming as before, and bottling for use. brown. . half a pound of good dantzic or american potash dissolved in one quart of rain-water, and preserved in a bottle well corked. . salts or oil of tartar, in the same proportions as above. . a beautiful brown may be procured from the green shells of walnuts. to prepare this, a quantity of the green shells, when the nuts are gathered, must be pounded in a mortar to extract the juice, and then put into a vessel capable of holding a sufficient quantity of water. the water being put in, the whole should be frequently stirred, and left to soak, with the vessel covered. afterwards the liquid must be passed through a sieve, the juice well expressed, and bottled, with some common salt, for use. this liquid, after fermentation, will produce the best effects, for the uniform tints, as it tends to soften the leather, and will not corrode. blue. . it is usual with many binders to use _scott's liquid blue_, but it is necessary to know the preparation of the colour. perhaps the best and most simple one known is one given by _poerner_, which is as follows:--in four ounces of sulphuric acid, of degrees, mix gradually one ounce of finely-powdered indigo, so as to form a sort of pulp. place the vessel in another containing boiling water, for some hours, and then leave it to cool. afterwards put to it a small portion of good potash, dry and finely powdered, stirring the whole well, and letting it rest for twenty-four hours, when bottled, and use as required. this colour will appear nearly black, but may be made to any shade by adding water to it. if any portion remain after being diluted, it must be put into a separate bottle, as if mixed with the first preparation the whole would be deteriorated. . a readier blue may be prepared by mixing one ounce of powdered indigo with two ounces of oil of vitriol, and letting it stand for twenty-four hours, and then adding twelve ounces of pure water. purple. boil half a pint of archill or logwood with vinegar and water, of each half a pint. lilac. same as for the purple, with the addition of about two table-spoonsful of potash. violet. half a pound of logwood chips and one ounce of brazil dust, boiled over a good fire in four pints of water till reduced one-half, and left to clear. then throw in one ounce of powdered alum and two grains of cream of tartar, and again boil till dissolved. this liquid must be used warm. fawn. in two pints of water boil one ounce of tan, and a like portion of nutgall, till reduced to a pint. yellow. . to one ounce of good caked saffron, turmeric, or french berries, add a portion of spirits of wine or _aqua regia_, and leave the mixture to macerate. this liquid is used cold, and may be varied to any shade by adding water when required. . in two pints of water put eight ounces of french berries, and boil till reduced one-half. then pass it through a sieve or fine cotton, and add a small quantity of powdered alum, and again boil, using it warm. orange. in a pint and a half of potash liquid, boil a quarter of a pound of fustic chips till reduced one-half; then put in an ounce of good _annatto_, well beaten, and, after boiling, a small portion of alum, and use warm. green. . liquid blue and yellow mixed will best suit for general purposes. . dissolve in a bottle one ounce of verdigris in an ounce of white wine vinegar, and place the whole before a fire for four or five days, frequently shaking the bottle. red. there are three sorts of red,--viz.: common, fine, and scarlet. _common._-- . in a tinned kettle boil half a pound of brazil wood, eight grains of nutgalls, both powdered, and three pints of water, till the whole is reduced one-third. then add powdered alum and sal-ammoniac, of each one ounce, and when dissolved strain through a sieve. this liquid must always be used warm. . boil a quarter of a pound of brazil dust, two ounces of powdered cochineal, and a little alum, in two pints of the best vinegar, till a bright red is produced. use warm. _fine._-- . in three pints of water boil half a pound of brazil dust and half an ounce of powdered nutgalls. pass the whole through a fine cotton, and replace the liquid on the fire, adding one ounce of powdered alum and half an ounce of sal-ammoniac. give the whole another boil, and then add a portion of _aqua regia_, according to the shade desired, and use warm. . a quicker and cheaper proceeding is by putting in a cup a portion of brazil wood, and adding to it the _aqua regia_, letting it stand for a quarter of an hour to extract the colour. _scarlet._--to one ounce of white nutgalls and one ounce of cochineal, both finely powdered, add two pints of boiling water. after boiling some time, add half an ounce of _aqua regia_, and use warm. marbling. before proceeding to a description of the marbles, and other designs on the covers coming under the general head of marbling, it will be proper to give a few directions relative to some important matters required in the way of preparation. as the success of many of the designs depends upon the quickness with which they are executed, it will be important that the colours, sponges, brushes, &c. are previously disposed in the best order, so as to be of the readiest access. attention should be paid to the probable quantity that may be required of each colour, as many of them will not be available for use another time. the books should all be previously washed with paste and water to which has been added a little pearlash liquid, and left to dry. after this they must be glaired equally over, and when dry placed upon the marbling-rods, the sides of the books extending over and the leaves hanging between. the rods must be placed on an elevation at the top, so as to allow the water to run gradually towards the bottom of the books; and, if the backs are required to be left plain, another rod, or piece of board, grooved to the shape of the back, placed on them. to avoid the scum arising from the beating of the brushes over the colours, it is better to rub the ends of the bristles on the palm of the hand, on which a little oil has been spread. these preliminaries being settled, the operation of marbling commences, for which we shall now give directions. common marble. the book being placed on the rods, throw on the water prepared for marbling in large drops, with a coarse brush, or bunch of quills, till the drops unite. then, with a brush charged with the black liquid and beaten on the press-pin as directed for sprinkling the edges, a number of fine streaks are produced by throwing the colour equally over the cover. afterwards the brown liquid must be similarly thrown over. when the veins are well struck into the leather, the water must be sponged off and the book placed to dry. if the volume has been previously coloured with any of the preparations before described, and it is wished to produce a marble thereon, the brown must be thrown on first, and then the black; as without this precaution the marble would not strike, because of the acid which forms part of the colours. this observation being applicable to all the other designs, it will not be necessary again to repeat it. another. throw on the vinegar-black, then the brown, and lastly a sprinkle of vitriol-water. purple marble. colour the cover two or three times with hot purple liquid, and, when dry, glaire. then throw on water, and sprinkle with strong vitriol-water, which will form red veins. stone marble. after throwing on the water, sprinkle boldly with the black liquid; then, with a sponge charged with strong brown, drop the colour on the back in three or four places, so that it may run down each side in a broad stream, and afterwards operate with vitriol-water on the parts the brown has not touched. green agate. sprinkle black, in nine times its quantity of water, in large drops over the whole surface of the cover, and when the drops unite apply on the back at regular distances the green liquid, so that it may flow on the boards and unite with the black. blue agate. proceed as above, only substituting blue in place of the green, weakened with water according to the shade required. fair agate. commence by sprinkling black in small drops at a good distance from each other; afterwards sprinkle equally over large drops of weak potash. agatine. proceed as for the green agate, and then sprinkle scarlet all over the cover; finally, throw on blue in small drops, weakened in four times the quantity of water. levant marble. after the water, throw on the back-brown in broad streaks as directed for the _stone_, and then in like manner the _aqua regia_. this will be found to imitate closely the levant marble. porphyry vein. throw on large drops of black diluted in double the quantity of water. when the colour has struck well into the leather, sprinkle in the same manner brown mixed equally with water. then apply a sprinkle of scarlet, and afterwards large spots of yellow, the liquid nearly boiling. while these colours are uniting, throw on weak blue, and then _aqua regia_, which, flowing together down the sides of the book, will form the vein distinctly. red porphyry. sprinkle with black in eight times the quantity of water, very equal and in small spots. let it dry, rub, and glaire. then give two or three sprinkles of fine red, and one of scarlet, and again leave to dry. finally, sprinkle scarlet in small spots as equally as possible. green porphyry. for this design the cover must be finely sprinkled over three separate times, leaving the colour to search and dry between each. the green must be brought to the shade required by mixing with water. to form a more elegant vein, sprinkle first with weak black, and afterwards with green, and when dry with fine red. porphyry. this marble, imitating the _eye of the partridge_, is executed by throwing on black in eight times its volume of water, in small drops, but so close as to just run into each other. when the black begins to flow, sprinkle over brown mixed equally with water. let it dry, wash the whole with a sponge, and before quite dry again give it two or three coats of fine red. after being dry and well rubbed, sprinkle equally over the surface large drops of _aqua regia_. another. colour the cover with red, yellow, blue, or green, and, when dry, with black diluted as above; let this also dry, and then sprinkle over large or small drops of aqua regia. the eye of the partridge is properly formed with blue sprinkled upon the weakened black, and, when dry, with the killed spirit or _aqua regia_. rock. throw on large drops of black prepared as for the porphyry, and, when half dry, weakened potash in the same manner. when dry again, sprinkle on equally small spots of scarlet, and lastly _aqua regia_. granite. mix black in about fifty times its quantity of water, and sprinkle equally over very fine, repeating it as it dries five or six times. then, in like manner, sprinkle over with brown, and, after rubbing well, glaire lightly. finally, sprinkle finely over with _aqua regia_. tree-marbles. these marbles, which were first executed in germany, from whence they passed into england, are formed by bending the boards in the middle, so that the water and colours flow from the back and fore-edge to the centre, in the form of branches of trees. those who have never seen the tree-marbles of mr. clarke, of london, can form but little idea of the beauty of which this style is susceptible. the name is also given to such as are made to imitate the grain of the wood. walnut. formed by sprinkling black and brown only, as for the common marble. cedar. after sprinkling as for the walnut, and before perfectly dry, apply lightly a sponge presenting large holes dipped in orange upon various places on the cover, so as to form a description of clouds. afterwards apply the fine red, with a similar sponge, nearly upon the same places, and when dry give the whole two or three coats of yellow, taking care that each penetrates evenly into the leather. mahogany. the proceedings are nearly the same as for the walnut, the difference being merely in sprinkling the black more boldly, and, when perfectly dry, giving two or three uniform coats of red. box. in order to imitate the veins contained in box, the boards must be bent in five or six different places and in divers ways. after placing the book between the rods, throw on the water in small drops, and proceed as for the walnut. after being perfectly dry, throw water again in large drops, and sprinkle on small spots of blue, diluted equally with water; and, when again dry and rubbed well, apply the scarlet with a sponge as directed for the cedar. finally, when dry, give two or three coats of orange, and the design is complete. wainscot. colour with strong brown, glaire, and place between the rods, with the boards flat. throw on weak black in large spots, then brown in like manner, and, lastly, sprinkle boldly with vitriol-water. variegated. marble as for the walnut, and then put on each board a circle, oval, or other figure, and apply weak black on the outer parts. when dry, give it a good coat of red, and, after throwing on spots of scarlet, take off the figures, and wash well the parts where the latter colour has been used. finally, give the oval two coats of yellow, or other colour, with a camel's-hair brush. marbling on paper. the sides of a half-bound book, which will be covered with paper, may be marbled to correspond with the effect produced on the leather by the action of the black and brown at the same time. this is performed by pasting firm white paper on the sides, and colouring with a mixture of four ounces of nutgalls and a small portion of powdered sal-ammoniac boiled well together, which will take the black and brown nearly equal to leather. sprinkles. this is another ornament on the covers of books, capable of being much varied. a few of the most general use are given, premising that any of the colours arranged as for the marbles above, or sprinkled on the uniform colours, will be productive of a beautiful effect. the books must be pastewashed over, but not glaired. nutmeg. sprinkle very finely with black and then with brown. if wished to produce a finer effect, give a sprinkle of vitriol-water. ring. put about a teaspoonful of vitriol to a cup of the black, and sprinkle coarsely over. if the ring is not sufficiently strong, add more vitriol. tortoise-shell. wash the cover with yellow, and sprinkle very boldly with black. when dry, spot with a sponge, as before directed, with blue, red, and black, each colour being left to dry before the next is applied. in concluding the description of the marbles and sprinkles, it may be remarked that, with a little taste, the workman might vary the designs to upwards of one hundred different patterns; also that each colour should be allowed to properly strike into the leather before another is used. panes, or blank spaces, are formed by placing squares, &c. of pasteboard on the sides, which prevents the colours touching the leather when sprinkling. after the design is completed, the covers should be well rubbed with a woollen cloth or the ball of the hand, to remove the whole of the refuse of the colour, which will be found to corrode on the surface of the leather. uniform colours. before proceeding to execute any of the colours, the books must be well and evenly paste-washed, and left till perfectly dry. it will also be necessary to observe that the black will become darker in all the subsequent operations of colouring, glairing, and polishing, so that attention must be paid not to use this liquid too strong. light brown. wash the cover with vitriol-water till perfectly uniform in colour, and then with brown to the shade desired. another. mix a small quantity of annatto with the potash liquid, and use hot. this will produce a beautiful tint. dark brown. colour with weak black till a slate-shade is produced, and then apply the brown three or four times, as taste may dictate. others might be added, but the proceedings are the same, varying only the quantity of colour according to the shade. the _nut-brown liquid_ will produce beautiful tints. corinthian grape. the proceedings are the same as for the last colour, adding two or three coats of _fine red_. common grape. proceed as for the last, omitting the brown after the black. blue. after giving four or five coats of the chemical blue diluted with water, wash lightly with weakened aqua regia, which will take off the green reflection produced by the yellow tint of the leather. green. give three or four coats of the green liquid, extended in water according to the shade required. any of the other colours noticed in the preparations may be thus executed. olive. after giving a slate-colour, apply yellow, boiled with a small portion of blue, on the cover, rubbing it equally in while hot, to insure uniformity. pearl gray. this colour must be executed carefully, so as to be perfectly uniform and without stains. colour over with exceedingly weak black liquid, till a pale gray is produced. the weaker it is, the better will the workman succeed. then pass over a light coat of fine red mixed in a large portion of water, so as to give a light red reflection scarcely distinguishable. slate. use the black liquid a little stronger than for the last, and omit the red. black. for common purposes, the black may be formed in the way adopted for other colours; but, in many instances, it is necessary to produce a colour having the appearance of japan, and which will require more labour and attention. wash the book over with brown till a dark shade is formed; then, with a piece of woollen cloth, apply the black liquid mixed with japan, which will produce a beautiful black. this colour should have a good coat of vellum-size before glairing. or it may be better to finish off with the varnish given in another part of the work. nutgalls, copperas, and gum-arabic, are used by many, and will be found to produce a good and bright colour. gold marbles, landscapes, etc. these designs, if properly executed, are the most beautiful that can be imagined. the labour and care, however, requisite, must ever confine them to superior bindings, for which a high price is given, to indemnify the workman for the time required to produce the proper effect. the imitation of the gold marbles is not an easy task; but a knowledge of the art of painting, and a clever management of the brush, will enable the workman to imitate the figure of the marble so true to nature as to be scarcely distinguishable. gold marble. this marble, which will not require the ability to execute as those following it, is the invention of m. berthé, senior, bookbinder of paris, and may be executed on any kind of uniform substance. take a piece of cloth, exceeding the size of the volume, and fold it equally; lay it, thus folded, evenly upon a board, and then open the other half, and cover the board; spread, upon the half towards the left, gold leaf to the size of the cover, allowing such portion as the roll intended to be worked on it may take, which will be a saving of gold; then refold the cloth on the gold, and press the hand above, without moving the cloth, so as to divide the gold into a number of small pieces. the gold being thus prepared, moisten the side of the volume with glaire mixed with water in equal proportion, and place it on the cloth, pressing above firmly with the hand. care being taken not to disarrange it, turn over the volume, cloth, and board, and take the latter off, replacing it with a sheet of paper, and rubbing smartly above, so as to attach the whole of the gold to the cover. after this the cloth must be removed, and the gold will be found equally fixed; to further insure which lay on a sheet of paper, and rub well with the palm of the hand. to remove any gold that may appear on the part intended for the roll in gilding, wet the end of the thumb, form a sort of square with the fore-finger on the edge of the board to the size of the roll, and rub the surface of the cover, which will clear it with facility before the glaire is dry. lapis-lazuli. this marble is of clear blue, veined with gold, presenting an appearance of the utmost splendour. it is executed as follows:-- place the volume between rods as for marbling, and with a sponge full of large holes, dipped in chemical blue mixed in six times its volume of water, make light spots, similar to clouds, at irregular distances; then put in a quarter part more blue, and make new clouds or spots a little darker. repeat this operation six or seven times, each time adding more blue. all these coats will form stains in proper gradation, as in the natural marble; and to operate more properly, it would be better to have a model, either of the marble itself, or skilfully painted. the veins of gold, which must not be laid on till the book is gilt, and just previous to polishing, are formed with gold in shell. the substance used to make it take and hold firmly on the cover of the book is prepared with white of egg and spirits of wine in equal proportion, and two parts of water, beating all well and leaving it to clear; then wet a small portion of gold-powder with the liquid, mixing it with the finger, and use it with a small camel's-hair pencil. pass it on in different places, so as to imitate the model, according to the taste of the workman; when done, let it perfectly dry, and polish with the polisher scarcely warm. it will be perceived that by the use of other colours, or two or three together, many beautiful designs may be in like manner executed. landscapes. many beautiful subjects may be formed on the sides of books by the workman skilled in painting; and, although coming more properly under the art of painting, and being objectionable on account of producing a mingling of the arts, so frequently exhibited upon volumes where the art of the bookbinder is superseded by that of the painter and jeweller, the young workman should understand at least the process by which they are produced. the volume is prepared by being pastewashed, so as to present a uniform fawn colour, the designs slightly traced, and afterwards coloured according to the pattern, the colours being mixed to the proper shade with water. the shades must be tried on pieces of refuse leather, as, being spirit-colours, when once laid on, no art can soften them down if too strong; and a peculiar lightness of touch will be necessary to produce effect. portraits, &c. may also be executed in this manner, and many superb designs have at times been executed by the best binders of england and france. m. didot, bookseller of paris, presented a copy of the "_henriade_," published by himself, to louis xviii., most elegantly ornamented in this style. it was executed by _m. lunier bellier_, bookbinder of tours, and exhibited on one side a miniature portrait of henry iv., and on the other a similar one of louis xviii., both perfect likenesses. the greatest difficulty consisted in the portraits, which were first imprinted on paper, very moist, and immediately applied to the cover, on which they were impressed with a flat roller. when perfectly dry, they were coloured with all the art of which the binder was capable, and the other ornamental paintings executed by hand. this proceeding requires great care in the execution, and will be applicable to any design where the binding will justify the expense. transferred landscapes. the art of transferring, long practised in the ornamenting of fancy articles, was judged equally practicable for forming a superior embellishment for the sides of books. but the varnish necessary to be employed in the operation rendered the invention of no utility, from the action of the heated polisher turning it white or causing it to shell off. after several trials, this difficulty is believed to be overcome, by the employment of a very simple and common article in the office of the bookbinder,--viz.: _new glaire_, well beaten up. the proceeding is as follows:--cut the print, intended to be transferred, close to the design on all sides. let it steep in the glaire till it is well saturated with it. during this time glaire the book twice, letting it dry on each application. take out the print, place it exactly in the centre of the side-cover, and, laying a piece of paper above, rub it sharply on the book, so that it may adhere very closely. remove the upper paper, and with the finger rub off the paper gently until the printed design begins to appear, wetting the finger in _glaire_ should the paper get too dry. the utmost attention will now be necessary, for the least carelessness in removing the paper that still remains may entirely destroy the design, and the whole of the previous labour be lost. the paper must be gently removed, piece by piece, till the design only appears on the leather while damp. when dry, a white appearance will be presented, arising from the small particles of paper adhering to the ink; but these will be sufficiently hid on glairing the side previous to finishing. the extent and variety to which, at a small expense, these designs may be carried, with the finish and beauty given to the sides of books, renders the subject worthy of the attention of the ornamental workman particularly; but he must possess perseverance and carefulness in an eminent degree, to carry it to perfection. after the gilding or other ornament is executed, the side must be finished off in the usual manner. a slight coat of the varnish described in a subsequent part of the work will, in this case, give a superior finish. the following directions, and that of mr. buchanan's, are taken from the circulars of the finishers' friendly association of london:-- "_pictures on calf._--we have heard of a process for transferring prints from the paper on which they had been printed to the sides of books bound in calf; and in these days, when _novelty_ is so much sought after, it might be worth some friendly's while to test its efficacy. the side must be washed clean, and, while damp, the print is laid thereon, when, after remaining some time in the arming-press, it is said that a copy of the engraving will be found on the calf. "in sending one of these executed in colours by him twenty years ago, a friendly corrects an error we committed, by terming _prints_ pictures, and writes, 'in preparing the calf, it is simply washed with thin paste-water; when dry, a coat or two of weak salts of tartar. when perfectly dry, you may proceed with any subject; a very weak brown being generally used for its outline. for all colours, i use two cups of different strengths, with _quill_-pens and brushes to each. the green is composed of scott's liquid blue and french berries. these are bruised and simmered from half a pint to a quartern, then caused to boil, and, while in that state, a pinch of burnt alum should be added to set the colour. the slate is weak copperas; red is obtained from brazil dust and vinegar, or brazil chips boiled, and solution of tin added. the books had generally double bands--the lettering-pieces stained chocolate, and the spaces between bands blacked, or the colours "_moused_," morocco being too bright for the stained calf. an octagon or square was coloured brown, slate, or sprinkled, and in the centre a light ground. was the subject to my fancy, botanical works with a group of plants on the sides, when polished and pressed in japanned tins, had the neatest appearance. landscapes, animals, insects, shells, &c. are all permanently fixed on the calf by the above-named colours.' he concludes by hoping 'the instructions are sufficiently plain to induce some aspiring f. f.'s to practise this almost forgotten branch of the art of finishing.' "w. buchanan." ornamental black lines. black lines in rays, or intersecting each other in the form of diamonds or other devices, on the sides of books, which present a good appearance if well executed, are ruled with steel or swan pens, the nibs being formed to the size required by the boldness of the lines. the vinegar-black mixed with a portion of gum-arabic, to neutralize a part of the action of the acid and make it of a stronger consistency, will be found to answer best. whatever the pattern, it should be slightly traced with the folder, and the design be afterwards marked with the pen, kept steady by the aid of a ruler. blacking the squares. unless coloured uniformly, the whole of the designs before described will not produce the best effect if the squares remain plain or variously tinted; it is, therefore, necessary to black the edges and squares of the board, and the cap over the head-band. this is done with a piece of any firm soft substance on the edges, and with a sponge within the volume, sufficiently below the part where the end-papers will cover. finally, the covers should be well pastewashed and left to dry. bands and title-pieces. where the backs are flat it will be necessary to mark the place intended for the bands in gilding. for this purpose the binder should have patterns of the various forms and sizes cut out of thin board, a little longer and double the breadth of the volumes, so that they may be held firmly on the sides, while the bands are marked across the back through the apertures cut in the pattern. it is usual to give a double band at the bottom of the back, and therefore this must be allowed for in the pattern, which lengthened portion must be placed even with the edge of the boards at the tail of the volume, and the bands marked with the folder. by this plan the whole of the bands in sets of books will present a parallel line, and the bad effect produced by the inequalities arising from compassing the distances and trusting to the sight will be avoided. a great saving of time is also effected, as the patterns once made will serve for a very considerable period. on the fancy colours and sprinkles it is usual to attach lettering-pieces of morocco. for this purpose the morocco, or roan if common work, is cut lengthways of the grain, according to the space between the bands, and the slip placed across the back to measure the breadth, and then cut off. then, slightly damping on the flesh-side, it must be pared as thin and equal as possible, and the edges sloped evenly down, so as to bring it to the exact size of the square it is to occupy. should the back require two pieces,--viz.: another for the volume or contents,--it may be proper to vary the colour. these title-pieces are pasted evenly on, a portion of paste rubbed over them with the finger, and then attached firmly and equally by rubbing down the edges with the folder, when the paste must be well washed off with a clean sponge. where economy is an object, the squares intended for the title may be darkened with brown or black, which will show the lettering very well. inlaid ornaments. to give some bindings in vellum, calf, or morocco an additional degree of splendour, it is sometimes required to execute ornaments on the covers of a different colour; and, as this is an important manipulation, it will be necessary for the young workman to understand it. let the pattern be worked in blind upon the volume, taking care to have it well impressed. pare morocco of the colour desired evenly and thin. while damp, place it upon that portion of the pattern to be inlaid, and press upon it with the fingers. the outline of the figure will appear through the morocco. then lay it upon the paring-stone; and, with the same gouges with which the pattern has been executed, proceed to cut out the morocco. the gouges used for this kind of work should be made of steel. the same directions will apply to fancy titles for flat backs. after the pieces have been properly cut out, the workman will proceed to paste them evenly and adjust them in their place upon the volume. when dry and prepared, the book will then be ready for gilding, and when covered with the gold ornament the joints of the leather will not be perceptible, if well executed. the gouges must be worked upon the edge of the morocco. this kind of ornament is more frequently executed on calf than any other substance. colours. in connection with inlaid ornament, we give a few hints to guide the workman in choice of colours. much of the effect produced will result from the relations which the colours will bear to each other. a well-executed piece of work may be spoiled by the injudicious selection of colours. if the finisher be ignorant of the lessons which nature teaches in the distribution of colours, he cannot expect to please a connoisseur whose taste has been corrected and refined by a study of the harmonies of colours. numerical proportions of homogeneous colours. _yellow_, . _red_, . _blue_, . secondaries. yellow } orange. { red } { these are contrasting colours to the { primaries with which they produce red } purple. { harmony in opposition:--the orange blue } { with the blue, the purple with the { yellow, and the green with the red. yellow } green. { blue } { tertiaries. purple } olive. { green } { the tertiaries stand in the same relation { to the secondaries that the secondaries green } citron. { do to the primaries:--olive to orange } { orange, citron to purple, and russet { to green. orange } russet. { purple } { yellow is melodized by orange on one side and green on the other; blue by green and purple, and the red by purple and orange. pasting the end-papers, joints, etc. the volume being laid upon the table or press, with the head towards the workman and the upper board open, the guard or false end-paper must be removed and all other substances cleared out of the joint with the folder. the paper to be pasted on the board is cut at each end, so as to show the same margin as on the fore-edge, and pasted evenly over. it is then carefully laid upon the board. the position being adjusted, a piece of white paper should be laid thereon, and the whole rubbed perfectly even with the flat of the hand. then with the folder rub perfectly square on the joint. the volume, with the board open, may then be turned, and the other side done in the same way. if it is intended to execute a gilt border or blind tooling in the interior of the cover, it will be important that no part of the end-paper covers it. to avoid this, a slip must be cut off at the head, tail, and on the fore-edge, proportionate to the extra breadth of the border over the square. or, if morocco joints have been placed in the volume, the two corners of the portion left to be attached to the boards must be cut, to prevent their showing above the end-paper, which is to be pasted over and would disfigure the edge, taking care to leave as much leather as will cover perfectly such portion as is intended for the joint and square of the board, so that, when the paper is pasted on, it will not be perceived that the corners have been cut off. pare the edge of the leather where the part is cut off on a small board or folder placed underneath; afterwards paste the joint on the edge of the board, attach it neatly with the thumb, finger, and folder, and, when dry, paste thereon the marbled or coloured paper cut to the proper size. for the best class of work the morocco joint is placed in the volume by the finisher after the book is covered. if the ends are of silk, it will be necessary to leave the silk sufficiently large to turn the edges over a piece of paper that has been cut to the required size, and in order to preserve the gloss and richness of the silk it should not be pasted on the paper upon which it is placed, except where it is turned over the edge of the paper. the paper is then lightly glued over and adjusted upon the board. this method also prevents the silk from ravelling or presenting a jagged edge. in all cases, however, where the border is gilt or otherwise ornamented, below the level of the edges of the volume, the ends must not be pasted down till after that operation is completed, as the glaire and oil would be liable to stain, and present a bad effect. [illustration: standing-press.] for inferior bindings, where the end-papers are left plain, the last two leaves being merely pasted together, the ends will only require pasting, and attaching by placing the volume between boards, and screwing firmly in the standing-press, immediately after which it must be taken out and the boards opened, so as to make the joints free. almost every class of work except velvet and turkey morocco requires to be submitted to the action of the standing-press after the end-papers have been pasted down, and then allowed to become perfectly dry by leaving the boards open. our illustration is taken from a standing-press manufactured by w. o. hickok, harrisburg, pa. in all the departments, but especially in finishing, cleanliness is of the utmost importance. it matters not how graceful may be the design, how perfectly the tools may be worked; all may be spoiled by a volume having a dirty appearance. therefore, have every thing clean about you,--cups, sponges, and brushes. let your size, pastewash, and glaire, be clean; your oil-cotton the same. do not lay on the gold until the preparation is dry. after the working of your tools, be particular in cleaning off the gold, so that no portions or specks remain that should not, for they will have the appearance of dirt. in calf-work, especially, be careful of grease, or of any thing that will soil the leather. in summer-time great care must be taken to protect your work from the flies, particularly after your backs are worked off. the little pests will eat the glaire off in places, and give the book an unsightly appearance. varnish, as used in bookbinding. the first, by the celebrated _tingry_, is made in the following manner:-- put into a vessel six ounces of mastic, in drops, three ounces of sandarac finely powdered, four ounces of coarsely-broken glass, separated from the dust by a sieve, and thirty-two ounces of spirits of wine, of about forty degrees. place the vessel upon straw in another filled with cold water; put it on the fire and let it boil, stirring the substances together with a stick, to keep the resins from uniting. when the whole appears well mixed, put in three ounces of turpentine, and boil for another half-hour, when the whole must be taken off and stirred till the varnish and the water in which it is placed cools. next day, filter it through a fine cotton, by which means it will acquire the greatest degree of limpidity, and well cork up in a bottle. the other recipe is given by _mons. f. mairet_, of _châtillon sur seine_, and may be prepared similar to the above. the ingredients are, three pints of spirits of wine, of thirty-six to forty degrees, eight ounces of sandarac, two ounces of mastic in drops, eight ounces of shell-lac, and two ounces of venice turpentine. the varnish is first put on the back of the book with a camel's-hair brush as lightly as possible. when nearly dry, it is polished with a ball formed of fine white cotton, filled with wool, on which has been rubbed a small quantity of olive-oil, to make it glide freely; it must be rubbed at first lightly, and, as fast as the varnish dries and becomes warm, more sharply. the sides are in like manner polished one after the other. varnish is applied after the volume has been polished by the iron, in order to retain the brilliancy and preserve the volume from the bad effects produced by flies eating off the glaire. the manufactured article now in general use is applied by a soft sponge being lightly passed over the volumes after a small portion of varnish has been applied to the sponge. stamping. for gilding the sides and even backs of publishers' work, or in fact any other where a quantity of gilding is desired at little expense, the stamping-press is brought into requisition, and by means of tools cut for the purpose, called blocks or stamps, the design is impressed on the side. these stamps may be made of very small pieces, and, by having a number of them, the patterns produced may be almost indefinite. the stamps are affixed to an iron or brass plate, called a back or foundation-plate, upon which a piece of stout paper has been glued. then let the workman mark upon the plate the exact size of the side to be stamped, marking it evenly with the compasses, so as to justify the stamps; then strike the centre, and draw lines upon the paper from the centre, so as to divide it into squares or to any given part, so as to afford freedom for selection in the starting-point of the design. for it must be manifest that if a workman starts all his patterns from the same point, notwithstanding he may have a variety of tools at his disposal, his patterns will exhibit a great deal of uniformity. let the paper be glued equally over the surface, and proceed to form the pattern by arranging the stamps upon the plate so as to exhibit the design. a great deal of taste can be displayed in the formation of patterns for stamping; but, in consequence of the public generally desiring a mass of gilt gingerbread-work, this branch has been but little cultivated; the prevalent opinion among stampers being that it is no matter what is put upon the side so that it is well covered with gold. publishers find those books that are the most tawdrily gilt are soonest disposed of; hence, every thing is sacrificed to a gaudy exterior. it is to be hoped that the art will be relieved from this degraded ornamentation. stampers themselves can do something to purify and correct the public taste by avoiding the unmeaning collections confusedly huddled together, so often seen upon sides. every remark in regard to style, design, and combination of tools in the hand-finisher's department applies with equal force to stamp-work; and, although the stamps used in the latter are not so plastic as those in hand-work, still great results will be achieved; for, notwithstanding the superiority of hand-work for artistic expression and permanence, press-work will always maintain a prominent position in the art, producing, as it does, striking results at a trifling expense. after the pattern is formed, take a little paste and touch the under side of each stamp, and place them in exact position. after this is done and the paste has become hard, lay the stamp or pattern thus formed upon the side of the volume, taking care to have the same margin on the front, back, and ends. then place the board or side upon which the stamp is placed upon the platen or bed of the stamping-press, leaving the volume hanging down in front of the platen, which is then moved to the centre of the upper platen, so that the clamps will touch the plate on both edges at the same moment; then pull the lever so as to put a slight pressure upon the plate in order to keep both it and the side in their proper place; then adjust the guides to the fore-edge and head or left-hand side, and screw them fast; throw back the lever, take out the book; examine and correct any irregularity in the margin of the pattern by moving the guides. when perfectly square, place a soft pasteboard under the stamp, pull down the press, and apply heat. this will set the stamps or harden the paste and glue in a short time, so that they will not fall off in stamping--a great annoyance. work for stamping does not require so much body or preparation as if it were to be gilt by hand. morocco can be worked by merely being washed with urine; but it is safer to use a coat of size, or glaire and water mixed in proportions of one of the former to three of the latter. grained sheep, or, as it is called, imitation-morocco, requires more body to gild well. after the books are ready for laying on, the gold-leaf is cut upon the cushion to the required size, or, if the volume be large and the stamp will cover its superficial extent, the leaf may be lifted from the gold-book by means of a block covered with wadding or cotton lap and laid immediately upon the side. after an oiled rag has been lightly passed over the surface of the leather to cause the gold to adhere until it is put under the press, examine the press to see if sufficiently heated for the purpose. a little experience will soon determine the requisite amount of heat as a general rule. leather-work does not require as hot a tool for stamping as for hand-work, while cloth or muslin-work requires a short, quick stroke, and the press to be hotter than for leather. in most binderies the stamping-press is heated by introducing steam or gas through tubes perforated for the purpose; though a few still use the heaters, which, after being heated in a furnace, are placed in the holes of the upper platen. after the press is properly heated, throw back the lever; take out the pasteboard from under the stamp; regulate the degree of pressure required for the stamp; then place the side to be stamped upon the bed-plate, holding it firmly against the guides with the left hand, while with the right the lever is quickly drawn to the front. this straightens the toggles and causes a sharp impression of the stamp upon the leather; immediately throw back the lever; take out the side, and rub off with a rag the superfluous gold. repeat the operation upon the other side, unless the stamp be of an upright design; it will then be necessary to turn the stamp in the press before operating upon the other side. case-work or covers that are stamped before being put upon the books are done in the same manner, the backs being also stamped before being glued on. the preceding cut of a stamping-press for gilding light work, lettering, &c., is of the most approved construction, while for large, heavy work, either gilt or stamped blind, (embossed, as it is erroneously called,) and for cloth-work generally, the wheel-press is best adapted. it can be worked either by hand or by power. the fly-wheel can be kept revolving while the workman is engaged in feeding the press. the lever is used for light work. it will be perceived that the upper platen of this press, to which the stamp is attached, is stationary, thereby giving great advantages in arranging pipes for heating by gas, and also for carrying off the smoke and unconsumed gas that would otherwise escape into the room. these presses are manufactured by i. adams & co., boston. [illustration: lettering and gilding press, no. .] [illustration: embossing press, no. .] a description of the various processes to produce by stamping the rich effects of inlaid work will be found under the head of illuminated binding and that of inlaid ornaments. for publishers' work it is a point of economy to have a steel-cutter that will cut out the pattern at one blow. for this kind of work, coloured german paper is used instead of leather for inlaying. thin boards are cut out with the aid of steel-cutters and the stamping-press, and affixed to the volumes; and, after they are covered, they are stamped in gold and blind with patterns corresponding with the figure of the cutter. this can only be applied where there are a large number of volumes, although single volumes may be cut out by hand at an increase of expense. the modernized gothic design (plate ix.) is intended for a side-plate, to be worked either in gold or blank. the light floriated design (plate x.) is calculated to be worked in gold, and is a good illustration of the prevailing treatment of the style for which it has been expressly designed. the pattern upon plate xi. is intended for press-work, to be blank-stamped. the contrast of light and heavy work producing a fine effect, it is well adapted for a side-stamp, especially for cloth-work. [illustration: _ ._ _modernized gothic._] [illustration: _ ._ _modern floriated design._] [illustration: _ ._ _expressly for cloth after holbein's style._] plate xii. is a graceful design from a "hint" of mr. leighton's. it is suited for a side-stamp, to be worked in gold; and with it closes our illustrations of design. [illustration: _ ._ _from a hint of leighton._] to obviate a difficulty that the young finisher will experience in his first attempts at designing, let him select a good quality of sized paper, cut it to the required size, then fold it carefully into four parts, and draw his pattern boldly upon one of the four corners with a lead-pencil. after that is done, slightly damp the opposite corner, fold the drawn portion so that it comes in contact with the damp surface, and rub it upon the back, so as to transfer the outlines of the drawing. when it appears with sufficient distinctness, trace it carefully over with the pencil, and repeat the process upon the other corners until the pattern is complete. this method insures accuracy and expedition. in working a pattern with gouges or with intersected lines, the same principle is applied, so as to reproduce the pattern precisely alike at the four corners, and to save time. in this case the paper is folded, and one impression of the tool answers for both sides of the pattern. let the young finisher but feel a love for his art, make himself familiar with the best specimens, and determine to excel; and eventually his productions will be esteemed, his ability command the best situations, and he will be recognised as an artist. cutting-machines. for cutting paper, pamphlets, and books "out of boards," a number of machines have been invented, and are used in many binderies, especially in those where large quantities of "cloth-work" are bound. they have been found to answer for this class of work very well. some of them operate with sufficient nicety to cut books for case-work that are intended for gilt edges, when they are not to be scraped. for first-class work, cut "in boards," nothing has been discovered to supersede the old-fashioned mode of cutting with the plough and press. [illustration: patent paper and book trimmer.] the above cut of one of these machines, from the manufactory of i. adams & co., boston, will serve to convey a general idea of its appearance; and the names of the makers are a sufficient guarantee of the mechanical perfection of its details. translation of dates. many old books have their dates printed in a manner which puzzles the finisher, should he be required to date any so printed, which are too thin to admit of its being done as on the title-page. the following key is here given, as it may be found useful in such cases:--c. ; i[c], or d, ; ci[c] or m, ; i[cc], ; cci[cc], , ; i[ccc], , , ccci[ccc], , . thus, ci[c], i[c], clxxxv -- . while on this subject, it may not be inappropriate to notice the dating of some books printed in france during the republic in that country. thus, "an. xiii."-- , that being the thirteenth year of the republic, which commenced in . restoring the bindings of old books. old bindings often look badly on account of the leather becoming dry and cracked, or the surface of the skin having been rubbed off in places. to obviate this, take a small quantity of paste and rub it carefully with the finger upon the portions that require it; after it is dry, wash the volume carefully over with a thin solution of glue size. when dry, the volume may be varnished, and afterwards rubbed over with a cloth in which a few drops of sweet oil have been dropped. supplying imperfections in old books. it often occurs that a valuable and rare work has a leaf torn or missing. in order to supply it, the first step will be to obtain the use of a perfect copy as a model. then procure paper of the same colour as the leaf to be mended, and cut it carefully to correspond with the torn portion. after the piece has been neatly adjusted, tip it and the leaf, very lightly, along the edges with paste made of rice-flour; then place a piece of tissue-paper on both sides of the leaf, and smooth it carefully with the folder; then close the volume and allow it to remain until perfectly dry. then proceed to remove the tissue-paper, and it will be found that the portions that adhere where the joining occurs will be strong enough to secure the piece to the leaf of the book. the letters may be then copied from the perfect copy and traced upon the inserted piece. the general appearance will depend upon the skill displayed in order to produce a successful imitation of the original. hints to book-collectors. never write your name upon the title-page of a book. have your books cut as large as possible, so as to preserve the integrity of the margin. do not adopt one style of binding for all your books. let the bindings upon your books be characteristic of the contents and of the value of the work. employ turkey morocco for large works or for books that you have in constant use. it is the most durable material used in binding, except levant morocco, which is very expensive. english coloured calf makes a beautiful covering, and bears full gilt tooling better than morocco. the latter, if too richly charged, is apt to look tawdry. let the durability and neatness of your bindings be the primary requisites. ornament judiciously and sparingly, rather than carelessly or gaudily. poetry and sermons are not to be treated alike, either in colour or degree of ornament to be employed. the value of a library will be enhanced by the amount of knowledge and taste displayed in the bindings. russia leather is no protection against worms, and it speedily cracks along the joint. uncut books will command a higher price than those that are cropped. to bind a book well, it should have ample time to dry after each process. when you receive a volume from the binder, place it upon your shelf in such a manner that the adjoining volumes will press tightly against it and keep it closed; or, if you lay it upon your table, place other volumes upon it, to prevent the boards from warping, and do not, for some time, use it near the fire. upon opening a volume, do not grasp the leaves tightly in your hands. you might thereby break the back. if the book is too tight in the back, lay it upon a flat surface, and open it by taking a few sheets at a time, and lightly pressing upon the open leaves, going thus from the beginning to the end, until the requisite freedom is obtained. use a paper-knife, or folder, to cut up the leaves of your uncut books, so that the edges will be smooth and even; otherwise the book will have to be cut down when it is bound. do not bind a newly-printed book. it is liable to set off in the pressing. never destroy an original binding upon an old volume if the binding be in tolerable condition. an old book should not be rebound, unless it is essential to its preservation; and then it should be, as far as possible, a restoration. carefully preserve old writings and autographs upon fly-leaves, unless they are trivial. it is an act of courtesy to the former owner of a book to place his book-plate on the end-board of the volume. any blank-leaves that occur in old volumes should not be removed. the bastard or half title should always be preserved. have all oblong plates placed in such a manner that the inscription under them will read from the tail to the head of the volume. never bind a large map with a small volume. it is liable to tear away; and, in pressing the volume, it makes unseemly marks. maps and plans should be affixed to blank leaves, so as to open clear of the volume, that the reader may have the plan and text to examine together. it is a false economy to bind up a number of volumes together, especially if they are of different sizes and upon different subjects. keep your books dry, but not too warm. gas is injurious in a library, especially to the gilding upon the books. do not place books with uncut tops where the dust will fall upon them. it will penetrate between the leaves and mar the interior of the volumes. avoid placing books with clasps or carved sides upon the shelves. they will mark and scratch their neighbours. never fold down corners, or wet your fingers, when reading or turning over the pages of a book. do not read a book at table. crumbs are apt to penetrate into the back-fold of the leaves. books are not intended for card-racks or for receptacles of botanical specimens. never leave a book open, face downward, under the pretext of keeping the place. if it remain long in that condition, it will probably ever afterwards jump open at that place. never pull books out of the shelves by the head-bands, or suffer them to stand long upon the fore-edge. books should not be toasted before a fire or be converted into cushions to sit upon. saturate a rag with camphor, and, when dry, occasionally wipe the dust from your books with it, and you will not be annoyed with book-worms. treat books gently; for "books are kind friends. we benefit by their advice, and they exact no confessions." +technical terms+ used in bookbinding. _all-along._--when a volume is sewed, and the thread passes from kettle-stitch to kettle-stitch, or from end to end in each sheet, it is said to be sewed all-along. _asterisk._--a sign used by the printers at the bottom of the front page of the duplicate-leaves printed to supply the place of those cancelled. _backing-boards._--are used for backing or forming the joint. they are made of very hard wood or faced with iron, and are thicker on the edge intended to form the groove than upon the edge that goes towards the fore-edge, so that the whole power of the laying-press may be directed towards the back. _backing-hammer._--the hammer used for backing and rounding: it has a broad, flat face, similar to a shoemaker's hammer. _bands._--the twines whereon the sheets of a volume are sewn. when the book is sewed flexible the bands appear upon the back. when the back is sawn so as to let in the twine, the appearance of raised bands is produced by glueing narrow strips of leather across the back before the volume is covered. _band-driver._--a tool used in forwarding to correct irregularities in the bands of flexible backs. _bead._--the little roll formed by the knot of the headband. _bleed._--when a book is cut into the print it is said to bleed. _bevelled boards._--very heavy boards for the sides champered around the edges. _blind-tooled._--when the tools are impressed upon the leather, without being gilt, they are said to be blind or blank. _boards._--are of various kinds, such as pressing, backing, cutting, burnishing, gilding, &c. the pasteboards used for side-covers are termed boards. the boards used for cutting books "out of boards" are called steamboat-boards. tinned boards are used for finished work; while brass or iron-bound boards are used for pressing cloth-work. _bodkin or stabbing-awl._--a strong point of iron or steel, fixed on a wooden handle, to form the holes in the boards required to lace in the bands. used also for tracing the lines for cutting the fore-edge. _bole._--a preparation used in gilding edges. _bolt._--the fold in the head and fore-edge of the sheets. also the small bar with a screw used to secure the knife to the plough. _bosses._--brass plates attached to the sides of volumes for their preservation. _broke up._--when plates are turned over and folded at a short distance from the back-edge, before they are placed so as to enable them to turn easily in the volume, they are said to be broke up. the same process is sometimes applied to the entire volume. _burnish._--the effect produced by the application of the burnisher to the edges. _burnishers._--are pieces of agate or bloodstone affixed to handles. _cancels._--leaves containing errors which are to be cut out and replaced with corrected pages. _caps._--the leather covering of the headband. applies also to the paper envelopes used to protect the edges while the volume is being covered and finished. _case-work._--work in which the boards are covered and stamped. the volume is then glued upon the back and stuck into them. _catch-word._--a word met with in early-printed books at the bottom of the page, which word is the first on the following page. now used to denote the first and last word in an encyclopædia or other book of reference. _centre-tools._--are single, upright, or independent tools used for the middle of the panels by the finisher. _clearing out._--removing the waste-paper and paring away any superfluous leather upon the inside, preparatory to pasting down the lining-paper. _collating._--examining the signatures, after the volume is gathered, to ascertain if they be correct and follow in numerical order. _corners._--the triangular brass tools used in finishing backs and sides. the gilt ornaments used on velvet books. also, the leather pasted on the corners of half-bound books. _creaser._--the tool used in marking each side of the bands, generally made of steel. _cropped._--when a book has been cut down too much it is said to be cropped. _dentelle._--a fine tooled border resembling lace-work. _edge-rolled._--when the edges of the boards are rolled. it may be either in gold or blind. _embossed._--when a plate is stamped upon the cover so as to present a raised figure or design, it is said to be embossed. some inappropriately term this kind of work arabesque. _end-papers._--the paper placed at each end of the volume, a portion of which is removed when the lining-paper is pasted down upon the boards. also called waste-papers. _fillet._--the cylindrical ornament used in finishing upon which simple lines are engraved. _finishing._--is that department that receives the volumes after they are put in leather, and ornaments them as required. one who works at this branch is termed a finisher. _finishers' press._--is the same as a laying-press, only much smaller. _flexible._--when a book is sewn on raised bands and the thread is passed entirely round each band. _folder._--this is a flat piece of bone or ivory used in folding the sheets and in many other manipulations. also applied to a female engaged in folding sheets. _fore-edge._--the front edge of the book. _foundation-plate._--a plate of iron or brass upon which side-stamps are affixed. _forwarding._--is that branch that takes the books after they are sewed and advances them until they are put in leather ready for the finisher. one who works at this branch is termed a forwarder. _full-bound._--when the sides of a volume are entirely covered with leather, it is said to be full-bound. _gathering._--the process of arranging the sheets according to the signatures. _gauge._--used in forwarding to take the correct size of the volume and to mark it upon the boards for squaring. _gilt._--is applied to both the edges and to the ornaments in finishing. _glaire._--the whites of eggs. _grater._--an iron instrument used by the forwarder for rubbing the backs after they are paste-washed. _gouge._--a tool used in finishing, the face of which is a line forming the segment of a circle. _guards._--strips of paper inserted in the backs of books intended for the insertion of plates, to prevent the book being uneven when filled; also the strips upon which plates are mounted. _guides._--the groove in which the plough moves upon the face of the cutting-press. _half-bound._--when a volume is covered with leather upon the back and corners, and the sides are covered with paper or cloth. _hand-letters._--letters cut and affixed to handles, and adjusted singly upon the volume when lettering it. _head and tail._--the top and bottom of a book. _headband._--the silk or cotton ornament worked at the ends so as to make the back even with the squares. _imperfections._--sheets rejected on account of being in some respect imperfect, and for which others are required to make the work complete. _in boards._--when a volume is cut after the pasteboards are affixed to form the sides, it is said to be cut in boards. the term is also applied to a style of binding in which the boards are merely covered with paper. _inset._--the pages cut off in folding and placed in the middle of the sheet. _inside tins._--so called from being placed inside of the boards when the volume is put in the standing-press. _joints._--the projections formed in backing to admit the boards; applied also to the inside when the volume is covered. _justification._--the observance that the pages of a volume agree and are parallel throughout, so as to insure a straight and equal margin. _kettle-stitch._--the stitch which the sewer makes at the head and tail of a book; said to be a corruption of chain-stitch. _keys._--the little instruments used to secure the bands to the sewing-press. _knocking-down iron_.-- so called from having the slips, when laced in, pounded down upon it, so that they will not show when the book is covered. _laced in._--when the boards are affixed to the volume by means of the bands being passed through holes made in the boards, they are said to be laced in. _lettering-block._--a piece of wood, the upper surface being rounded, upon which side-labels are lettered. _lettering-box._--the box in which the type are screwed up preparatory to lettering. _lining-paper._--the coloured or marbled paper at each end of the volume. _marbler._--the workman who marbles the edges of books, &c. _mitred._--when the lines in finishing intersect each other at right angles and are continued without overrunning each other, they are said to be mitred. _out of boards._--when a volume is cut before the boards are affixed, it is said to be done out of boards. _overcasting._--an operation in sewing, when the work consists of single leaves or plates. _pallet._--name given to the tools used in gilding upon the bands, sometimes applied to the lettering-box. _panel._--the space between bands; also applied to bevelled and sunk sides. _papering up._--covering the edges after they are gilt, so as to protect them while the volume is being covered and finished. _paring._--reducing the edges of the leather by forming a gradual slope. _pastewash._--a thin dilution of paste in water. _pencil._--a small brush of camel's hair. _pieced._--when the space between bands, upon which the lettering is placed, has a piece of leather upon it different from the back, it is said to be pieced or titled. _plough._--the instrument used in cutting the edges of books and pasteboards. _points._--holes made in the sheets by the printer; they serve as guides in folding. _polisher._--a steel implement used in finishing. _press._--there are various kinds of presses,--viz.: laying or cutting, standing, stamping, embossing, gilding, and finishing. _rake._--an instrument used in forwarding, to harden the backs while being pastewashed in the standing-press. _rasped._--the sharp edge taken off the boards. _register._--the ribbon placed in a volume for a marker; also a list of signatures, attached to the end of early-printed works, for the use of the binder. _rolls._--the cylindrical ornaments used in finishing. _run up._--when the back has a fillet run from head to tail without being mitred at each band, it is said to be run up. _runner._--the front board used in cutting edges, &c. _sewer._--the person who sews the sheets together on the sewing-press--generally a female. _set-off._--designates the transfer of the ink to the opposite page. _setting the head._--is covering the headband neatly with the leather, so as to form a kind of cap. _shaving-tub._--the paper cut from the edges of a volume are called shavings. the receptacle into which they fall while the forwarder is cutting the edges is termed the shaving-tub. _signature._--the letter or figure under the footline of the first page of each sheet to indicate the order of arrangement in the volume; sometimes applied to the sheet itself. _size._--a preparation used in finishing and gilding, generally made from vellum. _slips._--the pieces of twine that project beyond the volume after it is sewn. _squares._--the portions of the board that project over the edges. _stabbing._--the operation of piercing the boards with a bodkin for the slips to pass through; also the piercing of pamphlets for the purpose of stitching. _stamps._--the brass tools used in finishing to impress a figure upon the leather; they are distinguished by hand-stamps and stamps for the press. _start._--when any of the leaves are not properly secured in the back, upon opening the volume they will project beyond the others, and are said to start. _steamboating._--cutting books out of boards, a number being cut at the same time. _stitching._--the operation of passing the thread through a pamphlet for the purpose of securing the sheets together. _stops._--are small circular tools, adapted to stop a fillet when it intersects at right angles, to save the time used in mitreing. _title._--the space between bands, upon which the lettering is placed. _tools._--applied particularly to the hand-stamps and tools used in finishing. _trindle._--a strip of thin wood or iron. _turning up._--the process of cutting the fore-edges in such a manner as to throw the round out of the back until the edge is cut. _tying up._--the tying of a volume after the cover has been drawn on, so as to make the leather adhere to the sides of the bands; also for setting the head. _whipping._--the process of overseaming plates. _witness._--when a volume is cut so as to show that it has not been cut as small as some of the leaves, their uncut edges prove this, and are called witness and sometimes proof. _wrinkle._--the uneven surfaces in a volume, caused by not being properly pressed or by dampness, also caused by improper backing. index. affixing the stamps, , . agatine marble, on leather, . aldine, . aldus, . anonay paper, . antique, . bands, . marble, . dutch, . arabesque, . assyrian, . aqua regia, . backing-machine, . backs, flexible, , . india-rubber, . backing books, . bands, in finishing, . bands, raised, , . parchment, . baumgarten, . beating, , . beating-hammer, . beckford, . bedford, . benedict, . bible, chained in churches, . bibliographical decameron, , , . bindings of corvinus, . of henry vii., . of henry viii., . of elizabeth, . of grolier, . of maioli, . of diana of poictiers, . of henry ii., . of de thou, . of the chevalier d'eon, . of oxford, . of mackinlay, . of roger payne, - . of mackenzie, . of charles lewis, . of clarke, . of riviere, . of bedford, . of hayday, . of napoleon, . of lortic, . of duru, . of niédré, . bindings of bauzonnet, , . black, for marbling, , . edges, . ink, , . for blank-work, . for marbling leather, . for leather, . lines, . blacking the squares, . blank binding, . bleeding, . blind tooling, . block-finishing, . blue, for edges, . for marbling, , , , . ink, . for marbling leather, . uniform colour for leather, . blue agate marble on leather, . stormont marble, . boards, mode of making, . squaring, . boarding, blank-work, . printed work, . box marble, on leather, . british marble, . brown, for edges, . for marbling, , . for marbling leather, , . uniform colour for leather, . burnt ochre, . burnishing, , , . byzantine, . cambridge, . binding, . cancels, . caoutchouc, . capé, , . carved oak boards, description of, , . precious stones let into, . case-work, stamping, . cedar sprinkle, on leather, . chemical preparations, . chinese blue, . chrome, . clarke, . clasps, . cleanliness, . cloth-work, . collating, . description of, , . coleridge, . colours, for edges, - . for marbling, . grinding, . uniform, for leather, . harmony of, . colouring, for leather, . comb marble, . combs, for marbling, . corners, . corvinus, library of, . covering, . blank-work, . cropping, . curl marble, . cutting in boards, . cutting-machines, . dawson, . derome, , , . de seuil, , . design, . designing, . de thou, bindings of, . dibdin, his account of the library of corvinus, . of roger payne, , , . diptych, description of, . drag spanish marble, . drop ivory black, . drop lake, . duru, , . dutch marble, . dutch pink, . edges, colouring and sprinkling, . colours for, - . blue, . yellow, . green, . orange, . red, . purple, . brown, . black, . rice marbled, . white spotted, . fancy marbled, . gold sprinkle, . marbled, , . burnishing, , . gilt, . antique, . gold upon marble, . black, . edge-gilding, . antique, . on marble, . on landscapes, . eighteenmo, . elizabethan, . end-papers, , , . etruscan, . eyton, j. w. king, binding belonging to, , . fair agate marble, on leather, . falkner, . fancy titles, , . fawn, colour for leather, . finishing, blank-work, . finisher's standing press, . flea-seed, . flexible, mode of sewing, . marking off, , . folding, . blank-work, . folio, . font hill, , . forwarding, job-work, mode of operation, . making end-papers, . putting in joints, . glueing up, rounding, . backing, , . cutting, , . making boards, . squaring, . lacing in, . pastewashing back, . cutting round, . turning up, . foundation-plate, . gilding, preparations for, . the back, . the squares, . the sides, . on silk and velvet, . gilt edges, . upon marbled, . glaire, for marbling leather, . gold marble on leather, . gold sprinkle, . gothic, . grafton, the printer, . grained sheep, . graining, . grolier, bindings of, . style, . green, for edges, . for blank-work, . for leather, . uniform colour for leather, . agate marble on leather, . italian marble, . porphyry marble on leather, . greek, . gum, . directions for preparing for marbling, . guards, sewing on, , . mode of mounting, . gum-sandarac, . harleian, . harmony of colours, . half-binding, . hayday, , , . headbands, . single, . double, . gold and silver, . ribbon, . heat, degree required for stamping, . hints to book-collectors, . henry vii., time of, . viii., bindings of, . hering, . holbein, . hydraulic press, . illuminated binding, . imperfections in old books, . indigo, . inlaid work, . ornaments, . irish moss, . italian marble, . janseniste, . joint, mode of forming, . joints, inside, . kalth[oe]ber, . kettle-stitch, , , . keys for securing bands on sewing-bench, . detaching, . lacing in, . landscapes on sides, . transferred, . lapis lazuli marble on leather, . lay on, . leland's itinerary, . lettering-press, . levant marble on leather, . levant morocco, , . lewis, charles, . light italian marble, . lilac, for leather, . lining-papers, mode of making, . linseed, . lortic, , . louis quatorze, . mackenzie, . mackinlay, john, . bindings of, . mahogany sprinkle on leather, . maiolo, . malacca tin, . marbling on leather, - . on paper sides, . marbling-water for leather, . marbled cloth, . marbled edges, . gilt upon, . making cases, . missals, antiquity of, . mitreing, . modernized monastic, . montague, . moorish, . niédré, , . nonpareil, . raked, . reversed, . numerical proportions of colours, . nutmeg sprinkle on leather, . oak boards, , . octavo, . old bindings, . olive, for leather, . orange, for edges, . for marbling, , . for leather, . orange lead, . ornamental art, . oxford, bindings of, . oxford ochre, . ox-gall, . padeloup, . paging-machine, . paper and book trimmer, . paring-knife, . pasting down, . payne, roger, history of, . his bindings, . bill of, . his favourite colour, . pearl-gray for leather, . petit, bernard, bindings designed by, . phillatius the athenian, . pictures on calf, . pickering, . plates, mode of sewing, . polishing, . porphyry marble on leather, . porphyry vein marble on leather, . preparations for marbling, . chemical, . for stamping, . for gilding, . for marbling leather, . press-work, . primary colours, . prints on calf, . progress of the art, , . prussian blue, . purple, for edges, . for blank-work, . for leather, . marble on leather, . quarto, . raw ochre, . red, for edges, . for marbling, - . ink, . for blank-work, . for leather, . red porphyry marble on leather, . register, . renaissance, . restoring old bindings, . revival, . rock marble on leather, . rolling-machine, substitute for beating; mode of operation; advantages and disadvantages of, , . roman, . rose-pink, . rounding, . rice marble, . ring sprinkle on leather, . riviere, . ruling, . run up, . russian bands, . sawing, , . sawing-machine, . scraping, . secondary colours, . setting the head, . the stamp, . set off, , . sewing, process of, , . two sheets on, . all along; quartos; plates or maps, . whipping, sewing on guards, . on raised bands; pure flexible, , , . blank-work, . sewing-bench, , . shell marble, , , . sheriffs of shropshire, . sheet-work, . silk lining, . sixteenmo, . sizing the paper, . slate, uniform colour for leather, . smasher, substitute for beating, . mode of operation; amount of pressure; advantage of, . spanish marble, . olive, . blue, . brown, . fancy, . drag, . spring-back, blank-work, . sprinkles, , . sprinkling, mode of, , . colours for, . rice-marble, . white spot, . gold sprinkle, . staggemier, . stamping, . steamboating, . stabbing, . steel gouges, . stone marble, on leather, . sunk boards, . supplying imperfections in old books, . table-shears, . taste, . technical terms, - . tertiary colours, . thirty-twomo, . thouvenin, bindings of, . titles, . fancy, . tortoise-shell sprinkle on leather, . to dissolve gold, . transfers, , . transferring designs, . translation of dates, . trautz et bauzonnet, , , . tree-marbled calf, , . troughs for marbling, . turning up, . twelvemo, , . twenty-fourmo, . tying up, . ultramarine, . umber, . uncut books, . uniform colours on leather, - . variegated marble, on leather, . varnish, . vegetable black, . vermilion, . violet for leather, . vitriol-water for marbling leather, . wainscot sprinkle on leather, . walnut sprinkle on leather, . walther, . water for marbling, . wave-marble, . wax for marbling, . west-end marble, , . whipping, . white for marbling, , . white-spotted edges, . wood-lake, . yellow for edges, . for marbling, . for blank-work, . for leather, . the end. stereotyped by l. johnson and co. philadelphia. * * * * * catalogue of practical and scientific books, published by henry carey baird & co., industrial publishers and booksellers, no. walnut street, philadelphia. * * * * * [right-pointing hand] any of the books comprised in this catalogue will be sent by mail, free of postage, at the publication price. [right-pointing hand] a descriptive catalogue, pages, vo., will be sent, free of postage, to any one who will furnish the publisher with his address. * * * * * arlot.--a complete guide for coach painters. translated from the french of m. arlot, coach painter; for eleven years foreman of painting to m. eherler, coach maker, paris. by a. a. fesquet, chemist and engineer. to which is added an appendix, containing information respecting the materials and the practice of coach and car painting and varnishing in the united states and great britain. mo. $ . armengaud, amoroux, and johnson.--the practical draughtsman's book of industrial design, and machinist's and engineer's drawing companion: forming a complete course of mechanical engineering and architectural drawing. from the french of m. armengaud the elder, prof. of design in the conservatoire of arts and industry, paris, and mm. armengaud the younger, and amoroux, civil engineers. rewritten and arranged with additional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the most useful and generally employed mechanism of the day. by william johnson, assoc. inst. c. e., editor of "the practical mechanic's journal." illustrated by folio steel plates, and wood-cuts. a new edition, to. $ . arrowsmith.--paper-hanger's companion: a treatise in which the practical operations of the trade are systematically laid down: with copious directions preparatory to papering; preventives against the effect of damp on walls; the various cements and pastes adapted to the several purposes of the trade; observations and directions for the panelling and ornamenting of rooms, etc. by james arrowsmith, author of "analysis of drapery," etc. mo., cloth. $ . ashton.--the theory and practice of the art of designing fancy cotton and woollen cloths from sample: giving full instructions for reducing drafts, as well as the methods of spooling and making out harness for cross drafts, and finding any required reed, with calculations and tables of yarn. by frederick t. ashton, designer, west pittsfield, mass. with illustrations. one volume, to. $ . baird.--letters on the crisis, the currency and the credit system. by henry carey baird. pamphlet. baird.--protection of home labor and home productions necessary to the prosperity of the american farmer. by henry carey baird. vo., paper. baird.--some of the fallacies of british free-trade revenue reform. two letters to arthur latham perry, professor of history and political economy in williams college. by henry carey baird. pamphlet. baird.--the rights of american producers, and the wrongs of british free-trade revenue reform. by henry carey baird. pamphlet. baird.--standard wages computing tables: an improvement in all former methods of computation, so arranged that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a specified rate per day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. by t. spangler baird. oblong folio. $ . baird.--the american cotton spinner, and manager's and carder's guide: a practical treatise on cotton spinning; giving the dimensions and speed of machinery, draught and twist calculations, etc.; with notices of recent improvements: together with rules and examples for making changes in the sizes and numbers of roving and yarn. compiled from the papers of the late robert h. baird. mo. $ . baker.--long-span railway bridges: comprising investigations of the comparative theoretical and practical advantages of the various adopted or proposed type systems of construction; with numerous formulæ and tables. by b. baker. mo. $ . bauerman.--a treatise on the metallurgy of iron: containing outlines of the history of iron manufacture, methods of assay, and analysis of iron ores, processes of manufacture of iron and steel, etc., etc. by h. bauerman, f. g. s., associate of the royal school of mines. first american edition, revised and enlarged. with an appendix on the martin process for making steel, from the report of abram s. hewitt, u. s. commissioner to the universal exposition at paris, . illustrated. mo. $ . beans.--a treatise on railway curves and the location of railways. by e. w. beans, c. e. illustrated. mo. tucks. $ . bell.--carpentry made easy: or, the science and art of framing on a new and improved system. with specific instructions for building balloon frames, barn frames, mill frames, warehouses, church spires, etc. comprising also a system of bridge building, with bills, estimates of cost, and valuable tables. illustrated by plates, comprising nearly figures. by william e. bell, architect and practical builder. vo. $ . bell.--chemical phenomena of iron smelting: an experimental and practical examination of the circumstances which determine the capacity of the blast furnace, the temperature of the air, and the proper condition of the materials to be operated upon. by i. lowthian bell. illustrated. vo. $ . bemrose.--manual of wood carving: with practical illustrations for learners of the art, and original and selected designs. by william bemrose, jr. with an introduction by llewellyn jewitt, f. s. a., etc. with illustrations. to., cloth. $ . bicknell.--village builder, and supplement: elevations and plans for cottages, villas, suburban residences, farm houses, stables and carriage houses, store fronts, school houses, churches, court houses, and a model jail; also, exterior and interior details for public and private buildings, with approved forms of contracts and specifications, including prices of building materials and labor at boston, mass., and st. louis, mo. containing plates drawn to scale; showing the style and cost of building in different sections of the country, being an original work comprising the designs of twenty leading architects, representing the new england, middle, western, and southwestern states. to. $ . blenkarn.--practical specifications of works executed in architecture, civil and mechanical engineering, and in road making and sewering: to which are added a series of practically useful agreements and reports. by john blenkarn. illustrated by large folding plates. vo. $ . blinn.--a practical workshop companion for tin, sheet-iron, and copperplate workers: containing rules for describing various kinds of patterns used by tin, sheet-iron, and copper-plate workers; practical geometry; mensuration of surfaces and solids; tables of the weights of metals, lead pipe, etc.; tables of areas and circumferences of circles; japan, varnishes, lackers, cements, compositions, etc., etc. by leroy j. blinn, master mechanic. with over illustrations. mo. $ . booth.--marble worker's manual: containing practical information respecting marbles in general, their cutting, working, and polishing; veneering of marble; mosaics; composition and use of artificial marble, stuccos, cements, receipts, secrets, etc., etc. translated from the french by m. l. booth. with an appendix concerning american marbles. mo., cloth. $ . booth and morfit.--the encyclopedia of chemistry, practical and theoretical: embracing its application to the arts, metallurgy, mineralogy, geology, medicine, and pharmacy. by james c. booth, melter and refiner in the united states mint, professor of applied chemistry in the franklin institute, etc., assisted by campbell morfit, author of "chemical manipulations," etc. seventh edition. royal vo., pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations. $ . box.--a practical treatise on heat: as applied to the useful arts; for the use of engineers, architects, etc. by thomas box, author of "practical hydraulics." illustrated by plates containing figures. mo. $ . box.--practical hydraulics: a series of rules and tables for the use of engineers, etc. by thomas box. mo. $ . brown.--five hundred and seven mechanical movements: embracing all those which are most important in dynamics, hydraulics, hydrostatics, pneumatics, steam engines, mill and other gearing, presses, horology, and miscellaneous machinery; and including many movements never before published, and several of which have only recently come into use. by henry t. brown, editor of the "american artisan." in one volume, mo. $ . buckmaster.--the elements of mechanical physics: by j. c. buckmaster, late student in the government school of mines; certified teacher of science by the department of science and art; examiner in chemistry and physics in the royal college of preceptors; and late lecturer in chemistry and physics of the royal polytechnic institute. illustrated with numerous engravings. in one volume, mo. $ . bullock.--the american cottage builder: a series of designs, plans, and specifications, from $ to $ , , for homes for the people; together with warming, ventilation, drainage, painting, and landscape gardening. by john bullock, architect, civil engineer, mechanician, and editor of "the rudiments of architecture and building," etc., etc. illustrated by engravings. in one volume, vo. $ . bullock.--the rudiments of architecture and building: for the use of architects, builders, draughtsmen, machinists, engineers, and mechanics. edited by john bullock, author of "the american cottage builder." illustrated by engravings. in one volume, vo. $ . burgh.--practical illustrations of land and marine engines: showing in detail the modern improvements of high and low pressure, surface condensation, and super-heating, together with land and marine boilers. by n. p. burgh, engineer. illustrated by plates, double elephant folio, with text. $ . burgh.--practical rules for the proportions of modern engines and boilers for land and marine purposes. by n. p. burgh, engineer. mo. $ . burgh.--the slide-valve practically considered. by n. p. burgh, engineer. completely illustrated. mo. $ . byles.--sophisms of free trade and popular political economy examined. by a barrister (sir john barnard byles, judge of common pleas). first american from the ninth english edition, as published by the manchester reciprocity association. in one volume, mo. paper, cts. cloth. $ . byrn.--the complete practical brewer: or plain, accurate, and thorough instructions in the art of brewing beer, ale, porter, including the process of making bavarian beer, all the small beers, such as root-beer, ginger-pop, sarsaparilla-beer, mead, spruce beer, etc., etc. adapted to the use of public brewers and private families. by m. la fayette byrn, m. d. with illustrations. mo. $ . byrn.--the complete practical distiller: comprising the most perfect and exact theoretical and practical description of the art of distillation and rectification; including all of the most recent improvements in distilling apparatus; instructions for preparing spirits from the numerous vegetables, fruits, etc.; directions for the distillation and preparation of all kinds of brandies and other spirits, spirituous and other compounds, etc., etc. by m. la fayette byrn, m. d. eighth edition. to which are added, practical directions for distilling, from the french of th. fling, brewer and distiller. mo. $ . byrne.--handbook for the artisan, mechanic, and engineer: comprising the grinding and sharpening of cutting tools, abrasive processes, lapidary work, gem and glass engraving, varnishing and lackering, apparatus, materials and processes for grinding and polishing, etc. by oliver byrne. illustrated by wood engravings. in one volume, vo. $ . byrne.--pocket book for railroad and civil engineers: containing new, exact, and concise methods for laying out railroad curves, switches, frog angles, and crossings; the staking out of work; levelling; the calculation of cuttings; embankments; earth-work, etc. by oliver byrne. mo., full bound, pocket-book form. $ . byrne.--the practical model calculator: for the engineer, mechanic, manufacturer of engine work, naval architect, miner, and millwright. by oliver byrne. volume, vo., nearly pages. $ . byrne.--the practical metal-worker's assistant: comprising metallurgic chemistry; the arts of working all metals and alloys; forging of iron and steel; hardening and tempering; melting and mixing; casting and founding; works in sheet metal; the processes dependent on the ductility of the metals; soldering; and the most improved processes and tools employed by metal-workers. with the application of the art of electro-metallurgy to manufacturing processes; collected from original sources, and from the works of holtzapffel, bergeron, leupold, plumier, napier, scoffern, clay, fairbairn, and others. by oliver byrne. a new, revised, and improved edition, to which is added an appendix, containing the manufacture of russian sheet-iron. by john percy, m. d., f.r.s. the manufacture of malleable iron castings, and improvements in bessemer steel. by a. a. fesquet, chemist and engineer. with over engravings, illustrating every branch of the subject. vo. $ . cabinet maker's album of furniture: comprising a collection of designs for furniture. illustrated by large and beautifully engraved plates. in one vol., oblong. $ . callingham.--sign writing and glass embossing: a complete practical illustrated manual of the art. by james callingham. in one volume, mo. $ . campin.--a practical treatise on mechanical engineering: comprising metallurgy, moulding, casting, forging, tools, workshop machinery, mechanical manipulation, manufacture of steam-engines, etc., etc. with an appendix on the analysis of iron and iron ores. by francis campin, c. e. to which are added, observations on the construction of steam boilers, and remarks upon furnaces used for smoke prevention; with a chapter on explosions. by r. armstrong, c. e., and john bourne. rules for calculating the change wheels for screws on a turning lathe, and for a wheel-cutting machine. by j. la nicca. management of steel, including forging, hardening, tempering, annealing, shrinking, and expansion. and the case-hardening of iron. by g. ede. vo. illustrated with plates and wood engravings. $ . campin.--the practice of hand-turning in wood, ivory, shell, etc.: with instructions for turning such works in metal as may be required in the practice of turning wood, ivory, etc. also, an appendix on ornamental turning. by francis campin; with numerous illustrations. mo., cloth. $ . carey.--the works of henry c. carey: financial crises, their causes and effects. vo. paper harmony of interests: agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial. vo., cloth. $ . manual of social science. condensed from carey's "principles of social science." by kate mckean. vol. mo. $ . miscellaneous works: comprising "harmony of interests," "money," "letters to the president," "financial crises," "the way to outdo england without fighting her," "resources of the union," "the public debt," "contraction or expansion?" "review of the decade -' ," "reconstruction," etc., etc. two vols., vo., cloth. $ . past, present, and future. vo. $ . principles of social science. vols., vo., cloth. $ . the slave-trade, domestic and foreign; why it exists, and how it may be extinguished ( ). vo., cloth. $ . letters on international copyright ( ) the unity of law: as exhibited in the relations of physical, social, mental, and moral science ( ). in one volume, vo., pp. xxiii., . cloth. $ . chapman.--a treatise on ropemaking: as practised in private and public rope yards, with a description of the manufacture, rules, tables of weights, etc., adapted to the trades, shipping, mining, railways, builders, etc. by robert chapman, mo. $ . colburn.--the locomotive engine: including a description of its structure, rules for estimating its capabilities, and practical observations on its construction and management. by zerah colburn. illustrated. a new edition. mo. $ . craik.--the practical american millwright and miller. by david craik, millwright. illustrated by numerous wood engravings, and two folding plates. vo. $ . de graff.--the geometrical stair builders' guide: being a plain practical system of hand-railing, embracing all its necessary details, and geometrically illustrated by steel engravings; together with the use of the most approved principles of practical geometry. by simon de graff, architect. to. $ . de koninck.--dietz.--a practical manual of chemical analysis and assaying: as applied to the manufacture of iron from its ores, and to cast iron, wrought iron, and steel, as found in commerce. by l. l. de koninck, dr. sc., and e. dietz, engineer. edited with notes, by robert mallet, f.r.s., f.s.g., m.i.c.e., etc. american edition, edited with notes and an appendix on iron ores, by a. a. fesquet, chemist and engineer. one volume, mo. $ . duncan.--practical surveyor's guide: containing the necessary information to make any person, of common capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher. by andrew duncan. illustrated. mo., cloth. $ . duplais.--a treatise on the manufacture and distillation of alcoholic liquors: comprising accurate and complete details in regard to alcohol from wine, molasses, beets, grain, rice, potatoes, sorghum, asphodel, fruits, etc.; with the distillation and rectification of brandy, whiskey, rum, gin, swiss absinthe, etc., the preparation of aromatic waters, volatile oils or essences, sugars, syrups, aromatic tinctures, liqueurs, cordial wines, effervescing wines, etc., the aging of brandy and the improvement of spirits, with copious directions and tables for testing and reducing spirituous liquors, etc., etc. translated and edited from the french of mm. duplais, ainé et jeune. by m. mckennie, m. d. to which are added the united states internal revenue regulations for the assessment and collection of taxes on distilled spirits. illustrated by fourteen folding plates and several wood engravings. pp., vo. $ . dussauce.--a general treatise on the manufacture of every description of soap: comprising the chemistry of the art, with remarks on alkalies, saponifiable fatty bodies, the apparatus necessary in a soap factory, practical instructions in the manufacture of the various kinds of soap, the assay of soaps, etc., etc. edited from notes of larmé, fontenelle, malapayre, dufour, and others, with large and important additions by prof. h. dussauce, chemist. illustrated. in one vol., vo. $ . dussauce.--a general treatise on the manufacture of vinegar: theoretical and practical. comprising the various methods, by the slow and the quick processes, with alcohol, wine, grain, malt, cider, molasses, and beets; as well as the fabrication of wood vinegar, etc., etc. by prof. h. dussauce. in one volume, vo. $ . dussauce.--a new and complete treatise on the arts of tanning, currying, and leather dressing: comprising all the discoveries and improvements made in france, great britain, and the united states. edited from notes and documents of messrs. sallerou, grouvelle, duval, dessables, labarraque, payen, rené, de fontenelle, malapeyre, etc., etc. by prof. h. dussauce, chemist. illustrated by wood engravings. vo. $ . dussauce.--a practical guide for the perfumer: being a new treatise on perfumery, the most favorable to the beauty without being injurious to the health, comprising a description of the substances used in perfumery, the formulæ of more than preparations, such as cosmetics, perfumed oils, tooth powders, waters, extracts, tinctures, infusions, spirits, vinaigres, essential oils, pastels, creams, soaps, and many new hygienic products not hitherto described. edited from notes and documents of messrs. debay, lanel, etc. with additions by prof. h. dussauce, chemist. mo. $ . dussauce.--practical treatise on the fabrication of matches, gun cotton, and fulminating powders. by prof. h. dussauce. mo. $ . dyer and color-maker's companion: containing upwards of receipts for making colors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now in existence; with the scouring process, and plain directions for preparing, washing-off, and finishing the goods. in one vol., mo. $ . easton.--a practical treatise on street or horsepower railways. by alexander easton, c. e. illustrated by plates. vo., cloth. $ . elder.--questions of the day: economic and social. by dr. william elder. vo. $ . fairbairn.--the principles of mechanism and machinery of transmission: comprising the principles of mechanism, wheels, and pulleys, strength and proportions of shafts, coupling of shafts, and engaging and disengaging gear. by sir william fairbairn, c. e., ll.d., f.r.s., f.g.s. beautifully illustrated by over wood-cuts. in one volume, mo. $ . forsyth.--book of designs for headstones, mural, and other monuments: containing designs. by james forsyth. with an introduction by charles boutell, m. a. to., cloth. $ . gibson.--the american dyer: a practical treatise on the coloring of wool, cotton, yarn and cloth, in three parts. part first gives a descriptive account of the dye stuffs; if of vegetable origin, where produced, how cultivated, and how prepared for use; if chemical, their composition, specific gravities, and general adaptability, how adulterated, and how to detect the adulterations, etc. part second is devoted to the coloring of wool, giving recipes for one hundred and twenty-nine different colors or shades, and is supplied with sixty colored samples of wool. part third is devoted to the coloring of raw cotton or cotton waste, for mixing with wool colors in the manufacture of all kinds of fabrics, gives recipes for thirty-eight different colors or shades, and is supplied with twenty-four colored samples of cotton waste. also, recipes for coloring beavers, doeskins, and flannels, with remarks upon anilines, giving recipes for fifteen different colors or shades, and nine samples of aniline colors that will stand both the fulling and scouring process. also, recipes for aniline colors on cotton thread, and recipes for common colors on cotton yarns. embracing in all over two hundred recipes for colors and shades, and ninety-four samples of colored wool and cotton waste, etc. by richard h. gibson, practical dyer and chemist. in one volume, vo. $ . gilbart.--history and principles of banking: a practical treatise. by james w. gilbart, late manager of the london and westminster bank. with additions. in one volume, vo., pages, sheep. $ . gothic album for cabinet makers: comprising a collection of designs for gothic furniture. illustrated by large and beautifully engraved plates. oblong. $ . grant.--beet-root sugar and cultivation of the beet. by e. b. grant. mo. $ . gregory.--mathematics for practical men: adapted to the pursuits of surveyors, architects, mechanics, and civil engineers. by olinthus gregory. vo., plates, cloth. $ . griswold.--railroad engineer's pocket companion for the field: comprising rules for calculating deflection distances and angles, tangential distances and angles, and all necessary tables for engineers; also the art of levelling from preliminary survey to the construction of railroads, intended expressly for the young engineer, together with numerous valuable rules and examples. by w. griswold. mo., tucks. $ . gruner.--studies of blast furnace phenomena. by m. l. gruner, president of the general council of mines of france, and lately professor of metallurgy at the ecole des mines. translated, with the author's sanction, with an appendix, by l. d. b. gordon, f.r.s.e., f.g.s. illustrated. vo. $ . guettier.--metallic alloys: being a practical guide to their chemical and physical properties, their preparation, composition, and uses. translated from the french of a. guettier, engineer and director of foundries, author of "la fouderie en france," etc., etc. by a. a. fesquet, chemist and engineer. in one volume, mo. $ . harris.--gas superintendent's pocket companion. by harris & brother, gas meter manufacturers, and cherry street, philadelphia. full bound in pocket-book form. $ . hats and felting: a practical treatise on their manufacture. by a practical hatter. illustrated by drawings of machinery, etc. vo. $ . hofmann.--a practical treatise on the manufacture of paper in all its branches. by carl hofmann. late superintendent of paper mills in germany and the united states; recently manager of the public ledger paper mills, near elkton, md. illustrated by wood engravings, and five large folding plates. in one volume, to., cloth; pages. $ . hughes.--american miller and millwright's assistant. by wm. carter hughes. a new edition. in one vol., mo. $ . hurst.--a hand-book for architectural surveyors and others engaged in building: containing formulæ useful in designing builder's work, table of weights, of the materials used in building, memoranda connected with builders' work, mensuration, the practice of builders' measurement, contracts of labor, valuation of property, summary of the practice in dilapidation, etc., etc. by j. f. hurst, c. e. second edition, pocket-book form, full bound. $ . jervis.--railway property: a treatise on the construction and management of railways; designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the holders of this class of property; as well as railway managers, officers, and agents. by john b. jervis, late chief engineer of the hudson river railroad, croton aqueduct, etc. in one vol., mo., cloth. $ . johnston.--instructions for the analysis of soils, limestones, and manures. by j. f. w. johnston. mo. keene.--a hand-book of practical gauging: for the use of beginners, to which is added, a chapter on distillation, describing the process in operation at the custom house for ascertaining the strength of wines. by james b. keene, of h. m. customs. vo. $ . kelley.--speeches, addresses, and letters on industrial and financial questions. by hon. william d. kelley, m. c. in one volume, pages, vo. $ . kentish.--a treatise on a box of instruments, and the slide rule; with the theory of trigonometry and logarithms, including practical geometry, surveying, measuring of timber, cask and malt gauging, heights, and distances. by thomas kentish. in one volume. mo. $ . kobell.--erni.--mineralogy simplified: a short method of determining and classifying minerals, by means of simple chemical experiments in the wet way. translated from the last german edition of f. von kobell, with an introduction to blow-pipe analysis and other additions. by henri erni, m. d., late chief chemist, department of agriculture, author of "coal oil and petroleum." in one volume, mo. $ . landrin.--a treatise on steel: comprising its theory, metallurgy, properties, practical working, and use. by m. h. c. landrin, jr., civil engineer. translated from the french, with notes, by a. a. fesquet, chemist and engineer. with an appendix on the bessemer and the martin processes for manufacturing steel, from the report of abram s. hewitt, united states commissioner to the universal exposition, paris, . in one volume, mo. $ . larkin.--the practical brass and iron founder's guide: a concise treatise on brass founding, moulding, the metals and their alloys, etc.: to which are added recent improvements in the manufacture of iron, steel by the bessemer process, etc., etc. by james larkin, late conductor of the brass foundry department in reany, neafie & co's. penn works, philadelphia. fifth edition, revised, with extensive additions. in one volume, mo. $ . leavitt.--facts about peat as an article of fuel: with remarks upon its origin and composition, the localities in which it is found, the methods of preparation and manufacture, and the various uses to which it is applicable; together with many other matters of practical and scientific interest. to which is added a chapter on the utilization of coal dust with peat for the production of an excellent fuel at moderate cost, specially adapted for steam service. by t. h. leavitt. third edition. mo. $ . leroux, c.--a practical treatise on the manufacture of worsteds and carded yarns: comprising practical mechanics, with rules and calculations applied to spinning; sorting, cleaning, and scouring wools; the english and french methods of combing, drawing, and spinning worsteds and manufacturing carded yarns. translated from the french of charles leroux, mechanical engineer, and superintendent of a spinning mill, by horatio paine, m. d., and a. a. fesquet, chemist and engineer. illustrated by large plates. to which is added an appendix, containing extracts from the reports of the international jury, and of the artisans selected by the committee appointed by the council of the society of arts, london, on woollen and worsted machinery and fabrics, as exhibited in the paris universal exposition, . vo., cloth. $ . leslie (miss).--complete cookery: directions for cookery in its various branches. by miss leslie. th thousand. thoroughly revised, with the addition of new receipts. in one volume, mo., cloth. $ . leslie (miss).--ladies' house book: a manual of domestic economy. th revised edition. mo., cloth. leslie (miss).--two hundred receipts in french cookery. cloth, mo. lieber.--assayer's guide: or, practical directions to assayers, miners, and smelters, for the tests and assays, by heat and by wet processes, for the ores of all the principal metals, of gold and silver coins and alloys, and of coal, etc. by oscar m. lieber. mo., cloth. $ . loth.--the practical stair builder: a complete treatise on the art of building stairs and hand-rails, designed for carpenters, builders, and stair-builders. illustrated with thirty original plates. by c. edward loth, professional stair-builder. one large to. volume. $ . love.--the art of dyeing, cleaning, scouring, and finishing, on the most approved english and french methods: being practical instructions in dyeing silks, woollens, and cottons, feathers, chips, straw, etc. scouring and cleaning bed and window curtains, carpets, rugs, etc. french and english cleaning, any color or fabric of silk, satin, or damask. by thomas love, a working dyer and scourer. second american edition, to which are added general instructions for the use of aniline colors. in one volume, vo., pages. $ . main and brown.--questions on subjects connected with the marine steam-engine: and examination papers; with hints for their solution. by thomas j. main, professor of mathematics, royal naval college, and thomas brown, chief engineer, r. n. mo., cloth. $ . main and brown.--the indicator and dynamometer: with their practical applications to the steam-engine. by thomas j. main, m. a. f. r., assistant professor royal naval college, portsmouth, and thomas brown, assoc. inst. c. e., chief engineer, r. n., attached to the royal naval college. illustrated. from the fourth london edition. vo. $ . main and brown.--the marine steam-engine. by thomas j. main, f. r.; assistant s. mathematical professor at the royal naval college, portsmouth, and thomas brown, assoc. inst. c. e., chief engineer r. n. attached to the royal naval college. authors of "questions connected with the marine steam-engine," and the "indicator and dynamometer." with numerous illustrations. in one volume, vo. $ . martin.--screw-cutting tables, for the use of mechanical engineers: showing the proper arrangement of wheels for cutting the threads of screws of any required pitch; with a table for making the universal gas-pipe thread and taps. by w. a. martin, engineer. vo. mechanics' (amateur) workshop: a treatise containing plain and concise directions for the manipulation of wood and metals, including casting, forging, brazing, soldering, and carpentry. by the author of the "lathe and its uses." third edition. illustrated. vo. $ . molesworth.--pocket-book of useful formulæ and memoranda for civil and mechanical engineers. by guilford l. molesworth, member of the institution of civil engineers, chief resident engineer of the ceylon railway. second american, from the tenth london edition. in one volume, full bound in pocket-book form. $ . napier.--a system of chemistry applied to dyeing. by james napier, f. c. s. a new and thoroughly revised edition. completely brought up to the present state of the science, including the chemistry of coal tar colors, by a. a. fesquet, chemist and engineer. with an appendix on dyeing and calico printing, as shown at the universal exposition, paris, . illustrated. in one volume, vo., pages. $ . napier.--manual of electro-metallurgy: including the application of the art to manufacturing processes. by james napier. fourth american, from-the fourth london edition, revised and enlarged. illustrated by engravings. in one vol., vo. $ . nason.--table of reactions for qualitative chemical analysis. by henry b. nason, professor of chemistry in the rensselaer polytechnic institute, troy, new york. illustrated by colors. newbery.--gleanings from ornamental art of every style: drawn from examples in the british, south kensington, indian, crystal palace, and other museums, the exhibitions of and , and the best english and foreign works. in a series of one hundred exquisitely drawn plates, containing many hundred examples. by robert newbery. to. $ . nicholson.--a manual of the art of bookbinding: containing full instructions in the different branches of forwarding, gilding, and finishing. also, the art of marbling book-edges and paper. by james b. nicholson. illustrated, mo., cloth. $ . nicholson.--the carpenter's new guide: a complete book of lines for carpenters and joiners. by peter nicholson. the whole carefully and thoroughly revised by h. k. davis, and containing numerous new and improved and original designs for roofs, domes, etc. by samuel sloan, architect. illustrated by plates. to. $ . norris.--a hand-book for locomotive engineers and machinists: comprising the proportions and calculations for constructing locomotives; manner of setting valves; tables of squares, cubes, areas, etc., etc. by septimus norris, civil and mechanical engineer. new edition. illustrated. mo., cloth. $ . nystrom.--on technological education, and the construction of ships and screw propellers: for naval and marine engineers. by john w. nystrom, late acting chief engineer, u. s. n. second edition, revised with additional matter. illustrated by seven engravings. mo. $ . o'neill.--a dictionary of dyeing and calico printing: containing a brief account of all the substances and processes in use in the art of dyeing and printing textile fabrics; with practical receipts and scientific information. by charles o'neill, analytical chemist; fellow of the chemical society of london; member of the literary and philosophical society of manchester; author of "chemistry of calico printing and dyeing." to which is added an essay on coal tar colors and their application to dyeing and calico printing. by a. a. fesquet, chemist and engineer. with an appendix on dyeing and calico printing, as shown at the universal exposition, paris, . in one volume, vo., pages. $ . orton.--underground treasures: how and where to find them. a key for the ready determination of all the useful minerals within the united states. by james orton, a. m. illustrated, mo. $ . osborn.--american mines and mining: theoretically and practically considered. by prof. h. s. osborn. illustrated by numerous engravings. vo. (_in preparation._) osborn.--the metallurgy of iron and steel: theoretical and practical in all its branches; with special reference to american materials and processes. by h. s. osborn, ll. d., professor of mining and metallurgy in lafayette college, easton, pennsylvania. illustrated by numerous large folding plates and wood-engravings. vo. $ . overman.--the manufacture of steel: containing the practice and principles of working and making steel. a handbook for blacksmiths and workers in steel and iron, wagon makers, die sinkers, cutlers, and manufacturers of files and hardware, of steel and iron, and for men of science and art. by frederick overman, mining engineer, author of the "manufacture of iron," etc. a new, enlarged, and revised edition. by a. a. fesquet, chemist and engineer. $ . overman.--the moulder and founder's pocket guide: a treatise on moulding and founding in green-sand, dry-sand, loam, and cement; the moulding of machine frames, mill-gear, hollow-ware, ornaments, trinkets, bells, and statues; description of moulds for iron, bronze, brass, and other metals; plaster of paris, sulphur, wax, and other articles commonly used in casting; the construction of melting furnaces, the melting and founding of metals; the composition of alloys and their nature. with an appendix containing receipts for alloys, bronze, varnishes and colors for castings; also, tables on the strength and other qualities of cast metals. by frederick overman, mining engineer, author of "the manufacture of iron." with illustrations. mo. $ . painter, gilder, and varnisher's companion: containing rules and regulations in everything relating to the arts of painting, gilding, varnishing, glass-staining, graining, marbling, sign-writing, gilding on glass, and coach painting and varnishing; tests for the detection of adulterations in oils, colors, etc.; and a statement of the diseases to which painters are peculiarly liable, with the simplest and best remedies. sixteenth edition. revised, with an appendix. containing colors and coloring-theoretical and practical. comprising descriptions of a great variety of additional pigments, their qualities and uses, to which are added, dryers, and modes and operations of painting, etc. together with chevreul's principles of harmony and contrast of colors, mo., cloth. $ . pallett.--the miller's, millwright's, and engineer's guide. by henry pallett. illustrated. in one volume, mo. $ . percy.--the manufacture of russian sheet-iron. by john percy, m. d., f.r.s., lecturer on metallurgy at the royal school of mines, and to the advanced class of artillery officers at the royal artillery institution, woolwich; author of "metallurgy." with illustrations. vo., paper. cts. perkins.--gas and ventilation. practical treatise on gas and ventilation. with special relation to illuminating, heating, and cooking by gas. including scientific helps to engineer-students and others. with illustrated diagrams. by e. e. perkins. mo., cloth. $ . perkins and stowe.--a new guide to the sheet-iron and boiler plate roller: containing a series of tables showing the weight of slabs and piles to produce boiler plates, and of the weight of piles and the sizes of bars to produce sheet-iron; the thickness of the bar gauge in decimals; the weight per foot, and the thickness on the bar or wire gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the weight per sheet, and the thickness on the wire gauge of sheet-iron of various dimensions to weigh lbs. per bundle; and the conversion of short weight into long weight, and long weight into short. estimated and collected by g. h. perkins and j. g. stowe. $ . phillips and darlington.--records of mining and metallurgy; or facts and memoranda for the use of the mine agent and smelter. by j. arthur phillips, mining engineer, graduate of the imperial school of mines, france, etc., and john darlington. illustrated by numerous engravings. in one volume, mo. $ . proteaux.--practical guide for the manufacture of paper and boards. by a. proteaux, civil engineer, and graduate of the school of arts and manufactures, and director of thiers' paper mill, puy-de-dôme. with additions, by l. s. le normand. translated from the french, with notes, by horatio paine, a. b., m. d. to which is added a chapter on the manufacture of paper from wood in the united states, by henry t. brown, of the "american artisan." illustrated by six plates, containing drawings of raw materials, machinery, plans of paper-mills, etc., etc. vo. $ . regnault.--elements of chemistry. by m. v. regnault. translated from the french by t. forrest betton, m. d., and edited, with notes, by james c. booth, melter and refiner u. s. mint, and wm. l. faber, metallurgist and mining engineer. illustrated by nearly wood engravings. comprising nearly pages. in two volumes, vo., cloth. $ . reid.--a practical treatise on the manufacture of portland cement: by henry reid, c. e. to which is added a translation of m. a. lipowitz's work, describing a new method adopted in germany for manufacturing that cement, by w. f. reid. illustrated by plates and wood engravings. vo. $ . riffault, vergnaud, and toussaint.--a practical treatise on the manufacture of varnishes. by mm. riffault, vergnaud, and toussaint. revised and edited by m. f. malepeyre and dr. emil winckler. illustrated. in one volume, vo. (_in preparation._) riffault, vergnaud, and toussaint.--a practical treatise on the manufacture of colors for painting: containing the best formulæ and the processes the newest and in most general use. by mm. riffault, vergnaud, and toussaint. revised and edited by m. f. malepeyre and dr. emil winckler. translated from the french by a. a. fesquet, chemist and engineer. illustrated by engravings. in one volume, pages, vo. $ . robinson.--explosions of steam boilers: how they are caused, and how they may be prevented. by j. r. robinson, steam engineer. mo. $ . roper.--a catechism of high pressure or non-condensing steam-engines: including the modelling, constructing, running, and management of steam engines and steam boilers. with illustrations. by stephen roper, engineer. full bound tucks. $ . roseleur.--galvanoplastic manipulations: a practical guide for the gold and silver electro-plater and the galvanoplastic operator. translated from the french of alfred roseleur, chemist, professor of the galvanoplastic art, manufacturer of chemicals, gold and silver electro-plater. by a. a. fesquet, chemist and engineer. illustrated by over engravings on wood. vo., pages. $ . [right-pointing hand] _this treatise is the fullest and by far the best on this subject ever published in the united states._ schinz.--researches on the action of the blast furnace. by charles schinz. translated from the german with the special permission of the author by william h. maw and moritz muller. with an appendix written by the author expressly for this edition. illustrated by seven plates, containing figures. in one volume, mo. $ . shaw.--civil architecture: being a complete theoretical and practical system of building, containing the fundamental principles of the art. by edward shaw, architect. to which is added a treatise on gothic architecture, etc. by thomas w. silloway and george m. harding, architects. the whole illustrated by one hundred and two quarto plates finely engraved on copper. eleventh edition. to., cloth. $ . shunk.--a practical treatise on railway curves and location, for young engineers. by william f. shunk, civil engineer. mo. $ . sloan.--american houses: a variety of original designs for rural buildings. illustrated by colored engravings, with descriptive references. by samuel sloan, architect, author of the "model architect," etc., etc. vo. $ . smeaton.--builder's pocket companion: containing the elements of building, surveying, and architecture; with practical rules and instructions connected with the subject. by a. c. smeaton, civil engineer, etc. in one volume, mo. $ . smith.--a manual of political economy. by e. peshine smith. a new edition, to which is added a full index. mo., cloth. $ . smith.--parks and pleasure grounds: or practical notes on country residences, villas, public parks, and gardens. by charles h. j. smith, landscape gardener and garden architect, etc., etc. mo. $ . smith.--the dyer's instructor: comprising practical instructions in the art of dyeing silk, cotton, wool, and worsted, and woollen goods: containing nearly receipts. to which is added a treatise on the art of padding; and the printing of silk warps, skeins, and handkerchiefs, and the various mordants and colors for the different styles of such work. by david smith, pattern dyer. mo., cloth. $ . smith.--the practical dyer's guide: comprising practical instructions in the dyeing of shot cobourgs, silk striped orleans, colored orleans from black warps, ditto from white' warps, colored cobourgs from white warps, merinos, yarns, woollen cloths, etc. containing nearly receipts, to most of which a dyed pattern is annexed. also, a treatise on the art of padding. by david smith. in one volume, vo. price. $ . stewart.--the american system. speeches on the tariff question, and on internal improvements, principally delivered in the house of representatives of the united states. by andrew stewart, late m. c. from pennsylvania. with a portrait, and a biographical sketch. in one volume, vo., pages. $ . stokes.--cabinet-maker's and upholsterer's companion: comprising the rudiments and principles of cabinet-making and upholstery, with familiar instructions, illustrated by examples for attaining a proficiency in the art of drawing, as applicable to cabinet-work; the processes of veneering, inlaying, and buhl-work; the art of dyeing and staining wood, bone, tortoise shell, etc. directions for lackering, japanning, and varnishing; to make french polish; to prepare the best glues, cements, and compositions, and a number of receipts particularly useful for workmen generally. by j. stokes. in one volume, mo. with illustrations. $ . strength and other properties of metals: reports of experiments on the strength and other properties of metals for cannon. with a description of the machines for testing metals, and of the classification of cannon in service. by officers of the ordnance department u. s. army. by authority of the secretary of war. illustrated by large steel plates. in one volume, to. $ . sullivan.--protection to native industry. by sir edward sullivan, baronet, author of "ten chapters on social reforms." in one volume, vo. $ . tables showing the weight of round, square, and flat bar iron, steel, etc., by measurement. cloth. taylor.--statistics of coal: including mineral bituminous substances employed in arts and manufactures; with their geographical, geological, and commercial distribution and amount of production and consumption on the american continent. with incidental statistics of the iron manufacture. by r. c. taylor. second edition, revised by s. s. haldeman. illustrated by five maps and many wood engravings. vo., cloth. $ . templeton.--the practical examinator on steam and the steam-engine: with instructive references relative thereto, arranged for the use of engineers, students, and others. by wm. templeton, engineer. mo. $ . thomas.--the modern practice of photography. by r. w. thomas, f. c. s. vo., cloth. thomson.--freight charges calculator. by andrew thomson, freight agent. mo. $ . turning: specimens of fancy turning executed on the hand or foot lathe: with geometric, oval, and eccentric chucks, and elliptical cutting frame. by an amateur. illustrated by exquisite photographs. to. $ . turner's (the) companion: containing instructions in concentric, elliptic, and eccentric turning: also various plates of chucks, tools, and instruments; and directions for using the eccentric cutter, drill, vertical cutter, and circular rest; with patterns and instructions for working them. a new edition in one volume, mo. $ . urbin.--brull.--a practical guide for puddling iron and steel. by ed. urbin, engineer of arts and manufactures. a prize essay read before the association of engineers, graduate of the school of mines, of liege, belgium, at the meeting of - . to which is added a comparison of the resisting properties of iron and steel. by a. brull. translated from the french by a. a. fesquet, chemist and engineer. in one volume, vo. $ . vaile.--galvanized iron cornice-worker's manual: containing instructions in laying out the different mitres, and making patterns for all kinds of plain and circular work. also, tables of weights, areas and circumferences of circles, and other matter calculated to benefit the trade. by charles a. vaile, superintendent "richmond cornice works," richmond, indiana. illustrated by plates. in one volume, to. $ . ville.--the school of chemical manures: or, elementary principles in the use of fertilizing agents. from the french of m. george ville, by a. a. fesquet, chemist and engineer. with illustrations. in one volume, mo. $ . vogdes.--the architect's and builder's pocket companion and price book: consisting of a short but comprehensive epitome of decimals, duo-decimals, geometry and mensuration; with tables of u. s. measures, sizes, weights, strengths, etc., of iron, wood, stone, and various other materials, quantities of materials in given sizes, and dimensions of wood, brick, and stone; and a full and complete bill of prices for carpenter's work; also, rules for computing and valuing brick and brick work, stone work, painting, plastering, etc. by frank w. vogdes, architect. illustrated. full bound in pocket-book form. $ . bound in cloth. . warn.--the sheet-metal worker's instructor: for zinc, sheet-iron, copper, and tin-plate workers, etc. containing a selection of geometrical problems; also, practical and simple rules for describing the various patterns required in the different branches of the above trades. by reuben h. warn, practical tin-plate worker. to which is added an appendix, containing instructions for boiler making, mensuration of surfaces and solids, rules for calculating the weights of different figures of iron and steel, tables of the weights of iron, steel, etc. illustrated by plates and wood engravings. vo. $ . warner.--new theorems, tables, and diagrams for the computation of earth-work: designed for the use of engineers in preliminary and final estimates, of students in engineering, and of contractors and other non-professional computers. in two parts, with an appendix. part i.--a practical treatise; part ii.--a theoretical treatise; and the appendix. containing notes to the rules and examples of part i.; explanations of the construction of scales, tables, and diagrams, and a treatise upon equivalent square bases and equivalent level heights. the whole illustrated by numerous original engravings, comprising explanatory cuts for definitions and problems, stereometric scales and diagrams, and a series of lithographic drawings from models, showing all the combinations of solid forms which occur in railroad excavations and embankments. by john warner, a. m., mining and mechanical engineer. vo. $ . watson.--a manual of the hand-lathe: comprising concise directions for working metals of all kinds, ivory, bone and precious woods; dyeing, coloring, and french polishing; inlaying by veneers, and various methods practised to produce elaborate work with dispatch, and at small expense. by egbert p. watson, late of "the scientific american," author of "the modern practice of american machinists and engineers." illustrated by engravings. $ . watson.--the modern practice of american machinists and engineers: including the construction, application, and use of drills, lathe tools, cutters for boring cylinders, and hollow work generally, with the most economical speed for the same; the results verified by actual practice at the lathe, the vice, and on the floor. together with workshop management, economy of manufacture, the steam-engine, boilers, gears, belting, etc., etc. by egbert p. watson, late of the "scientific american." illustrated by engravings. in one volume, mo. $ . watson.--the theory and practice of the art of weaving by hand and power: with calculations and tables for the use of those connected with the trade. by john watson, manufacturer and practical machine maker. illustrated by large drawings of the best power looms. vo. $ . weatherly.--treatise on the art of boiling sugar, crystallizing, lozenge-making, comfits, gum goods. mo. $ . wedding.--the metallurgy of iron; theoretically and practically considered. by dr. hermann wedding, professor of the metallurgy of iron at the royal mining academy, berlin. translated by julius du mont, bethlehem, pa. illustrated by engravings on wood, and three plates. in one volume, vo. (_in press._) will.--tables for qualitative chemical analysis. by professor heinrich will, of giessen, germany. seventh edition. translated by charles f. himes, ph. d., professor of natural science, dickinson college, carlisle, pa. $ . williams.--on heat and steam: embracing new views of vaporization, condensation, and explosions. by charles wye williams, a. i. c. e. illustrated. vo. $ . wohler.--a hand-book of mineral analysis. by f. wohler, professor of chemistry in the university of göttingen. edited by henry b. nason, professor of chemistry in the rensselaer polytechnic institute, troy, new york. illustrated. in one volume, mo. $ . worssam.--on mechanical saws: from the transactions of the society of engineers, . by s. w. worssam, jr. illustrated by large plates. vo. $ . * * * * * transcriber's note _ _ represents italic text = = represents bold text + + represents black-letter, or old english text sundry missing or damaged punctuation has been repaired. both hyphenated and non-hyphenated variants of many words occur in this book. all have been retained. this book has some older spellings or grammatical constructions, which have been retained. though published in philadelphia in , parts of the book date from , and would thus appear to pre-date modern american spelling conventions. (see note on the catalogue advertisements which were placed after the index.) any illustration which interrupted a paragraph was moved to a more convenient location, between paragraphs. there is some discrepancy between the toc and the book's layout. some rationalization has been attempted. 'blank work' appears to refer to blank book-keeping books sold by stationers for use in business offices. pages - , : derome also appears as de rome. (index: derome) page : 'him' and 'self' re-joined over line-break. "many of these he made himself of iron,..." page : 'societé' corrected to 'société'. "... in a memoir presented by him to the "_société d' encouragement_," page : 'faustic chips'; 'faustic' would appear to be correct. from [http://www.] faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/botany/tandye.htm#fusticdyes "tanning ... "wood dyes" ... "fustic": this is the main source of natural yellows, olives and browns and ranks with logwood in importance. it is used for leather and in combination with logwood for silk, wool, nylon and rayon. it comes from the heartwood of chlorophora tinctoria, a forest tree of the west indies, central and south america. the light-yellow wood turns a dark yellow-brown when exposed to air. faustic is exported as short logs, chips, powder or paste. the dye is frequently called old fustic to distinguish it from young fustic, once obtained from the twigs of cotinus coggygria." page : 'papier d'anonay', should perhaps be 'papier d'annonay'. also page , so perhaps 'papier d'anonay' was an accepted spelling (in the bookbinding trade) at the time of publication. page : 'stationery or vellum binding.' is 'blank binding' in toc (p. ). page : "... but the character of the ornaments are generally dissimilar." is as printed, though the author does seem to have confused his tenses. page : 'anti-tiquities' corrected to 'antiquities' - letters duplicated at line-break. "... and illustrate the history, laws, customs, and antiquities,..." pages - : plate .: 'pattern's' corrected to 'patterns'. "selection from gaskill, copper & fry's book of patterns" page (also pp. , , , . , , , , and index): 'aqua regii' corrected to 'aqua regia' ('royal water' or 'king's water'), a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. (the transcriber could not find any reference to 'aqua regii', and assumes it to be a spelling error by either the author or the printer.) 'nitrous acid' corrected to 'nitric acid', which appears in the next paragraph. "so called from its power to dissolve gold, is a mixture of nitric acid (aquafortis) and muriatic acid, (spirits of salts,)...." page : 'ohange' corrected to 'orange'. page et seq.: some index entries which had been transposed have been returned to their correct places. the dashes (----)in the index have been replaced by double spaces, making it a simple nested list. index: 'antique dutch': page number corrected from to (no .) 'maiolo, ' corrected to 'maioli, '. (also later occurrence) 'carved oak boards, description of, , '. 'precious stones let into, , '. p. had been incorrectly assigned to 'precious stones let into', and the 'precious stones' are mentioned on pp. and , 'edges, burnishing': p. corrected to . 'forwarding': p. corrected to . 'hints to book collectors': p. corrected to . 'mahogany sprinkle on leather': p. corrected to . 'marbled cloth': p. corrected to . 'turning up': p. corrected to . catalogue: page , et seq.: catalogue of practical and scientific books (etc.): mm is an abbreviation for messieurs. abbreviations for technical and professional qualifications, etc. are not always consistently spaced. they have been retained as printed. prices for books have been retained, as printed. those less than $ . , with a couple of exceptions ( cts,) are printed, e.g. , , etc., aligned right. the spelling in the descriptions of books in the catalogue sometimes depends on whether the author was american or english. the word 'price' appears only in the description of one book. it has been retained. page : the price was omitted from two of miss leslie's books. transcriber's note: italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equal signs= around the text. small capitals in the printed works have been transcribed as all capitals. more transcriber's notes may be found at the end of this document. the picture opposite the title-page is a reprint of a page from the volume of plates, made in , to illustrate diderot's encyclopædia. this page is one of six, each × ins. in the original, illustrating the article in the encyclopædia on binding. the picture in the upper part of the plate represents a binder's workshop. the person at a is beating a book. the woman at b is sewing. the man at c is cutting or trimming the edges of a book. the man at d is working a press. of the figures below: is a piece of marble on which books are beaten; is a piece of marble of different shape for the same purpose; is a beating hammer; is a sewing table or bench, on which books are sewn; and are balls of thread for sewing books; , , , , , and are parts of a sewing bench; and are large and small paper folders. [illustration:] notes on bookbinding for libraries by john cotton dana librarian free public library, newark, n. j. revised and enlarged edition library bureau, chicago copyrighted library bureau =naudé on binding= "the fourth is, to retrench & cut off all the superfluous expences, which many prodigally and to no purpose bestow upon the binding and ornaments of their books, and to employ it in purchasing such as they want, that so they may not be obnoxious to that censure of _seneca_, who handsomly reproaches those, _quibus voluminum suorum frontes maxime placent titulique;_ & this the rather, that the binding is nothing but an accident & form of appearing, without which (at least so splendid and sumptuous) books become altogether as useful, commode & rare; it becoming the ignorant onely to esteem a book for its cover; seeing it is not with books, as it is with men, who are onely known and respected for their robes and their clothes, so that it is a great deal better, and more necessary, for example, to have a good quantity of books, well & ordinarily bound, than to have a little chamber or cabinet full of washed, gilded, ruled, and enriched with all manner of nicity, lux and superfluity." from john evelyn's translation of gabriel naudé's "instructions concerning erecting of a library." london. . chapter . =preface to second and revised edition= in the first edition of this book i said that it ought not to be taken as a final authority, but as a set of suggestions which i hoped would arouse interest in the subject of library binding and lead a few to pursue the subject further. some of the changes made for this edition indicate that i have followed the topic a little further myself,--i hope with advantage to my readers. several chapters are new. there are many minor changes and omissions. the lists have been enlarged and brought into one. i had looked into the subject of library binding and discovered the ignorance concerning it of american librarians, including myself, before i visited mr. chivers' beautiful bindery in bath, england, several years ago. that visit had much to do with the contents of this little book. mr. chivers was quite of my opinion that the only way to induce librarians in america to improve our binding was to persuade us to look into the subject. if the book has led some to do this it has accomplished its purpose. as to the fundamental points in it, they largely come, i am pleased to confess, from england, by way of that bindery in bath. at the risk of seeming to speak to commercial ends i quote in effect some of the things said by mr. chivers in one of his circulars, prefacing the quotation with the remark that the point i wish chiefly to make in this book is the advantage of having certain books, when new, bound once for all: "the following statement is not an exaggeration: a library saves half the cost of new popular books, and of replacements for which much use may be anticipated, if it purchases them in cedric chivers' patent bindings. new books supplied in these bindings are sold as being bound once for all. it is thought that they are so bound as to serve for quite fifty per cent. more issues than will a book purchased in publisher's cloth, used for a time, and then rebound in the ordinary way. generally speaking such results and even better results are obtained. occasionally, however, a book does not come up to these expectations. in such cases it is especially desired that its failure be reported and, if necessary, that the book be returned for examination. the paper used in modern books is of such varying quality that it is sometimes difficult to tell without actually trying what is the best manner of treating it." buy books well bound direct from publishers' sheets; mend ordinary books very little; rebind them early; watch results; tabulate them, and make use of experience. these are the main themes of this book. j. c. d. free public library, newark, n. j., may, . =contents= page description of frontispiece quotation from naudé preface to second and revised edition table of contents list of illustrations chapter i. introductory ii. binding: the process described iii. the literary side of library rebinding iv. binding materials suitable for a library v. rebinding for libraries vi. lettering and numbering the backs of books vii. pamphlets viii. magazine binders ix. repairing books, general rules x. repairing books, newark methods xi. repairing books, materials and tools xii. covering books xiii. leather, general notes xiv. paper and paper making xv. binding records xvi. binding records and notes--newark xvii. bindery equipment xviii. list of technical terms xix. list of makers of and dealers in bookbinders' materials, tools and machinery xx. a few of the best books on bookbinding, paper and leather index =list of illustrations= page old picture of bindery and tools _frontispiece_ sewing, drawing showing four methods sewing on tapes method of attaching slips on ends of bands to boards plates, two methods of inserting them method of lacing in slips on ends of bands french and ordinary joints anatomy of a joint type faces suitable for lettering type cabinet backing boards, metal backing boards, wood, steel-faced backing hammer backing press beating hammer boards, brass-bound hand wheel drive cutter finishing presses finishing stand lettering pallet flat polisher rounding hammer sewing bench standing press of wood and iron chapter i =introductory= as the title indicates these notes have been compiled in the hope that they may be of assistance to librarians in caring for the binding and rebinding of library books. they hardly touch upon publishers' binding or the decoration of bindings. the suggestions and advice they give should not be taken as final, for the binding and rebinding question is not yet settled. they may help some to carry out more successfully their own inquiries and experiments. if good binders were more common librarians would need little of the information here briefly set forth. but under the present conditions of the bookbinder's art in this country librarians themselves must often furnish considerable expert knowledge, if they wish their work well done. i have refrained from going much into the details of the process of binding. the details can only be made clear by means of illustrations, and have already been most admirably set forth in douglas cockerell's book. i have tried to draw attention to the important points. the librarian ought to know good results when he sees them, or at least when he tests them on his books; the details of every step he can learn if he will, by a little practice and a good deal of observation. no librarian should try to bind or to conduct personally his own bindery. binding is a special trade, and skill and speed in it come only by long practice. the librarian cannot become a skilled binder. he should become familiar with the results of the binding he gets by a study of his books. if he finds they do not wear well, but rot, break or show loose pages, let him keep a few statistics, and if he learns he is wasting money on cheap work or poor material, let him change his material and his processes, and perhaps his binder. i hope this book may lead some to test the work they are now getting, and may help some to get more satisfactory workmanship and more enduring materials. it is not a guide to the craft of binding. to get good binding, go to a good binder; to learn about the binding craft, practice it and read cockerell; to discover if your binding is good, watch it and gather statistics of its wear. much of the information, many reports of experiences and many suggestions will be found in the lists of leathers, etc., and definitions of terms used in binding. it seemed unwise to repeat them as part of a connected text. in considering the subject of economical binding and rebinding for libraries, we find that we are entirely without standards. we have no figures for comparisons. librarians have, save in a very few cases, made no study of the comparative value of bindings, either of original cloth or of the rebindings they have had put on their books. if a few librarians would note the number of times books can be issued without rebinding after they are received in the original publisher's cloth, and how many issues they will stand after they have been once, or twice, rebound, they would, in a few months, have data from which they could draw helpful conclusions in regard to the comparative value of bindings and rebindings. the test of a binding, whether publisher's original, special from the sheets, or a rebinding, lies, for ordinary lending books, in the ratio of its cost to the number of times the book it covers is lent for home use before being discarded. this ratio has rarely been systematically noted. to the inquiry, does the method of rebinding which my library now employs give the best possible return for the money spent? most librarians must reply that they do not know. reference and college libraries are often also much in the dark. the continued quite general use for permanent bindings of a leather which tests have shown will not last over or years at the most is an evidence of this. in england, as is well known, a good many years of careful observation and comparison of experiments have led a large number of librarians to the conclusion which some american librarians also accept, that it is the part of sound economy to have books carefully bound directly from publishers' sheets, even though the prices of such bindings seem at first unduly high. i sent a letter of inquiry to a large number of libraries asking for detailed information about the wear of books in publishers' bindings and in the one or more rebindings which were placed on them. replies were received from libraries, giving brief life histories of books. definite conclusions cannot be drawn from these reports, as librarians differ much in their ways of treating books. some rebind them as soon as they show serious signs of wear; others keep them in circulation long after they have begun to go to pieces. but the figures indicate that it would pay these libraries, as it probably would all others, to get most of the books which are to be subjected to much handling strongly bound direct from publishers' sheets. the reports show that books cost, including first price, rebinding and labor of handling for rebinding, an average of $ . each; that they were lent an average of times in the two states, new and rebound; and that they were out of use an average of five weeks while being rebound. a book of a nature similar to those reported on, well-bound from publishers' sheets costs about $ . ; can be lent from to times and loses no time in being rebound. of these books were rebound a second time at an average cost, including labor in preparation, of cents; were out of use an average of five weeks; and were lent an average of times each in this second binding. the complete history of the books a second time rebound is as follows: first cost . cost of first rebinding . cost of time in handling . cost of second rebinding . cost of time in handling . ---- total cost . times lent in publishers' cloth times lent in first rebinding times lent in second rebinding ---- time out of use first rebinding . weeks time out of use second rebinding . weeks total time out of use . weeks these figures do not tell the whole story. the book bound strongly and flexibly from publishers' sheets is from the first more convenient to handle and pleasanter to read, and usually looks better throughout all its one long life than do, on the average, those books which twice or thrice in their histories get into a broken-backed, loose-leaved, generally disreputable condition. furthermore, and this is most important, a book is most wanted in a library when it is new; if sent out to be rebound for five and a half weeks after it has been lent times it is out of use just when it is most in demand; and the library loses in its effectiveness--that is, in the service it can render its public for the money expended--much more than the mere difference in the money cost of the two kinds of binding would indicate. the durable first binding gives us a book which can be in constant service from to times from the day it goes to the shelves, just when it is most needed. a book once or twice rebound in the first few months of its life is a special source of annoyance--the paradox is permissible--by its very absence. table of life histories: [transcriber's note: the following text is the transcription of a table whose column headings were written vertically. key to column headings:-- a: library, b: no. of books reported on, c: first cost of books, d: times lent before rebinding, e: cost of rebinding, f: weeks out of use, g: cost of handling, h: times lent in rebinding, i: cost of nd rebinding, j: weeks out of use, k: cost of handling, and l: times lent in nd rebinding.] -----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---+-----+----- a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l -----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---+-----+----- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | -----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---+-----+----- totals | | | | | | | | | | averages for | | | | | | | | | each book | | | - / | | | | | | ------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---+-----+----- in the newark library an examination of books, chiefly novels, from or different publishers, shows that on the average they were lent in publishers' binding only times each before being rebound; and that books in the juvenile department were lent in the publishers' binding an average of only times each. in bindings and rebindings one of the most essential things to be secured is ease of opening. a book that opens out easily, and lies flat without being pressed or held in position, will probably keep clean and whole for more than twice as many lendings as one that is held together tightly at the back. as a great many of the library books which call for rebindings have to be trimmed at the back and overcast, it is essential that the overcast sewing be of a flexible nature, one that permits of the easy opening of the book. probably few of the factors in book construction and book injury have been more effective than the tight binding, held open with difficulty, which is produced by nearly all of the current overcasting or whipstitching. another point that cannot be too strongly insisted on is that books not only differ from one another in their natures and so require different treatment in binding; but also differ in the use they are to receive, and require different bindings on that account. it should be understood that bookbinding is a craft in the best sense of that word. to bind a book well calls for good judgment and care at every step. the librarian can draw up schedules with infinity of detail, and make them as correct as he may please, basing them on experience without end; and the binder, so far as material and processes are concerned, may seem to follow these specifications exactly, and still may produce poor bindings. to secure a good binding the spirit of the binder must go into it. in drawing the thread, in paring and placing the leather, in applying the paste and glue, and in every other of the many processes involved, the man without good will, as the man without skill, can spoil the whole binding. librarians should learn to esteem bookbinding highly. it is a craft which lies close to them. it is preëminently their business to encourage it to grow in excellence. they should develop their local binder's interest in his calling, stand by him, urge him on to better work, and pay him adequately for it. one may frankly say that the character of binding done in nearly all libraries in america has been, up to the present time, a discredit to the library profession. we owe it to ourselves to take up this craft and do what we can to elevate it. one objection sometimes made to bindings of the highest grade is that they last too long; and after the book is too greatly soiled and tattered within to be longer kept, the binding itself still holds, showing that more care has been put into its construction, and consequently more cost, than it needed. the objection needs only to be stated for its absurdity to be seen. the thorough binder, the skilled craftsman, adapts his binding to the book and to the use, as far as he can judge of it, which it is to receive. he binds each book so well that it will hold together to the end of time; or until its paper fairly drops to pieces. he can issue with each volume no guarantee that it will not receive more than its proper baptism of dirt from careless borrowers long before the paper in it begins to give way and fray out. the binder's obligation is to bind the book well. it is the librarian's business to see that the book is, as to its interior, well treated. as to its binding lasting too long, why should the librarian concern himself about the shell after the kernel is eaten? it should be noted again, however, that a book well bound, opening easily, and lying open without pressure from fingers or thumbs, keeps clean many times longer than one that opens hard. the sum of all my observations is, the best is the cheapest. if a book is worth binding let it be bound by the best man available. if possible, buy books so well bound from the publishers' sheets, that they will never need to be bound again. chapter ii =binding: the process described= books are now printed in large sheets from to pages at a time. in many cases paper is drawn from a roll (as it is in the printing of a newspaper), printed on both sides in large sections of pages, and cut and folded as it leaves the press. these sheets, of several pages each, after being printed, are gathered into a complete book, sometimes by a machine, and are then sewn together by a machine. this machine for sewing is a comparatively recent invention. in most cases sewing done on a machine is not as strong as the old-fashioned hand sewing. the sections, or signatures, or folds of the book, as the several sets of several pages each are called, are caught together only by thread; strings or tapes are not used. this sewing is then reinforced by a piece of cloth, usually thin, cheap muslin, or poor super, which is pasted over the back and allowed to extend a little way down each side. but sewing on a machine can be done with strings added and made very strong. [illustration: sewing a section of fifteenth century sewing on double bands with head and tail bands. b section of modern "flexible" sewing round single bands. c section of ordinary sewing with sunk bands. d section of tape sewing advocated for cheap work in place of c. from report of the committee on leather for bookbinding. edited for society of arts. london: bell & sons, .] covers for books are now made by machines into which are fed pieces of cardboard and a roll of cloth. the machine cuts the cloth into the proper size, pastes it and folds it over the boards into a cover, leaving a loose place between the two boards to be filled by the body of the book. this cover is then printed in a machine much like a printing press; the gold of the title on the back or sides or both, and the colors or blank impressions, for ornament, all being impressed on it with great rapidity. the completed cover, called a case, is then pasted to the sides of the book. a book thus bound has nothing to hold cover and inside together save a strip of thin muslin, with a strip of paper which goes over it, passing from the back of the book to the inside of the board covers. this strip grows weak after a little use and frequently breaks, or pulls away from the cover, or from the back, or from both. books printed on cheap paper and folded and sewed and bound by machinery in the manner thus very briefly outlined can be produced and sold at present for cents each, or even less. books printed with more care, on better paper, with a better quality of cloth on the cover, and a more elaborate title in real gold instead of some cheaper imitation of it, books, that is, like the novels issued by the better class of publishers, can be produced in quantities of from one to three thousand, for from to cents each. few of the novels put on the market today cost the publishers, for their making alone, as much as the latter price. to this must be added a royalty to the author, generally % of the retail price, the cost of the management of the business and the advertising. in the case of small editions, one or two thousand, this brings the original cost of the average work up to or cents. suppose this book to be offered at retail at $ . . there must then be deducted from this retail price the discount to the jobber, to + %, and the royalty, and the advertising, and the cost of production, etc., leaving a profit to the publisher of from to cents on each volume. a well-made and widely advertised novel which does not sell more than a thousand copies is not a very profitable product for a publisher to put out. the school text-books issued by the more reputable publishing houses are generally very well made. they are printed on good paper, usually rather highly calendered, with good ink, are bound with extra care, and have good material in their covers. the competition between school book publishers makes it necessary for them in self-defense to produce books which will wear well in the hands of the average pupil. up to a few years ago all books were sewn by hand, the covers were made by hand, and hand work was employed in putting book and cover together. the process of sewing by hand may be briefly described as follows: two or more strings or tapes are stretched between the edge of a board and a stick held horizontally above it by two uprights. the book folded and ready for sewing, after having been either pressed or beaten with a hammer to make it lie smooth, is held in a vise and two saw cuts are made in the back at about the same distance from each other and from the ends. two smaller saw cuts are also made in the back of the book, one between each of the larger ones and the opposite ends of the back. the first signature--the fold or section made of a large sheet folded--of the book is laid on the board so that the larger saw cuts are opposite the two strings. a thread is passed through the small cut at one end, into the middle of the fold, then out again by the first string, around the string, and in again to the middle of the fold, then along the inside of the fold to the next string, around that string, along inside the fold, then out again at the other small cut. the second signature is then laid on top of the first. the thread is passed into the small cut, along and around the two strings, as with the first signature, and out at the other end, where it is tied to the end of the thread which has been left sticking out of the first saw cut for this purpose. this process is continued until the book is all fastened together and to the strings. as the sewing goes on, the several signatures are caught together at the smaller holes at each end by passing the thread, as it comes out of the hole, down and under the loop made by the passing of the thread between the two signatures previously sewn. in the case of a book containing a large number of signatures the thread does not extend the whole length of each fold, but passes from one to another as it goes the length of the book, gathering on two signatures at once. sometimes, by using four strings instead of two, the string is made to pass through and to sew on three signatures at a time. examples of this two-on and three-on method can be seen in almost any large book bound prior to or years ago. in very careful binding by hand in the early days of book-making, the strings were not set into saw cuts, but were simply laid across the back of the book. the thread came out of the signature and passed around the strings, and went in again. the strings, with the thread thus wrapped around them, made a welt across the back of the book. these welts, when covered by the leather of the binding, showed as raised bands. these raised bands are imitated by pasting bits of leather on the back in much so-called fine binding today. in some cases the old process is employed and the bands have a real reason for existence. books are sometimes sewn on tapes or strips of vellum. these, laid across the back, sometimes make ridges which are treated as bands in the completed book. in old bindings, to give the book a better appearance at top and bottom, what is called a headband was put on with thread, the thread passing through the signatures and from one signature to another in such a way as still more securely to hold these together. today the headband is still used; but usually it is simply pasted in and is little more than an ornament. sometimes the book's back is still further reinforced by pasting or gluing to it a piece of vellum, leather or heavy cloth before the process of putting on the cover begins. set rules for sewing books should not be laid down. each book is treated by the skillful binder, or should be, in accordance with the character of its paper, the number of inserts, the thickness of the paper, the size of the signatures, the size of the leaves, the use it is to receive, and other facts. the good binder binds each book well according to its kind. [illustration: showing a method of sewing on tapes the catching up of the alternate groups of threads as they cross the bands renders the sewing firmer. there are other methods of achieving this end. from report of the committee on leather for bookbinding. edited for society of arts. london: bell & sons, .] after the book is properly sewn, the strings on which it is gathered are cut off a short distance from the sides. pieces of cardboard are cut of the proper size for a cover. the ends of the strings are laced into them or fastened down upon them with paste or glue. the leather for the cover is then pasted or glued to the back and the outside of the boards. the ends are turned over the boards and at the top and bottom of the book are turned down and pasted to themselves, thus forming a roll or crown which lies up close to the headband. the sides are then covered, if the book is not to be bound in full leather, with cloth or paper or other material. the outside sheets of the books, called end-sheets, are then pasted to the inside of the cover and the book is practically complete. the back of the book is always covered with glue after the sewing and before the leather or cloth is put on. this glue is thin and hot, and is put on to hold together the backs of the signatures. in rounding, the binder manipulates the book with the hands, and taps it with a hammer until the proper shape is secured. this is done after the coat of glue has been applied. in edition work this is done on a machine. in backing the book is held between two metal, or metal-edged, plates close up to the back, the back having been stiffened previously with a coat of glue which has not set very firmly; and with a hammer the backs of the signatures are pounded down and out, making a slight ledge or groove along the outer edges against which set later the boards of the covers. if the book is to be tight back the cloth or leather is glued direct to the backs of the signatures thus rounded, though often a thin piece of cloth, super, is first glued on, extending over onto the sides. if it is to be loose back a double fold of paper is attached to the back, one sheet to the back and one to the cover material. the leather or cloth then stands out from the book, when it is open, being attached to it only at the joints. it is in loose back binding, as said above, that cloth or leather is sometimes glued fast and with great care to the back before the cover goes on, thus taking the place of the leather of the cover in the tight back book. in the best binding this backing extends over through or past the joint and onto the sides or covers; and is also firmly attached, at the joint, to the leather of the back. in the newark library we use for this a thin soft muslin of the best quality. [illustration: showing method of attaching tape slips or ends of bands to a split board leaving a "french joint" from report of the committee on leather for bookbinding. edited for society of arts. london: bell & sons, .] this description of the process of binding is a suggestive outline only. enough has been said, however, to show that the books sewn by hand and fastened carefully to the cover as described will, if properly made, wear much longer than a book bound by machinery, if bound as above described. but, just as a machine properly handled can produce paper of greater uniformity of thickness and of a quality superior in many respects to the best hand-made paper, so the machines used in binding can, if properly handled, bind books even more strongly than can any save the most careful workman. the possible differences between machine-made books can easily be noted in the cheap novels of the day, which are poorly bound, and well-made law books and encyclopædias. these latter are often faithfully put together and will stand almost as much wear as any books ever produced. chapter iii =the literary side of library rebinding= after satisfactory materials and methods of binding for a library have been discovered and adopted, there still remain many questions which can be well answered only by one having a wide knowledge of books. nor is a general knowledge of books alone enough to qualify one to answer wisely these questions. close acquaintance with the library's policy in regard to book-saving and book-buying and of its attitude toward the demand for popular and ephemeral fiction; knowledge of its reference work; of the amount of handling its books receive by the public, and of its financial condition and policy--all this and much besides the person in charge of binding should have before she can make wise decisions. and particularly she needs knowledge of paper, editions, prices and similar matters. take fiction for example. more than half of the binding bills of most free public libraries are probably chargeable to novels. one of these comes to the hands of the person in charge of binding in such condition that at the first glance it seems desirable to rebind it. let us suppose that it is still in publisher's cloth; is quite soiled outside, but still fairly clean within; that the cover has parted from the book in front; that several leaves are loose and two of them frayed at the edges; that at the back the outside sheets of several signatures are nearly worn through or broken; and that the label is off. should it be rebound; or what should be done with it? before deciding its fate, questions like the following must be answered. if this is not the only copy of this book now in the library, are the other copies in good condition? if they are, can the library spare this copy because the demand for this particular title is past? and is it not better economy to throw it away or sell it--as it will probably never be wanted again--than to spend money in binding it? that is to say, if it is bound, will it not stand idle on the shelf? if it continues to be somewhat popular, and this copy would get some use if it were replaced, still, is it a book the use of which it is the library's policy to encourage? if not, has it not served its purpose and should it not be put away, rather than entail on the library another expense item in cost of binding? if it is the only copy in the library, is it a book the library wishes to retain or has it been in effect on trial, and has proved not to be worth keeping? if so, would not the binding of it be a use of money far less justifiable than its original purchase? or is it perhaps of interest now simply as a part of the history of fiction and so still worth keeping? but, if kept for this purpose, does it need binding at all? will not a little mending make it hold together sufficiently well? perhaps the best plan would be to reclassify it for the literature section, wrap it in paper, mark the wrapper, and put on the shelf. if it is a good book, in constant demand, the question is still not a simple one. is it on poor paper, so poor that in our style of rebinding it will last but a short time? if so, would not a new copy be a better investment than the rebinding of this one? if the paper is good enough for rebinding, will it stand mending and further wear without making its ultimate binding very difficult? if there are other editions of this book obtainable, does this sample indicate that this particular edition is the best one to buy hereafter? these and many other questions confront the librarian every time a book, of any kind, comes up for binding. because they are not wisely answered the shelves of every library show examples of the unwise expenditure of money. to take a specific example in this same field of fiction. the library has several sets of cooper. in each of them is the chainbearer. consider any one of the library's copies of this book: no one reads it. but mere shifting on the shelf gradually wears it out. it goes through the bindery, and, being by cooper, and a novel, it is bound, in the same style as the spy which happens to go with it, in half leather. the spy is used; the leather on it keeps soft and pliable and wears a year or two, until the book is too dirty to keep it longer. but the chainbearer stands untouched and its leather hardens and breaks. it must be bound again within three or four years, even though it has not been lent once in that period. if it had received a plain cloth binding, that binding would have cost less and lasted indefinitely. if it had been thrown away the library would have been the gainer. the problem is not less complex when books in classes other than fiction are up for consideration. many of them are rarely used; why rebind them at all, no matter how broken? to tie a string about them or to wrap in paper and mark them would often be wiser economy. often they are single volumes from long sets, an edition, for example, of some history bound about . the binding is calf. in rebinding, to match the set is very unwise, for all calf now on the market will rot in a few years. it must be bound, let us suppose, as it is occasionally called for; yet it will not, like a popular novel, wear out or become unbearably dirty in a half century. shall it be put in morocco? this would be a mistake, for it is doubtful if present-day morocco will last years, probably not half that time. the only alternative is cloth, and that with no leather title label on the back. one of the best things is, for a large book, heavy duck back, light gray or light green, lettered in printers' ink, with sides of any good book cloth. this spoils the looks of the set. moreover, the cloth catches dust and dirt, and grows soft and flabby. but it is today one of the few safe bindings. if the book is small, full art canvas or imperial morocco cloth is better. so, as i have said, paper, leather, cloth, sewing, joints, gold, and many other things the librarian must know; and to these must add knowledge of literary values, popularity of books and authors, editions, prices and a score of other things before he can be sure, if he ever can be sure, that he is really binding economically, in the long run. chapter iv =binding materials suitable for a library= the newark library has tried many experiments in the choice of materials. it finds that thin, imported, acid-free pigskin, first used in this country by mr. chivers, is the best material for backs. it wears well; does not rot; is easily manipulated and takes gold lettering well. a disadvantage is its tendency to darken with handling. it works well on books of all sizes and all kinds, whether they are handled much or not. morocco, if tanned so that it will not rot, is more expensive than pigskin. for the finer books it is better than pigskin as it preserves better its appearance under much handling. cowskin is good for books which are to be much handled and are likely to be worn out and discarded within five years. only the best quality should be used. dark red is usually preferable to light red or brown. it costs less than pigskin. english imperial morocco cloth makes a good full binding for books that are not to receive much wear. it cannot be lettered easily, and if much handled soon looks dingy at the top and bottom of the back and along the joint and at the corners. dark blue art canvas, the kind in which both warp and woof are dyed blue, makes a serviceable and inexpensive full binding. it can be recommended for books which are to be handled but little. large volumes like periodicals and society proceedings should have backs of gray or light green duck, with black letters, and sides of art canvas or morocco cloth. newspapers should also have backs of duck. the sides may be covered with paper, but art canvas or art vellum is better. if newspapers are to be consulted often they should be carefully bound of course. but in a great many libraries it is wise to tie most newspapers up in flat packages instead of binding them. for the sides of books, bound with pigskin or morocco backs, which are to be much handled the newark library has found nothing as good as keratol, elsewhere described. for books which are not to be much handled, morocco cloth is excellent. on books which are bound with an eye to their beauty,--curios, rarities, books to be exhibited, etc.--newark uses three-fourths morocco with sides of paper or of cloth of appropriate color. the joint committee on printing of the house of representatives, washington, d. c., made an investigation in of several binding materials. this investigation was made with special reference to the binding of the publications of the united states government. it included the subjects of endurance, wear, tensile strength, tendency to absorb moisture, readiness with which attacked by insects. incidentally other qualities were considered. an outcome of this investigation was the publication by the bureau of standards, washington, of specifications for bookcloth for binding depository sets of public documents. the specifications state that the cloth shall be from first quality staple cotton, uniformly woven and of the grade known as firsts. the surface shall be smooth and hard and show no tendency to stick when folded upon itself. further specifications cover the strength of the material, its tendency to absorb moisture, its resistance to mold and insects and other characteristics. these specifications may be used by all librarians in selecting cloth for ordinary library binding. the bureau of standards will make tests according to the specifications for any library, charging a fee for the work. the cloth which conforms to these specifications is a smooth cotton fabric similar to that used by the best law book publishers in this country, and to the duck mentioned above. it is much heavier than ordinary publisher's book cloth. chapter v =rebinding for libraries= libraries differ as to bindings in their needs and in their possibilities. books differ even more. no library can or should exactly follow any one style in its rebinding work. i add, however, the following directions for ordinary, much-used mo volumes, in the hope that they may be found suggestive. they should be read in the light of all the rest of this book, and not taken as final authority at any point. pull apart with great care. remove all threads and old paste and glue. smooth out the backs by beating. guard the outer and inner leaves of all signatures that are broken or weak with paper or jaconet. loose pictures, if they are to be kept, put in with guards. frequently in rebinding the illustrations may be dropped with no loss either to the reader's pleasure or the cause of art. see that the leaves are all in and complete. no. . books sewed regularly, that is, not whipstitched. guard the first and last signatures with jaconet. if the title-page or frontispiece is an insert, paste the guard along the insert and over the first signature. this saves the labor of guarding the insert and first signature separately. guard with jaconet the inner side of the inside leaf of every signature that is at all worn or weak; if badly worn guard also the outer side of the outside leaf. in some cases every leaf should be guarded. but remember that guards thicken the back. make two sets of four-page end-sheets by folding once with the grain pieces of lithographed lining paper; and two sets of waste papers by folding once pieces of good book paper, about lb. guard the outside of the folds of all of these with jaconet, and place one of each kind at the front and back of the book, the lithograph one on the outside in each case. use hayes's standard linen thread of a weight adapted to the book. the cotton thread used in book sewing machines wears well, but is not recommended for hand-work. no. is good for books with light sections, for those with heavy sections, and for those with medium. sew the book on four stout but flexible tapes, each about a quarter of an inch wide. sew all along throughout. leave about three-fourths of an inch of tape projecting each side when cutting off. from here on the process is very similar for this kind of binding sewed in the ordinary way, and for no. , whipstitched, which follows. no. . books which are whipstitched, being in such condition or of such character that they have to be trimmed at the back, being then simply piles of loose sheets. cut off as little of the backs as possible. prepare and place end sheets and waste papers as above described, except here paste the jaconet guard only along one side, the outer, of the folds of all of them. this gives firm hold for first overcast stitches. glue the back of the book slightly so that it may be divided into signatures of a few leaves each which will hold together. sew on same tapes as for a regularly sewed book. in overcasting or whipstitching do not take up more than one-eighth of an inch for the deepest stitches. make the signatures small and pass the needle through two of them with each stitch, taking the stitch diagonally. paste the lining papers to the waste sheets, all over, front and back. paste ends of tapes on top of lining papers. trim the book, cutting it as little as possible. glue the back slightly, and, when it is partly dried, round the book and then back it. in backing do not break the threads or pull them through the paper. this is especially to be guarded against on whipstitched books. after rounding and backing, glue to the back and over onto the sides, passing beyond the jaconet guards, a strip of medium weight, soft, bleached muslin. measure and cut the boards, which should be of good quality, adapted to the wear the book is likely to have. cut the leather back, of pigskin. do not pare it save slightly at the edges. put a little paste on the boards to make them stay in place, and set them in place on the book. put on the leather, leaving the boards in place, tucking the leather in at top and bottom,--head and tail. when the leather is partly dried, the book having been kept under slight pressure, cover the boards with keratol or appropriate cloth. make the corner fold by first turning the cover material in straight across the corner and then bringing in the folds from right and left. paste the end sheets firmly down on the inside of the covers. this fastens the book securely into its case. press until thoroughly dry. letter in gold with large, rather heavy, black-face letters. reduce the lettering to as few words as possible. no rule can be given as to the glue to be used. let your binder be sure that what he uses is good, whether the price he pays be high or low. he can tell whether it is good or not by testing it. glue pots should be cleaned out frequently. glue should be treated with judgment as to heat and degree of thickness at which it is used. it is animal matter that quickly changes its character and loses its strength under wrong conditions. the boards to be used in a book should depend, as to quality and thickness, on the character of the volume they cover. expensive boards on a book which will probably soon be too dirty to be kept, are not essential. neither strings nor tapes need to be laced into the boards on ordinary library work. they hold well if carefully glued down on the inside, and very well if pasted between two boards or into a split in one. [illustration: plates the first diagram shows in section a plate pasted on to a leaf of a book. this method is faulty, because it takes up some of the back margin of the leaf; if the leaf is pressed back the plate is apt to split off. the second diagram shows the method of attaching a plate by means of a "guard." from report of the committee on leather for bookbinding. edited for society of arts. london: bell & sons, .] some books are best bound with tight backs, some with loose. there is no invariable rule in regard to this; it depends partly on the thickness of the book. very thick volumes should have loose backs, usually. it is usually wise to trim books when they are rebound. but this trimming should of course be as little as possible. [illustration: showing the method of lacing in the slips or ends of bands on a flexible bound book if depressions are cut in the board as shown, the slips can be left with an adequate margin of strength without clumsiness. from report of the committee on leather for bookbinding. edited for society of arts. london: bell & sons, .] it is possible to whipstitch a book, even one which is printed on stiff paper, in such a way that it will be almost as flexible and open almost as easily as if it were sewed on tapes in the regular way. it is possible, but difficult. few have done it. few binderies, if any, in this country have workers who can and will give to the work of whipstitching the care and thought necessary to produce a good job. [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. showing the advantage of a "french joint" over an ordinary joint no. . a section of an ordinary joint with the board open shows that the creasing of the leather is concentrated on one line. no. . a section of a "french joint" shows how this creasing is distributed over a great surface, and so enables sufficient flexibility to be obtained with much thicker leather than can be used with an ordinary joint. from report of the committee on leather for bookbinding. edited for society of arts. london: bell & sons, .] some strengthen the top and bottom of the back, the head and tail, by a piece of cloth or tape passing over the back of the signatures and held to them by the sewing in a manner difficult to describe. [illustration: anatomy of a joint a board of cover. b b bleached muslin, pasted over back after rounding and backing. c c strings or tapes on which the book is sewn. d d end sheets of lithograph paper. the part at the left is pasted to the inside of the board and becomes the lining paper. b and c being pasted over on to d, when d is pasted to a they are carried with it and lie under the end sheet or lining paper. e e jaconet or thin muslin guard pasted on d before the book is sewn. f f waste papers of good book paper. g g jaconet guard of waste papers. before the book is trimmed f and d are pasted together and become a doubled fly leaf. h h the first signature of the book. j j jaconet guard of the first signature. k k k paths of threads. l leather back. m cloth or paper side.] music should be sewed regularly or all along and the inside and outside sheets of all signatures should be guarded with jaconet. this guarding of the inner sheets makes the binding stronger, as the inner pages of a section always tend to work loose if much handled. the side and top squares should be about / of an inch; but the bottom square about / inch. this large square at the bottom raises the book on the instrument to allow the easy turning of leaves, as the pages frequently catch when the squares are the usual size all around. newark finds half pig with keratol sides very durable. large maps, drawings, etc., may be mounted on linen, jaconet, nainsook, ordinary bleached, or unbleached muslin. the material used should be five or six inches larger all around than the map to be mounted for convenience in stretching and working. tack the cloth on a clean board, table or floor. put the tacks very close together and tack the selvage edge first. the surface may be covered with waste paper before stretching the cloth on it. apply a thin coat of thin paste all over. when dry, paste the map and allow it to stand about ten minutes to give it time to stretch. lay the map on the muslin and rub it down under a stout piece of paper. thorough rubbing down is absolutely necessary to make every part adhere. proceed from the center outward, carefully rubbing out creases and bubbles. dry thoroughly before taking up. one person alone cannot mount a very large sheet. very small maps in books which have become somewhat worn and creased can be mounted on japanese mending tissue. this paper is quite tough and thin, and wears well. chapter vi =lettering and numbering the backs of books= several methods of lettering the backs of books are in use in libraries. the best is gilding. if this is well done with genuine gold it will remain bright for many years, and will stand hard wear better than any other style of marking. on leather this method should always be followed. only the best work in gilding is worth the money it costs, and there is no substitute for gold that deserves mention. gilding on cloth by hand is rather difficult. it does not show well on light-colored cloth, or on some dark colors. on some cloths, also, gold titles become quite invisible in certain lights, probably because of a certain combination in them of color and texture. dark green is often quite objectionable on this account, and the same is true of some shades of red, in cloths of a certain texture. this difficulty should be noted, and only those cloths used on books which are to have gold titles on which the letters show well, at whatever angle the light may strike them. the process of gilding is described in books on binding. it costs usually about two cents a line. black ink is very good for lettering on some kinds of cloth, particularly on light-colored duck, canvas, buckram, whether cotton or linen, and art vellum. the ink used should be "bookbinder's title ink," made for the purpose. the letters should be large and heavy-faced and not set very closely together. the method of applying the ink is to pour some of it on a piece of marble and then to apply to the type with a rubber pad. as the type is cold, considerable pressure is necessary to make the ink take well. black lettering costs about the same as gilding, say, two cents per line. letters in gold are sometimes applied to books bound in cloth by printing them on a very thin piece of leather and then gluing the latter to the back. this method is also occasionally used on books in leather. these leather labels can be stamped by machinery in quantities, as is done for large editions by commercial binders, though this is not practicable for the ordinary library binder. they usually look very well when first applied; but it is not very easy to make them hold permanently. the better method in almost all cases is to letter directly on the book, no matter what material it is bound in. the binder should use brass type letters in most cases; they wear well and give a clear impression. ordinary printer's type will do excellent work for a time. brass type costs from to cents per letter, common type from one to five dollars per font, according to size and number of types. the best style for ordinary use is condensed gothic. a heavy-faced roman, like jensen, is sometimes good, and on larger books looks very well in capitals and small letters. use as large letters as the back of the book will permit. reduce the number of words in all titles to the lowest possible number. samples of type well adapted to lettering in gold on the backs of books: [illustration: sample --gothic condensed, point. carnegie public library free for the people sample --schoeffer, point. carnegie public library free for the people sample --lining condensed title, point. carnegie public library free for the people] titles can be printed on paper also and the paper then pasted or glued on. this plan is not at all satisfactory for books which are to have much use, as the paper soon gets soiled and is very apt to peel off. many libraries have bound books in light-colored cloth, usually art vellum, and then lettered them by hand with india-ink. the result is not very satisfactory. the time taken in lettering them neatly is considerable; the letters soon get soiled and illegible, and even if very well done they look cheap and homemade. at the ordinary cost of gilding, about two cents per line, hand lettering is almost as expensive as gilding if the cost of the time spent on it is fairly estimated. then, to make them legible, the cloth chosen must be so light in color that it soon shows the results of handling and becomes dingy and disreputable. a dark cloth of the best quality and gold letters pay best. [illustration: type cabinet] on books bound in dark cloth or leather, numbers can be written in white ink. some librarians find this plan quite satisfactory. the method is this: the place for the number being located, wash the varnish away from it with a clean cloth, dampened with a mixture of ammonia one part and water two parts, and allow to dry. then write the letters with a fine camel's hair brush, about no. in size. when thoroughly dry give the letters a thin coat of shellac. david's white letterine is one of the best white inks. white ink is difficult to manage and wears off soon if not very carefully put on. labels should always be put at least four inches from the bottom of the back, the tail, that they may not be soiled or worn off in handling. they should be marked with india-ink in large, plain figures. on many books it will pay to have them gilded, as when thus put on they do not detract from the book's appearance and look well for an indefinite time. if labels are used, put them on as follows: the place for the label being located, wash away the varnish from that place a little with a clean cloth dampened with water and ammonia. if the book is thin cut the label before it is put on, so that it does not quite reach the edges of the back. if the book is so thin that there would not be sufficient room for the book number on a label cut to fit it, place the label on the upper left corner of the front cover. press the label tightly and evenly down until it sticks firmly all over. this is most important. use dennison's round gummed labels. these, being round, present no corners to be easily ruffed up. they are free from lines around the border, so their whole surface is available for the book number. they can be had in several sizes. lay out a scheme for marking books, and then make model labels to be followed in marking fiction, classed books, reference books, juveniles, magazines, etc., so that the same kinds of combinations of letters and figures will always be written in the same way. chapter vii =pamphlets= the subject of the care of pamphlets in a library does not come within the field of these notes; but it may be proper to say that experience and observation have led me to the conclusion that many pamphlets are bound and entered in the catalog which are not worth the labor they have entailed. how those should be kept that are thought worth keeping i do not attempt to say. often those kept are not worth keeping, and still oftener those bound and catalogued are not worth binding. if they are bound, the style of binding they should receive, if they are in fact books in paper covers, is to be decided by the same rules as is the same question in regard to other books. if they are in fact pamphlets--a few pages with no cover, and must stand on the shelf and will be little used, a cheap binding may be made thus: take off the cover; fold once a sheet of stout paper to the pamphlet's size; cut two boards for covers, a little narrower than the pamphlet; paste them to the paper mentioned about half an inch apart; paste a strip of book cloth down the back and over the edges of the boards; paste the cover to the boards, front and back; sew the pamphlet into the case thus roughly made with stout thread through three or five holes along the back (this last process is called stabbing); trim. this is simple, strong and inexpensive. if the pamphlet consists of one signature only the method just described can be followed; but the sewing should be through the back, a saddlestitch, with the knot inside. the binder's knot or stitch is thus made: having three holes for the thread, go first down through the center one, back through one of the end holes, down again through the other end hole, up through the center, and tie the two ends over the thread which passes from end hole to end hole. with five holes the process is similar and easily followed. a very neat pamphlet binding, for pamphlets too large to be saddle-stitched, is the following: cut two pieces of smooth, hard, "flat" paper the size of the pamphlet; along one edge of each paste a strip of thin cotton cloth, bleached muslin, about half an inch wide; lay one piece each side of the pamphlet, cloth strips at the back, and sew the pamphlet through these strips, close to the back, with three holes or five as seems advisable. make two end-sheets of two leaves each, the size of the pamphlet; guard each with muslin; paste these to the first sheets, all over, one on each side of the pamphlet; cut boards and paste them down on the outer halves of the end-sheets (each end-sheet has now become, one-half the lining paper for the cover, the other half, half of a double fly leaf); put on a back of art vellum, leather or other material; paste on the pamphlet's cover; trim. this binding is very strong, very neat, opens quite easily and will wear well. the boards can be covered all over with cloth, and the binding will then wear much longer. ballard's clips find favor with many librarians, for both pamphlets and magazines. they hold things together neatly and securely, and hold magazines into covers of cloth or leather quite effectively. they are strips of sheet steel, of several widths, bent into about three-fourths of a circle. small steel levers fit into cleverly adjusted holes and make opening easy. chapter viii =magazine binders= it has long been one of the library traditions that magazines used in the reading room should be put into stiff and heavy temporary binders as soon as received, and so arranged, usually on racks holding them vertically, that they can all be seen at once. it is now permitted to doubt the wisdom of this proceeding. the binders are expensive; the best of them soon get a worn and dingy look, even if they hold together for a long time; the racks with their contents are usually not ornamental and are often quite the reverse. the space taken by the racks can ill be spared, especially when the area needed by browsers in front of them is included. if the number of periodicals taken is quite large the display space needed for them is quite out of proportion to the use made of them. recent back numbers of most journals, as well as the last numbers, should be made accessible to readers, and for this there is no provision in the vertical file arrangement. there seems no better reason for exposing to the casual reader of the reading room the full fronts of all the journals the library takes than there is for making a similar display of all the books the library buys. to the display of all journals on terrace tables most of the objections just noted are also applicable. a careful consideration of the relative value of current numbers of periodicals in a library and of space, time and energy that should be put on their presentation to the public, will lead one to the conclusion that the best way to handle them is to lay them in alphabetical order on plainly labeled ordinary book shelves wide enough to hold the larger ones, set about six inches apart, that the numbers for the past six months may be kept together. the thin journals which are most read, like "puck" or the "scientific american," may well be slipped for a week into an inexpensive binder like the one called "cleveland" in the list which follows. magazines much read, like the "century" and "mcclures," can be so reinforced in a few minutes, as described below, that they will keep quite neat for several months. this method is economical of space; keeps the journals easily in one alphabetical series; makes six numbers accessible instead of one; eliminates the question of binders; saves the assistant's time, relatively to the service given to the public; and asks the public simply to remember their alphabet and to read the shelves. binders that require the punching of holes through the backs of magazines should be looked on with suspicion; though in spite of its expense the binder of this type, with flexible metal strips in place of strings and with polished sides containing actual covers of the magazine within, has had much use. it wears well, is put on about as quickly as any, exposes the date and name along the magazine's back, and looks more attractive than any other binder when perched in rows in vertical racks. all other binders may be divided into three kinds: the clip, the bar and the string. the clip is based on the ballard clip idea. the johnston is a good example. a spring in the back grips the sides of the magazine and holds the binder on. it tends to make a magazine less easy to hold open. it pleases a good many. the bar has for its main feature one or more strips of steel, which run down the back of the magazine and are fastened to the binder by a hinge at one end and a hook at the other. of all of this kind the best for the money is, perhaps, the new haven. the string uses a string or elastic band to hold the magazine. in the one called the springfield, first used in los angeles in , the string passes through the magazine, between sections, and through three holes in the back of the binder in a binder's stitch. the newark library has tried many kinds of material for binders. thin book cloth soon wears out. heavy and strong cloth soon gets soiled. full leather is very expensive, unless the leather used is light and poor, and then it soon wears out. good leather backs outwear sides of any cloth. a cleveland binder made for "harper's weekly," with heavy cowskin back and keratol sides, was in constant use for months and looked well nearly all that time. it costs cents. the few binders now used in the newark reading room are made in this style. covers of strong paper pasted to the outsides of single copies of magazines to protect them during reading-room use or for lending, the newark library has not found satisfactory. we reinforce the covers of single magazines for this purpose as follows and find the method quite satisfactory: if the original cover is loose, take it off and paste on again carefully. line the cover with thin, white bond paper, pasted on all over and lapping a half-inch onto the magazine itself. press for ten minutes in a copying press. paste a strip of thin dark-colored book cloth down the back on the outside. put under moderate pressure until dry. write the name and date of the magazine on the strip of cloth with white ink. sew large magazines like the "ladies' home journal" into covers of stout paper. a strip of paper an inch and a half wide placed in the center of the section through which the magazine is sewed keeps the sewing from tearing the paper. single copies of magazines can be bound for lending, at about cents each, in this manner: take off covers; trim; remove table of contents if it faces the cover; paste strip of strong cotton cloth down the back, and extending about an inch over the sides; staple this on with at least three staples in the same line with the staples which hold the magazine together, or sew with stout thread through five holes; cut covers as for an ordinary binding; paste them to the strip; cover all over with art vellum; line covers with paper (this lining can be put on all over as the first step in the process, and pasted to the covers after they are on, thus forming the end paper); paste the front cover of the magazine on the front in such a way that the date line down the back comes on the back of the new cover. this is neat, convenient and quite durable. a few of the more popular binders are listed below. the material used to cover them can be endlessly varied. . the new haven binder, designed by mr. w. k. stetson, librarian of the public library of new haven. a solid back of metal. a metal rod hinged at one end passes through the middle section of the magazine. the free end of the rod is formed into a hook which, being slipped under a metal loop attached to the back of the binder, holds the magazine firmly in place. costs from cents to $ . . a simpler binder, also designed by mr. stetson and made on the same principles, sells at cents. . the johnston binder, made by william g. johnston & co., pittsburgh, pa., has a round steel spring back which grips the magazine. costs from cents up, according to size. . the boston binder, made by the office, bank and library co., summer st., boston. a rounded wooden back supports the binding device which consists of two bars of steel pivoted at one end and fastened at the other with a pin. costs from cents to $ . according to size and material used. . the torsion binder, made by the barrett bindery co., - monroe st., chicago. two flat steel wires are hinged to the binder at the top and fitted with knobs at the free ends. these pass inside the magazine and a slight pressure on the knobs sends the free ends of the wires into an inclined slot. costs from cents to $ . according to size and material used. . the springfield binder has a strip down the back of a simple cover or case, with three holes punched therein through which the magazine is laced in by strings. shoe strings or tape may be used. costs from cents up. . the chivers binder, made by cedric chivers, bath, england, and brooklyn, n. y., is like the springfield cover, but with a separate flat brass rod around which the magazine is sewed into the cover. . the weis binder, made by the weis co., toledo, ohio, has metal grooves in the back which hold the magazine. . the buchan binder, made by buchan mfg. co., newark, n. j., has a steel back which consists of a hinge regulated by a screw. one or more magazines may be kept in the binder. good for magazines that are poorly put together. . the roedde magazine binder, made by the flexible back looseleaf ledger co., buffalo, n. y., varies somewhat from the torsion and boston binders, but is built on the same principle. costs from $ . to $ . . . cleveland binder, so called because much used in the cleveland library. a simple cover or case in the back of which are holes half an inch from the top and bottom; through these a piece of narrow elastic is sewed. the magazine, opened at the middle of a section is slipped under the elastic. recommended for weekly journals. . klip binder, made by h. h. ballard, pittsfield, mass. a simple cover attached to the magazine by a pair of steel clips, put on with keys. price of klips, cents per box of . . the philadelphia binder, made by g. d. emerson, philadelphia, pa. a rod passes through the magazine and springs into hooks at each end of the back. chapter ix =repairing books, general rules= the universal rule in this matter is, don't. to this there are exceptions; but many if not most of the books which are repaired are so injured by the process itself, or by the wear they receive after they are repaired, that it would have been better for them if they had not been repaired at all, but sent direct to the binder. librarians do not pay sufficient attention to book surgery. all repairing of books should be done by skilled persons. the question of whether or not repairs shall be made at all should be decided by a person who has not only technical skill in repairing; but also knowledge of the use to which the book in hand is likely to be subjected. this, because in many cases it will be evident to a person who knows about the use the books are to have that certain of them should not be repaired at all, no matter if in quite a dilapidated condition, with loose covers and loose leaves; but should be neatly wrapped in good manila paper, labeled plainly on the back and set again on the shelf. the few times in a year when little-used books are wanted do not, in many cases, warrant their rebinding. repairs on them, no matter how well done, are likely to injure them. books which are rarely borrowed, even though they are used occasionally, or are even a good deal handled because they stand near books which are much used, should perhaps be mended a little; loose leaves should be tipped in, at least. but work on them beyond that is often injurious. the feeling that all books in a library should be neatly bound has caused much unnecessary expense. in most libraries of moderate size and in all large ones, there should be a supervisor of binding and repairs; a person thoroughly familiar with the whole routine of library work, familiar also with literature, keeping close watch of the rise and fall in popularity of new books. such a person could say, for example, that the library's third copy of the valley of decision and the fourth copy of the crisis, if ready for repairing or rebinding, could with good economy be placed on a reserve shelf, not accessible to the public, there to be held until the delivery desk assistants find a call for them. that is, she would know that with two or three copies in good condition of these books in circulation there would almost always be one in the library. when the library's stock of such books as those named becomes reduced to one sound copy she can then tell, from the demand for it, if it is wise to bind one copy, or all; or if it is wise to do more than mend. this omniscient person who has charge of binding and repairs, reports to the head of the library that such and such books are past repairs; that they will cost to cents apiece to be properly rebound, and asks, "will the library ever want them again?" if not, then she will advise that they be given away and their cards removed from the catalog. or, if they must be kept for historical or religious or superstitious or other reasons she will advise that they be neatly tied up in paper, labeled, and put back on the shelf. knowledge of the art of mending implies not only knowledge of the process of making a book by machinery and by hand; but also knowledge of the different kinds of paper, how they wear, if they break easily, if they will soon grow brittle, and the effect on them of attempts to hold them with paste or glue. along with this knowledge should also go knowledge of the cost of each individual book, and such knowledge of their use as will enable the repairer to decide at once whether , , or cents spent in repairs will or will not pay. as long as there are so few assistants who are at all familiar with paper, type, binding, literary quality, popularity, cost, etc., it is well to discourage almost all book repairs. as soon as we admit, as we must, that a good book, costing from one to two dollars, must be mended carefully if at all, we have opened the door for a large expense. an assistant can easily spend an hour or two on a book, repairing its cover, mending a few leaves and putting it in order. when she gets through she will have put from to cents' worth of time into it, has probably permanently injured it, and in a few months or years it will be in worse condition than if she had never touched it at all. moreover, the same amount of money put out in cash instead of time would in many cases have rebound it. in a measure the remarks just made apply even to popular books, much used by children or adults. it is easy to spend more money in mending them than good economy can justify. mend sparingly; rebind early. the reason for this warning against mending lies in the anatomy of the book and the injury it receives from handling after it begins to break up, and especially after its first breaks have been mended by a prentice hand. the weakest point in a book is the joint. in publishers' binding of today this joint is made by a piece of super, which is glued to the back of the book and then to the inside of the cover, plus the end paper which is pasted over it and also onto the cover. this super is weak. if it is put on with a poor glue that glue soon grows hard and the joint is further weakened thereby. it breaks or tears easily. also, it parts easily from the back to which it is glued and from the cover. no strings or tapes pass from the book to cover. when the joint once comes loose from either back or cover, or breaks, it cannot well be either attached or mended again. it is sometimes possible to take a broken book out of its case entirely, remove the old and attach new super, add new end sheets, put it again into the case and get considerable use from it. but any other kind of mending of the joint is almost futile and even this is injurious. and the better such mending seems at first to succeed, the greater the harm it is really doing to the whole book. for the mending usually consists in pasting a strip of strong paper or cloth along the joint. this simply conveys the strain from the joint proper, where it belongs, to the first leaf of the first signature. this is only paper, usually poor at that. it soon breaks and lets its other half loose. very commonly other injuries are worked at the same time. the book gets loose again, if it was ever really tightened. the super with hard glue attached rubs about on the backs of the signatures; several of them are cut through, and the possibility of a rebinding with proper sewing is either gone forever or can be regained only after the long labor of mending many signatures. when the cords or bands are broken in a book in which they are used it is as useless to attempt to fasten book and cover together as it is when the super gives way in publishers' binding. loose leaves appear earliest in books printed on paper which is so heavy that it breaks almost as soon as it is folded. if the loose leaves of such books are tipped in they tend to tear out with them the ones they are tipped onto. leaves should rarely be tipped into books which have never been rebound. in rebound books which are in their last days and will never be rebound again it is sometimes proper to tip in. full-page illustrations which come loose can in most cases be left out to advantage. to tip them in again hurts the leaves they are fastened to. they are usually so poor that it is a kindness to the reader to throw them away. in the long run a book needing more than very slight repairs will give better return if so rebound at once that it will hang together until so dirty that it will have to be thrown away. some books, especially some of those printed on cheap, heavy, coated paper, will never pay to rebind. they should be mended, each according to its constitution, and when beyond mending thrown away. good general rules for mending books are few. the first and most important of all is: be sparing with paste or other stickist. another is: if a machine-bound book is broken at the joint, the cover beginning to part from the back, send it straight to the binder. the best plan is to buy your books as far as possible properly bound for library use direct from the publishers' sheets. such books never need mending or rebinding. being flexible and easily opened their leaves are rarely torn; and, for the same reason, getting no hard pressure from moist or dirty hands in trying to keep them open, their leaves keep clean for a long time. books not thus bound in the first place should be rebound in first-class manner when they begin to break. parsimony in rebinding is a library thief. chapter x =repairing books, newark methods= books are sent to the bindery and repair department from the delivery department, as the head of the latter department may direct; and the head of the bindery department, or some one under her direction, is constantly looking over the shelves for books that need attention. in the repair department, which attends to the repair of books and to the sending of those needing binding to the bindery, these directions are followed: when a book looks dilapidated, note carefully its condition throughout. consider these questions in regard to it: is it worth repairing? should it be covered? should it be rebound? should it be discarded? no general rules can be given by which to answer these queries. each case must be decided by itself. =general cleaning.= look through book; turn out corners of leaves which have been turned in; mend torn leaves with transparent mending paper, or japanese mending tissue; erase dirt and pencil marks. =pencil marks.= for removing soil and pencil marks, we have tried the ruby, cerise, and ideal erasers, art gum, and ivory soap and water. we like the cerise, manufactured by eberhard faber, as having more grit than the ruby and yet not injurious to the paper. =torn leaves.= ordinary circulating books are best mended with narrow strips of japanese tissue and paste. this is cheaper than commercial gummed paper and is preferable to it also, as the mucilage on the latter grows dark and brittle in a short time. dennison's adhesive tape costs about three cents for a roll of four yards, while one sheet of japanese tissue, costing two and a quarter cents, cuts into yards of strips the width of dennison's. torn leaves in choice books may thus be mended: match the edges of the tear carefully and apply a narrow line of paste along them. lay over this a piece of japanese tissue larger than the tear, and rub it down very lightly. repeat this on the other side of the leaf and put under moderate pressure. when dry, pull off all the tissue that will come away easily. =cleaning publishers' bindings.= often there are a few spots on books which make them unsightly. it is not advisable to wash a cloth cover, unless very dirty, as the finish is thereby removed, thus permitting the book to become soiled again almost with first handling. in case, however, a publisher's cloth binding has become so soiled as to need washing, it can be very well cleaned and given a new finish by the process described below. if the directions are carefully followed books treated in this way will look almost new and will keep clean almost as well as they did when they came from the publishers' hands: hold the book by the leaves in the left hand, with the covers outside of fingers and thumb; rub the cover gently with a sponge dipped in a mixture of vinegar and water, half of each. continue to rub it carefully until it is quite clean; but do not press hard enough or rub persistently enough to take off any of the color. rub gently, slowly and carefully, letting the vinegar and water do most of the work. when thoroughly clean, or as clean as the character of color and cloth will permit the book in hand to be made, stand it on end to dry. the drying will take at least a half hour; a good plan, consequently, is to clean as many books at one time as one can do in about forty-five minutes. the first one cleaned will then be ready for the next step when the whole lot has been finished. in a common drinking glass, place one teaspoonful of egg albumen, to be had at any book bindery, and two teaspoonfuls of vinegar, add half a glass of water and let this stand over night. the next day, add two teaspoonfuls of binders' paste, stir thoroughly, and it is ready for use. with a sponge give the cleaned books one coat of this mixture and again stand on end to dry. this mixture will not make the covers as shiny as does shellac or varnish, but will cover the surface well and protect it. it will be sticky when first put on. =leather decay.= leather bindings which show signs of decay may be treated to an application of vaseline or olive oil, or a solution of paraffin wax in twice its weight of castor oil, slightly warmed. rub in well with fingers or cloth. the progress of decay can in some cases be stopped by this means. =labels.= take off and replace with fresh ones all torn and badly soiled back labels. to do this, apply to them a mixture of two parts water and one part ammonia. after they are soaked enough to come off very easily, take them off with a dull knife. in most cases let the water remain on the label for several minutes. to scratch off the label without soaking it first will often injure the book. labels that have been varnished are sometimes very difficult to remove and great care should be exercised with them. =replacing labels.= follow method used in putting them on when book is new, except that it is not necessary to moisten with ammonia and water the place on which the label is to go. use dennison's round gummed label, of a size small enough to rest entirely on the back of the book. never let a label extend over and around the edge of the back. for quite small books trim the label. moisten the gum slightly and press and work it down carefully until it has set all over. this is very essential. mark the book with indelible ink. cover label with quite thin white shellac. the shellac should extend a little onto the book beyond the label all around. let the first coat dry thoroughly and then apply a second. =labels on the sides of books.= if the cover is durabline or keratol, first put a coat of shellac on the place where the label is to be placed. allow this to dry. paste and put on the label, rubbing it down thoroughly. allow it to dry and give it a coat of shellac. if the cover is cloth, use ammonia and water instead of shellac before putting on the label. =loose leaves.= if the loose leaves are illustrations in an ordinary novel, take them out and send them to the picture department. replace other pictures with a guard of japanese mending tissue. this tissue takes up less space than bond paper and must always be cut with the grain of the paper or it cannot well be handled. rub the tissue down, first laying over it a piece of paper. =single leaves can be inserted in three different ways=: . fold half-inch strips of bond paper in the center lengthwise along the grain. with a small brush apply paste to the outside of this strip. attach half of it to the edge of the loose leaf and the other half to the adjoining leaf, close in by the fold. cover the strip with paste evenly, but sparingly and quickly, stretching it as little as possible. if it does stretch, and it tends to do so as soon as moistened, it will when dry wrinkle the page to which it is attached. loose leaves should be attached in this way only in books which are in good condition. . draw a soft piece of twine over a board which has received a thin coat of paste; then pull this cord through the back of the book where the loose leaf is to be inserted. this leaves in the book just enough paste to hold in the loose leaf. work the loose leaf carefully back into its place, close the back and let it dry. this method is not advised for general use. . on the back edge of the loose leaf put a little paste. lay the leaf in place and close the book for a second, then open and push leaf in place with folder. this method is used with whipstitched books. the first two methods are generally used with books sewed in the ordinary way on tapes or cords. =sewing in loose sections and loose leaves.= = . loose back books.= thread a darning needle three inches long with barbour's linen thread, no. , or hayes's linen thread, no. . open the book in the middle of the loose section. near the top and bottom of the fold will be seen holes made by the binder. pass the needle through a hole near the top, and out between the book and its loose back. do not pull the thread clear through. drop the needle and thread between the back of the book and the loose part of the binding to the bottom, then run it from the outside into the middle of the loose section through the hole at the bottom thereof, and tie at the point of beginning. insert japanese guard over thread. this holds the section in fairly well. always guard a section before replacing by pasting a half-inch strip of bond paper, folded in the middle, along the folds. = . tight-back books.= cut a guard of jaconet or bond paper three-fourths of an inch wide and as long as the book. sew the signature to the middle of this guard and then paste the guard in the book, attaching half of it to each of the leaves adjoining the loose section. =broken bindings.= books in publisher's cloth, which are breaking out of their bindings, are mended in some libraries with considerable success as follows: the case is taken off with care. if possible, the lining of the boards is removed in such a way as to permit of its being put on again. the super is removed from the margins of the boards and from the back. necessary repairs are made to end leaves and stitches are taken in the book when out of the case, if need be. the back of the book and the end leaves are then covered with a thin coat of flexible glue. the book is then again put together. this glues the back of the case directly to the back of the book, making it a tight back. it is reported that books thus repaired wear very well. newark has not had success with this kind of work. =fly leaves and end papers.= to add a new fly leaf. cut suitable paper just the length of the leaves of the book but half an inch wider, fold over the half inch and paste it; attach this half inch to the last fly leaf in the book, close to the joint. if a book has two or more fly leaves, very often you can save much time and still have your work look well by turning the first leaf back and pasting down the page facing. if leaves stick out of book after they have been tipped, guarded or sewed in, trim them off even with the others. if the end sheet or lining paper of the cover is soiled or injured, cut a sheet of suitable paper to fit the lining paper exactly and paste the new sheet down all over, fully covering it. after the new lining paper is put in, keep the book for a time under moderate pressure or the cover will curl. =loose joints.= if books are loose along the joint they can sometimes be repaired by pasting along the joint inside as a guard a strip of thin muslin or bond paper, an inch and a quarter wide. fold the strip through the center, paste it and apply it to fly leaf and book cover. a better material than muslin for this purpose is jaconet, being light in weight and starched a little. the book should lie open and flat after mending until it is dry. this, as has already been noted, is a poor method of mending a broken joint. by it the strain is passed from the cover through the new joint to the fly leaf, and the strength of the new joint is only the strength of the fly leaf itself, which is generally a poor piece of paper. a better way, in some cases, is to take the book entirely out of its cover, pull the super from the back, sew on new end sheets and glue a new piece of super or muslin over the back and extending half an inch onto the sides. let this dry thoroughly. then cover with paste the back and the end leaves, the latter being the sheets which are now to become lining papers, and put the book again into its case. this is recasing, in effect, in the manner in which the book was first put together. =loosened back.= a book which is in fairly good condition, with sewing protected, but loose in the case, can sometimes be strengthened by applying paste or glue down the inside of the loose back of the cover. this can be done fairly well with a long handled brush. this changes the binding from a loose to a tight back. =to reattach loose covers.= the method here described should be applied only to books which are little used. cut a strip of muslin the length of the book, and about an inch and a half wider than its back. apply hot binder's glue to it and put it over the back on the outside. when this is dry, cover the book with brown wrapping paper as described under the heading "covering books," as a book thus mended is quite unsightly. when a book is out of the cover, but has its sewing intact and the super or paper over the sewing firmly in place, it may be wise to give the back a coat of hot glue and put book again into its cover, thus making it a tight back. =covering books.= cut brown rugby wrapping paper into sheets of such a size that they will extend from to - / inches all around beyond the book when laid open on them. this size will be found to be nearly × inches for the ordinary mo. lay the closed book on the paper with back in the center and toward you, making sure that the proper margin of paper is left all around. fold the paper over the front edge of top cover; reverse book, this time with front edge toward you, and fold and stretch paper tight over the front edge of the cover. take book by the back in the left hand. with scissors cut the paper at top and bottom, with slight inward slant from its outer edges down to the four ends of the joints. take out the book, and turn in these center flaps with a double fold, putting a little paste on them after first turn. replace the book in the cover, flush with head and tail. tuck in folds at the corners of the front and back lap, making not too great an angle; crease well. the top and bottom laps should lie over the front and back laps. put a touch of paste on laps at corners, but do not put any on the book itself. =re-siding books.= books in good condition as to their bindings, being still solid, but having badly worn or badly soiled sides, send to bindery to have the covering of the boards, not the leather of the back, taken off and replaced with fresh keratol. this costs about cents per volume. this can also be done in the repair department, and book cloth can be used instead of keratol. =soiled edges.= the edges of soiled books can be somewhat improved by rubbing them with sand paper. =to cut fore edges of bound book.= this is never done to a book of value or to one that can be rebound; but cheap, shabby books with sound leather backs which hold together well can be freshened by cutting the fore edges and, if necessary, residing. sometimes one can cut straight down through the front edges and the two boards, reside and insert new end pages. this seems a barbarous process; still, it freshens the appearance of the book very much and often prolongs its usefulness. =maps.= when small folded maps are badly torn line them throughout with japanese tissue, jaconet or nainsook. =to freshen black leather.= sponge off with ordinary black ink; dry; rub over with paste; dry; apply a coat of bookbinders' varnish; dry; rub with vaseline. =broken boards.= books which have one or both of their sides broken, but are otherwise perfect, can have their boards replaced. do not do this to books in publisher's binding, as such books will soon have to be rebound in any case. on a book which is hand sewn, with leather back, a broken board can be replaced thus: pull off the cloth side, lift up the leather carefully where it laps over the side, also the muslin on the inside and pull out the broken board. put hot glue along both edges of new board to be inserted, and put in place. rub down well, and put under pressure, then reside and insert new end leaf. =ink stains.= these if on the leaves can generally be removed with ink eradicator or javelle water; but if they are on the edges and have soaked down into the book, nothing can be done but to cut the edges and have the book rebound. if the stains on the edges have not soaked in very deep, sandpaper can be used on them with good results. ink stains can be removed from keratol by applying to them household ammonia of full strength with a small bristle brush, working it over a little to loosen the ink. allow this to stand a minute or two and then rub with soft cloth and wash well with water. this cannot be done with imperial cloth, as ink sinks into its fiber. =general stains.= many brown stains can be removed with a strong solution of washing soda, or better with javelle water. wash with clear water and dry thoroughly after removing the stain or a dark line will later appear at the edge of the spot which was wet; put in a press with clean papers between the leaves. alum and water also give fairly good results. water and a little ivory soap will remove some finger marks. all of these methods have the disadvantage of removing the size or finish in the paper so that it soils quickly again. =grease marks.= for spots made with grease use benzine; while still moist apply a hot iron, with a blotting paper on each side of leaf. =paste.= paste must not be used if not in a good condition. the thickness at which it should be used varies with different kinds of work. thin paste is quickly taken up and under its application paper quickly expands. in most cases this stretching or expanding of the paper is a disadvantage. if it is desirable that the paper be so applied as not to draw or curl that to which it is applied, it should be covered quickly with thick paste, then applied at once and not much rubbed after it is in place. the dishes in which paste is kept should be thoroughly and often cleaned; brushes the same. bits of cloth used in pasting should either be thrown away or washed after they have been used a short time. chapter xi =repairing books: materials and tools= in spite of the remarks heretofore made about the injury often done to books by repairing them, even when the repairs are cleverly made, it is well for any library, however small, to have a mending table at which such work on books as seems necessary can be done. the materials for this work can in part be obtained from a bindery. there one can get super, pieces of book cloth of several colors, and some of other things mentioned below and in the list of technical terms. one needs for book repairs some or all of the following things, according to the amount of work to be done. =brushes.= buy a small brush, about as large as a lead pencil, and another half an inch in diameter. their prices vary with their quality, from cents up. these will be sufficient for most purposes. get good ones; and for paste and glue the kind set in cement, not in glue. artists' bristle brushes are good. =cloth.= a yard or two of super. this is stiffened a little and pastes and handles more easily than ordinary muslin. if you are going to put backs on books you will need also pieces of bookbinder's cloth. these can be bought at almost any bindery in yard lengths. get also pieces of cambric and fine muslin called nainsook, or jaconet, for guarding signatures and similar work. it costs cents a yard. =copying press.= for pressing books. one × inches will cost about $ . . =cutting board.= the best cutting board is one of hard wood. a common bread-board will serve for small work and costs only a few cents. =folder.= flat piece of bone. cents. =glue pot.= get the regular double pot of iron. a no. will cost about cents. =ground glue.= best, cents a pound. =gummed paper.= paper and cloth ready gummed and other useful repair material can be bought of gaylord bros., emerson building, syracuse, n. y., and also of holden patent book cover co., springfield, mass. =japanese mending paper.= handmade japanese window or shoji paper used for mending and guarding can be obtained from japan paper co., union sq., n. y. price $ . per ream of sheets × . this is the best of all mending papers for repairing torn leaves. =knife.= a good knife is what is called a shoemaker's knife, a long blade, square at the end. cents. keep the corner square by occasionally knocking a piece off the end. for a sharpener wrap a piece of fine emery paper about a square stick and tack it down. =mending tissue.= see japanese mending paper. =needles.= several sizes, especially the regular sewing needles of the binder. =paper.= different kinds of book paper, to be obtained from any printer, will be needed for replacing end sheets, also thin bond paper for guarding leaves. rope manila of the best quality will also be found useful. get also some of the rolls of adhesive paper sold by the dennison manufacturing company, dey st., new york ( / inches wide, per dozen spools cents), for mending torn pages. it is very convenient. =paste.= buy this at a bindery, if you use much. for occasional use it can be thus made: stir flour in cold water until smooth, add hot water, let it boil for a few minutes, and add a little salt and alum as preservatives. good paste can be bought in jars. higgins's is the best. the cost is cents per -ounce jar. almost any stationer carries it, or it can be ordered of charles m. higgins, eighth st., brooklyn. a convenient thing for paste in small quantities is the tube. the several makes are all about equally good. paste made of starch is best for work on fine books, as it is more transparent and shows less than other paste. =ruler.= one with a brass edge is handy, but not essential. =scissors.= slender, -inch blades, good quality, cents. =sewing bench.= this can be made as follows: take a board in. long and in. wide. on the side of it and in. apart nail two uprights, / in. square and a foot long. across the top of these nail a stick / in. square. tacks can be driven into the board and into the cross stick above where needed, and cords or tapes stretched between them. this gives you all the essentials of a sewing bench. =thread.= some of hayes's best irish linen thread, smaller size, say no. . or barbour's linen, no. . chapter xii =covering books= few libraries now cover their books. the reasons for covering them usually given are, that the paper covers gather dust less easily than do the publisher's cloth bindings; and that the paper covers can be renewed when soiled and books can thus be kept at small expense fairly clean as to their exteriors. the objections to the paper cover may thus be stated: it takes away the individuality of the book and thus detracts from its interest; the cover has a tendency, unless very carefully put on, to strain the back of the book; borrowers are more careless in handling a covered than an uncovered book. the only use the newark library has found for book covers is on old volumes which are very rarely used and yet are too broken or too much worn and disfigured to look well on the shelf. frequently old leather bindings crack along the joint so that the sides separate from the back. when this occurs a piece of muslin covered with hot glue applied to the back of the book, extending onto the sides, will hold it together fairly well, and then a paper cover hides the defacement. the process of putting on a paper cover is described in the chapter on repairing. the newark library has experimented with several materials and at this date has found that rugby wrapping paper has given better satisfaction than any other. it is a tough brown paper, which can be obtained from lindenmeyr & sons, new york. cost, $ . per ream; size, × , lbs. the arguments for covering books used in schools are somewhat different from those that may be applied in regard to the same practice for books in libraries. the holden patent book cover company, of springfield, mass., makes an adjustable cover of very stout, water-proof paper. this cover and others akin to it are used to a great extent in the public schools. the same holden company publishes a little pamphlet called, "how to care for books and keep them in perfect repair." this they present to teachers who make use of their appliances for repairing books. these appliances include thin transparent paper glued on both sides; the same glued on one side; polished cloth in several colors glued on one side; paper in long strips, so folded and glued that they can be conveniently used to strengthen and repair bindings; self-binders, which are strips of glued cloth with little tongues cut out and projecting from them, that may be used to hold cover and book together. it appears that in schools which purchase materials like those made by the holden company, and instruct their teachers to use them on books as soon as any of them show the need of repairs, the annual cost of text-books is reduced. probably the cost would be still more reduced were the books mended very little by a skilled person, and were they properly rebound as soon as they need to be. gaylord brothers, of syracuse, n. y., make and sell repair material similar to that of the holden company. further light is thrown on this subject by certain answers to questions recently received from forty superintendents in the united states. these answers show that in two only of forty cities where text-books are furnished is any systematic attention given to the care of text-books. in two cities there is an official curator of books who looks after the covering, repairing, and rebinding of them. the custom in public schools seems to be to purchase text-books, to keep them in use with a minimum of repairs until they are too tattered and soiled to be thought respectable even by the most careless teacher, and then throw them away. this practice is probably wasteful and extravagant; at least it seems to be so in the light of the experience in libraries in the same matter. chapter xiii =leather: general notes= the names given to different kinds of leather come sometimes from the character of its surface, that is, from the "grain," or roughness or corrugation it has; sometimes from the animal it once covered; sometimes from the method of tanning; sometimes from the fact that it is part of a skin which has been split; sometimes from the place or country where it is made or where the animal it once covered lived, and sometimes from a combination of two or more of these. the subject of the leathers used in bookbinding is a very difficult one. tanners, dealers and binders, dictionaries, encyclopædias and books on tanning disagree with one another as to the proper terms to use in speaking of different kinds of leather. imitations are many, and very successful. in the list below i have tried to follow the usage of binders; but i am sure no expert would accept it throughout as correct. with this variety in definition goes a corresponding variety in character in leather of the same name. different skins tanned in the same way, apparently, and called by the same name by dealers and binders, will wear, some well, some not so well. the only quite definite assertion which can be made is, that of modern leathers, few save the best morocco and pigskin will keep their strength for any length of time in an american library, and morocco and pigskin usually for not much over years. as the remarks which follow indicate, english leather makers have recently procured leathers guaranteed to be dressed on the lines recommended by the society of arts report. see also the revised report, and the little volume, with samples, called leather for libraries by hulme, parker and others. leathers made from the skins of animals of the same kind, the goat for example, though made by the same process, vary somewhat with the animals' sex, age when killed, the food on which they lived, the climate in which they matured, and their manner of life, and, if females, with the fact that they have or have not had young. also, the leather made from the skin of one part of the body differs materially from that made from the skin of another part. moreover, some dyes seem to hasten decay, some to retard it. red seems least hurtful, black the most so; though this difference is probably due more to chemicals used in the preparation of the skin for the dye than to the dye itself. brown generally stands well; most other colors, except red as stated, do not. with all these, and other, factors to be taken into consideration it is evident that full knowledge of leather is not given to anyone. in a general way it may be said that good leather cannot be told by name, or looks, or feel; but only by trial. dealers, even, cannot tell the good from the best. the sum of all advice is, having found, by your own or others' tests, that a certain leather is good, use it as long as you can get it. the british museum sets a good example in this. it has in recent years bound many thousands of volumes in morocco made by meredith-jones & sons, wrexham, wales, which experience thus far shows to be very good. we have tried it and in the brief trial we have given it, found it excellent. dr. j. gordon parker, herold's institute, drummond road, bermondsey, england, has made an arrangement with the council of the library association of england by which he has become their official examiner of leather and he will test samples for acids, nature of tannage, etc., at reasonable rates. john muir & son, tanners and curriers, beith, scotland, offices: arundel st., strand, london, w. c., england, prepare pigskin for bookbinding; so do edw. & jas. richardson, elswick leather works, newcastle-on-tyne, england. j. meredith-jones & sons, ltd., cambrian leather works, wrexham, wales, make bookbinders' leathers guaranteed to be dressed on the lines recommended by the society of arts report, and free from mineral acids. specialty: welsh sheep. much has been written on the wearing and lasting qualities of leather. the best discussion of the subject is the report of the committee on leather for bookbinding, made to the society of arts, england, and published in its journal, july , . i allude to this report frequently, and for convenience speak of it as "report ' ." the committee who made this report found that the leather made today does not last as long as that made years ago. they found that the heat and fumes of gas help to hasten the decay of the leather on books. these factors are more effective in american superheated libraries than in english ones. if books bound in leather are much handled they last longer than if they stand undisturbed on the shelves, because the oil from the hand helps to keep leather soft, pliable, and alive. the committee concluded that no leather, with the sole exception of niger goat, made by the natives on the river niger in africa, and imported just as it leaves their hands, can be fully recommended as free from elements which lead to its early decay. since this report was published imitations of this leather have been put on the market, and it can no longer be relied upon. we have found it beautiful in color and texture, easy to work and wearing admirably on large and much-used books. but it does not keep clean as well as a good morocco of coarse grain. it is very expensive, and first-class morocco is probably better where strong, enduring leather is advisable which is only on books which are to be much used. the most important points made in the report of the society of arts committee on leather for bookbinding, referred to above, are the following: books bound during the last or years show far greater evidence of deterioration than those of an earlier date. many recent bindings show evidence of decay after so short a period as ten or even five, years. modern leather is certainly far less durable than old leather. the most prevalent decay is a red decay, and this may be differentiated into old and new, the old red decay being noticeable up to about , and the new decay since that date. another form of deterioration, more noticeable in the newer books, renders the grain of the leather liable to peel off when exposed to the slightest friction. this is the most common form of decay noted in the most recent leathers. decay is caused by both mechanical and chemical influences. of the latter some are due to mistakes of the leather manufacturer and the bookbinder, others to the want of ventilation, and improper heating and lighting of libraries. in some cases inferior leathers are finished (by methods in themselves injurious) to imitate a better class of leathers, and of course where these are used durability cannot be expected. but in the main the injury for which the manufacturer and bookbinder are responsible must be attributed rather to ignorance of the effect of the means employed to give the leather the outward qualities required for binding, than to the intentional production of an inferior article. embossing leather under heavy pressure to imitate a grain has a very injurious effect. the shaving of thick skins greatly reduces the strength of the leather by cutting away the tough fibers of the inner part of the skin. the use of mineral acids in brightening the color of leather, and in the process of dyeing, has a serious effect in lessening its resistance to decay. quite modern leather dyed black seems, in nearly all cases, to have perished, although old black morocco (sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries) in good condition is not uncommon. in a very large proportion of cases the decay of modern sumac-tanned leather has been due to the sulphuric acid used in the dye bath, and retained in the skin. tobacco smoke has a darkening and deleterious effect on leather bindings. light, and especially direct sunlight and hot air, possess deleterious influences which had scarcely been suspected. gas fumes are the most injurious of all the influences to which books are subjected, no doubt because of sulphuric and sulphurous acid they contain. they are especially injurious to books on the upper shelves of a high room. the importance of moderate temperature and thorough ventilation of libraries cannot be too much insisted on. with proper conditions of ventilation, temperature, and dryness, books may be preserved without deterioration, for very long periods, on open shelves. on the other hand, as a general rule, tightly fitting glass cases conduce to their preservation. leather bindings that have been coated with glair or varnish seem to keep better than those without. the bookbinder shares, in no small measure, with the leather manufacturer and librarian, the blame for the premature decay of leather bindings. books are sewn on too few and too thin cords, and are not firmly laced into the boards. this renders the attachment of the boards to the book almost entirely dependent on the strength of the leather. the use of hollow backs usually throws too much strain on the joints in opening and shutting the book. if the headbands are not strong the leather of the back is apt to become torn. the leather is often made very wet and stretched a great deal in covering, with the result that, on drying, it is further strained, almost to breaking point, by contraction, leaving a very small margin of strength to meet the accidents of use. the use of oxalic acid for washing backs of books, or of leather for bookbinding, is fatal to durability. vinegar, even in its pure state, is injurious. paste should be used in a fresh condition, otherwise it is liable to undergo an acid fermentation, and to favor the growth of injurious moulds and bacteria. in all contracts and specifications for bookbinding, the use of east india-tanned goat and sheep, whether retanned or not, should be absolutely forbidden. it appears to be the general opinion that leather, and especially russia leather, lasts better on books that are in constant use. this is attributed to the slight amount of grease absorbed by the leather from the hand, and it is suggested that possibly a suitable dressing may be discovered which would have a similar effect to that produced by this grease. while the leather now used for binding books is less durable than that employed years and more ago, there ought to be no difficulty in providing leather at the present time as good as any previously made. it is possible to test any leather in such a way as to guarantee its suitability for bookbinding. a reissue of the report summarized above was published, in cloth, in . it is entered in the list of books at the end of this volume. in this reissue the arrangement of the original report is somewhat modified; a paper on leather dyes and dyeing has been added; the report of the scientific sub-committee has been practically rewritten; many illustrations have been added, some of them colored; samples of leather prepared in accordance with the committee's conclusions are inserted; and the volume is handsomely printed, and bound in cloth. the reissue, however, does not make necessary any change in the above summary. chapter xiv =paper and paper making= much of the paper used in books today is made of wood. wood is converted into paper-making material in three ways. in one, it is cut into convenient lengths, stripped of its bark and finely ground on grindstones, and bleached. the product is called ground wood pulp. the paper made from this pulp is hastily and cheaply put together, has little strength, and soon turns yellow and grows brittle. there is often added to ground wood before making it into paper, more or less sulphite or soda pulp, usually the latter, the product of another process of turning wood into paper-making material. in the sulphite and soda processes the wood is freed of bark, cut into small pieces, and reduced to a pulp by being heated with water and chemicals under pressure in an air-tight steel tank or boiler. sulphite and soda pulp, which get their names from chemicals used in reducing the wood to pulp, have longer and better fiber than ground wood pulp. in both processes certain means are used to whiten the fiber and free it from sap, gum, and other things which would prevent it from acting properly in the paper-making machine, or would tend to make it grow yellow or spotted. spruce or basswood are the woods chiefly used, and they seem to submit themselves to treatment better and to give a longer fiber than other kinds. the pulp made from rags is often mixed with sulphite and soda pulp. the rag-pulp fiber improves the quality of the resulting paper for reasons not easily set forth. paper made entirely of wood may be of good quality, especially sulphite papers. the popular outcry against wood paper is based on the fact that much of it is made very cheaply and poorly. the rags used in paper making are nearly all cotton. they are not all of them rags in the ordinary sense of the term. many of them are cuttings from clothing factories and have never been used. new rags do not act the same way under the treatment which changes them to paper pulp as do the old ones. the paper made entirely from new cloth differs somewhat from that made from old rags. the best book papers, however, contain only stock prepared from old rags. the process of changing rags into paper is very similar to that of changing wood into paper. the rags are cleaned, freed from foreign substances, cut into small pieces, thoroughly washed, bleached, and then beaten to a pulp, under water, by machines which convert them into a soft, homogeneous, creamy mass, called technically stuff, and yet preserve the greatest possible length of fiber. this process of beating rags into good paper-making material requires care and considerable time. if the process is hastened unduly the resulting material is not so good. paper is made from other materials besides wood and cotton; but nearly all of that used in books in this country is made of one or other of these two materials, or of a combination of the two. the stuff produced as described, almost milk-like in its consistency, is pumped from a tank, in which it is kept constantly stirred to prevent the fiber from settling, onto the paper-making machine. this machine is an evolution from a simple hand appliance which was used by paper makers for several centuries. it was a shallow tray with a bottom made of a network of wires. this was held in the hands, dipped into a vat containing the paper-making material, and as much of the latter taken up on the wires as in the judgment of the maker was sufficient for a sheet of paper. it was then shaken gently, and deftly handled, until the water, running through the wires, left on the latter, and spread evenly over them, a layer of fibers. these dried and matted together in a few seconds sufficiently to enable the maker to turn them out on a blanket; on this another blanket was spread, and on this was laid another layer of fibers. the skilful maker of paper by hand (in a few places in this country the craft is still practiced) can secure considerable evenness in the layers of fiber or pulp on the wire of his frame; but the layer is never of quite the same thickness throughout. handmade paper can sometimes be distinguished by these variations in its thickness. machine-made paper is of nearly uniform thickness. in the process of taking up from the vat by hand a thin layer of stuff, the maker wove together the fibers in every direction by skilful and delicate movements of the frame. a paper-making machine cannot so thoroughly interweave the fibers. paper made by hand, therefore, has a quality which cannot be secured on a machine. this peculiar texture of handmade paper of the first class delights the connoisseur, and furnishes a printing surface superior, in some respects, to any machine-made paper. the paper-making machine consists primarily of an endless roll of wire screen, similar to that forming the bottom of the shallow tray used in making paper by hand. this wire screen, stretched around rollers, travels almost horizontally away from a broad shelf from which it receives a stream of stuff pumped onto the latter from the tank before mentioned. as the pulp pours out onto this wire it settles over the screen, and is woven together by the latter's oscillating and forward movement, and by the time it reaches the end of the screen is sufficiently matted and dry to hold its shape, the water being removed by suction. it is then picked up by a roller, and goes through a succession of rolls, varying in size, number, character, heat and pressure, according to the quality of the paper being made and the surface desired thereon. in some cases, toward the close of the process, it is passed through a tank containing a thin mixture of glue and water, called size, and then is again dried. coming out as paper at the end it is cut into lengths and piled, or gathered on a roll. the wire diaphragm onto which the paper pulp first pours, and during the passage over which it is worked into a mat, the water meanwhile being extracted from it, is of varying styles. if perfectly plain the resulting paper is almost without marks, and is said to be wove. if made of wires of different sizes properly arranged the paper, as it lies on it, receives deeper impressions from the larger wires than from the smaller and the former appear as light lines running through it when finished. paper thus marked is called laid, to distinguish it from the wove. as the paper comes from the wires it passes under the dandy roll. this roll sometimes has figures or letters raised on its surface. these impress themselves on the soft paper and produce a greater transparency where they touch, sometimes reducing the thickness, and give the finished paper what is called a watermark. it is so called not because it is made of water or by water, but because it looks as though it were drawn on the paper with a point dipped in water. endless varieties of paper can be made from the same materials. it may contain more or less rag; may be beaten to a greater or less extent and with more or less care; may be spread thicker or thinner; may be rolled on hot rolls, or polished, more or less; may receive more or less sizing; may be dyed in a vat before it starts for the machine, or dipped in dye after it is made, or color may be applied to one surface by machine. the fiber may be carelessly produced, and the chemicals used in bleaching and cleaning it may be only partially neutralized, with the result that the paper will soon act as if being eaten with acid, and will rapidly turn yellow under a bright light. the ordinary observer can distinguish between very poor and fairly good paper in books. he cannot distinguish between paper of fairly good quality and the best. the paper used in newspapers is nearly all made entirely of ground wood. most of it is made as cheaply as possible, and soon grows brittle and dark in color. this is of little consequence in most cases. for the ordinary newspaper the paper has served its purpose if it looks well for twenty-four hours after it is printed and exposed to the light. books are generally printed on paper which has not been very highly polished. ink is taken from the type more readily by paper of this kind, especially if the latter be rather soft in texture, so that the press drives into it the face of the type bearing the ink. modern processes of reproducing pictures give plates for printing, many of which are made up of very fine lines placed very closely together and having very shallow depressions between them. to print from these with good results the paper used must have a very smooth, highly polished surface. the press drives soft paper down into the narrow places between the fine lines and blurs the impression of the cut. newspapers which use process-cuts of the kind mentioned are obliged to use paper with a smooth surface to get good results. this smooth surface is generally produced, as already noted, by passing the paper between hot metal rollers, a process called calendering. in a more expensive process, called plating, the paper, cut into sheets, is laid between sheets of zinc until a pile of several inches in thickness is formed, and this pile is passed several times under rollers exerting a heavy pressure. this smooths, polishes and hardens the paper. much of the paper used for illustrations in books has a surface made by applying a coating of clay or other material to it and then polishing it. quite good results can be obtained with fine line cuts on calendered or plated paper without the addition of a coating of clay. the illustrations on coated paper which are found in books are very commonly printed separately from the book itself, which is on ordinary uncoated paper, and inserted separately. generally these inserts are not carefully fastened in and cause much annoyance by falling out after the book has been subjected to a little use. recently paper makers have succeeded in producing a paper which has a smooth surface without the high polish usually found on that which is coated, or highly calendered. the polished surface of these papers, especially of the coated, is very objectionable to readers, light being reflected from it in an unpleasant way. it will be seen from what has been said that it is difficult so to describe what we may call good book paper that it can be readily distinguished. constant study and careful comparisons of the papers one meets in books will enable one to judge of them with some success. one who has much to do with books should take note of the paper of which they are made, and learn to distinguish between poor and good, and the good and the best, as far as possible. this is especially desirable for one whose work with books includes their rebinding and repairing. coated paper breaks easily, the stiffening added to it by the coat of clay giving it a tendency to fall apart as soon as it has been folded in the same place a few times. soft and fragile paper, such as is found in many books, will stand very little wear at the joint in the back. paper not carefully bleached and freed from the chemicals used in bleaching, rapidly discolors at the edges where exposed to light. such facts as these, and many others, will be found useful when one comes to have books rebound, or attempts to repair them. that side of the paper which touched the wires on which it is made is different from the other. this difference is usually visible to the trained eye. it is often taken into consideration in fine printing. as the pulp flows out upon the wires it tends to mat together more thoroughly along the line of flow than across it. this gives paper a grain, along which it tears and folds more readily than across it. this fact also is often taken advantage of in good printing. all paper expands or stretches when wet. this is to be kept in mind in mending books. an added strip, pasted on, usually draws and wrinkles, when it dries, the paper to which it is applied. hence the rule, in mending, to use thick paste and apply the pasted sheet or strip to its place as quickly after pasting as possible. mr. chivers has recently made, , with the help of chemists and other experts, a very careful examination of the composition, structure, tensile and folding strength and other qualities of the paper now used in several thousand popular books. the results of this examination, when applied to the subjects of book-selection and book-buying, will be of great value to libraries. the quality of the paper used in the books on which libraries spend a large per cent. of their book fund--novels--is the question that should be first considered in selecting editions. libraries may hope soon to be able to select editions much more wisely than heretofore. the investigations by mr. chivers, and those carried on by u. s. government experts in washington, will not only enable libraries to discover the best editions for purchase, but will also enable them to secure bindings so carefully adapted to the quality of the paper in each book as to give that book the longest possible life of usefulness. chapter xv =binding records= by binding records are meant the reports of books sent to the bindery, their return, styles, cost, etc. there are many ways of keeping these. for the small library great simplicity is desirable and possible. the large library usually works out a method adapted to its own conditions. in sending books to a binder it is usually not necessary to keep any record other than the book card, on which may be written or stamped the word binder and the date sent. to this may be added a few words or a number indicating material and style. the binder himself is usually content with general instructions for each separate lot, such as, "these vols. bind in half brown cowskin with keratol sides; special sewing." some libraries attach a note to the title-page of each book saying how it is to be bound and giving the lettering for the back. this is not often necessary. it is usual to note the latter point on the title page by underscoring the first letter of each word which is to appear on the back. in doing this, reduce the lettering as far as possible by omitting unnecessary words. in most libraries, for example, the new title for "the adventures of huckleberry finn" can be reduced to advantage to "huck finn." special books must be specially marked of course, and books in sets and series should be lettered in the same style throughout. this can be assured by sending a sample volume or a rubbing of the back. the rubbing is got by laying a piece of paper on the back of the volume the style of which is to be copied and rubbing it hard with a large, soft pencil or rub-off wax. as books are returned they should be checked by whatever record was kept of them. then their number, sizes and styles should be entered in a book kept for the purpose. from these items the bill will be checked when sent in. chapter xvi =binding records and notes, newark= rules followed in newark library in sending books to bindery. remove book slip, having first compared its number with the number on the book pocket. this book slip is stamped with the word bindery and with the date, and then is filed with other similar slips, all being kept in groups in accordance with the kinds of binding the books are to receive. the slips for the books sent each month are also put together. on the title page of the book underline with light pencil marks such words as are to be gilded on the back. make the title for the back as short as it can be made without loss of identity. if the name on the title page is a pseudonym, write the author's correct name beside it in small letters. most books are sent in groups with a general note of instruction as to the binding of the whole group. for example, a hundred books may be sent in one lot with a note saying, "bind in pigskin in the usual style." when special bindings are required, which call for special instructions, tip slightly in the front of the book, usually on the title page, a slip of yellow paper × inches. bright yellow is chosen because it is easily distinguished from the white paper of the book, even at night, and yet writing on it is quite legible. on this slip write the call number of the book, the special style of binding wanted and other remarks when needed, such as the following: rush. if the book is to be returned in haste. see sample. when book is one of two or more volumes and a special style of binding is to be carried out through the whole set. do not trim at all. when the book is of some special character and it is desired to preserve all the paper. when books come back from the bindery stamp the date of their return on the lower left corner of the back cover immediately on their receipt. add to this date the name of the binder if the library employs more than one firm. this date makes it possible to tell how bindings wear, how many years they last, etc. note the style of binding of each book and look for its book slip among the other slips for books of this style. for some reasons it would be wise to keep the slips from all books sent to the bindery in one alphabetical series. in the newark library this proves not to be as convenient as the method described, of keeping it first by days or months and next by styles of binding. examine the lettering and the numbers on the back to see if they are correct, comparing with the title page. examine also the binding throughout. if all is satisfactory, put pockets and book plates in all the books which require them. mark the pockets. open each book carefully and thoroughly that the back may be loosened and made more flexible. all magazines send with yellow slips containing directions as to style of binding, etc. chapter xvii =bindery equipment= the small library will find it does not pay to have a bindery of its own. this is a safe general rule to which there are exceptions, of course. special conditions, such as remoteness from good binderies, may make it worth while for a library which spends only about $ , a year in binding to put in a small plant and do its own work. even then, however, it is usually better to find a binder who will take the contract from the library at a fixed price per volume, using the library's room and material. such a binder can sometimes get additional work from other libraries or from private individuals. it should be noted that the amount paid for binding is not quite all that a binder who works in the library may expect to divert to his own shop; for a clever and obliging workman will make himself useful in repairing and in doing many small jobs of cutting, mounting, etc., which will add a good deal to his income. still, as i have said, the small library will usually find that it is not economical to have its own bindery. were there in this country plenty of commercial binderies, where first-rate work is done at fair prices--i do not mean low prices--it would not pay even the larger libraries to open their own binderies. the large shop is the only place in which some of the most important economies are possible, and only the large shop can afford to hire the most competent foremen and workers. even the large libraries find it wise to rent their binderies to competent men who will do binding at contract prices. under this arrangement some libraries find it pays to give up room to a bindery; though, as i have already remarked, they would not find it economical to do so were there efficient library binding establishments in the immediate vicinity. as the large libraries have a good deal of work which the average commercial binder does not care to take, like map mounting, rare-book mending, and ordinary book repairs, the ideal condition for them would be a small bindery with two or three hands, in the building; a contract for all ordinary binding and rebinding with an outsider, and the purchase of many new books especially bound direct from the sheets. the following list includes the machinery, tools and materials needed in opening a bindery. the full list would equip fairly well a shop employing one foreman, who is also a finisher; one forwarder; one boy (helper or apprentice), and three girls for sewing. this shop would turn out, say, , books a year, its output depending very largely on the character of the work. if the shop is to bind, say, only , books per year the items marked s on the list will prove sufficient. these estimates are very general. =equipment for bindery= standing press, large $ . s standing press, small . s board shears $ to . s backers, -inch . s cutting machine . s -case type cabinet ( -case $ . ) . s finishing press, -inch . s lettering pallet . s brass-bound boards, × , at $ . per board . case for boards . press boards, × . press boards, × . press boards, × . s sewing benches, at $ . . s back saws, at $ . . s bone folders . s glue brush, no. . s paste brushes, no. . s backing hammers, at $ . . s knives and shears . s gas stove . iron bench-block, × × inches . s glue kettle . compass . s gold cushion . s gold knife . tables, benches, drawers . s paring knife . s band nippers . s flat polisher . s round polisher . s creaser . s agate burnishers . s band rubber . rolls and stamps . s type, ordinary, fonts at $ . ; brass, fonts at $ . $ . shelving and bookcases . -------- total $ . with treble the number of books to be bound, there should be added to the above list: large press $ . backer . finishing press . brass-bound boards, × , at $ . per board . sewing benches, at $ . . back-saw, at $ . . bone folders . glue brush, no. . paste brushes, no. . backing hammers, at $ . . glue kettle . compass . knives and shears . gold knife . paring knife . band nippers . type . lettering pallet . iron bench block . ------ total $ . chapter xviii =list of technical terms, leathers and other binding materials, tools, styles of ornament used in binding= the quotations are from the report of committee on leather of the society of arts, england, . =aldine or italian style.= ornaments of solid face without any shading whatever, such as used by aldus and other early italian printers. the ornaments are of arabic character. a style appropriate for early printed literature. =all-along.= when a volume is sewed, and the thread passes from kettlestitch to kettlestitch, or from end to end in each sheet, it is said to be sewed all-along. =american russia.= see cowhide. =antique.= see blind-tooled. =arabesque style.= a fanciful mixture of animals, birds, insects, and of plants, fruits and foliage, involved and twisted. =arming press.= see blocking press. =art canvas.= a book cloth, made in several colors by the holliston mills, fifth ave., new york; jos. bancroft & sons, wilmington, del. (a. d. smith, thomas st., new york, agent); the interlaken mills, duane st., new york, and others. it is known both as art canvas and buckram. the newark library, in experimenting to find a substitute for leather, tried in succession the green, red, brown and blue. the green proved the poorest, the blue made by holliston mills the best in wearing quality. one reason for the poor results with all the colors tried, with the exception of the blue, is that the cloth of these colors is made with a colored thread running one way and a gray or white thread the other; the colored thread soon wears off on the edges and corners and the gray thread gives the book a very dingy appearance. dark blue has given us the best results. art canvas costs cents a square yard by the roll of yards. =art vellum.= a book cloth made in several colors and styles of finish by the firms which make art canvas. it is not suitable for full binding on books subject to much wear. it costs about cents per square yard. most publishers' bindings are in cloth of the art vellum grade. our own experience with art canvas and art vellum for full bindings on books much used seems to have been that of many other libraries. popular books in these materials from about a dozen public libraries all seem to have worn poorly. the joints soon become soft and loose; the corners fray out and look ragged; the gold of the titles does not stand out well when first put on and rapidly grows dim. =azure' tools.= used in binding, where the heavy and wide marks, instead of being a solid mass, are made with horizontal lines. =azured style.= ornamentations outlined in gold and crossed with horizontal lines in the manner of indicating azure in heraldry. =back, tight and loose.= binding is said to be tight back when the leather, cloth or other material of the back is pasted or glued to the back of the book. this style of binding is commonly used in fine work. most books, often quite large ones, were formerly bound in this way. binding is said to be loose back when the leather, cloth or other material of the back is fastened to the book only along the joints. to the question, which is the better binding for library books, no definite answer can be given. =backing.= bending over the folds at the back of a book to form a ridge or projection called a joint. [illustration: (l) backing boards, metal (r) backing boards, wood, steel faced] =backing boards.= used for backing or forming the joint. they are made of very hard wood or faced with iron, and are thicker on the edge intended to form the groove than upon the edge that goes toward the fore-edge of the book, so that when placed one each side of the book and all are placed in the laying press, the whole power of the press is directed toward the back. [illustration: backing hammer] =backing hammer.= the hammer used for backing and rounding. it has a broad, flat face similar to a shoemaker's hammer. =backing machine.= a machine for backing books. if not carefully handled it is apt to injure books by crushing and breaking the paper at the folds. used on publishers' binding. =backing press.= a press having two, vertically mounted, steel plates brought together by a screw. a book is held in this press with the back slightly projecting above the plates, and then backed with a hammer. =band-driver.= a tool used in forwarding to correct irregularities in the bands of flexible backs. =band nippers.= pinchers with flat jaws used for straightening bands by nipping up the leather after it is in place. they should be nickeled to prevent the iron staining the leather. =bands.= the strings, cord or twine on which a book is sewed. they are usually made of hemp, are loosely twisted, are , , -ply according to the size of the book, and cost about cents per pound. this twine is loosely twisted that it may be flexible and less likely to break when glued and dried, and that it may be easily frayed out at the ends for pasting down on the inside of the covers. when the book is sewed flexible the bands appear upon the back. when the back is so sewn as to let in the twine, the appearance of raised bands is produced, if at all, by gluing narrow strips of leather across the back before the volume is covered. a hard, closely twisted cord is also sometimes used in fine binding. [illustration: backing press] =bastard title.= see half-title. =bead.= a little roll formed by the knots of the headband. =beating hammer.= the heavy, short-handled hammer used in beating, weighing generally about lbs. books are beaten to make the leaves lie close to one another. [illustration: beating hammer] =beating stone.= the bed of stone or iron on which books are beaten. =beveled boards.= very heavy boards for sides, chamfered along the edges. =binder.= a temporary cover for periodicals and pamphlets, usually so arranged that it may be taken off and attached to successive numbers of a publication. =bindery.= a book-binding establishment. =blank books.= applied to a large variety of books which are bound with blank leaves, or leaves having ruled lines and little or no printing: account books, memorandum books, ledgers, etc. the binding of such books is a special trade. =bleed.= when a book on being trimmed is so cut that some of the print is taken off it is said to bleed. =blind-tooled.= when tools are impressed upon the leather, without gold, they are said to be blind or blank, and the book is blind-tooled. this tooling is sometimes called antique. =blocking press.= another and more general term for the stamping or arming press; one of the chief implements used in cloth work. used for finishing or decorating the sides and back of a cover by a mechanical process. =board papers.= those parts of the end papers which are pasted onto the boards. =board shears.= heavy shears, usually fitted to a table, and with a gauge for cutting boards. [illustration: boards, brass bound, in case] =boards.= are of several kinds, such as pressing, backing, cutting, burnishing, gilding, etc. the paste-boards used for side covers are termed boards. the boards used for cutting books "out of boards" are called steamboat-boards. tinned boards are used for finished work, while brass or iron-bound boards are used for pressing cloth-work. see also in boards. =bock morocco.= the name given to a leather made of persian sheepskin usually finished in imitation of morocco. it does not wear well and soon decays. =bodkin or stabbing-awl.= a strong point of iron or steel fixed in a wooden handle to form the holes in boards through which to lace bands. used also for tracing lines for cutting fore-edges. =bolt.= folded edge of sheets in an unopened book. =books, sizes of.= see folio, quarto, octavo, sixteenmo, thirty-twomo, etc. =bosses.= brass or other metal ornaments fastened upon the boards of books. =brass-bound boards.= see boards. =broken up.= when plates are folded over a short distance from the back edge before they are placed in the book, that they may be turned easily, they are said to be broken up. the same process is sometimes applied to an entire book. =buckram.= properly a coarse linen cloth, stiffened with glue or gum. most buckram, so-called, is made of cotton. see also linen-finish buckram and art canvas. =buffing.= the name given to the thin sheet of cowhide taken off in the operation of buffing or splitting. it is usually of very inferior quality. =buffingette.= see keratol. =burnished.= the effect produced by the application of a burnisher to edges. =burnishers.= pieces of agate or bloodstone affixed to handles. with them a gloss is produced on the edges of a book. =calf or calfskin.= leather made of calves' skins. it has a smooth and uniform surface. it was formerly much used in binding, and is very beautiful; but that made in recent years lasts only a short time, soon growing hard and brittle and even falling into dust. even when new the surface is easily broken and torn. "during the latter part of the eighteenth century it became customary to pare down calf until it was as thin as paper. since about little sound calf seems to have been made, as, whether thick or thin, it appears generally to have perished, turning red and crumbling into dust." "sprinkled or marbled calf is in a specially bad state." see also divinity, kip, marbled, sprinkled and tree calf. =calf-lined.= when the inside of a limp cover is lined with calfskin, this taking the place of that half of the end paper which is usually on the inside of the cover. this calf lining is thin and soft and is usually glued to the leather cover only at the latter's outer edges, thus leaving the cover pliable. =cancels.= leaves containing errors which are to be cut out and replaced with corrected pages. =canvas.= see duck. =caps.= paper coverings used to protect the edges while the book is being covered and finished. also the leather coverings of headbands. see head cap. =case bindings.= the ordinary cloth binding of commerce. books in these bindings are folded and sewn, rounded and backed by machinery. a machine also makes the cases, covering the two pieces of cardboard which form the sides with cloth as needed. these cases are separately printed before being put on the books. the book is then glued and put into its case by machinery. =catchword.= a word placed under the last line on each page of some old-time books, the word being the same as the first word on the next page; a direction word. =center tools.= tools cut for ornamentation of center of panels and sides of book covers. =circuit edges.= bibles and prayer-books are sometimes bound with projecting covers turned over to protect the leaves; these are called circuit or divinity edges. =clasp.= a hook or catch for fastening the covers of a book together, usually at the fore edge. =clearing out.= removing the waste paper and paring away superfluous leather upon the inside, preparatory to pasting down the lining-paper. =cloth boards.= stiff boards covered with cloth. =cobden-sanderson style.= an arrangement of graceful curves or stems, flowers, buds and leaves, treated conventionally; the background being often powdered with nebulae of gold stars or dots. the lettering of title, etc., on back and sides is treated fancifully and often made an integral part of the design. =collating.= examining the signatures, or sheets, after a volume is gathered, to ascertain if they be correct and follow in numerical order. also, examining a book page by page to see if it is complete. =combs.= instruments with wire teeth used in marbling. the colors being upon the surface of water, the comb is drawn across a portion in such a way that a new form is developed. =corners.= leather pieces pasted on the corners of a half-bound or three-quarter-bound book. =cowhide.= the thick, coarse leather made from the skin of a cow. by binders it is commonly known as "american russia," or "imitation russia." it is much used for binding popular books of fiction. it has a slight grain or corrugation on the surface, is tough and strong, takes gilding well, wears well and if of best quality and handled much is usually quite durable; that is, will last five or six years on popular fiction. =creaser.= the tool used in marking each side of the bands, generally made of steel. =cropped.= when a book has been cut down too much it is said to be cropped. =crushed.= leather which has been pressed between sheets of metal to smooth or give a finish to its coarse grain is said to be crushed. the process is usually applied to morocco or its imitations. see crushed levant. =crushed levant.= levant morocco with the grain crushed down until the surface is smooth and highly polished. in fine binding this is done by hand after the leather is on the book. most crushed levant morocco, however, is surfaced by a machine before it is applied to the book. =cut edges.= see edges cut. =cut flush.= means that the cloth cover, which is usually limp (without boards), is drawn on the book and the whole cut at once, cover and all, the edge of the cover being cut flush with the edge of the book. it is a suitable way of binding only when strength and elegance are not required. =cutter, or cutting machine.= the machine on which the edges of the leaves of books are cut or trimmed. running such a machine is now a special branch of the binder's trade. sometimes called a guillotine. =cutting boards.= wedged-shaped boards somewhat like backing-boards, but with the top edge square; used in cutting the edge of a book and in edge-gilding. =cutting in boards.= cutting the edges of a book with a plough after the boards are laced on. =cutting press.= when a lying press is turned so that the side with the runners is uppermost it is called a cutting press. =dandy.= a roller affixed to paper-making machines. the wet web of paper carried on the endless wire of the machine passes under this roller and is pressed by it. it gives the laid or wove appearance to the sheet, and when letters, figures, or other devices are worked in fine wire on its surface it produces the effect known as water-marking. =deckle-edge.= the rough untrimmed edge of hand-made paper. deckle-edges are poorly imitated by cutting and tearing machine-made paper, sometimes with the aid of a jet of water. [illustration: oswego hand wheel drive cutter] =dentelle border.= a tooled pointed border with finely dotted or gascon ornaments in imitation of lace. =derome style.= this style has ornaments of a leafy character, with a more solid face, though lightly shaded by the graver. the ornaments are often styled renaissance, being an entire change from the gascon. the derome is best exemplified in borders, vandyke in design; it is simple in construction but rich in effect, and is appropriate for art publications. time, eighteenth century. =diaper.= a term applied to a small repeating all-over pattern. from woven material decorated in this way. =divinity calf.= a dark brown calf bookbinding decorated with blind stamping, and without gilding; so called because formerly used in binding theological books. =divinity edges.= see circuit edges. =double.= see doublure. =doublure.= the inside face of the boards, especially applied to them when lined with leather and decorated. when thus lined a cover is said to be "double." =duck, sometimes called canvas.= this is made by many firms in a wide range of colors and qualities. it is in fact a heavy cotton cloth. slate-colored duck in. wide, oz. to the yard, costs about cents per yard. this is a firmly woven, smooth material. we have used a light green. it takes printers' ink for lettering fairly well, though it soon soils if handled. it is a very desirable binding for heavy books not much used. all such books should be stiffened by pasting or gluing cloth on the backs, if loose back, and should be reinforced at head and tail. =dutch metal.= an imitation of gold leaf, sometimes used on cheap bindings. it soon grows dark or tarnishes. =edges cut.= a book or pamphlet cut down sufficiently to make all the edges quite smooth. =edges gilt.= book edges cut and gilded. =edges opened.= a book or pamphlet opened, the folds of the leaves being cut by hand with a paper knife. =edges red.= book edges cut and colored red. =edges rolled.= when the edges of the covers are marked with a roll, either in gold or blind. =edges rounded.= corners rounded to prevent their becoming dog's-eared. =edges trimmed.= a book or pamphlet with the edges cut enough to make them tidy, but not enough to cut the folds of the leaves. =edges untouched.= a book or pamphlet with edges uncut and unopened. =edition de luxe.= applied to large paper editions of books, and to special editions which are in fact, or are claimed to be, unusually well and expensively made. =embossed.= when a plate is so stamped upon a sheet or cover as to produce a raised figure or design. =end leaves or lining papers.= are the sheets which are pasted to the inside of the covers, and are either plain white or colored, according to the style of binding. marbled papers are largely used on fine leather work. sometimes in fine bindings the end leaves are made of silk or leather. =end papers.= the papers placed at each end of the volume and pasted down upon the boards. also, the paper placed at each end of the volume, a portion of which is usually removed when the lining-paper is pasted down upon the boards. =english linen or low buckram.= a linen cloth, highly polished, well colored, strong, durable, made in england, and costing in this country about cents per square yard. in de jonge's list (de jonge, dealer in leather, book cloths, etc., - duane st., new york) it is called low buckram. we have used it for the backs of books, light and heavy. it promises to stand indefinitely if not much handled. under handling it grows soft and flabby like other book cloths, though not rapidly, and without losing its strength. we have discarded it for the books on which we first tried it, periodicals subject to much use. it is not easy to letter in gold by hand, and does not hold gold well under wear. =eve style.= a framework of various geometrical-shaped compartments linked together by interlaced circles; the centers of the compartments are filled with small floral ornaments and the irregular spaces surrounding them with circular scrolls and branches of laurel and palm. an elaborate style of the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth century. =extra binding.= a trade term for the best work. =fanfare style.= when the compartments on a decorated corner formed by fillets or curves, or both, are filled with little branches, vines, etc., the style of decoration is said to be fanfare--from its first having been used on a book of which this word formed the principal part of the title. =fillet.= a cylindrical tool upon which a line, lines, or figures are engraved. used in finishing. =finishing.= the department which receives books after they are put in leather, and ornaments them as required. it includes lettering, tooling, polishing, etc. also, the ornaments placed on a book. one who works at this branch is termed a finisher. [illustration: finishing presses] =finishing press.= a small press with which a book is held firmly with its back upward and exposed for work. =finishing stove.= a small gas heater, similar to a "hot plate," for heating finishing tools. =flexible binding.= when a book is sewn on raised bands or cords and the thread is passed entirely round each band, and the whole binding is such as to permit the book to be opened readily. [illustration: finishing stand] =flexible glue.= this is usually made by adding about two tablespoonfuls of glycerine to half a pound of the glue in a dry state. this glue used on the backs of books makes the binding somewhat more flexible. it cannot be recommended for all books in all cases as the glycerine tends to weaken the glue, at the same time that it prevents it from becoming very hard. =flexible sewing.= when the cord rests on instead of being sunk into the back and the thread is carried around it; a book thus sewn usually opens freely. =flush cut.= see cut flush. =fly leaves.= the blank leaves at the beginning and end of a book, between the end papers and the book proper. =folder.= a flat piece of bone or ivory used in folding the sheets and in many other manipulations. also applied to the person engaged in folding sheets. =folio.= a sheet folded once, consisting of two leaves, or four pages; the size of the sheet being usually understood as about × inches, giving a leaf × inches. also, the consecutive page numbers of a book, pamphlet, etc. =fore-edge.= the front edge of the leaves. =forwarding.= all processes through which a book passes after sewing, other than those of ornamentation by means of tools or rolls. also that department which takes books after they are sewed and advances them until they are put in leather ready for the finisher. one who works at this branch is termed a forwarder. =french guard.= made by turning over half an inch or more of the back edge of a printed sheet or illustration and then folding it around the next signature. =french joint.= a joint in which the board is not brought close up to the back, thus giving more play in opening. =french morocco.= an inferior quality of levant morocco, having usually a smaller and less prominent grain. =full-bound.= when the sides and back of a book are entirely covered with one piece of the same material it is said to be full-bound. =gascon, le, style.= the distinguishing feature of this style is the dotted face of the ornaments instead of the continuous or solid line. wherever these dotted ornaments are used the style is called le gascon. time, the first half of the seventeenth century, immediately following that of nicholas and clovis eve. =gathering.= the process of collecting the several sheets which make a book and arranging them according to the signatures. =gaufre edges.= impressions made with the finisher's tools on the edges of the book after gilding. =gauge.= the tool used in forwarding to take the correct size of the volume and to mark it upon the boards for squaring. =gilding press.= a press made of two square blocks brought together by screws, to hold books for gilding. =gilt.= applied to ornamental work on covers and also to edges of a book; in the latter case, chiefly used for the top. =gilt edges.= see edges gilt. =gilt tops.= books with the top edges cut and gilded. this prevents their being soiled by the dust that may collect on them. =glair.= the white of eggs beaten up and used in finishing and gilding the edges of the leaves. =goffered edges.= see gaufre edges. =gold cushion.= a cushion of leather on which the finisher cuts gold leaf into pieces. =gold knife.= the knife for cutting the gold leaf; long and quite straight. =gold leaf.= gold beaten into very thin leaves, occasionally used for printing purposes, but more particularly for the decoration of book covers. =gouge.= a gilding tool cut to impress a curved line or segment of a circle upon the leather. =grain.= the term applied to the outer side of a piece of leather, from which the hair was removed. this word is also used in describing the different kinds of surface given to leather in the making, often with a qualifying adjective, as, seal-grain, like the grain on sealskin; coarse grain; pebble-grained, that is, grained in an irregular manner, as though numerous small pebbles of different sizes had been pressed upon its surface; water grain; smooth grain; brass board grain, usually put into cowskin, etc. =graining.= the process of giving to leather surfaces of different kinds. =grater.= an iron instrument used by the forwarder for rubbing backs after they are paste-washed. =grolier style.= an interlaced framework of geometrical figures--circles, squares, and diamonds--with scrollwork running through it, the ornaments of which are of moresque character, generally azured in whole or in part, sometimes in outline only. parts of the design are often studded with gold dots. time, first half of the sixteenth century. =groove.= that part of the sections which is turned over in backing to receive the board. also called the joint. =guards.= strips of paper inserted in the backs of books to which plates or pictures or any extra leaves are to be attached. these strips must always be cut with the grain. they make the back as thick as the book will be when the plates have been attached to them. also, the strips of paper or cloth pasted along the folds of leaves to strengthen them. also, the strips pasted to the edges of single leaves, whether plates or not, folded about the next signature and sewn through with it. books with thick, heavy leaves are sometimes guarded or hinged throughout that they may open freely. a narrow strip is cut from the back of each leaf. this strip is then again attached to the leaf from which it was cut by a strip of thin paper or muslin which acts as a hinge. the leaves are then bound together through and by the strips cut from them. =guides.= the grooves in which the plough moves upon the face of an old-style cutting-press. =guillotine.= a machine with a heavy knife having a perpendicular action, used for cutting paper. usually called a cutter, or cutting machine. =half-bound.= when the back of a book is covered with leather and the sides with paper or cloth. some binders call a book half-bound when it has leather on the back and small pieces on the corners. three-quarters bound means wide leather back and large leather corners. =half-title.= the brief title which precedes the main title page, usually a single line in plain type; the bastard title. =hand letters.= letters fixed in handles; used singly for lettering. =head and tail.= the top and bottom of the back of a book. =headband.= the silk or cotton ornament worked at the head and tail of a book to give it a finished look, to strengthen it and to make the back even with the squares or boards which form the sides. on cheap binding the headband is cut from a strip of machine-made material and pasted in merely for ornament. =heel-ball.= a preparation of wax used by shoemakers, in the form of a ball, in burnishing the heels of shoes. =head cap.= the fold of leather over the headband. =imitation russia.= see cowhide. =imperial morocco cloth.= a grain-finished linen-thread cloth manufactured by the winterbottom book cloth company of england. it is made in different colors; of these the library has tried but one, the green. on books which have some, but not constant use, it is a very good substitute for leather. it takes lettering well, and wears better than any of the cloths the library has tried. the price is cents per square yard by the roll, fast color, duty paid. (de jonge & co., - duane st., new york.) =in boards.= when a book is cut after the boards are affixed to form the sides, it is said to be cut in boards. the term is also applied to a style of binding in which the boards are covered with paper only. =inset.= when one sheet is placed inside of another, both being folded. =inside margins.= the border made by the turn in of the leather on the inside of boards. =inside tins.= sheets of tin; so called from being placed inside the boards when a book is put in the standing-press. =jansen style.= without line or ornament either in blank or gold. it permits decoration on the inside cover, but demands absolute plainness on the outside, with the exception of lettering. it is only appropriate for crushed levant, it being dependent for its beauty on the polished surface of the leather. =javelle water.= to one pound of chloride of lime add four and a half pints of water, and put in a jar with tight cover. dissolve oz. of ordinary washing soda in four and a half pints of boiling water, in a separate vessel, and immediately pour into the first mixture. when cold add enough water to make eleven pints in all. strain through muslin, settle, and pour off the clear solution. this will remove many stains; but care must be taken to rinse thoroughly the paper with water after using it, as it tends to rot paper. =joints.= the projections formed in backing to admit the boards. also the leather or cloth, with its lining, where it passes from the book proper to the boards when the volume is covered; that is, the part of the binding that bends when the boards are opened. see also french joint. =justification.= the process of making the pages of a book lie opposite one another to insure a straight and equal margin throughout. =keratol,= the b b b grade, or buffingette manufactured by the keratol company, cor. clifford and van buren sts., newark, n. j., at cents per yard. a waterproof cloth made in imitation of leather. it is excellent for the sides of books which receive much wear, as it does not show either finger or water marks, and outlasts the ordinary book cloth. it cannot be recommended for full binding as it is difficult to letter and wears away quickly at the joints. at first it has a disagreeable odor, but this wears off. an objectionable feature is that labels cannot easily be pasted upon it. to overcome this difficulty, put a thin coat of shellac on the place where the label is to go. the objectionable point mentioned is overbalanced by the material's good qualities. =kettlestitch.= as the sewer draws the thread out through the hole near the end of a signature she passes it between the two preceding signatures and around the thread which connects them, before she passes it into the hole in the signature she next lays on. this is called the kettle-stitch, a word said to be a corruption of either catch-up stitch or chain stitch. =keys.= little metal instruments used to secure the bands to the sewing bench. =kip calf.= made from the skin of a heifer; much stronger than ordinary calf. =knocking-down iron.= a heavy iron plate on which are placed the sides of a laced-in book when the lacings of string, tape or vellum, are pounded down with a hammer so they will not show when the book is covered. =laced in.= when the boards are affixed to the volume by passing the bands, strings, or tapes on which it is sewn through holes made in the boards, they are said to be laced in. =laid paper.= having lines water-marked in it, running through it at equal distances apart, the lines being thin places made by the pressure of projections on the dandy-roll. =laying press.= see lying press. =law sheep.= law books are usually bound in sheep left wholly uncolored, hence the term. many law books are now bound in buckram, canvas or duck. =leatherette.= cloth or paper made to look like leather. there are many kinds used in binding, some of which look very well and wear about as long as poorer kinds of cloth. =lettering block.= a piece of wood of about the size and shape of a large book. leather labels which are to be lettered in gold are laid on the rounded edge of this block that the pallet may be pressed on them more readily. =lettering box.= the iron box in which type are screwed up preparatory to lettering. to the box is attached a handle, the whole forming a pallet. =lettering pallet.= see pallet. =levant morocco.= originally made in the levant from the skins of angora goats. a superior quality of morocco, having a large and prominent grain. french levant morocco has long held its place as the best of all leathers for bookbinding. =limp binding.= binding with a thin and yielding cover. a perfectly limp leather book can be rolled up easily. =linen.= see english linen. =linen-finish buckram.= polished buckram and satin-finish book cloth. manufactured by jos. bancroft & sons co., rockford, near wilmington, del. (new york agent, albert d. smith, - thomas st., new york.) the special features of these cloths, in which it is claimed they are superior, are uniformity of color, finish and fabric, wearing qualities, tensile strength, and easy application of decoration, ink or metal. =lining papers.= the colored or marbled paper at each end of a book. called also end papers, which see. =loose back.= see back, tight and loose. =low buckram.= see english linen. =lying press.= the term applied to the under side of the cutting press when used for backing. usually called laying press. =maioli style.= a style prior to and contemporary with the early (italian) examples of the grolier. generally composed of a framework of shields or medallions, with a design of scrollwork flowing through it. portions of the design are usually studded with gold dots. ornaments are of moresque character. =marbled calf.= calf so treated with acid that it bears some resemblance to marble. =marbler.= a workman who marbles the edges of the leaves. =marbling.= a process of decorating sheets of paper and edges of books with variegated colors in irregular patterns. =millboard.= the boards that are attached to the book to form the covers. several kinds are in use now; the best is made of old naval cordage. =millboard machine.= see board cutter. =mitred.= when the lines in finishing intersect each other at right angles and are continued without overrunning each other, they are said to be mitred. =morocco.= leather made from goatskins, tanned with sumac, originally made in the barbary states, but afterwards very largely in the levant, and now produced in europe and america from skins imported from asia and africa. the peculiar qualities of true morocco are great firmness of texture, with flexibility, and a grained surface, of which there are many varieties. this surface is produced by a process which consists largely in rolling and folding, called graining. true morocco is of extreme hardness, and makes the most durable book bindings; it is used also for upholstering seats and for similar purposes, and to a certain extent in shoemaking. "early specimens of red morocco, from the sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth century, were found in good condition, and of all leathers noticed this seems to be the least affected. in the opinion of the committee, most of this leather has been tanned with sumac or some closely allied tanning material. morocco bindings earlier than were generally found to be in fairly good condition; but morocco after that date seems to be much less reliable, and in many cases has become utterly rotten."--report ' . leather called morocco, sometimes with a qualifying adjective, is now made in europe and america. much of this is very good, even when made, as it often is, from other skins than those of goats. even the experts seem often unable to distinguish the good from the best. none of it is to be condemned or approved because it is or is not made in the levant, or from goatskins. =morocco.= the name given to any imitation, often made of sheepskin, of the genuine morocco. =morocco.= for bock, french, levant, persian, turkey morocco, see the several words. =morocco cloth.= see imperial morocco cloth. =mosaic binding.= a binding of leather decorated with designs made in whole or in part by inlaying pieces of leather or other material of different colors. the designs are usually outlined with gold. =mottled calf.= a light brown calf bookbinding, made to look mottled by treatment with acid. =niger goatskin.= brought from africa by the royal niger company. a native production. it has a very beautiful color and texture, with no grain. it has stood all the tests given it without serious deterioration. it does not keep clean under handling as well as a good coarse-grained morocco. especially recommended by the committee appointed to investigate leather by the society of arts, of england. =octavo.= a sheet of paper folded into eight leaves, being, when folded, about - / × - / inches; usually written vo. =off-set.= the impression made by print against the opposite page, when a book has been rolled or beaten before the ink is dried; also called set-off. =opened edges.= see edges opened. =out of boards.= when a volume is cut before the boards are affixed it is done "out of boards." nearly all work is now done out of boards. =overcasting.= sewing the leaves or signatures of a book together over and over. usually done only when the book consists of single leaves or plates; but is quite commonly employed now in rebinding books, especially on the last two or three signatures front and back. also called whip-stitching. probably per cent. of the books published today will stand wear better if they are properly overcast than if they are sewed in the ordinary way. =pallet.= name given to the tool used in gilding upon the bands; sometimes applied to the steel box, with a handle, in which letters are fastened when they are pressed upon the back. =panel.= the space between bands; also applied to beveled and sunk sides. =paneling.= the sides of books are sometimes ornamented with sunken panels. paneled covers are usually made of wood and covered with leather, though sometimes a paneled effect is produced on cardboards by heavy pressure. [illustration: lettering pallet] =papering up.= covering the leaves of a volume to protect them while the volume is being finished. this is often done in fine binding, especially after edges have been gilded. =paring.= reducing the edges of the leather by cutting them down to form a gradual slope. in large binderies now done by a machine. =paring knife.= the knife used for paring. =pastewash.= a thin dilution of paste in water. =payne, roger, style.= the ornaments of this style are easily identified, being free and flowing in stem and flower; whereas before payne's time they had been stiff and formal. the honeysuckle is a customary ornament. the impressions of the tools are usually studded round with gold dots, whether used in borders, corners, or centerpieces. the style is well suited for early nineteenth century literature, especially poetry. =pebble grained.= see grain. =persian morocco.= a kind of morocco leather much used in bookbinding. it may be finished by graining in several styles. it is mostly made in germany, from the skins of hairy sheep called persian goats, whence its name is derived. "east indian or 'persian' tanned sheep and goatskins, called 'persian morocco' or 'persian sheep,' now used largely for cheap bookbinding purposes, are extremely bad. books bound in these materials have been found to show decay in less than months and probably no book bound in these leathers, exposed on a shelf to sunlight or gas fumes, can be expected to last more than five or six years."--report ' . =petits fers.= small hand tools used in finishing, as distinguished from the stamps or blocks worked in a press. =pieced.= when the space between bands, where lettering or title is placed, has fastened to it a piece of leather different from the back, it is said to be pieced or titled. =pigskin.= leather made of pigskin. it is very tough and if constantly handled wears well. "modern pigskin, if genuine, seems to last very well in some colors and in an undyed condition; but some colored pigskin bindings have utterly perished. pigskin is naturally hard and rather stiff leather and is suitable for large books rather than small, and for books which are much handled." "if submitted to severe softening processes in manufacture its durability is very small."--report ' . chivers has used a soft, thin pigskin with great success, here and in england. =plate.= an illustration printed from a plate. term often incorrectly applied to illustrations printed from wood-cuts. also, any full page illustration printed on paper different from that of the rest of the book is usually called a "plate." =plough.= an instrument used in cutting the edges of books and boards. =pointille style.= the dotted style of ornament of le gascon. =points.= small holes made in the sheets by the printer which serve as guides in registering and folding. [illustration: flat polisher] =polisher.= a steel instrument for giving a gloss to leather after finishing. =powder.= see seme. =press.= there are several kinds of presses, viz.: plough and press, for cutting, and standing, stamping, embossing, gilding, and finishing presses. =press pin.= an iron bar used for turning the screws of presses. =pressing boards.= boards put between books when they are pressed. they are usually made of carefully seasoned wood, and have a heavy strip of brass about their edges, which projects a little above the board's surface. books are laid on the boards with their backs projecting over this band enough to bring the latter exactly into the groove of the joint. another board is laid on these books in the same position as the first, and so on. all are then pressed. =pressing plates.= thin plates of metal, japanned or nickeled, used to give a finish or polish to the leather on a book by placing them next to the leather and then subjecting book and plates to heavy pressure. =publishers' bindings.= see case bindings. =quarto.= when a sheet is folded into four leaves, the size of the folded piece being about × - / inches; usually written, to. =quire.= twenty-four sheets. when the sheets of a pamphlet are folded and set into each other in one section, they are quired. =recto.= the right page; verso is the left page. =red edges.= see edges red. =register.= when the print on one side of a leaf falls exactly over that on the other it is said to register. also, a ribbon placed in a book as a marker. =renaissance ornaments.= see derome style. =roan.= leather made of sheepskin and not split. see sheepskin. =rolled edges.= see edges rolled. =rolling machine.= a machine introduced to save the labor of beating. by it the sheets are passed between two revolving cylinders. used in publishers' binding. =rolls.= wheels of brass, cut to any pattern, for impressing gold leaf on leather. =roulette border.= a border design produced by a wheel on the circumference of which is engraved a pattern that reproduces itself as the wheel is revolved. [illustration: rounding hammer] =rounded edges.= see edges rounded. =rounding.= the process by which the back of a book is made round. =rounding hammer.= a heavy, round-faced hammer used in rounding books. =roundlet.= a small circle in gold. =roxburgh binding.= a binding with a rather narrow leather back, without bands, simply lettered, paper sides and no leather corners. =rubbing or rub-off.= the name usually given to the copy of the lettering on the back of the book, made by holding thin paper tightly over the back and rubbing the paper with a heel-ball or a piece of plumbago. =run up.= when a back has a fillet run from top to bottom without being mitred at each band, it is said to be run up. =russia leather.= a fine leather prepared in russia, and imitated elsewhere, by very careful willowbark tanning, dyeing with sandalwood, and soaking in birch oil. it is of a brownish red color, and has a peculiar and characteristic odor. the genuine is not often used in binding; it is not as strong as cowhide. "in nearly all samples of russia leather a very violent form of red decay was noticed. in many cases the leather was found to be absolutely rotten in all parts exposed to light and air, so that on the very slightest rubbing with a blunt instrument the leather fell into fine dust."--report ' . =saddle-stitched.= a pamphlet or book of one signature only sewed with thread or fastened with wire staples along the back is said to be saddle-stitched. =sawing in.= making grooves in the back of a book with a saw to receive strings or bands. =seal grain.= see grain. =section.= a folded sheet. see signature. =seme, or semis, or powder.= ornamentation in which a device is repeated at regular intervals. =set-off.= see off-set. =setting the head.= covering the headband neatly with the leather to form over it a kind of cap. =sewer.= the person who sews together on a sewing bench the sheets, called when folded sections or signatures, to form a book. [illustration: sewing bench] =sewing bench.= a board from one side of which rise two sticks across which is a bar, which can be moved up and down and fixed in any desired position. strings, bands, or tapes are stretched vertically between the edge of the board and the cross bar; against these the signatures of a book are successively placed and to them sewed. =sheepskin.= the commonest leather used for binding. when unsplit it is called roan. when split in two, the upper half is called skiver, the under or fleshy half a flesher. this leather is easy to work, takes gold lettering easily, and looks fairly well on a book. but it is not strong, and most kinds dry out and break within three to five years, even if much handled. the leather made from the skin of the sheep is not all alike. the remark already made, that a given piece of leather is not to be condemned for its name, applies to all the other leathers in this list. the skin from some mountain-bred sheep, for example, if well tanned, makes a good leather. "sheepskin bindings of the early part of the century are many of them still in good condition. sheepskin, in a fairly natural state, seems to keep its flexibility, but it is very easily damaged by friction. since about sheepskin as sheepskin is hardly to be found. we have instead sheepskins grained in imitation of various other leathers, and these imitation grained leathers are, generally speaking, in a worse condition than any others, excepting, perhaps, some of the very thin calf bindings."--report ' . =shelf-back.= the back of the book, showing the title, bands, decorations, etc. =signature.= the letter or figure under the foot-line of the first page of each sheet or signature to indicate the order of its arrangement in the book; often applied to the sheet itself. =sixteenmo.= a sheet folded into sixteen leaves, about × inches when folded. usually written mo. =size.= a preparation of pastewash used in finishing and gilding. =sizes of books.= see folio, quarto, octavo, etc. =skiver.= the outer hair or grain side of sheepskin which has been split. it is commonly the thinner of the two parts, as when the inner is prepared for chamois. it usually looks well, and is easily worked, but is not strong. much used for bindings. see sheepskin. =slips.= the ends of the band, twine or tape on which the book is sewn that project beyond the back after it is sewed. =smooth calf.= plain or undecorated calf. =split leather.= leather split by machine. two or more pieces or splits are thus obtained either of which may be used. the inner layer is usually of inferior quality. sometimes leather is split simply to secure uniformity of thickness in the outer parts. =sprinkled calf.= calf so treated with acid that it looks as if it had been sprinkled with a dye. =sprinkled edges.= cut edges of books sprinkled with color, that the marks made by handling may be less evident. =squares.= the portion of the boards that project beyond the edge of the leaves of the book. =stabbed.= a pamphlet or book of one or more signatures held together by thread or wire staples driven vertically through near the back edge is said to be stabbed. =stabbing.= the operation of piercing the boards with a bodkin for the slips to pass through. also the piercing of pamphlets for stitching. also the process of fastening pamphlets together with staples of fine wire, done on a machine. =stamping press.= see blocking press. =stamps.= the brass tools used in finishing to impress figures upon the leather; they are distinguished as hand stamps and stamps for the press. [illustration: standing press of wood and iron] =standing press.= a large press with screw for pressing many books at once. =start.= when, after cutting, one or more sections of the book come forward, making the fore edge irregular, they are said to have started. =steamboating.= cutting books out of boards, a number being cut at the same time. =straight edge.= a flat ruler. =super.= a thin, loosely woven cotton cloth, glued onto the backs of books to help to hold the signatures together and, by extending over to the inside of the cover, to hold book and cover together. in publishers' binding this is usually all that holds a book in its case. it is thin and loosely woven that it may be easily glued down and starched that it may be easily handled. its place is taken in good binding by fine muslin or jaconet. =t. e. g.= top-edge gilt. =tacky.= sticky; spoken often of glue after it has set, but before it is quite dry. =tail.= see head and tail. =tape.= cotton tape on which many books are best sewn. it should be stout but flexible. =thread.= the thread with which books are sewn is usually made of linen, unbleached. it comes in several sizes. if of good quality, say hayes's standard linen, it costs about $ . per pound for no. -cord. silk thread is sometimes used in extra binding and on very thick books. in machine sewing cotton thread is used and wears well. =thirty-twomo.= a sheet of paper folded into thirty-two leaves; usually written mo. =three-quarters bound.= see half-bound. =tight back.= see back, tight and loose. =title.= the space between the bands upon which the title is lettered. =titled.= see pieced. =tools.= brass stamps used for impressing gold leaf on leather. applied particularly to the hand stamps and tools used in finishing. =top cover.= the upper or front cover of a book in binding. =top edges.= the head or top of a book, in contradistinction to fore-edge or tail. =top gilt.= used in speaking of a book of which the top edge only is gilded. =top side.= the front side of the cover of a book in binding. =tree calf.= a bright brown calf stained by acids in conventional imitation of the trunk and branches of a tree. =trimmed.= the edges of a book are said to be trimmed when the edges of the larger or projecting leaves only have been cut. =trindle.= a strip of thin wood or iron used to take the round out of a book when it is cut. =tub.= the stand which supports the lying press. originally an actual tub to catch the shavings. =turkey morocco.= made of goatskins from turkey. it is very strong, durable leather; expensive, but worth the money. =turning up.= the process of taking the round out of a book when the edge is cut. all books that are cut in boards have a pair of trindles thrust between the boards and across the back to assist in this operation. =tying up.= tying a volume with heavy twine after the leather cover has been drawn on to make the leather adhere to the sides of the bands; also to help in setting the head. =uncut.= a book is said to be uncut when the edges of the paper have not been cut with the cutting machine. =unopened.= a book is said to be unopened if the bolts of the sheets have not been cut. =vellum.= see art vellum. =verso.= the left page. =waste, or waste leaves.= part of the end papers and the blank leaves between the colored end papers and the book proper; should be part of the same lot of paper with which the book is printed. one of the waste leaves is often pasted to the loose half of the lining paper or end sheet, thus forming a doubled fly-leaf. =waste papers.= see end papers. =waterproof sheets.= sheets of celluloid or waterproof cardboard sometimes laid in or between books when pressing. =whatman paper.= a high grade quality of english hand-made paper, both laid and wove, chiefly used for drawing. =whipping.= same as whipstitching or overcasting. =whipstitching.= see overcasting. =white edges.= simply cut, without being gilded or colored. =whole binding.= when the leather covers the back and sides of a volume. =wire staples.= fine wire staples used by certain book-sewing machines in the place of thread for holding the sections to a piece of muslin. also the staples used in place of thread in saddle-stitching a pamphlet of one signature on a machine. used also in holding a book of several signatures together, the staple being driven through all the signatures close to their back edges. =witness.= when a book has been trimmed, leaving some of the leaves still rough, the latter are a witness as to the original size of the sheet and prove that it has not been cut down. =wove paper.= that which does not show water-marked lines running across it; distinguished from laid paper. chapter xix =makers and dealers in bookbinders' materials, tools and machinery= jos. bancroft & sons, manufacturers, rockford, wilmington, del. book cloths. albert d. smith, and thomas st., new york, new york agent. john campbell & co., ferry st., new york. leathers, book cloths, marble papers, etc. cedric chivers, atlantic ave., brooklyn, n. y., and bath, england. binder from publishers' sheets, rebinder, art binder. crawley book machinery company, newport, ky. bookbinders' machinery. louis de jonge & co., - duane st., new york. leather, book cloths, fancy paper, bookbinders' supplies and machinery. dennison's manufacturing co., john st., new york. gummed labels and other office supplies. miss edith diehl, e. st st., new york. leather and binding supplies. gane bros., duane st., new york. leathers, cloths, boards, bookbinders' supplies and machinery of every description. thos. garner & co., william st., and spruce st., new york. manufacturers of leathers and bookbinders' supplies. gaylord bros., emerson building, syracuse, n. y. book repair material of many kinds. the h. griffin & sons company, - duane st., new york. leathers, book cloths, marble papers and bookbinders' materials of every description. the hamilton manufacturing company, main office and factory, two rivers, wis.; eastern office and warehouse, middletown, n. y. bookbinders' furniture and supplies. c. b. hewitt & brothers, beekman st., new york. paper, boards and glue. the w. o. hickok manufacturing co., harrisburg, pa. bookbinders' machinery. holliston mills, norwood, mass., and fifth ave., new york. book cloths. hoole machine and engraving works, prospect st., brooklyn, n. y. manufacturers of bookbinders' tools and machinery. interlaken mills, duane st., new york. book cloths. japan paper co., union square, e., new york. handmade japanese window or shoji paper for repairing leaves, also called japanese mending tissue. keratol company, corner south and van buren sts., newark, n. j. manufacturers of imitation leathers. latham machinery company, - s. canal st., chicago, ill. manufacturers of bookbinders' and printers' machinery. lindenmeyr & sons, beekman st., new york. paper. j. w. o'bannon company, duane st., new york. dealers in all bookbinders' supplies. oswego machine works, oswego, n. y. bookbinders' machinery. c. & w. pyle company, th and van buren sts., wilmington, del. bookbinders' material. schulte & co., n. th st., philadelphia, pa. leather and book cloths. t. w. & c. b. sheridan, duane st., new york. bookbinders' machinery. j. l. shoemaker & co., th and s. th sts., philadelphia, pa. machinery, paper, leather, etc. standard machine co., mystic, conn. bookbinders' machinery. stark & selig, w. broadway, new york. book stamps and embossing dies. f. wesel manufacturing company, spruce st., new york. bookbinders' machinery. chapter xx =a few of the best books on bookbinding, paper and leather= those marked (s) will be found the most useful books for a small library. adam, paul. practical bookbinding. van nostrand. new york. . $ . . this is a translation from the german, the author being the director of the düsseldorf technical school of artistic and practical bookbinding. it treats mainly of the practical side of binding and describes with considerable detail the materials used in the work. it is illustrated mostly with outline cuts which aid the reader or student to understand the several methods and processes. brassington, w. s. history of the art of bookbinding. stock. london. . $ . . interesting illustrations of ancient records before book making. notices of printers, collectors, binders and famous books. appendix c gives samples and brief descriptions of oriental forms of binding. very good general work. butler, j. w. the story of paper making. butler paper co. chicago. . $ . . an interesting account of paper making from its earliest known record down to the present time. (s) chivers, cedric. improvements in the binding of books. cedric chivers. bath, england. free. description of the methods used by chivers in his own bindery. the writer has a high reputation, and probably binds books more satisfactorily for libraries than any binder in the world today. (s) cockerell, douglas. bookbinding and the care of books. appleton. new york. . $ . net. text-book of workshop practice from personal experience and critical examination of methods current in shops. it supplements workshop training and is a help in the selection of sound bindings. the best single book for the librarian who wishes to know about the craft of binding. does not treat the subject of strong rebinding for the public library. cockerell, douglas. a note on bookbinding ... with extracts from the special report of the society of arts on leather for bookbinding. london. issued by w. h. smith & son, for their bookbinding department. . price penny. crane, w. j. e. bookbinding for amateurs. l. upcott gill, london, no date. price $ . . this gives a description of the various tools and appliances required and minute instruction for their use. cundall, joseph, ed. on bookbindings ancient and modern. bell, london, . price $ . . an excellent history of the art from earliest times. contains a chronological list or table of famous bookbinders, with their nationalities, dates of birth and death. fletcher, w. y., f. s. a. bookbinding in france. macmillan & co., new york, . $ . . an accurate brief account of the history and growth of the art in france. profusely illustrated, with cuts in the text and with facsimiles in color. (s) gane brothers. bookbinders' stock. free. gane. duane st., new york. a trade catalogue, giving cuts of articles as well as prices. growoll, a. the profession of bookselling. v. publisher's weekly. new york. . $ . net. contains an excellent article on bookbinding with descriptions of leather and other cover material, cost and other details. a list of authorities is given and a description of technical terms. hasluck, paul n., ed. bookbinding. david mckay, philadelphia, . $ . . a practical text-book with numerous engravings and diagrams. horne, herbert p. the binding of books. scribner, new york, . $ . . shows how good decoration on bindings can be made only by those who understand design. (s) hulme, parker and others. leather for libraries. published for the sound leather committee of the library association, england, by the library supply company. london. . price $ . . a summary of the report of the committee of the society of arts, brought down to date, and with helpful notes added. includes small samples of leather. journal of the society of arts. nos. cents each. london. sept. , , , oct. , . four lectures delivered by julius hübner, director of the paper making department, at the municipal school of technology, manchester, england, giving a practical treatise on paper making. also issued as "cantor lectures" in one pamphlet, same society. cents. journal of the society of arts. cents. london. july , . report of a committee on leather for bookbinding. the decay of leather, a subject which has attracted a great deal of attention and interest among librarians and collectors. the best thing for librarians ever published on leather. matthews, brander. bookbinding, old and new. macmillan, new york, . $ . . notes of a book-lover, with an account of the grolier club of new york. nicholson, james b. manual of the art of bookbinding. baird, philadelphia, . $ . . instructions in the different branches of forwarding, gilding, finishing and marbling. (s) pearce, w. b. practical bookbinding. marshall & co., london, no date. cents. a text-book designed to give sufficient help to enable handy persons to bind their own books. illustrated with photographs and drawings. prideaux, s. t. an historical sketch of bookbinding. lawrence. london. . $ . net. intended as a help in the first steps. a chronological table of french and english sovereigns is added with a bibliography and explanation of technical terms. an appendix treats of ornamentation. public libraries, june, . binding number. public libraries, june, . binding number. report of the committee on leather for bookbinding. edited by cobham and wood for the society of arts. london. bell. . $ . . contains some material on dyeing leather not in the original report; has numerous illustrations, samples of leather, well printed, bound in cloth. society of arts--committee on the deterioration of paper. report ... with two appendixes: , abstracts of paper on german official tests, - ; , correspondence. london. . cents. zaehnsdorf, j. w. the art of bookbinding. $ . . bell. london. . $ . . step by step an imaginary book is bound, as in an "extra shop," to show the amateur how to bind his own book, or how to know a good binding when purchasing. illustrations of machinery used are given and practical receipts. zahn, otto. on art binding. s. c. toof & co., memphis, . $ . . illustrated with half-tone pictures of fine bindings by the author. =index= acids used in dyeing, effects of, , aldine style, all-along sewing, american russia leather, antique, arabesque style, art canvas, , art vellum, azure tools, azured style, backing, , backing boards, backing hammer, backing machine, backing press, backs, backs, loose, repairing, backs, material for, band driver, band nippers, bands, bead, beating hammer, beating stone, beveled boards, bibliography of bookbinding, binder, binder's workshop in , binders for magazines, bindery, equipment, binding, flexible, binding from publishers' sheets, binding materials for backs, binding materials for sides, binding, mosaic, binding records, bindings, broken, bindings, broken, mending, bleed, blind tooling, blocking press, board papers, board shears, boards, , boards, binding in, boards, broken, repairing, boards, pressing, bock morocco, bodkin, bolt, book covers, machine-made, book list on bookbinding, bookbinding terms, bosses, boston binder, broken bindings, mending, broken boards, replacing, brushes, buchan binder, buckram, buckram, linen finish, buffing, buffingette, see keratol, bureau of standards, specifications for book cloth, burnishers, burnishing, calf lined, calf, marbled, calf, sprinkled, calf, tree-, calfskin, cancels, canvas, caps, case bindings, catchword, center tools, chivers binder, circuit edges, clasp, cleaning books, clearing out, cleveland binder, , clip binders, cloth, cloth boards, cloth, english imperial morocco, , cloth, standards, cobden-sanderson style, collating, combs, copying press, corners, cost of binding, covering (repairing), covers, loose, reattaching, cowhide, cowskin, creaser, cropped binding, crushed leather, crushed levant, cut flush, cutter, cutting boards, , cutting machine, cutting press, dandy, dealers in bookbinding materials, decay of leather, , deckle edge, dentelle border, derome style, diaper, divinity calf, doublure, duck, dutch metal, eau de javelle, edges, gaufre, edges, gilt, edges, soiled, cleaning, edges, treatments in binding, edition de luxe, embossed, end leaves, end papers, end papers, renewal, end sheets, english linen, eve style, extra binding, fanfare style, fillet, finishing, finishing press, finishing stove, flexible binding, flexible glue, flexible sewing, fly leaves, fly leaves, removal, folder, , folio, fore-edge, fore-edges, cutting, forwarding, french guard, french joint, , , french morocco, full bound, gascon style, le, gathering, gaufre edges, gauge, gilding, gilding press, gilt, gilt edges, gilt tops, glair, glue, glue, flexible, glue pot, goatskin, niger, goffered edges, gold cushion, gold knife, gold leaf, gouge, grain (leather), graining, grater, grease marks, removal, grolier style, groove, ground glue, guard, french, guards, guards for plates, guides, guillotine, gummed paper, half-bound, half-title, hand letters, hand-sewing, head and tail, head cap, heel-ball, imperial morocco cloth, ink stains, removal, inset, inside margins, inside tins, italian style, jansen style, japanese mending paper, japanese mending tissue, javelle water, johnston binder, joint, french, joints, joints, repairing, justification, keratol, kettlestitch, keys, kip calf, klip binder, knife, knocking-down iron, labels, labels, renewal, laced in, laid paper, law sheep, leather, leather, decay, , leather, grain in, leather, russia, leather, treatment with oil, leatherette, le gascon style, lettering, , lettering block, lettering box, lettering pallet, lettering by hand, lettering in white ink, levant morocco, library binding, and foll. life histories of library bindings, limp binding, linen, english, linen-finish buckram, lining papers, , loose backs, repairing, loose joints, repairing, loose leaves, inserting, low buckram, lying press, magazine binders, magazines, binding single copies, maioli style, maps, mounting, maps, repairing, marbled calf, marbler, marbling, margins, marking books, mending books, mending tissue, millboard, mitred, morocco, , morocco, french, morocco, levant, morocco, persian, morocco, turkey, morocco cloth, , morocco cloth, imperial, mosaic binding, mottled calf, mounting, music, binding, needles, newark library, binding records, newark library, binding statistics, newark library, repairing methods, new haven binder, newspapers, binding according to use, niger goatskin, numbering backs, octavo, off-set, opening, ease of, out of boards, overcasting, , pallet, pamphlets, binding, panel, paneling, paper, paper, determining quality, paper, mending, paper, laid, paper, qualities, paper covers, paper used in books, papering up, paring, paring knife, paste, , pastewash, payne, roger, style, pencil marks removed, persian morocco, petits fers, philadelphia binder, pieced space, pigskin, , plane, plates, broken-up, plates, insertion on guards, plates, pressing, plough, pointille style, points, polishers, powder, press, press pin, pressing boards, pressing plates, publishers' bindings, cleaning, publishers' bindings, statistics of wear, quarto, quire, rag paper, rebinding, cost of, rebinding for wear, rebinding, preparation of books for, records of binding, recto, register, repairing books, repairing joints, re-siding books, roan, roedde magazine binder, roger payne style, rolling machine, rolls, roulette border, rounding, rounding hammer, roundlet, roxburgh binding, rubbing, rugby wrapping paper for covers, ruler, run up, russia leather, saddle-stitched, sawing in, scissors, seme, setting the head, sewer, sewing all along, sewing by hand, sewing in loose sections, sewing, flexible, sewing bench, sheep, law, sheepskin, shelf-back, sides, material for, signature, sixteenmo, size, skiver, slips, split leather, springfield binder, sprinkled calf, sprinkled edges, squares, stabbed, stabbing, stabbing awl, stains, removal, stamps, standing press, start, steamboating, stitching, straight edge, style, grolier, style, le gascon, style, pointille, style, roger payne, style, roxburgh, super, tacky, tape, thirty-two-mo, tapes, sewing on, terminology of bookbinding, thread, , , tins, inside, tipping-in, title, tools, top cover, top edges, top gilt, top side, tops, gilt, torn leaves, mending, torsion binder, tree calf, trimming, trindle, tub, turkey morocco, turning-up, tying-up, uncut, unopened, waste leaves, waterproof sheets, wearing qualities of leather, weis binder, whatman paper, whipping, whipstitching, white edges, white ink, whole binding, wire staples, witness, wood paper, wove paper, * * * * * transcriber's notes minor typographical errors have been corrected. old-fashioned spelling has been left unchanged. * corrections to the original text the following misprints and misspellings have been corrected: page - "sawn" changed to "sewn" ("is so sewn as to let") * other changes and notes the following changes to the original text have been made for clarity or consistency: page - the illustration on this page has been split in two and the parts labeled "no. " and "no. ", respectively, in order to correspond more clearly with the text in the original caption. page - "residing books." changed to "re-siding books." to agree with index entry. page - "per cent" changed to "per cent." ("a large per cent. of their book fund"). page - "(l)" and "(r)" added for clarity to the caption of the illustration on this page. the following variations of a word or descriptive term are common in the original text and have been retained: "bookbinding" and "book-binding" "handmade" and "hand-made" "saddlestitch", "saddle-stitched" and "saddle-stitching" "watermark", "water-marked" and "water-marking" "waterproof" and "water-proof" "whipstitching" and "whip-stitching" [ transcriber's notes: every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible, including any inconsistencies in the original. italic text has been marked with _underscores_. ] [illustration: oliver cromwell green levant--inlays of red and black leather. decorative tooling in gold.] bib-li-op-e-gis-tic (pertaining to the art of binding books.--dibdin) to which is appended a glossary of some terms used in the craft with illustrations of bindings designed and executed by the trow press, new york bibliopegistic the craft of the bookbinder is older than that of the printer. quoting from mr. brander matthews: "perhaps the first bookbinder was the humble workman who collected the baked clay tiles on which the assyrians wrote their laws; and he was a bookbinder also who prepared a protecting cylinder to guard the scrolls of papyrus on which vergil, and horace, and martial had written their verses." modern art in bookbinding began in italy in the fifteenth century. the invention of printing had so multiplied books that the work got out of the hands of the monks, and workmen from other trades were pressed into service, bringing with them their skill in working leather, as well as their tools, and designs which they had previously used to decorate their work. at this time the libraries were shelves, so inclined, as to allow of the books lying on their sides, inviting their decoration. at first the embellishment was suggested or influenced by the work in the volume, and very often there would be found on the cover, repetition of the typographic ornaments used by the printer. [illustration: carols v. gerichtsordnung ( ) vine colored levant--inlays of red and green leather. interlacing bands and decoration tooled in gold.] but with the associations and influence of the other decorative arts, there came the use of interlacing bands, scrolls, and geometric designs, followed by copies of patterns and parts of designs from laces, embroideries, pottery and ironwork of the times. and with the broadening in the ideas of decoration, came the use of inlays of leather of harmonizing colors, and even of precious stones. while the art was developing in italy, largely under french patronage, it was also beginning to flourish in france, where later it reached its supremacy. so much so that up to the nineteenth century it was "france first and the rest nowhere." in no work more than in binding have the french shown their fine artistic taste, and in the famous collections of the world the choicest specimens are by french binders of the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries. france to-day has many binders of great skill and good taste, but no longer holds the supremacy of the earlier days. england has developed some craftsmen of great skill and original artistic feeling, even though their best efforts are many times but reproductions of older models. barely fifty years ago america did not have a binder capable of covering a volume to compare with the work of the artisans of france or even england. but in that time there have developed shops where work of such merit is done that it is now no longer necessary to send one's precious tomes abroad to be properly clothed. the true book lover as well as the collector desires for his treasures a suitable binding, and there is to-day an increasing demand for fine binding on individual volumes as well as on sets. this demand is not satisfied with "commercial binding" and is too intelligent to accept extravagant work, extravagant in over-decoration as well as in price. the art of bookbinding is now so widely known and the taste and judgment of the public so thoroughly educated by the efforts of the grolier club and similar associations that good work and good material are appreciated, genuine and suitable decoration recognized and the best results obtained in the combination of an intelligent customer and a skilled and artistic workman. [illustration: the book of the presidents maroon levant--"arms" (tiffany & co. design) inlaid in colored leather. plain mitred panels, tooled in gold.] [illustration: the book of the presidents--doublé levant--national colors. tooled in gold.] the trow bindery the production of fine bindings is not a new departure with us, but has been carried on for many years in what has been aptly described as, a "quality" department of a "quantity" business, where fine work can be executed at prices that are not prohibitive. it is under the direction of a skilled craftsman, and the workmen are encouraged to excel in careful and conscientious work. our endeavor is to produce books which are not surpassed for elegance, elasticity, and durability--the three great requisites of a well bound book. with technical knowledge to aid us in the selection of the best materials, and excellent tools, we strive for that result which is described as "flawless material faultlessly treated." the decoration, if any, is designed in complete harmony with the text, and where warranted, we call to our aid the foremost decorative designers and artists of the day. [illustration: no.  . vellum no.  . linen no.  . buckram samples of specially designed "marbled" cloths for sides and linings of half, three-quarter or full leather bindings] the older models are followed where original designs are not required; and where simplicity is desired, we hold to the belief in "the undecorated surface of flawless material," bearing in mind the sobriety of treatment, but careful execution which distinguishes the best work of the past. * * * * * as a new departure we are showing the use of specially designed cloths for sides and linings, in place of the german marbled papers and french "combs," the most of which as miss prideaux says "produce the effect of violent color thrown on wet blotting paper." used as sides on half or three-quarter leather styles, the cloth gives greater durability, as the surface does not rub, nor will the edges wear off where turned over, as happens with the use of marbled papers. as linings they obviate the use of the extra cloth joint, which is unsightly, but necessary for strength with the use of marbled paper; with their use the folded edge is pasted in the joint, allowing the cover to be lifted without drawing the end papers away from the book. good taste, and harmony of color are assured by their wide variety, and in addition some new and novel effects may sometimes be secured. [illustration: the historic hudson--doublé green levant. pictorial inlay and decoration tooled in gold.] the scope of our work we solicit the binding of a single volume, in any manner, whether it be in half, three-quarter, or full leather, with simple or elaborate treatment. we will undertake the binding of a complete collection or library and will submit quotations where desired, or proceed under an appropriation by the customer. we will carefully attend to special instructions for the extending, interleaving or rebinding of extra illustrated work, presentation copies, memorial editions, etc. we also undertake the repairing of any bindings, carefully and skillfully mending any torn leaves, and properly guarding any loose sheets or inserts. [illustration: memorial volume--doublé royal purple levant. floral design inlaid and hand colored.] glossary of terms _azured._ ornamentation outlined in gold and crossed with horizontal lines. _bands._ ( ) the cord whereon the sheets of a volume are sewn. ( ) the ridges on the back caused by the bands raising the leather. _head band._ a knitting of silk or thread worked in at the head and foot of the shelf back of the book. _boards._ a temporary binding with a cover made of boards and paper. _mill boards._ the boards that are attached to the book, giving stiffening to the cover. _bosses._ brass or other metal pieces attached to the covers of a book, for ornamentation or protection. _burnish._ the gloss produced by the application of the burnisher to the edges after coloring, marbling or gilding. _collating._ examining the signatures, after a volume has been folded and gathered, to ascertain if they be in correct sequence. _dentelle._ a style resembling lace work, finished with very finely cut tools. _doublé._ when the inside of the cover is lined with leather, it is termed a doublé. _end papers or lining papers._ the papers, plain or fancy, placed at each end of the volume and pasted down upon the boards. _fillet._ a cylindrical tool used in finishing, upon which a line or lines are engraved. _finishing._ comprises tooling, lettering, polishing, etc. _flexible._ a book sewn on raised bands, with the thread passed entirely around each band, allowing the book to open freely. [illustration: a century of french romance edition work. french levant with colored inlays. decoration "stamped" in gold.] [illustration: a century of french romance edition work. persian morocco. semis (powder or diaper design) "stamped" in gold.] _fore edge._ the front edge of the leaves. _forwarding._ comprises all the operations between preparing and finishing, including the forming and trimming of the books, and the covering of the boards. _gaufre edges._ impressions made with the finisher's tools on the edges of the book after gilding. _gouge._ a finishing tool forming the segment of a circle. _guards._ strips of paper inserted in the backs of books, upon which inserts are mounted, intended to prevent the books being uneven in thickness when filled. _inlaying._ ( ) extending "extra" illustrations by inserting them in leaves to correspond to the size of a book. ( ) a style of mosaic work made by the insertion of vari-colored leathers or other material on the cover or doublé. _kettle-stitch._ a catch-stitch formed in sewing at the head and foot. _lacing-in._ lacing the bands on which the book is sewn through holes in the boards to attach them. _limp._ a cover without boards or other stiff materials, allowing the sides to be pliable. _marbling._ a method of coloring the edges or end papers in various patterns, obtained by floating colors on a gum solution. _mitred._ tooled lines meeting at a right angle without overrunning. _morocco._ a fine kind of grained leather prepared from goatskin. _levant morocco._ the skin of the monarch breed of goat; a large grained morocco. _overcasting._ oversewing the back edges of single leaves of weak sections; also called whipstitching or whipping. _pointillé._ the dotted style of le gascon. _preparing._ comprising all the preliminary operations up to "forwarding," including folding, gathering, collating, and sewing. _register._ when the printing on one side of a leaf falls exactly over that on the other it is said to "register." _rolls._ cylindrical ornamental tools used in finishing. _sawing-in._ when grooves are made in the back with a saw to receive the bands. _semis._ a diaper design made up of the repetition of one or more small tools. _signature._ each folded sheet or section of a book. _squares._ the portion of the covers projecting beyond the edges of the book. _tall copy._ so called when the book has not been reduced in size by trimming, with the leaves entirely uncut. _tooling._ impressing the design or pattern in gold leaf, with finishing tools, by hand. _blind tooling._ the impression of finishing tools without gold leaf. [illustration: specimen decorative backs for half or full leather bindings. edition work or single volumes.] interpretation of styles aldine or italian ornaments of solid face without any shading whatever, such as used by aldus and other early italian printers. the ornaments are of arabic character. a style appropriate for early printed literature. grolier an interlaced framework of geometrical figures--circles, squares, and diamonds--with scrollwork running through it, the ornaments which are of moresque character, generally azured in whole or in part, sometimes in outline only. parts of the design are often studded with gold dots. time, first half of the th century. maioli a style prior to and contemporary with the early (italian) examples of the grolier. generally composed of a framework of shields or medallions, with a design of scrollwork flowing through it. portions of the design are usually studded with gold dots. ornaments are of moresque character. Ève a framework of various geometrical-shaped compartments linked together by interlaced circles; the centers of the compartments are filled with small floral ornaments, and the irregular spaces surrounding them, with circular scrolls and branches of laurel and palm. an elaborate style used at the end of the th and beginning of the th century. mosaic a design inlaid with different colors. the cover may be of any shade, but the style is especially effective when the cover is of white vellum in imitation of illuminated manuscripts. le gascon the distinguishing feature of this style is the dotted face of the ornaments instead of the continuous or solid line. in vogue the first half of the th century, immediately succeeding the period of nicholas and clovis Ève. derome this style has ornaments of a leafy character, with a more solid face, though lightly shaded by the graver and is best exemplified in borders. the ornaments are often styled renaissance, being an entire change from the gascon. time, th century. roger payne the ornaments of this style are easily identified, being free and flowing in stem and flower; whereas before payne's time they had been stiff and formal. the honeysuckle is a customary ornament. the impressions of the tools are usually studded round with gold dots, whether used in borders, corners, or center pieces. jansen without line or ornament either in blank or gold. it permits decoration on the inside of the cover, but demands absolute plainness on the outside, with the exception of lettering. it is only appropriate for crushed levant, being dependent for its beauty on the polished surface of the leather. it takes its name from the followers of jansenius, bishop of ypres, who were advocates of plainness in worship. [illustration] trow directory, printing and bookbinding company - east th street new york city the printed book, its history, illustration, and adornment, _from the days of gutenberg to the present time._ by henri bouchot, of the national library, paris. _translated and enlarged by_ edward c. bigmore. with one hundred and eighteen illustrations of facsimiles of early typography, printers' marks, copies of book illustrations, and specimens of bindings of all ages. new york: scribner and welford, and , broadway. . preface. considering that this short study can claim to be nothing more than a rapid and somewhat summary survey of the history of the book, it eschews all controversial matter, nor does it pretend to convey much fresh information to those already possessing a special knowledge of the subject. it is rather a condensed, but at the same time, it may be hoped, a useful, compendium of the thousand unknown or now forgotten essays, involving endless contradictory statements, that have been issued on this theme. the mere enumeration of such works would simply suffice to fill a volume. we have accordingly no intention to attempt a bibliography, satisfying ourselves with the modest avowal of having found so many documents in all languages, that the very abundance has been at least as embarrassing to us as the lack of materials may have been to others. the book appealing in its present form to a special public interested more in artistic than in purely typographical topics, our attention has been more particularly given to the illustrators, the designers, engravers, etchers, and so forth. such graphic embellishment seemed to us of more weight than the manufacture of the paper, the type-casting, the printing properly so called. this technical aspect of the subject has been very briefly dealt with in a separate chapter, and has also been enlarged upon in the early section. to the binding also we have devoted only a single chapter, while fully conscious that a whole volume would not have sufficed merely to treat the subject superficially. at the same time, we would not have the reader conclude from all this that our book abounds in omissions, or has overlooked any important features. the broad lines, we trust, have been adhered to, while each section has been so handled as to give a fair idea of the epoch it deals with. this is the first attempt to comprise within such narrow limits an art and an industry with a life of over four centuries, essaying to describe its beginnings and its history down to our days, without omitting a glance at the allied arts. the engravings selected for illustration have, as far as possible, been taken from unedited materials, and have been directly reproduced by mechanical processes, while fifteen new illustrations, having special relation to the history of the book in england, have been added to this edition, which is also considerably enlarged in the text on the same subject. contents. chapter i. page .. to origin of the book--engravers in relief--the st. christopher of --origin of the xylographs--the xylographs, _donatus_, and _speculum_--the laurent coster legend--from block books to movable characters--john gaensefleisch, called gutenberg--the strasbourg trial--gutenberg at mayence--fust and schoeffer--the letters of indulgence--the bible--the "catholicon"--the mayence bible--causes of the dispersion of the first mayence printers--general considerations. chapter ii. to the book and the printers of the second generation--the german workmen dispersed through europe--caxton and the introduction of printing into england--nicholas jenson and his supposed mission to mayence--the first printing in paris; william fichet and john heinlein--the first french printers; their installation at the sorbonne and their publications--the movement in france--the illustration of the book commenced in italy--the book in italy; engraving in relief and metal plates--the book in germany: cologne, nuremberg, basle--the book in the low countries--french schools of ornament of the book; books of hours; booksellers at the end of the fifteenth century--literary taste in titles in france at the end of the fifteenth century--printers and booksellers' marks--the appearance of the portrait in the book--progress in england--caxton and his followers. chapter iii. to french epics and the renaissance--venice and aldus manutius--italian illustrators--the germans; _theuerdanck_, schäufelein--the book in other countries--french books at the beginning of the century, before the accession of francis i.--geoffroy tory and his works--francis i. and the book--robert estienne--lyons a centre of bookselling; holbein's dances of death--school of basle--alciati's emblems and the illustrated books of the middle of the century--the school of fontainebleau and its influence--solomon bernard--cornelis de la haye and the _promptuaire_--john cousin--copper plate engraving and metal plates--woériot--the portrait in the book of the sixteenth century--how a book was illustrated on wood at the end of the century--influence of plantin on the book; his school of engravers--general considerations--progress in england--coverdale's bible--english printers and their work--engraved plates in english books. chapter iv. to tendencies of the regency of marie de medicis--thomas de leu and leonard gaultier--j. picart and claude mellan--lyons and j. de fornazeris--the book at the beginning of the seventeenth century in germany, italy, and holland--crispin pass in france--the elzevirs and their work in holland--sebastian cramoisy and the imprimerie royale--illustration with callot, della bella, and abraham bosse--the publishers and the hotel de rambouillet--the reign of louis xiv.; antoine vitré syndic at his accession--his works and mortifications; the polyglot bible of le jay--art and illustrators of the grand century--sébastien leclerc, lepautre, and chauveau--leclerc preparing the illustration and decoration of the book for the eighteenth century--the book in england in the seventeenth century. chapter v. the book in the eighteenth century the regency--publishers at the beginning of the eighteenth century--illustrators in france; gillot--the school of watteau and boucher--cars--the younger cochin; his principal works in vignettes--french art in england; gravelot--eisen--choffard--the _baisers_ of dorat; the _contes_ of la fontaine--the publisher cazin and the special literature of the eighteenth century--the younger moreau and his illustrations--the revolution--the school of david--duplessis-bertaux--the book in germany; chodowiecki--in england; boydell and french artists--caslon and baskerville--english books with illustrations--wood engraving in the eighteenth century; the papillons--printing offices in the eighteenth century. chapter vi. the book in the nineteenth century the didots and their improvements--the folio racine--the school of didot--fine publications in england and germany--literature and art of the restoration--romanticism--wood engraving--bewick's pupils, clennell, etc.--the illustrators of romances--the generation of --the book in our days in europe and america. chapter vii. types, impression, paper, ink chapter viii. bookbinding the binding of the first printed books--ancient german bindings--binding in the time of louis xii.--italian bindings--aldus--maioli--grolier--francis i.--henry ii. and diane de poitiers--catherine de medicis--henry iii.--the eves--the "fanfares"--louis xiii.--le gascon--florimond badier--louis xiv.--morocco leathers--cramoisy--the bindings of the time of louis xiv.--the regency--pasdeloup--the deromes--dubuisson--thouvenin--lesné--the nineteenth century--english binders--roger payne--francis bedford. chapter ix. libraries index the printed book. chapter i. .. to . origin of the book--engravers in relief--the st. christopher of --origin of the xylographs--the xylographs, _donatus_, and _speculum_--the laurent coster legend--from block books to movable characters--john gaensefleisch, called gutenberg--the strasbourg trial--gutenberg at mayence--fust and schoeffer--the letters of indulgence--the bible--the catholicon--the mayence bible--causes of the dispersion of the first mayence printers--general considerations. like its forerunner, painting, the book has ever been the most faithful reflection of the times when it was written and illustrated. natural and genuine from the first, and simply embellished with crude illustrations, it assumed in the sixteenth century the grand airs of the renaissance, gay or serious according to circumstances, decked in what were then called _histoires_--that is to say, wonderful engravings--and daintily printed in gothic, roman, or choice italic characters. but at the close of the century it had already abandoned _wood_ for line engravings, heightening its mysticism or its satire at the whim of passing politics and religious wranglings. then, under the influence of the painters and courtiers of the _grand monarque_, it becomes completely transformed, donning the peruke, so to speak, indulging in allegory and conventionalities, pompous and showy, tricking itself out in columns and pilasters instead of the old arabesques and scroll work of the renaissance, thus continuing amid the coquetries of the regency, the pastorals and insipidities of the following reigns, until at last it suddenly assumes with the heroes of the revolution the austere mien and airs of classic art. the book has always been as closely connected with the manners of our predecessors as art itself. the artist submits more than he thinks to the tendency of his surroundings; and if he at times makes his taste appreciated, it is because he has more or less received his first influence from others. in the sixteenth century the fashion of emblematic representation placed under the portrait of gaston de foix a figure of a young plant in full bloom; and the inscription in latin was "nascendo maturus"--"mature at birth." the book deserves the same device; from its first day up to now it is a marvel of simplicity and harmony. the tentative efforts which preceded the discovery of printing were but few; it may be said that from the moment that gutenberg conceived the idea of separating the characters, of arranging the words in the forme, of inking them, and of taking a proof on paper, the book was perfect. at best we see in following times some modifications of detail; the art of printing was mature, mature from its birth. but before arriving at the movable type placed side by side, and forming phrases, which appears to us to-day so simple and so ordinary, many years passed. it is certain that long before gutenberg a means was found of cutting wood and metal in relief and reproducing by application the image traced. signs-manual and seals were a kind of printing, inasmuch as the relief of their engraving is impressed upon a sheet by the hand. but between this simple statement and the uncritical histories of certain special writers, attributing the invention of engraving to the fourteenth century, there is all the distance of legendary history. remembering that the numerous guilds of _tailleurs d'images_, or sculptors in relief, had in the middle ages the specialty of carving ivories and of placing effigies on tombs, it can be admitted without much difficulty, that these people one day found a means of multiplying the sketches of a figure often asked for, by modelling its contour in relief on ivory or wood, and afterwards taking a reproduction on paper or parchment by means of pressure. when and where was this discovery produced? we cannot possibly say; but it is certain that playing cards were produced by this means, and that from the year popular figures were cut in wood, as we know from the st. christopher of that date belonging to lord spencer. it is not our task to discuss this question at length, nor to decide if at first these reliefs were obtained on wood or metal. it is a recognised fact that the single sheet with a printed figure preceded the xylographic book in which text and illustration were cut in the same block. this process did not appear much before the second quarter of the fifteenth century, and it was employed principally for popular works which were then the universal taste. the engraving also was nothing more than a kind of imposition palmed off as a manuscript; the vignettes were often covered with brilliant colours and gold, and the whole sold as of the best quality. the first attempts at these little figures in relief discovered by the image-makers and diffused by the makers of playing cards were but indifferent. the drawing and the cutting were equally unskilful, as may be seen in the facsimiles given by m. h. delaborde in his _histoire de la gravure_. an attempt had been made to put some text at the foot of the st. christopher of , and the idea of giving more importance to the text was to the advantage of the booksellers. at the mercy of the writers who fleeced them, obliged to recoup themselves by the exaggerated prices of the most ordinary books, they hoped to turn engraving to account in order to obtain on better terms the technical work needed for their trade. at the epoch of the st. christopher, in , several works were in vogue in the universities, the schools, and with the public. among the first of these was the latin syntax of Ælius donatus on the eight parts of speech, a kind of grammar for the use of young students, as well as the famous _speculum_, a collection of precepts addressed to the faithful, which were copied and recopied without satisfying the demand. [illustration: fig. .--part of a _donatus_ taken from a xylograph, the original of which is preserved in the bibliothèque nationale.] to find a means of multiplying these treatises at little cost was a fortune to the inventor. it is to be supposed that many artisans of the time attempted it; and without doubt it was the booksellers themselves, mostly mere dealers, who were tempted to the adventure by the sculptors and wood-cutters. but none had yet been so bold as to cut in relief a series of blocks with engravings and text to compose a complete work. that point was reached very quickly when some legend was engraved at the foot of a vignette, and it may be thought that the _donatus_ was the most ancient of books so obtained among the "incunabuli," as we now call them, a word that signifies origin or cradle. the first books then were formed of sheets of paper or parchment, laboriously printed from xylographic blocks, that is to say wooden blocks on which a _tailleur d'images_ had left in relief the designs and the letters of the text. he had thus to trace his characters in reverse, so that they could be reproduced as written; he had to avoid faults, because a phrase once done, well or ill, lasted. it was doubtless this difficulty of correction that gave the idea of movable types. if the cutter seriously erred, it was necessary to cancel altogether the faulty block. this at least explains the legend of laurent coster, of haarlem, who, according to hadrian junius, his compatriot, discovered by accident the secret of separate types while playing with his children. and if the legend of which we speak contains the least truth, it must be found in the sense above indicated, that is in the correction of faults, rather than in the innocent game of a merchant of haarlem. however, we shall have occasion to return to the subject of these remarks. it should be well established that engraving in relief on wood alone gave the idea of making xylographic blocks and of composing books. movable type, the capital point of printing, the pivot of the art of the book, developed itself little by little, according to needs, when there was occasion to correct an erroneous inscription; but, in any case, its origin is unknown. doubtless to vary the text, means were found to replace entire phrases by other phrases, preserving the original figures; and thus the light dawned upon these craftsmen, occupied in the manufacture and sale of their books. according to hadrian junius, laurent janszoon coster (the latter name signifying "the discoverer") published one of the celebrated series of works under the general title of _speculum_ which was then so popular (the mystic style exercising so great an attraction on the people of the fifteenth century), the _speculum humanæ salvationis_. written before the middle of the fifteenth century, made popular by manuscripts, in spite of its fantastic latinity and of its false quantities, this ascetic and crude poem was easy of access to the xylographists. junius, as we see, attributes to laurent coster the first impression of the _speculum_, no longer the purely xylographic impression of the _donatus_ from an engraved block, but that of the more advanced manner in movable types. in point of fact, this book had at least four editions, similar in engravings and body of letters, but of different text. it must then be admitted that the fount was dispersed, and typography discovered, because the same cast of letters could not be adapted to different languages. on the other hand, the vignettes do not change, indicating sufficiently the mobility of the types. in comparison to what may be seen in later works, the illustrations of the _speculum_ are by no means bad; they have the appearance, at once naïve and picturesque, of the works of van eyck, and not at all of the style of the german miniaturists; properly illuminated and gilded, they lent themselves to the illusion of being confounded with the _histoyres_, drawn by the hand, and this is what the publisher probably sought. all the xylographic works of the fifteenth century may be classed in two categories: the xylographs, rightly so called, or the block books, such as the _donatus_, and the books with movable types, like the _speculum_, of which we speak. this mystic and simple literature of pious works for the use of people of modest resources found in printing the means of more rapid reproduction. then appeared the _biblia pauperum_, one of the most celebrated and the most often reproduced, and the _ars moriendi_, a kind of dialogue between an angel and a devil at the bedside of a dying person, which, inspired no doubt by older manuscripts, retained for a long time in successive editions the first tradition of its designs. on labels displayed among the figures are found inscribed the dialogue of the demons and angels seeking to attach to themselves the departing soul, the temptations of satan on the subject of faith, and the responses of the angel on the same subject. [illustration: fig. .--xylographic figure from the _ars moriendi_, copied in reverse in the _art au morier_.] we can see what developments this theme could lend to the mysticism of the fifteenth century. composed in eleven designs, the _ars moriendi_ ran up to eight different editions. from the middle to the end of the fifteenth century, the text was in latin, then in french, under the title _l'art au morier_. in the french edition will be found the blocks that served for the second impression of the work. about , more than fifty years after the first essays, the _ars moriendi_ enjoyed so much vogue that it employed all the resources of typography as much as in its earliest days. the original subjects, copied in a very mediocre manner, adorned the text, which was composed in gothic letters, with a new and more explicit title: _tractatus brevis ac valde utilis de arte et scientia bene moriendi_ ( to, s.l.n.d.), but the order is inverted, figure of the xylograph becoming no. of the edition of . the _ars memorandi_, another xylographic work, of which the subject, taken from the new testament, was equally well adapted to the imagination of the artists, had also a glorious destiny. the work originally comprised thirty blocks, the fifteen blocks of text facing the fifteen engravings. the designs represented the attributes of each of the evangelists, with allegories and explanatory legends. thus, in that which relates to the apostle matthew, no. represents the birth and genealogy of jesus christ, no. the offerings of the magi, no. the baptism of st. john, no. the temptation of christ, no. the sermon on the mount, no. the parable of the birds. the angel that supports the whole is the emblem of st. matthew the evangelist. [illustration: fig. .--figure of the school of martin schongauer, taken from the _rationarium evangelistarum_ of , and copied from the corresponding plate of the _ars memorandi_.] this mnemonic treatment of the gospels began with symbols of which we have no means of finding the origin, but which without doubt were employed many centuries earlier. however that may be, their success was as great as that of the already-quoted works. in a german publisher put forth an imitation, under the title of _rationarium evangelistarum_; and this time the copier of the illustrations, retaining the tradition of the first xylographers, no less reveals an artist of the first order, at least a pupil of martin schongauer. some of the conceptions of the _rationarium_ recall exactly the engravings of the great german master, among others that of the infant jesus (plate ), which nearly approaches the style of the infant jesus of schongauer; besides, the principal figures leave but little doubt on the subject. the same wings are on the angels and on the eagles, the same coiffures on the human characters, often the same attitudes. from the preceding can be judged the extraordinary favour these productions enjoyed. from their origin they were diffused through the whole of europe, and attracted the attention of excellent artists. nevertheless their beginnings were difficult. the movable types used, cut separately in wood, were not constituted to give an ideal impression. we can understand the cost that the execution of these characters must have occasioned, made as they were one by one without the possibility of ever making them perfectly uniform. progress was to substitute for this irregular process types that were similar, identical, easily produced, and used for a long time without breaking. following on the essays of laurent coster, continuous researches bore on this point; but as the invention was said to be his, and it being of importance to him not to divulge it, so that he should not lose his profit, much time was lost over it in his workshop without much success. here history is somewhat confused. hadrian junius positively accuses one of laurent coster's workmen of having stolen the secrets of his master and taken flight to mayence, where he afterwards founded a printing office. according to junius, the metal type was the discovery of the dutchman, and the name of the thief was john. who was this john? was it john gaensefleisch, called gutenberg, or possibly john fust? but it is not at all apparent that gutenberg, a gentleman of mayence, exiled from his country, was ever in the service of the dutch inventor. as to fust, we believe his only intervention in the association of printers of mayence was as a money-lender, from which may be comprehended the unlikelihood of his having been with coster, the more so as we find gutenberg retired to strasbourg, where he pursued his researches. there he was, as it were, out of his sphere, a ruined noble whose great knowledge was bent entirely on invention. doubtless, like many others, he may have had in his hands one of the printed works of laurent coster, and conceived the idea of appropriating the infant process. in he was associated with two artisans of the city of strasbourg, ostensibly in the fabrication of mirrors, which may be otherwise understood as printing of _speculums_, the latin word signifying the same thing. these men needed to surround themselves with precautions; printing was as yet only a practical means of multiplying manuscripts, to impose a little on the innocent, and fortune awaited him who, without saying anything, made this invention serve him. the following will prove this, as well as its tendency. a legal document discovered in by wencker and schoepflin in the pfennigthurm of strasbourg, and afterwards translated into french by m. leon de laborde, makes us at length acquainted with the work of gutenberg and of his associates andrew dritzehen and andrew heilmann. apparently these three men were, as we have said, _spiegelmacher_, that is makers of mirrors. they had jointly entered into a deed by the terms of which, if one of the partners died in the course of their researches, his heirs would have no rights beyond an indemnity corresponding to the amount invested by him. it happened that andrew dritzehen did die, and that one of his brothers aspired to occupy his place in the partnership. the dead man left debts behind him; he had squandered his florins by hundreds in his experiments. gutenberg having offered to pay the amounts expended, the heirs of dritzehen, who wanted more, summoned him before the courts to show why he should not make place for them in the work of experiments and making of mirrors. the witnesses in their testimony before the court told what they knew of the inventions of the partnership. one among them deposed that after the death of dritzehen, gutenberg's servant went to the workshop and begged nicholas dritzehen, brother of the deceased, to displace and break up four formes placed in a press. a second testified that the works of andrew had cost him at the least three hundred florins, an enormous sum for those days. other witnesses painted gutenberg in a curious light: they made him out to be a savage, a hermit, who concealed from his associates certain arts of which the deed stipulated nothing. one fact proved that the experiments referred to the manufacture of metallic characters. a goldsmith, named dünne, maintained that he had received more than a hundred florins for printing material "das zu dem trucken gehoret." "trucken!"--"typography!" the word was found, and from that day usage has consecrated it. before , then, john gaensefleisch, or gutenberg, was devoted to the art of reproduction of texts, and had consecrated his life and feeble resources to it. three problems presented themselves to him. he wanted types less fragile than wooden types and less costly than engraving. he wanted a press by the aid of which he could obtain a clear impression on parchment or paper. he desired also that the leaves of his books should not be anopistograph, or printed only on one side. there were many unknown things to vex his soul, of which he himself alone could have a presentiment. until then, and even long after, the xylographs were printed _au frotton_ or with a brush, rubbing the paper upon the forme coated with ink, thicker than ordinary ink. he dreamed of something better. in the course of his work john gutenberg returned to mayence. the idea of publishing a bible, the book of books, had taken possession of his heart. the _spiegelmacher_ of strasbourg was on the road to loss. the cutting of his types had ruined him, and on his arrival in his native town, his stock in trade, transported by him, was of no great weight: some boxes of type, an inconvenient forme, and perhaps an ordinary press, a wine-maker's press, with a wooden screw. the idea of using this unwieldy instrument for the impression of his formes had already occurred to him; but would not the _frotton_ serve still better? the force of the blow from the bar would break the miserable type, the raised parts of which could not resist the repeated strokes. in this unhappy situation, gutenberg made the acquaintance of a financier of mayence, named fust, who was in search of a business, and who put a sum of eleven hundred florins at his disposal to continue his experiments. unfortunately this money disappeared, it melted away, and the results obtained were absolutely ludicrous. it is certain that john fust did not enter on the engagement without protecting himself. from the first he bound his debtor in a contract for six per cent. interest, besides a share in the profits. in addition he stipulated repayment in case of failure. gutenberg, improvident, as is the way of inventors, had signed away all that he possessed to procure funds. it is presumed, besides, that during the continuance of his investigations, he composed some current books with the resources at his disposal, that served a little to lighten his debts. but the printing house of the zum jungen at mayence was far from shining in the world, because the association of fust concerned itself only with the publication of a bible, and not at all with the _speculums_ and _donatuses_ that were so much in vogue at this time. besides, the money-lender made a point of pressing his debtor, and did not allow him any leisure to labour outside the projected work. about this time a third actor enters on the scene. peter schoeffer, of gernsheim, a writer, introduced into the workshop of gutenberg to design letters, benefited by the abortive experiments, and taking up the invention at its deadlock, conducted it to success. john of tritenheim, called trithemius, the learned abbot of spanheim, is the person who relates these facts; but as he got his information from schoeffer himself, too much credence must not be given to his statements. besides, schoeffer was not at all an ordinary artisan. if we credit a strasbourg manuscript written by his hand in , he was a student of the "most glorious university of paris." in the workshop of gutenberg, his industrious and inventive intellect found a fecund mine, and this caligraphist dreamt of other things than shaping letters for the use of wood engravers. gutenberg, arrested in his career by the wants of life, the worries of business, and perhaps also the fatigues of his labours, may have let the new-comer know something of his experiences. one cannot know, but it is certain that, shortly after, john fust was so fascinated by schoeffer, so attracted by his youth and his application, that he resolved to put new capital into the business. he did more: to permanently attach him, he gave him his grand-daughter in marriage, not his daughter, as was thought until m. auguste bernard rectified this mistake. we have now come to , the year preceding the first dated monument of printing in movable types: _the letters of indulgence_. it may be acknowledged that the sudden affection of fust for his workman depended on some interested motive, and not at all on attraction of the heart. had this former student of the university of paris found the means of rapidly founding metallic types, the search for which had cost gutenberg many sleepless nights? had he completed it by applying to it the matrix and punch which had then and for centuries served the makers of seals and the money-coiners? perhaps, as was most probable, the two associates had agreed, and putting their experiences together, had conquered hitherto insurmountable difficulties. the year witnessed the diffusion throughout christendom of letters of indulgence, accorded by pope nicholas v., who wished to aid in funds the king of cyprus against the turks. these circular letters, scattered by thousands to every corner of the world, employed numerous copyists. arrived at mayence, the distributers found a workshop ready prepared to furnish copies in the shortest possible time. they set to work and brought together all the type they possessed, cast or engraved, to set up these famous letters. among the impressions was that of which we give a reproduction, which belongs to the edition called that of thirty-one lines. the original was delivered for a consideration to josse ott von mospach on the st of december, . it is not without interest, for the history of the book and of printing, to note here that these letters of indulgence, the clandestine traffic in which was largely accelerated by rapidity of production and the small cost of each copy, formed one of the causes of the religious reform of martin luther. they afforded a means of raising money, and were so generally resorted to that in the register of the hotel de ville of paris preserved in the archives nationales (h ) it may be seen that the sheriffs requested the pope to allow them to employ them in the reconstruction of the bridge at the hotel de ville. the ice once broken, fust and schoeffer found it hard to nourish a useless mouth. for them gutenberg was more of a hindrance than a profit, and they sought brutally to rid themselves of him. fust had a most easy pretext, which was to demand purely and simply from his associate the sums advanced by him, and which had produced so little. gutenberg had probably commenced his bible, but, in face of the claims of fust, he had to abandon it altogether, types, formes, and press. [illustration: fig. .--letters of indulgence, from the so-called edition of thirty-one lines, printed at mayence in the course of .] in november, , he had retired to a little house outside the city, where he tried his best, by the aid of foreign help, to establish a workshop, and to preserve the most perfect secrecy. relieved of his company, fust and schoeffer were able to take up the impression of the bible and to complete it without him. if matters did so happen, and schoeffer had not the excuse that he had previously discovered the casting of type, there is but one word to designate his conduct: robbery, and moral robbery, the worst of all. but what can be said to-day of these people? one thing is certain: that the bible of schoeffer, commenced by gutenberg or not, put on sale by fust and schoeffer alone about the end of or beginning of , proves to be the first completed book. retired to his new quarters, gutenberg was taking courage, so as not to appear too much behindhand, but the reconstitution of his workshop cost him enormous time. and, besides, he missed the letter-maker schoeffer, his own gothic letters, engraved on steel with a punch, not having the same elegance. when his work appeared, it could not sustain comparison. the bible of schoeffer was more compact, the impression was more perfect, the ink better, the type less irregular. the original inventor, in his business with fust, made an unhappy competition for himself. we give here a fragment of this celebrated book, a kind of mute witness of the science and mortifications of the first printer. it is now called the mazarine bible, from the fact that the copy in the mazarin library was the first to give evidence concerning it. the book was put on sale at the end of or beginning of , for a manuscript note of a vicar of st. stephen at mayence records that he finished the binding and illuminating of the first volume on st. bartholomew's day, , and the second on the th of august. st. bartholomew's day is the th of june, and not the th of august, as the catalogue of the bibliothèque nationale has it. [illustration: fig. .--fragment of the mazarine bible, printed in two columns. beginning of the text in the second column; original size.] all these remarks show that the printers did not proclaim themselves, and were making pseudo-manuscripts. they did not make known their names or address. the rubricators sided with them, for many of the copies are illuminated with as much care and beauty as if they were the finest manuscripts. there is no record extant of the number of copies printed, but it was done on both vellum and paper. copies are by no means uncommon, most of the great libraries having one, and many are in private collections. one is shown among the typographical monuments in the king's library of the british museum, and there is a finely illuminated copy in the show-room of the bibliothèque nationale. from its very great importance as the first book that is known to have been printed, its value has a constant increase. of the copies recently sold, one at the perkins sale in on vellum sold for £ , , another on paper at the same sale fetched £ , , while one on paper in the syston park library sold in december, , for £ , . it has been asserted that the copies on paper were the first issued by gutenberg and his partners, and those on vellum subsequently printed by fust and schoeffer, after they had obtained possession of the inventor's stock. but so many copies absolutely similar in aspect, and of so regular a style, put in the market from day to day by fust and schoeffer, gave rise to protests from the caligraphists. criticism always attends upon success, but having obtained the result, the two associates did not hesitate to proclaim themselves the printers of the bible. on the publication of the psalter, which followed the bible at a year's interval, they gave their names and added a date, , the first instance of a date being recorded in a book. this second work was of so skilful a typography, that it might have been shown as the work of an expert penman; the faults remarked in the letters of indulgence are no longer seen; type had attained perfection; in two years printing had reached its culminating point. in spite of his disappointments, gutenberg did not rest idle. if he had seen his two enemies rob him of his claim of priority in the invention, he had to show that, reduced to his own exertions and to the restricted means furnished him by charitable people, he also could print well. two years after the bible a dated book, composed in gothic letters, appeared at mayence; this was the _catholicon_ of john balbus, of genoa. it had not yet occurred to these first printers to exercise their art otherwise than on religious works. it is admitted by general opinion that the _catholicon_ issued from the press of gutenberg; on the other hand, m. bernard believes that it ought to be attributed to a printer of eltvil, who published in a vocabulary called the _vocabularium ex quo_ with the same types. the former theory may be sustained by the words of the colophon of the book, which is a sort of hymn to god and a recognition of the city of mayence without any mention of the name of the printer. now in the situation in which gutenberg found himself, in the face of his rivals, had he not some claim to regard the great discovery as his own? but if m. bernard is mistaken, and if our supposition has no foundation, what a beautiful act of humility, what a noble idea of his character, gutenberg gives us in writing, "with the aid of the most high, who releases the tongues of infants and often reveals to babes that which is sealed to learned men, this admirable book the _catholicon_ was finished in the year of the incarnation of our saviour mcccclx. in the mother-country of mayence, famous city of germany, which god, in his clemency, has deigned to render the most illustrious and the first of cities; and this book was perfected without the usual help of pen or style, but by the admirable linking of formes and types"! [illustration: fig. .--colophon of the _catholicon_, supposed to have been printed by gutenberg in .] the history of these men, it is easy to understand, has to be regarded with caution, people of so little consequence then that the authentic documents relating to them have for ever disappeared. if we except that of the pfennigthurm of strasbourg, of which we have before spoken, and the deed of claim for money from fust to gutenberg dated , we are forced to quote from authors living long afterwards, who submitted, without knowing better, to the miserable errors of oral tradition. it is nearly always the same with men who have occupied a large place in the history of art; posterity only knows of their genius at the time when no one knows anything of them. for gutenberg the situation was still more terrible; a rival, peter schoeffer, survived him, and he did not for his own reputation care to preserve his rival's memory; and if, as is believed, gutenberg left pupils and heirs, henry bechtermuncze, ulrich zell, and weigand spyes, his misfortune is crowned by bechtermuncze being now reputed to be the printer of the _catholicon_, of which we have just given the history. even albert pfister, one of his workmen, dismissed at the end of his work, having obtained from his master some rejected types, was presumed later to have invented printing. we find this artisan established at bamberg about , composing bibles in movable types, the first known being that published in . but albert pfister showed that he was not at all an inventor by the mediocrity of his work, and more by the old types that he used. if he had known the secret of engraving the punches, he would have cast new letters and have given a better aspect to his work. [illustration: fig. .--colophon of the bible printed in by fust and schoeffer, which is the first dated bible. there are two different editions with this signature. the above is from the second edition.] in these statements all is supposition and contradiction. that which is certain--and the dates are there to prove it--is the enormous progress in the productions of peter schoeffer. in he published his third book, durand's _rationale divinorum officiorum_, in folio. as in the psalter, schoeffer employed initial letters printed in red, which the rival workshop could not do in the _catholicon_, the rubrics of which are painted by hand, as in manuscripts. in time he put forth a second edition of the psalter, always with fust's name joined to his own. a great number of types were broken at the beginning, but he dreamed of doing yet better. in he gave the _constitutiones_ of pope clement v., with a gloss and commentaries by john andré; here was the first example of a process much employed in manuscripts, but of which the typographical composition was very difficult. again, in a new latin bible issued from their workshops in two folio volumes. it is the first dated edition. the first volume has two hundred and forty-two folios in double columns, the second two hundred and thirty-nine. it commences with an epistle of st. jerome, and on the last leaf of the second volume is the colophon on the preceding page. this book, one of the first worthy of the name, and which is called by preference the mayence bible, appeared in one of the most troubled epochs that the episcopal city had had to go through. subject to its archbishops, who were at the head of all the lay lords and fighting men, the city found itself in the prey of two prelates of equal title who refused to give way to one another: thierry of isembourg and adolph of nassau-wiesbaden. adolph surprised mayence on the th october, , pursuing his adversary, who scaled the walls with a rope to escape quicker, and the city was sacked and pillaged from its foundations. in the middle of this turmoil, what became of the obscure persons who were then the printers of the bible? doubtless their insignificance saved them from disaster, but as it was long before peace was re-established, and the entire edition of their last volume could not be kept back, we incline to believe that they were for a time going about the country as itinerant booksellers. paris was to them a well-indicated point of travel--paris, toward which all german commerce tended. the university where peter schoeffer was instructed in letters, and that truly passed for the first in europe, appeared to them a market of the first order. if we may believe walchius (_decas fabularum generis humani_: strasbourg, , to, p. ), john fust himself went to that city, where he put books on sale from sixty crowns a copy, then fifty, then forty, according to the prevailing system in matters of discount. fust was above all things a merchant; he led it to be believed that he had the marvellous establishment of a copyist beyond the rhine, and he had disposed of many copies, when the corporate scribes of the university, becoming aware of the imposition, cried out furiously and declared it a diabolical invention. we may now take this tale of walchius as a fable, as the registers of parliament, on being consulted, rest silent on the proceedings instituted against the "magician" of mayence. only we must not lose sight of the fact that the booksellers had their masters, their syndicate, if we may use the modern word, charged to prohibit fraudulent publications. they were too much interested in the suppression of printed books to judge the matter coldly. the parliament had nothing to see to in this. the revolution of mayence had otherwise great results, which were not affected by these minor reverses. the printing workshops, or at least the successors of gutenberg, began to be dispersed, and fust and schoeffer having established a school of printers in the city, their trade was no longer secret. deprived of their liberties by the new archbishop, many of them expatriated themselves. we shall take occasion later to name some of these exiles, through whom the art of printing spread itself almost simultaneously throughout the world: to cologne and strasbourg, to italy and spain, without reckoning holland, france, switzerland, and the country around mayence. we have before named the episcopal city of bamberg; it had the singular fortune to be the second city to possess a printing office, but it disappeared as quickly as it was established, with albert pfister, without leaving the least trace; we do not find printing there again before , more than twenty years later. gutenberg was dead before . he was interred in the church of the récollets of mayence, by the pious care of a friend, who attributed the invention of printing to him on his tomb. we may begin to comprehend the influence of this man upon the discovery of which all the world was then talking, but the troubles of the archiepiscopal city hampered the respective merit of the inventors. peter schoeffer and john fust were not much affected by the political crisis. after two years' suspension, they reappeared with a cicero, _de officiis_, , quarto, always at work and always surpassing themselves. this time they freely gave up religious publications, and, still more extraordinary, they employed greek types. such is, detached from the incredible contradictions of writers on art, and sketched solely on its main lines, the origin of printing as it is established at this day. first came the image engraved in relief, which we have not gone to china to find, with some of our predecessors. upon this image were often cut, by the same economical process, legends of explanation that presented the idea of imitation of manuscript; and the xylographs appeared with or without illustrations. then from the correction of errors in these books followed the discovery of movable characters. this wooden type, possible when it was used with a _frotton_ for printing, would quickly break under the press, the idea of which was gained from the common press of the wine-makers. then a kind of metallic type had to be found which would run in a mould struck by a punch. this punch was not invented for the purpose; it served previously for the makers of coins and seals. the fabrication of type from the matrix was a simple adoption. the lead thrown into the matrix gave the desired type. thus were made the first books, of which we have briefly related the composition. as to the proportion of glory due to each one of the first printers, it is necessary equally, to guard against error on one side or the other. we have sought to separate from the heap of publications probable opinions or those based on certain documents. that the origin of the _donatus_, the block books, was dutch would be puerile to deny, because, on one side, the engravings on blocks are surely of the school of van eyck, and, on the other hand, ulrich zell, who inspired the "cologne chronicle" of , assigned positively to holland the cradle of the _donatus_. at any rate, it was a pupil of gutenberg, a question we have discussed. after that we will trouble ourselves but little about laurent coster. the name makes no difference in a matter of this kind. as to gutenberg, we have not been able to go as far as m. e. dutuit, who in his _manuel a'estampes_ (vol. i., p. , etc.) doubts gutenberg's right to the title of inventor. it is stated that in a letter of william fichet, prior of the sorbonne, of whom we shall have more to say presently, to robert gaguin, which m. a. claudin found at the beginning of a work entitled _gasparim pergamensis orthographiæ liber_, published in , nearly twenty years after the first work at mayence, gutenberg is proclaimed the inventor of printing. without any other, this testimony of a _savant_ who was the first to bring the german printers to paris appears to us well nigh irrefutable. as to john fust and his grandson by marriage, peter schoeffer, they are so well defended by their works, that there is no more to say here; doubtless grave presumptions arise as to the delicacy of their conduct with gutenberg, but we are not so bold as to censure them beyond measure. we know nothing precise either of the time or of the men. let us now imagine humble workmen, the most simple of _gens de mestiers_, to employ the french expression then in use, shut up in a kind of dark workshop, like a country forge, formed in little groups of two or three persons, one designing and the other cutting the wood, having near them a table, on which is held the engraved block after its reliefs have been rubbed with sombre ink, who afterwards, by means of the _frotton_, apply the damped paper to the raised parts of the block; we shall have without much stretch of thought all the economy of the xylographic impression. if we add to this primitive workshop the matrix in which the types are cast, the box in which they are distributed, the forme on which they are arranged to compose the pages, and a small hand-press, with blacker ink and paper damped to permit the greasy ink to take better, we have a picture of the work-room of gutenberg, fust, and schoeffer, and of the first printers with movable types. thus typography was born of painting, passing in its infancy through wood-cutting, revolutionising ideas and somewhat the world. but the mighty power of the new art was not confined to itself; it extended the circle of engraving, which till then had suffered from the enormous difficulties of reproduction. as if the time were ripe for all these things, nearly at the moment when the first printers were distinguishing themselves by serious works, a florentine goldsmith accidentally discovered the cutting of cast metal.[a] what would have become of this new process if the presses of gutenberg had not brought their powerful assistance to the printing of engravings? it will be found then that printing rendered a hundredfold to engraving for that which it received from it and bore it along with its own rapid advance. then reappeared, following the new processes, the figures somewhat abandoned by the mayence workmen during the period of transformation. our object is to speak at length of the book ornamented and illustrated according to the means of relief-cutting or casting; to demonstrate the influence of painting, of sculpture, of art, on the production of the book; and thus to help the reader at the same time to understand the almost sudden and irresistible development of typography, and to mention its foremost representatives. [footnote a: the opinion that finiguerra was the unconscious inventor of casting engravings is now abandoned.] chapter ii. to . the book and the printers of the second generation--the german workmen dispersed through europe--caxton and the introduction of printing into england--nicholas jenson and his supposed mission to mayence--the first printing in paris; william fichet and john heinlein--the first french printers; their installation at the sorbonne and their publications--the movement in france--the illustration of the book commenced in italy--the book in italy; engraving in relief and metal plates--the book in germany: cologne, nuremberg, basle--the book in the low countries--french schools of ornament of the book; books of hours; booksellers at the end of the fifteenth century--literary taste in titles in france at the end of the fifteenth century--printers and booksellers' marks--the appearance of the portrait in the book--progress in england--caxton and his followers. considering the influence of printing on the book trade of the fifteenth century, as referred to in the preceding pages, the dealers in manuscripts were not disposed to give way at the first blow. an entire class of workmen would find themselves from day to day without employment if the new art succeeded; these were the copyists, miserable scribes, who for meagre remuneration frequented the shops of the merchants, where they transcribed manuscripts by the year. before printing the publication of books was so effected, and the booksellers were rather intermediaries between the copyist and the buyer, than direct dealers having shops and fittings complete. it is evident that they would not provide themselves with these costly books long in advance without being sure of disposing of them. small as was the remuneration of the writers, it was much to them; and they were naturally the first to protest against the new invention. at the same time, their opposition and that of the booksellers was soon overcome, swamped, and choked by the growing crowd of printers. then, as always happens in similar cases, in place of fighting against the current, most of the former workers in manuscript followed it. the writers designed letters for engraving in wood, the booksellers sold the printed works, and some of the illuminators engraved in relief or cast their _histoyres_. for a long time these last continued to decorate books with the ornamental drawings with which they had adorned the manuscripts, and so contributed to form the fine school of illustrators who carried their art to so high a point from the end of the fifteenth century. [illustration: fig. .--imprint of arnold ther hoernen, printer, of mayence.] as previously related, the revolution of mayence caused the flight of a crowd of artisans who found their liberty suddenly compromised by the conqueror. the want of money at this time always brought a diminution of patronage, and working printers have been at all times tenacious of their privileges. it so happened that their guild, in place of remaining established at mayence many years longer, was, as it were, turned out, scattered to the four cardinal points by the dispersion of its members, and scattered many years before the natural time. in point of fact, in the common order of things, a workman here and there quits the principal workshop to try the world. he makes his way timidly, unconscious apostle of a marvellous art. if he succeeds, he gathers some pupils round him; if he fails, no trace of him remains; in any case invention propagates itself more gradually. with printing it was a thunderclap. hardly had it made its appearance when the exodus commenced. the greater part of the mayence men went to italy: to subiaco and to rome, arnold pannartz, conrad sweynheim, ulrich hahn; to venice, john of spire, vendelin of spire, christopher valdarfer, bernard pictor (of augsburg), erhardt ratdolt, peter loslein; to ferrara, andrew belfort; to foligno, john neumeister; henry alding tried sicily; andrew vyel, of worms, printed at palermo. lambert palmart was at valencia, in spain, in ; nicholas spindeler at barcelona; peter hagenbach at toledo; not far from mayence--that is, at cologne--ulrich zell, a pupil of gutenberg, who dated his first work . it was arnold ther hoernen who numbered a book with arabic figures; it was koelhof who first used signatures to indicate to the binder the order of the sheets; it was at eltvil that henry bechtermuncze, as we have already said, printed his _vocabularium_ in german, with the types of the _catholicon_; at basle, berthold rüppel, of hanau, was the first established in that city which after mayence did the most for printing; at nuremberg, koburger, who took nearly the first rank among his contemporaries, set as many as twenty-four presses to work, and was named by badius the prince of printers. and how matters went on! for instance, the very year that followed the death of gutenberg, monks, the brothers of the common life of marienthal, in the rheingau, themselves published a copy of the indulgences accorded by adolph of nassau, archbishop of mayence. before , presses were everywhere in germany: at prague, augsburg, ulm, lubeck, essling, etc. it is to be remarked that the mayence men did not turn towards holland. is it that they found there the descendants of laurent coster firmly established in their workshops? must the coexistence, the simultaneous advance, of the invention in germany and in the low countries be admitted? it is a secret for us and for many others, but we know for certain that flemish printers were established at utrecht in , at delft, bruges, gouda, zwoll, antwerp, and brussels. at louvain there was besides john of westphalia, who published in a work of peter crescens, and several other works. colard mansion was printing at bruges about ; and was employed by william caxton, who had been for some years trading as a merchant in the low countries, to print the "recuyell of the histories of troy," by raoul le fevre, which caxton had translated into english at the command of queen margaret. this was issued in , and was the first book printed in the english language. in or caxton returned to england with a fount of types, which he had employed mansion to cut and cast for him, and established himself as a printer in the precincts of westminster abbey. in he produced the first book printed in england, "the dictes and sayings of the philosophers," followed by a large number of important works, many of them written or translated by caxton himself. thus was typography firmly established in england; and caxton's immediate successors, wynken de worde, richard pynson, william machlinia, have had a glorious roll of followers, which has never been broken to this day. from westminster the art spread in england to oxford, where theodoricus rood, from cologne, printed an _exposicio sancti jeronimi_ in ; and to st. albans in by a printer who has never been identified, and who produced the famous "chronicle" and "boke of st. albans." the invasion, we see, had been most rapid. in less than fifteen years, every important city had followed the movement, and was ready to establish printing offices. if we may credit a certain controverted document, charles vii. had on the rd of october, , sent to mayence one of the best medal engravers of the mint of tours to study the process of which marvels were spoken: "the rd of october, , the king having learned that messire guthenberg, living at mayence, in the country of germany, a dexterous man in carving and making letters with a punch, had brought to light the invention of printing by punches and types, desirous of inquiring into such a treasure, the king has commanded the generals of his mints to nominate persons well instructed in the said cutting and to send them secretly to the said place to inform themselves of the said mode and invention, to understand and learn the art of them, in order to satisfy the said lord king; and it was undertaken by nicholas jenson, who took the said journey to bring intelligence of the said art and of the execution of it in the said kingdom, which first has made known the said art of impression to the said kingdom of france" (bibliothèque de l'arsenal, hf , pp. , ). nicholas jenson on his return met with a cool reception from louis xi., who did not continue the works of his father. it may be supposed that this coolness was the cause of his expatriating himself and retiring to a place where his industry could be better exercised. ten years after the above mission we find him established at venice, his art of engraver of letters joined to that of printer. his eusebius, translated by trapezuntius, and his justinian, were composed in with such marvellous and clear types that from that day the best typographers have imitated his founts. in spite of its success, he did not confine himself to these letters, but he made use also of gothic, in which he printed by preference pious books. [illustration: fig. .--imprint of nicholas jenson to a justinian, printed in at venice. this type has prevailed up to now.] in spite of the attempts of jenson in the name of the king of france--that is, if these attempts ever took place in the manner indicated above--the invention was not known to have commended itself to the powerful university of paris. in general, and especially for the introduction of innovations in that learned body, it was necessary to fight, to strike without much chance of success, save in case of having acquaintance in the place. we have seen john fust, obliged suddenly to retake the road to germany, in a fair way to find himself taxed with sorcery, not an inconsiderable matter. for others the sale of unauthorised books had had most unhappy consequences unless the parliament intervened. so ten years had passed since the journey of jenson, and ten or twelve since the first manifestations of typography at mayence, without the diabolical discovery finding admittance to the sorbonne. a still more extraordinary thing, a cologne printer issued about a small folio in gothic type, thirty-one long lines to a page, which was a work written in french. the _histoires de troyes_ of raoul le fevre, chaplain of the dukes of burgundy, first found a publisher in germany, and soon after another in england, before a single press was definitely installed at paris. as we have said of peter schoeffer, numerous german students were in the university, where they pursued their studies, and frequently remained later as masters. it has been found that in a former student of leipzig named john heinlein, a native of stein, in the diocese of spire, entered as regent of the college of burgundy, from whence he passed to the sorbonne in , the year of the troubles in mayence. after the manner of latinising names so common at that time, he called himself lapidanus, from the name of his native place, which means stone in german. heinlein met in paris a savoyard, william fichet, born in at petit bornand, who became an associate of the sorbonne about , and finally rector in . these two men were great friends, and their particular instincts attracted them to men of elevated studies. they divined at once the enormous help printing would bring to their work. besides, it grieved them to see through the whole of france, especially in touraine, german colporteurs carrying on their trade under cover of other commerce, a practice from which the most grave inconveniences might result. it occurred to them that to prevent fraud they would themselves create a printing establishment; but if they deliberated on it, it must have been in secret, for the registers of the sorbonne are silent on their enterprise. if fichet conceived the idea, it may be believed that, from his german origin, heinlein put it into execution. m. philippe thinks that he was formerly at basle. in all probability it was from that city he tried to obtain his workmen. in six years had elapsed since the craftsmen were dispersed and fled from mayence. at all events, it was from basle that ulrich gering, michael freyburger, and martin krantz, printers recommended to the two sorbonnists, departed, and in due course arrived in paris. of these three men, who were the first to establish a printing office on the french side of the rhine, ulrich gering was a student as well as a printer, so was freyburger, originally of colmar. krantz was a letter-founder, and the only real workman of the three companions. we have often regretted with regard to these men, as also to gutenberg, fust, and schoeffer, that no really authentic portrait has transmitted their features to us. every one will recall the fur cap and loose pantaloons of the mediocre statue at mayence, but there is really no portrait of gutenberg. as to gering, m. philippe, in his _histoire de l'origine de l'imprimerie à paris_, publishes a grotesque figure muffled in the ruff of the sixteenth century, after a picture preserved at lucerne, but for which much cannot be said. lacaille, in his _histoire de l'imprimerie_, gives a full-length portrait of gering, said to be taken from a painting in the college montagu. the workshop of the three germans was set up within the walls of the sorbonne--_in ædibus sorbonnicis_--in . there they set to work at once, their printing establishment consisting simply of a room, none too light, a table, a press, and formes. krantz doubtless struck the types chosen by the sorbonnists, for there were then in use two sorts of letters: german gothic and roman. they kept to the roman, as being more round and clear; and as soon as they obtained matrices and cast their type, they entered on their task with ardour. [illustration: fig. .--"letters" of gasparin of bergamo. first page of the first book printed at paris, in .] the tendencies of fichet and heinlein were not towards transcendent theology, but rather towards the literature of the ancients and contemporary rhetorical works. besides, it may be said, considering that men are far from perfect, fichet counted on making the authorised presses serve his own purpose. we find him publishing a treatise on rhetoric in quarto in ; meantime he supervised the work confided to his artists. they commenced with a large volume of "letters" of gasparin of bergamo, which was set up in quarto with the roman type, the form of which had been accepted. at the end of the work, the impression of which cost much time--possibly a year--the three printers placed a quatrain in latin distichs, which is at once a statement of identity and a promise for the future. [illustration: fig. .--colophon in distichs in the "letters" of gasparin of bergamo, first book printed at paris, at the office of the sorbonne.] if we try to apportion to each of the three printers his share in the making of the book, it may be supposed that the intellectual part of the composition and the correction fell to freyburger and gering, while the heavier work of founding, placing in formes, and press work fell to krantz. this essay, satisfactory as it appeared, was far from perfection. the first parisian printers had multiplied abbreviations and irregular contractions, and enormous difficulties and inevitable faults ensued. further, either they had more than one punch, or the leaden matrix was deformed, for the characters frequently differ. at the same time, we must commend them for having used the _æ_ and _[oe]_, which were uniformly written _e_ in the manuscripts, thus giving rise to errors without number. their punctuation was the comma, semicolon, and full stop. [illustration: fig. .--_rhetorique_ of fichet, printed at paris in . the marginal ornaments are drawn by hand.] fichet and heinlein had become the modest librarians of the sorbonne, and this new employment gave them greater facilities for surveillance. the printing office did not remain inactive. it issued successively the "orthography" of gasparin of bergamo, the "letters" of phalaris, two books of Æneas sylvius, the "conspiracy of catiline" of sallust, the "epitome of titus livius" of florus, and finally the "rhetorics" of william fichet, which, if we may credit a letter addressed to bessarion, was finished in . following came the "letters" of bessarion, the _elegantia latinæ linguæ_ of valla, the first folio volume from the sorbonne presses; and others, thirteen volumes in - and seventeen in . at the end of the workshop was somewhat broken up, fichet having left for rome and heinlein preaching in germany. the three printers had shown by their works that they were in earnest; besides, they had from the first gratuitously distributed copies among the nobles, who, being accustomed to pay highly for manuscripts, did not fail to note the difference. the associates then resolved to quit the sorbonne and create an establishment for themselves; their patrons being no longer there to sustain them in case of failure, and in giving up their presses and types it may be judged that they were not without anxiety on that point. their oldest dated book, the _manipulus curatorum_ of montrochet, was also the first that they printed in their new quarters, at the sign of the "golden sun" in the rue st. jacques. they remained united up to the year , when gering alone printed at the "golden sun," but he obtained associates, george mainyal in and berthold rembold in , who lived with him in the rue de la sorbonne, where he established himself on leaving the rue st. jacques. ulrich gering died on the rd of august, , after a half-century of work. the movement inaugurated by the sorbonne was promptly followed. german workmen opened their shops nearly everywhere in france; then the french themselves scattered. at lyons in a frenchman was established, the same at angers, caen, metz, troyes, besançon, and salins. but in the central provinces we find henry mayer at toulouse, john neumeister at albi; in the east metlinger at dijon; and michael wensler, of basle, at macon, among others, about . we have now arrived at an epoch of greater efforts. the lyons printers used ornamental letters, from which were developed engravings in the book. since the block books illustration had been neglected, as the means were wanting to distribute the plates here and there in the forme; schoeffer still employed initial letters in wood very like vignettes. john fust was now dead, but peter schoeffer continued to print without intermission. if we search for the precise epoch in which illustration appeared in the history of the book, we shall perhaps have to go back to the time of albert pfister, printer of bamberg, who issued in an edition of the "fables of ulrich bohner" with a hundred and one figures on wood. this may be said to be the unconscious combination of xylography with typography, a kind of transformation of old elements to new things without other importance; art had no place in this adaptation. up to this time germany had not, in its school of painters or miniaturists, men capable of giving a personal impulse to ornament. in the german editions of the block books the influence of van eyck had made itself felt very sensibly, and the flemish had preserved their supremacy on this point; on the other hand, the german printers who went to seek their fortune in italy fell into the middle of a circle admirably prepared to receive them and to communicate their ideas to them. it is believed that the first book printed in italy with woodcuts in the text and with an ascertained date is the work of a german established at rome, ulrich hahn, in . an account in the _annuaire du bibliophile_, which, being without citation of authority, we quote for what it is worth, relates that ulrich hahn was established as a printer at vienna about , but was driven thence by the publication of a pamphlet against the burgomaster of the city, and was attracted to rome by torquemada, who confided to him the impression of his work the _meditationes_. hahn was an engraver, as were also most of his _confrères_ at that time--that is, he cut in relief designs to be intercalated in the text--and passavant relates that the designs of the _meditationes_ were from compositions of fra angelico, who died in . be that as it may, the book, the printing of which was finished on st. sylvester's day, , is the first known with engravings, and only three copies of it exist: one at vienna, one at nuremberg, and one in lord spencer's library; it is composed in gothic type in folio. [illustration: fig. .--wood engraving of matteo pasti for valturius' _de re militari_: verona, .] illustration found a true artist at verona, matteo pasti, who furnished designs for a volume on military art by valturius, printed in roman characters in folio, at the expense of john of verona, and dedicated to sigismond pandolfi. pasti's eighty-two figures are simple outlines, and we here reproduce one of the principal--an archer shooting at a butt. published in , the volume of valturius followed soon after the _meditationes_, but the engravings enable us to see how the italian process, consisting mostly of lines without shadows, differed from the dutch and german. one thing to be remarked here is the purity of the design, in spite of the roughness of the engraving; we see in these figures italian art at its height, despite the somewhat coarse translation of the wood-cutter. at venice the german inventors had reaped their harvest. at the end of the fifteenth century, fifty years after the invention of typography, the printing offices and booksellers' shops were counted by hundreds. it was in this city that for the first time a title with frontispiece carrying indication of the contents, the place, the date, and the name of the printer, was given to the book. we give here this ornamental title, placed before a _calendario_ of john de monteregio, printed by pictor, loslein, and ratdolt in , folio. the german erhardt ratdolt was probably the promoter of these innovations. he soon afterwards published the first geometrical book with figures, the "elements of euclid," , folio; in the same year he produced the _poeticon astronomicum_ of hyginus, previously printed at ferrara, with illustrations on wood of excellent design, but laboriously and unskilfully engraved. yet the art of the book could not remain mediocre in this city, where the artists were creating marvels. john of spire and afterwards nicholas jenson, the emigrant from france, of whom we have spoken above, had created, after italian manuscripts, that roman letter, the primitive type of which has come down to our time very little retouched. at the death of jenson in , his materials passed into the hands of andrew d'asola, called andrea torresani, who did not allow the good traditions of his master to die, and who produced among others a book bearing signatures, catchwords, and paging ("letters of st. jerome," ). torresani was the father-in-law of aldus manutius, who was to be for ever illustrious in the art of printing at venice, and raised his art to the highest perfection. [illustration: fig. .--title-page of the _calendario_, first ornamental title known. printed in at venice.] but if decoration by means of relief blocks found a favourable reception in italy and, above all, a group of artists capable of carrying it to success, there were at the same time other experiments conceived in a different way. the discovery of maso finiguerra gave to the art a new process of reproduction, and printing presses had now to render possible and practicable the working of engraved plates. in order to make that which follows comprehensible, we enter into a few technical details, the whole subject having been so admirably and fully treated by mm. delaborde and duplessis. in the engraved wood block, as in the printing type, it is a projection in the wood or metal which, being inked and passed under a press, leaves on paper its lines in black. naturally then the intercalation of an engraving of this kind in typographical composition is made without difficulty, and the impression of both is taken at once. on the other hand, a line engraving is obtained from incised lines on a plate of copper; that is, an instrument called a burin traces the lines, which are filled with greasy ink. these incised lines only are inked. the surface of the plate is cleaned off to avoid smudging. the sheet of paper destined for the impression has then to be made very pliable, so that at the striking of the press it runs, so to speak, to find the ink in the lines and hold it. it is therefore impossible to take a text from relief characters at the same time as an engraved plate. [illustration: fig. .--engraving on metal by baccio baldini for _el monte santo di dio_, in .] however, this kind of reproduction, which, contrary to that from wood, allowed of half-tints or toning down, attracted in good time the workers at the book. it appeared to them possible to reconcile the two printings by the successive passage of the same sheet of paper through the press, to receive at first the impression from the type and afterwards to find the ink deposited in the incisions in the copper. the first manifestation of this new method of illustration was made at florence, the home of line engraving, by nicholas di lorenzo in , for the work of antonio bettini, of siena, called _el monte santo di dio_. here the artists were never known. common opinion has it that baccio baldini borrowed from sandro botticelli the subjects of his plates. italian engraving always seeks its source in pollajuolo, botticelli, and baldini. it is not the simple work of a niellist, but it had not yet reached perfection either in the work or in the impression; the illustrations of the _monte santo_ are proof of this, as are also those of the _dante_, by baldini, in , for the same nicholas di lorenzo. from this we reproduce the misers. [illustration: fig. .--metal engraving by baccio baldini from the dante of .] at this epoch engravings from the burin were taken with a pale ink, the composition of which is very different from the fine black ink of schoeffer as well as of the old italian printers. and besides in most cases the proofs were obtained with the _frotton_, like the ancient block books, an eminently defective process. the press was not yet well adapted to the delicate work of line engraving, and the workmen, who did not apply the plates until after the text was printed, preferred not to risk the loss of their sheets by the use of inappropriate presses. these, with the insignificant attempts made by the germans in ,[a] are the beginnings of the process of line engraving in the ornamentation of the book. in fact, the process failed to take its due position for want of a more convenient mode of working. relief engraving had got ahead; with it the sheets used for the impression did not require working more than once to register the figures with the text; in a word, the labour was not so great. a century had to pass before line engraving completely dethroned the vignette on wood, a century in which the latter attained its height, and showed what able artisans could make of a process apparently the least flexible. [footnote a: _breviarium ecclesie herbipolensis_: et. dold., , folio, copper plate engravings.] not to leave italy, which had the honour of making the book with engraved illustrations known to the world, we pass by some years, during which arnold bucking gave at rome a _cosmographia_ of ptolemy, , with incised plates, which is the first printed atlas that was produced, whilst as regards ordinary publications there appeared in all parts classical and italian works, such as cicero, virgil, tacitus, pliny, eusebius, among the ancients, and dante, petrarch, boccaccio, etc., among moderns. among the editions of dante, we may cite that of peter of cremona, dated th november, , with one engraving to each canto, of which the earlier are after botticelli, and perhaps drawn by him directly on the wood. passavant believes these figures to be cut in relief in the metal. on some of the plates there is a signature, a gothic b, the signification of which leaves a free field for conjecture, and perhaps for error. copies of this book with the complete series of twenty plates are extremely rare; one in the hamilton palace library sold in may, , for £ ; the royal library of berlin recently agreed to pay £ , for a proof set of the plates. [illustration: fig. .--plate from the _hypnerotomachia poliphili_, printed by aldus manutius, in .] as we shall see later apropos of german vignettes of the same period, the characteristic of italian engraving was sobriety, the complete absence of useless work and the great simplicity of the human figure. this special manner will be found in the famous edition of the _hypnerotomachia poliphili_ of francis colonna, printed in by aldus, copied sixty years later by a french printer, and lately reproduced in reduced size. [illustration: fig. .--plate from bonino de bonini's dante, at brescia, in .] the italian illustrators, whether they were working in wood, or, as some writers have it, in metal, adroitly brought their figures forward by contrasting some rudimentary work in the persons with the more accentuated and often stippled ground, which formed a dark background. this was also the ordinary process in their ornaments, among the most interesting of which are the borders of the plates to an edition of dante by bonino de bonini, brescia, , of which a specimen is here reproduced. if we return from italy, which then took the lead, to germany, a school of _formschneiders_ is found about the year at augsburg, whose secluded workshops were of no benefit to the booksellers. these ill-advised artisans went still further. apparently furious to see printing so widely spread as to render their bad woodcuts difficult to get rid of, they united in a body to interdict gunther zainer and schüssler from putting engravings into their books. they must nevertheless have come to an ultimate arrangement, for zainer printed in a book on chess by jacopo da cessole, with vignettes. he was one of the few german printers who employed roman characters in place of the gothic of peter schoeffer. at cologne in arnold ther hoernen published a work entitled _fasciculus temporum_, with small illustrations engraved on wood. a bible without date contains most interesting illustrations. as to the celebrated _todtentantz_, or "dance of death," published about , it contains forty-one relief plates of the most ordinary kind, the same as in the "chronicle of cologne" of , of which the figures, though less german, less distorted, are worth little compared with those of the nuremberg books, more german, but more artistic. [illustration: fig. .--the creation of woman, plate from the _schatzbehalter_, engraved after michael wolgemuth.] at nuremberg, antony koburger, called by badius the prince of booksellers, directed an immense establishment, employing more than a hundred workmen, without counting smaller houses at basle and lyons. koburger was a capable and a fortunate man. he had at first put forth a bible very indifferently illustrated with the cuts of the cologne bible, but he had before him something better than copying others. michael wohlgemuth, born at nuremberg in , was then in the full vigour of his talent. to his school the young albert dürer came to study; and as he was able to draw on wood as well as to engrave on copper and paint on panel, koburger was attracted to him, and engaged him to make a set of illustrations for a book. the projected work was the _schatzbehalter_, a sort of ascetic compilation, without interest, without arrangement. michael wohlgemuth set to work; and, thanks to the ability of his engravers, of whom william pleydenwurff was probably one, koburger was able to put the book on sale in the course of in three hundred and fifty-two folios of two columns. without being perfection, the designs of wohlgemuth, very german, very striking, present the vigour and merit of the future school of nuremberg. the figure is no longer a simple line, in the manner of the block books, but a combination of interlaced cuttings, intended to imitate colour. those representing the creation of eve and the daughter of jephthah are here reproduced. in the search for harmony between the text and engravings of this curious work, we shall find grace and gaiety laid aside, on the other hand a freedom and boldness that interest and permit us to appreciate at their value the nuremberg artists and koburger, the printer. in fact, the german artists are more individual, each one taken by himself, than the italian illustrators could be, condemned as they were to the hierarchical commonplace and to a certain form of idealism into which the art of italy entered little by little. the german painters, naturalists and believers, presented their heroes in the image of that robust nature that was before their eyes. it was in this rude and unpolished spirit that michael wohlgemuth decorated the _schatzbehalter_; he also composed the designs for the "nuremberg chronicle" of dr. hartman schedel, printed by koburger in . [illustration: fig. .--the daughter of jephthah, plate taken from the _schatzbehalter_, engraved after michael wolgemuth.] with dürer, at the latter end of the fifteenth century, the book was no more than a pretext for engravings. thausing, his biographer, says that the great artist felt the necessity of designing an apocalypse at rome at the time that luther was premeditating his religious revolution in face of the worldly splendours of the pontifical court. the "apocalypse," published in in latin, with gothic characters, was an album of fifteen large wood engravings. the four horsemen is the best of these plates, and the boldest; but in this gross fancy, in these poor halting old hacks, the fantastic and grand idea which the artist meant to convey can hardly be seen. it may be said the genius of dürer was little adapted to vignettes, however large they were, and did not easily lend itself to the exigencies of a spun-out subject. the title of his "apocalypse" is of its kind a curious example of german genius, but, in spite of its vigour, it does not please like an italian headpiece or like a french or flemish frontispiece. the other works of dürer published in the fifteenth century, "the life of the virgin" and "the passion," were also sets of prints that received a text in the sixteenth century. [illustration: fig. .--title of the "apocalypse," by albert dürer, printed in . first edition, without text.] [illustration: fig. .--title of sebastian brandt's "ship of fools," printed in at basle by bergman de olpe.] [illustration: fig. .--the _bibliomaniac_. engraving from the "ship of fools."] for the rest of his illustrations dürer belongs to the sixteenth century, and we shall have occasion to recur to his works. at present it remains to speak of a curious work printed at basle by bergman de olpe in , which appears to be the first comic conception of fifteenth century artists: the _navis stultifera_, or "ship of fools," of sebastian brandt. this work of the school of basle lacks neither originality nor vigour. at the time when it was published its success was immense, from the strange tricks of its clowns, with fools' caps, with which every page was adorned. alas! the best things fall under the satire of these jesters, even the book and the lover of books, if we may judge by the sarcasms against useless publications volleyed by the personage here reproduced. "i have the first place among fools.... i possess heaps of volumes that i rarely open. if i read them, i forget them, and i am no wiser." brunet sees in these humorous caricatures more art than is really to be found in them. their value is owing more to their spirit and humour than to any other artistic merit. even the engraving is singularly fitted to the subject, with its peculiar cutting, somewhat executed in hairlines. the designer was certainly not a holbein, but he is no longer the primitive artisan of the first german plates, and his freedom is not displeasing. we have before spoken, apropos of engraving by the burin in italy, of the small share of germany in the essay at illustration by that means, and we do not see a real and serious attempt in the two little coats of arms in copper plate in the _missale herbipolense_, printed in . the flemish had not taken any great flights in the midst of this almost european movement. the school of burgundy, whose influence was felt in all the surrounding countries, had lost its authority in consequence of the progress realized at mayence. without doubt the great flemish artists were there, but they were honoured painters, and their inclination did not descend to seeking the booksellers beyond making them offers of service. besides, the first of these, officially established in flanders, were two germans, john of westphalia and john veldener, of cologne, who established themselves in the university of louvain in , three years after the first paris printers. john of westphalia, who took his own portrait for his mark, edited the _fasciculus temporum_, a book which had enormous success in the fifteenth century. at haarlem, in spite of the block books attributed to laurent coster, illustration was backward. about , a dutch translation of the _malheurs de troye_ of le fevre was put on sale. this french book was published at cologne before france possessed the smallest typographical workshop. at bruges colard mansion illuminated the cuts of his _metamorphoses_ of ovid in . simple engraving appeared to him far remote from manuscripts of which the vogue had not yet passed away. at zwoll peter van os, the publisher, cut up and used the xylographic plates of the _biblia pauperum_, while the master _à la navette_, john of cologne, an artist in the best sense of the word, was ornamenting certain popular publications with his designs. at utrecht veldener came from louvain to establish a workshop. he published for the second time a _fasciculus_ in ; he created a style of decoration with flowers and leaves, which shortly after developed into the trade of _rahmenschneiders_. antwerp had attracted gerard de leeu from gouda, and he produced the romance of _belle vienne_. schiedam had an inventive engraver who illustrated an edition of the _chevalier delibéré_ of oliver de la marche, in folio, with gothic letters, after , as we read in the colophon:-- "cet traittié fut parfait l'an mil quatre cens quatre vings et trois ainsi que sur la fin d'avril que l'yver est en son exil, et que l'esté fait ses explois. au bien soit pris en tous endrois de ceulx à qui il est offert par celui qui _tant a souffert_, la marche." the french language, bright and harmonious, thus found hospitality in other countries. for many examples of french books published abroad, we cannot cite one german work printed in france. spreading from the north to the south, typography had from its two principal centres at paris and lyons. after the success of the three germans at the sorbonne, events took their own course. in peter cæsaris and john stol, two students who had been instructed by gering and krantz, founded the second establishment in paris, at the sign of the "soufflet vert;" and they printed classical works. ten years later appeared antony vérard, simon vostre, and pigouchet, the first of whom gave to french bookselling an impulse that it has not since lost; but before them pasquier-bonhomme published his _grandes chroniques_ in , three volumes folio, the oldest in date of books printed at paris in french. the french school of illustration was at its most flourishing point at the end of the fifteenth century, but solely in miniature and ornamentation by the pencil. the charming figures of the manuscripts had at this time a flemish and naturalistic tendency. the most celebrated of the great artists in manuscripts, john foucquet, could not deny the source of his talent nor the influence of the van eyck school, yet the touch remained distinctly personal. he had travelled, and was not confined to the art circles of a single city, as were so many of the earliest painters of flanders. he had gone through italy, and from thence he transported architectural subjects for his curious designs in the _heures_ of etienne chevalier, now at frankfort; a precious fragment of it is preserved in the national library of paris. side by side with this undoubted master, whose works are happily known, lived a more modest artist: john perréal, called john of paris, painter to charles viii., louis xii., and anne of brittany. in joining with these two masters, to serve as a transition between foucquet and perréal, john bourdichon, designer to the kings of france from louis xi. to francis i., we obtain already a not despicable assemblage of living forces. without doubt these men were not comparable either with the admirable school of flanders, or the germans of nuremberg, or the masters of italy; but, moderate as we may deem their merit, they did their tasks day by day, painting miniatures, colouring coats of arms, rendering to the kings, their masters, all the little duties of devoted servants without conceit, and preparing, according to their means, the great artistic movement in france of the seventeenth century. that these men, leaving the brush for the pencil, devoted themselves to design figures on wood, is undeniable. it is said that one of them followed charles viii. to the italian wars, and probably sketched the battles of the campaign as they took place. now in the books published at this epoch in france we meet with vignettes which so very nearly approach miniatures, that we can easily recognise in them french taste and finish. such are, for example, the illustrations of the _mer des histoires_, printed by le rouge in , where suppleness of design is blended in some parts with extraordinary dexterity in engraving. nevertheless, others leave something to be desired; they maim the best subjects by their unskilful line and their awkwardness of handling. were not these engravers on wood printers themselves: the commins, guyot marchants, pierre lecarrons, jean trepperels, and others? we are tempted to see in certain shapeless work the hasty and light labour of an artisan hurried in its execution. as mentioned above, the part taken by the booksellers in the making of the plates does not make our supposition in itself appear inadmissible. [illustration: fig. .--mark of philip pigouchet, french printer and wood engraver of the fifteenth century.] printing had been established about twenty years in paris when philip pigouchet, printer and engraver on wood, began to exercise his trade for himself or on account of other publishers. formerly bookseller in the university, he transported his presses to the rue de la harpe, and took for his mark the curious figure here reproduced. at this moment a veritable merchant, simon vostre, conceived the idea of putting forth books of hours, until then disdained in france, and of publishing them in fine editions with figures, borders, ornaments, large separate plates, and all the resources of typography. the trials made at venice and naples between and warranted the enterprise. entering into partnership with pigouchet, the two were able on the th of april, , to place on sale the _heures à l'usaige de rome_, octavo, with varied ornaments and figures. the operation having succeeded beyond their hopes, thanks to the combination of the subjects of the borders, subjects that could be turned and re-turned in all ways so as to obtain the greatest variety, simon vostre reapplied himself to the work, and ordered new cuts to augment the number of his decorations. passavant's idea is commonly received that the engraving was in relief on metal; the line in it is very fine, the background stippled, and the borders without scratches. wood could not have resisted the force of the press; the reliefs would have been crushed, the borders rubbed and broken. in all the successive editions hard work and wear are not remarked, and we are forced to admit the use of a harder material than the pear or box-wood of ordinary blocks. according to his wants, simon vostre designed new series of ornaments. among them were histories of the saints, biblical figures, even caricatures against churchmen, after the manner of the old sculptors, who thought that sin was rendered more horrible in the garb of a monk. then there were the dance of death and sibyls, allying sacred with profane, even the trades, all forming a medley of little figures in the margins, in the borders, nestled among acanthus leaves, distorted men, fantastic animals, and saints piously praying. the middle ages live again in these bright and charming books, french in their style, imbued with good sense and perfect toleration. [illustration: fig. .--border in four separate blocks in the _heures à l'usaige de rome_, by pigouchet, for simon vostre, in . small figures from the "dance of death."] the book rose under simon vostre and philip pigouchet to the culminating point of ornamentation. here design and engraving improve and sustain each other. it is not only the stippled backgrounds of the borders that please the eye. and who was this unknown designer, this painter of bold conceptions, whose work is complete in little nothings? however, the large full-page figures have not always an originality of their own, nor the french touch of the borders. thus that of the passion here reproduced is inspired line for line by the german, martin schongauer. are we to suppose, that duplicates of blocks passed between france and germany, or was a copy made by a french designer? it is difficult to say. still the coincidence is not common to all the missals of the great parisian bookseller. the death of the virgin here reproduced is an evident proof of it. it forms part of the book, and is a truly french work. [illustration: fig. .--plate copied from schongauer's carrying of the cross, taken from the _heures_ of simon vostre.] [illustration: fig. .--the death of the virgin, plate taken from the _heures_ of simon vostre, printed in . the border is separate.] it may be said that from the artistic association of philip pigouchet and simon vostre was born the art of illustration of the book in france; they worked together for eighteen years, in steady collaboration, and, as far as we know, without a cloud. at vostre's commencement in he lived in the rue neuve notre dame, at the sign of "st. jean l'evangeliste;" and in he was still there, having published more than three hundred editions of the missal, according to the use of the several cities. contemporary with simon vostre, another publisher was giving a singular impulse to the book by his extreme energy, true taste, and the aid of first-class artists. antony verard, the most illustrious of the old french booksellers, was a writer, printer, illuminator, and dealer. born in the second half of the fifteenth century, he established himself in paris on the pont notre dame, both sides of which were then covered with shops, and about commenced his fine editions with a "decameron" in french by laurent de premierfait. m. renouvier remarks in his notice of verard that his first books were not good, the plates were often unskilful, and were probably borrowed or bought from others; this may be very well understood in a beginner whose modest resources did not permit bold enterprises; the figures were in most cases groundworks for miniatures, outlines and sketches rather than vignettes. [illustration: fig. .--border of the _grandes heures_ of antony verard: paris, (?).] antony verard was accustomed to take a certain number of fine copies on vellum or paper of each book published by him, in which authorised painters added miniatures and ornaments. it is curious now to find what the cost to one of the great lords of the court of charles viii. was of one of these special copies in all the details of its impression, and we find it in a document published by m. senemaud in a provincial journal (_bulletin de la société archéologique de la charente_, , part , p. ), which enables us at the same time to penetrate into a printing office of a great french publisher of the fifteenth century. according to this document, verard did not disdain to put his own hand to the work, even to carrying the book to the house of his patron if he were a man of consequence. it is an account of charles de valois-angoulême, father of francis i. he was then living at cognac; and he ordered verard to print separately for him on vellum the romance of tristan, the "book of consolation" of boetius, the _ordinaire du chrétien_, and _heures en françois_, each with illuminations and binding. in the detail of expenses verard omits nothing. he reckons the parchment at three sous four deniers the sheet, the painted and illuminated figures at one écu the large and five sols the small. we give here the outline of one of the plates of the tristan, ordered by the duc d'angoulême, reduced by two-thirds, and from it it may be judged that the profession of the illuminator, even for the time, was by no means brilliant. the binding was in dark-coloured velvet, with two clasps with the arms of the duke, which cost sixty sous each. the work finished, verard took the route for cognac, carrying the precious volumes. he was allowed twenty livres for carriage; and this brings the total to livres sous, equivalent to £ to £ of present money. [illustration: fig. .--plate from the tristan published by antony verard, a copy of which was illuminated for charles of angoulême.] verard had preceded simon vostre in the publication of books of hours, but his first volume dated was not successful for the want of borders and frontispieces. at the most he had introduced figures intended for illumination, which, as well as the vignettes, were cut in wood. in , the same year that simon vostre commenced his publications, verard put forth, by "command of the king our lord," the book called the _grandes heures_, which is in quarto, gothic letter, without paging, twenty lines to the full page. this _grandes heures_ contained fourteen engravings, large borders in four compartments, smaller subjects and initials rubricated by hand. he also published more than two hundred editions between and , and among them the _mystère de la passion_, with eighty figures; the _grandes chroniques_, in three folio volumes, printed by john maurand; the _bataille judaïque_ of flavius josephus; the _legende dorée_ of voragine, all books for which he called to his aid rubricators, illuminators, and miniaturists. from the first he had two shops where he put his productions on sale: one on the pont notre dame, the other at the palace of justice, "au premier pilier devant la chapelle où l'on chante la messe de messeigneurs les présidents." from , when the pont notre dame was burned, verard transported his books to the carrefour st. severin. at his death in he was living in the rue neuve notre dame, "devant nostre-dame de paris." [illustration: fig. .--page of the _grandes heures_ of antony verard: paris, fifteenth century.] besides verard, vostre, and pigouchet, many others will be found who imitated them in the publication of books of hours. the first was john du pré, who published a paris missal in , and who was at once printer and bookseller. like pigouchet, du pré printed books of hours on account of provincial publishers, without dreaming of the competition he was creating for himself. the encroachments of the publishers upon one another, the friendly exchanges, the loans of plates and type, form one of the most curious parts of the study of the book. thielman kerver, a german, also began to put forth books of hours in in paris, ornamenting them with borders and figures on wood, and modelling his work completely upon that of simon vostre. but after having imitated him, he was associated with him in the publication and sale of the paris missal; the competition of these men was evidently an honest one, or the sale of pious works was sufficient to maintain all engaged in it. established on the pont st. michel, at the sign of the "unicorn," he sold his stock to gilles remacle about the beginning of the sixteenth century. thielman kerver in his own works shows himself as the rival of simon vostre. the hardouins, who followed the same profession, do not appear to have attained the success of their predecessors; and, excepting in the _heures à l'usage de rome_, published in by gilles hardouin on the pont au change, at the sign of the "rose," they servilely imitated them. there was also among the disciples of vostre william eustache, bookseller to the king, "tenant la boutique dedans la grant salle du palais du costé de messeigneurs les présidens, ou sur les grans degrés du costé de la conciergerie à l'ymage st. jean levangeliste." eustache made use of the work of pigouchet and kerver, not to mention the printers of the end of the fifteenth century. we have named the principal, the fortunate ones; but what becomes of the crowd of other publishers whose hopes vanished before the success of vostre and verard? there were denis meslier, with his quarto _heures de bourges_, and vincent commin, bookseller of the rue neuve notre dame, who thus appealed to his customers:-- "qui veult en avoir? on en treuve a tres grand marché et bon pris a la rose, dans la rue neuve de nostre-dame de paris." [illustration: fig. .--plate from a book of hours of simon vostre, representing the massacre of the innocents.] there were also robin chaillot, laurent philippe, and a hundred others whose names have died with them or are only preserved on the torn pages of their works. [illustration: fig. .--dance of death, said to be by verard. the pope and the emperor.] [illustration: fig. .--dance of death of guyot marchant in . the pope and the emperor.] but if books of this kind found vogue and a large sale at this epoch, the dealers did not keep to pious publications only. by a singular mixture of the sacred and the profane, the bookmen put on sale on their stalls the "decameron" of boccaccio as well as the "hours of the immaculate virgin," and the purchasers thought fit to make the acquaintance of the one as well as the other. besides, the end of the fifteenth century had its literary preferences, its alluring titles, its attractive frontispieces. at the commencement of the present century double titles--"atala; or, the child of mystery;" "waverley; or, sixty years since"--were common, although now out of fashion. since then came books of travels--_voyages au pays des milliards_, etc. in the fifteenth century, and even since the fourteenth, a series of titles was in public favour. there was first the _débats_, or "dialogues:" _débat de la dame et de l'escuyer_, paris, , folio; "dialogue of dives and pauper," london, richard pynson, ; and many other eccentric titles. there came also thousands of _complaintes_, a kind of lay in verse or prose; _blasons_, light pieces describing this or that thing; _doctrinals_, that had nothing to do with doctrine. and among the most approved subjects, between the piety of some and the gaiety of others, the dances of death established themselves firmly, showing, according to the hierarchy of classes then prevalent, death taking the great ones of the earth, torturing equally pope, emperor, constable, or minstrel, grimacing before youth, majesty, and love. long before printing appeared, the dances of death took the lead; they were some consolation for the wretched against their powerful masters, the revenge of the rabble against the king; they may be seen painted, sculptured, illuminated, when engraving was not there to multiply their use; they may be seen largely displayed on walls, sombre, frightful, at dresden, leipzig, erfurt, berne, lucerne, rouen, amiens, and chaise-dieu. it was the great human equality, attempted first by the french, then by the inimitable holbein. we can imagine the impression these bitter ironies made on the oppressed and disdained lower classes. the first "dance of death" was produced by guyot marchant in , in ten leaves and seventeen engravings, in folio, with gothic characters. marchant describes himself as "demeurant en champ gaillart à paris le vingt-huitiesme jour de septembre mil quatre cent quatre-vingtz et cinq." the book must have gone off rapidly, for it was republished in the following year, with additions and new engravings. french illustration was already moving forward, as may be judged by the reproductions here given from the folio edition of . pope and emperor, glory and power, are led and plagued by death, hideous death, with open body and frightful grin. we could wish that the tendencies and processes of what may be called the second generation of printers were well understood. in a few years they surmounted the difficulties of their art, and made the book a model of elegance and simplicity. the smallest details were cared for, and things apparently the most insignificant were studied and rendered practical. speaking of titles, an enormous progress was here made in the publications of the end of the century. in italy the subjects of decoration ordinarily formed a framework for the front page, wherein were included useful indications. the most ancient specimen of this kind has already been referred to. a model of this species is the "st. jerome," published at ferrara by lorenzo rossi, of valenza, in , folio; the title, much adorned, is in gothic letters; the engraved initial is very adroitly left in outline, so as not to burden or break the text. in germany there was already the appearance of bad taste and prodigality, the letters crossing each other, the gothic type covered with bizarre appendices, the titles intricate; later they became illegible even for the germans. [illustration: fig. .--typographical mark of thielman kerver.] in france the first page gave the most circumstantial indications of the contents of the work, the name and abode of the printer and bookseller. often these titles were ornamented with movable frameworks, printed in gothic, sometimes in two colours, which necessitated two printings, one for the black and one for the red ink. the mark of the printer or publisher generally appeared, and it was nearly always a charming work. these french marks were all more or less treated heraldically; that is to say, the initials occupy a shield, sustained by supporters and cut with extreme care. the first was that of fust and schoeffer at mayence, of admirable simplicity and grace. in france this early specimen of the trade mark took with simon vostre and verard the shape of delicate illustrations, finely designed and carefully engraved; but the custom of allusive marks did not prevail, as we shall have occasion to see, until the sixteenth century. the mark of pigouchet has already been given; that of thielman kerver is conceived in the same principles of taste and art. the sign of his house being the "unicorn," kerver took as supporters to his shield two unicorns _affrontées_. in these colophons are found philosophic aphorisms, satirical remarks, marvels of poetry. a certain bookseller paid court to the powerful university, which dispensed glory and riches to the poor tradesmen by buying many books. andrew bocard engraved on his mark this flattery as a border:-- "honneur au roy et à la court, salut à l'université dont nostre bien procède et sourt. dieu gart de paris la cité!" the germans introduced into their colophons some vainglorious notices. arnold ther hoernen, already mentioned, who printed the _theutonista_ at cologne in , boasted in it of having corrected it all with his own hands. jean treschel, established at lyons in , proclaims himself a german, because the germans were the inventors of an art that he himself possessed to an eminent degree. he prided himself on being what we may call a skilled typographer; "virum hujus artis solertissimum," he writes without false modesty. at times, in the colophons of his books, he attempted latin verse, the sapphic verse of horace, of a playful turn, to say that his work was perfected in . "arte et expensis vigilique cura treschel explevit opus hoc joannes, mille quingentos ubi christus annos sex minus egit. jamque lugduni juvenes, senesque, martias nonas celebres agebant magna reginæ quia prepotenti festa parabant." [illustration: fig. .--frontispiece to terence, published by treschel at lyons in . the author writing his book.] the portrait is another element of illustration, the figure of the author prefixed to his work. it had already been a custom in the manuscripts to paint on the first leaf of the work the likeness of him who composed it, frequently in the act of presenting his book to some noble patron; and in this way is often preserved the only known portrait of either patron or author. printing and engraving rendered these effigies more common, the portraits of one often served for another, and the booksellers used them without very much scruple. as we shall see later, this became in the sixteenth century a means of illustrating a book plainly, but only at the time when the portrait, drawn or painted, commenced to be more widely used. previously the _clichés_ of which we speak went everywhere, from the italians to the french, from Æsop to accursius; these uncertain physiognomies began with the manuscript romances of chivalry, from whence they were servilely copied in typography. from the first the italians mixed the ancient and the modern. thus in a _breviarium_, printed in , there is an engraved portrait of paul florentin. on the same principle, the portrait of burchiello, an early italian poet, was later reproduced in england as a likeness of william caxton. in france the author is often represented writing, and it was so up to the middle of the sixteenth century. in an edition of _des cas des nobles hommes_, by jean dupré, in , boccaccio is represented seated, having before him his french translator, laurent de premierfait. this plate is one of the oldest representations of authors in french books. in the _roman de la rose_, first edition of paris and lyons, in folio, probably published by william leroy about , william de lorris, the author, is shown in his bed:-- "une nuyt comme je songeoye, et de fait dormir me convient, en dormant un songe m'advint...." [illustration: fig. .--woodcut from caxton's "game and playe of the chesse."] there is also a portrait of alain chartier in his _faits_, printed in . in the terence of treschel, of lyons, in , we see a grammarian of the fifteenth century in a furnished room of the time occupied in writing at a desk; this is guy jouvenal, of mans, the author of the commentary. [illustration: fig. .--the knight, a woodcut from caxton's "game and playe of the chesse."] while this good work was progressing so nobly in france, italy, and germany, the typographers of england were by no means idle, although the illustration of the book in the fifteenth century was not there so forward. william caxton had produced over sixty works, the colophons of many of them revealing much of the personal life and character of the first english printer. some of them were ornamented with woodcuts; we reproduce two from the "game and playe of the chesse," printed in folio, about . the first represents a king and another person playing at chess; the smaller cut is a representation of the knight, who is thus described in caxton's own words: "the knyght ought to be maad al armed upon an hors in suche wise that he have an helme on his heed and a spere in his right hond, and coverid with his shelde, a swerde and a mace on his left syde, clad with an halberke and plates tofore his breste, legge harnoys on his legges, spores on his heelis, on hys handes hys gauntelettes, hys hors wel broken and taught, and apte to bataylle, and coveryd with hys armes." the other caxton block which we reproduce is a representation of music from the "mirrour of the world," a thin folio volume of one hundred leaves printed in , with thirty-eight woodcuts. these specimens will serve to show the rudimentary character of english wood engraving in the fifteenth century. no authentic portrait of caxton is known, and the one that is generally accepted is really a portrait of an italian poet, burchiello, taken from an octavo edition of his work on tuscan poetry, printed ; this was copied by faithorne for sir hans sloane as the portrait of caxton, and was reproduced by ames in his "typographical antiquities," . lewis prefixed the portrait here given to his "life of mayster willyam caxton," , which is a copy of faithorne's drawing with some alterations. john lettou and william machlinia issued various statutes and other legal works. [illustration: fig. .--music, a woodcut from caxton's "mirrour of the world."] [illustration: fig. .--william caxton, from rev. j. lewis' "life."] [illustration: fig. .--mark of wynken de worde.] wynken de worde continued printing up to , and issued over four hundred works. he used no less than nine different marks, all of them bearing caxton's initials, evidencing the regard of the pupil for his master; the mark which we reproduce is one of rare occurrence. richard pynson began in , and continued well into the sixteenth century, and was one of the first of the "privileged" printers, authorised to issue the legal and parliamentary publications. one of the marks used by him is here reproduced. julian notary began in . the only style of illustration used by any of these early printers was the woodcut, and of this there was very little beyond the title-page and printer's mark. the artistic form of the book originated on the continent, but england was not slow to adopt it and fashion it to her own ends. [illustration: fig. .--mark of richard pynson.] thus was printing spread abroad, carrying with it to the countries where it was established the rules of an unchangeable principle; but, according to its surroundings, it was so transformed in a few years that its origin was no longer recognised. it was light in italy, heavy in germany, gay in france. painting, of which it was accidentally the issue, returned to it under the form of illustration a short time after its first and fruitful essays. the gothic character, generally used in germany, continued in france with the vostres, the verards, and others up to the middle of the sixteenth century, although the first artisans before this used roman type; it was also the prevailing type used in english books. in italy it was jenson, a frenchman, who gave to the matrix the alphabet preserved to the present time; and it was the venetians and florentines who learned before all others the art of judicious ornamentation of the book. the french came very near perfection, thanks to their printers and booksellers, at the end of the century; and the germans found illustrious artists to scatter their compositions in their large, heavy works. [illustration] chapter iii. to . french epics and the renaissance--venice and aldus manutius--italian illustrators--the germans: _theuerdanck_, schäufelein--the book in other countries--french books at the beginning of the century, before the accession of francis i.--geoffroy tory and his works--francis i. and the book--robert estienne--lyons a centre of bookselling; holbein's dances of death--school of basle--alciati's emblems and the illustrated books of the middle of the century--the school of fontainebleau and its influence--solomon bernard--cornelis de la haye and the _promptuaire_--john cousin--copper plate engraving and metal plates--woériot--the portrait in the book of the sixteenth century--how a book was illustrated on wood at the end of the century--influence of plantin on the book; his school of engravers--general considerations--progress in england--coverdale's bible--english printers and their work--engraved plates in english books our simple division into chapters will be understood without difficulty as not corresponding exactly with the most momentous epochs in the history of the book in france and abroad. doubtless it would be easy for france alone to find some limits and to furnish scholastic formulæ by which contemporary publishers might be grouped. but in order to present, as in a synoptical table, an essential and abridged sketch of the book in all european countries, it appeared to us more convenient to begin with the confused and tangled notions by centuries and to unfold in our review the characteristic facts of each country conjointly. moreover, after the sixteenth century neither italy nor germany could compare with france, which, less fortunate, perhaps, at the beginning than her neighbours, surpassed them in all the pride of her genius. the commencement of the sixteenth century found the french army in italy, under the command of louis xii. marching from glory to glory, the french successively saw pisa, capua, and naples, and that which has since been called the renaissance displayed itself little by little to the conquerors. at venice was living aldus pius manutius, then the greatest printer of the entire world. aldus was proprietor of the celebrated printing office of nicholas jenson, through his father-in-law, andrea torresani, of asola, who acquired it on the death of the french printer; and he had in a few years reached a position in which he was without a rival. we have seen that he composed, at the end of the fifteenth century, the admirable volume _hypnerotomachia_, the renown of which became universal. aldus was fifty-two years of age, having been born in ; and his learning was increased by daily intercourse with learned italians, among them the celebrated pico de la mirandola. his establishment at venice in had for its object the creation of a chair in greek, in which language he was well instructed from his youth. occupied with the idea of issuing editions of the principal greek writers, which up to then remained in manuscript, he engaged himself in the formation of a printing office. he first published the _herone et leandro_ of musæus in , quarto, in a greek character apparently designed by him, and perhaps engraved by francisco da bologna; then the greek grammar of constantine lascaris, with the date of ; and the works of aristotle in five folio volumes. at the time of the italian wars aldus was making a revolution in typography, by producing more practical sizes and finer characters, which would permit a volume of the smallest height to contain the matter of a folio printed with large type. legend says that the new letters were copied exactly from the handwriting of petrarch, inclining like all cursive writing; the name of _italic_ was given to this character, which was also called _aldine_, from its inventor. it was engraved by francisco da bologna. aldus published in octavo size, with this kind of letter, an edition of virgil in , then a horace, a juvenal, a martial, and a petrarch in the same year. the following year, , he gave an edition of the _terze rime_ of dante, and for the first time took as his typographical mark an anchor encircled by a dolphin.[a] [footnote a: tory in his _champfleury_ explains thus the mark of aldus and his device, which was in greek the "make haste slowly" of boileau: "the anchor signifies tardiness, and the dolphin haste, which is to say that in his business he was moderate."] [illustration: fig. .--the anchor and dolphin, mark of aldus manutius, after the original in the _terze rime_ of , where it appears for the first time.] his marriage with the daughter of andrea torresani, of asola, brought together into his possession two printing houses. the burden became too heavy for manutius to think henceforth of publishing by himself. besides, the wars did not allow him any repose, of which he bitterly complained in his prefaces. he attracted learned greek scholars, who supervised, each one in his specialty, the works in progress, and founded a society, an aldine academy, in which the greatest names of the epoch were united. aldus conveys the perfect idea of a great printer of those times, doing honour to celebrated men, in spite of business preoccupations and of the annoyance caused by the war. it is said that erasmus, passing through venice, called on him, and not making himself known, was badly received by the powerful printer. all at once, at the name of the distinguished visitor, aldus, overwhelmed for an instant, rose in great haste and showed him how highly he appreciated men of letters. the war finished by ruining this state of affairs. in aldus quitted venice to travel, and on his return found it poorer than when he went away. andrea d'asola, his father-in-law, came to his aid; but the great printer had received his death-blow; and in spite of the activity which he brought to the new establishment, he further declined until , when he expired, leaving an inextricable confusion to his son paul. he had early abandoned illustration for the scientific and useful in his publications; besides, the size of book chosen by him did not admit of plates; but other publishers employed artists in the ornamentation of the book. lucantonio giunta, the most celebrated among them, was printer and engraver, a striking example of the affinity of the two trades from their origin. in lucantonio zonta, as he then spelt his name, published a roman breviary in large quarto, with twelve engravings in the lombardo-venetian manner, signed "l. a.," in very good style. the same artist-publisher cut a portrait of virgil for an edition of that poet about . furthermore, giunta did not alone illustrate the book from his own office. other designers lent him their assistance. we find evidence of this in the bible printed by him in in small octavo. [illustration: fig. .--mark of lucantonio giunta, of venice.] the most meritorious of the artists of venice at this time was john andrea, known as guadagnino. he designed the vignettes for florus's epitome of livy, printed at venice for melchior sessa and peter of ravenna ( , folio); in he copied the plates of dürer's _apocalypse_ for that of alexander paganini, of venice. a venetian work which signalised the beginning of the sixteenth century was the _trionfo di fortuna_ of sigismond fanti, of ferrara, printed by agostino da portese in . venice was the home of titian, and at the present time the great artist was at the height of his glory. in two brothers, nicholas and dominic dal gesù, published a translation of the celebrated "golden legend" of voragine. the plates which were added to the work were manifestly inspired by the school of the venetian master. unhappily the engravers have not always equalled the genius of the drawings. to resume, the city of venice was, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, one of the most prolific in publishers and artists of talent. since the first establishments of the germans, typography had successively employed in venice nicholas jenson, a frenchman, inventor of the roman character; erhard ratdolt, the first to employ illustration there; and aldus manutius, scholar and printer, whose progress in printing elevated that art to the highest rank among human discoveries; there were also remarkable engravers and draughtsmen, among others guadagnino and giunta, besides the anonymous masters of the school of titian. the part of venice in the movement, then, was great, but it may be explained by the riches of its citizens, the extent of its commerce, and the genius it possessed. if we now return from venice to the north, to milan, the school of leonardo da vinci will make itself apparent in the book. in order of date we will mention the _mysterii gesta beatæ veronicæ virginis_, published by gotardo de ponte , small quarto, with figures in the style of luini, and vitruvius in italian by cesariano. on the testimony of the author, the wood engravings in a book of fra luca pacioli, _de divina proportione_, are attributed to leonardo da vinci. m. delaborde does not believe this, but m. passavant does. [illustration: fig. .--title of the _theuerdanck_. the flourishes of the letters are printed.] in germany, nuremberg continued, with albert dürer and the artists of his school, to furnish book illustrations at the beginning of the century. the master reprinted his valuable engravings of the "life of the virgin" in , and also the "apocalypse." but after him the art commenced to decline; a hundred years later nothing remained of the honour and glory gained by germany in the commencement. among the most interesting of the nuremberg publications is a chivalric poem by melchior pfinzfing, composed for the marriage of maximilian and mary of burgundy. as m. delaborde in his _débuts de i'imprimerie_ well remarks, this is not a book destined for sale by a bookseller; it is a work of art destined by an emperor for his friends, and he saw that it was an unapproachable work. [illustration: fig. .--plate taken from the _theuerdanck_, representing maximilian and mary of burgundy. engraved on wood after schäufelein.] bold strokes, majestic letters, intertwined ornaments, are here multiplied. three persons worked upon it for five years; these were, peutinger says, hans leonard schäufelein, the painter, jost necker, the engraver, and schönsperger, the printer of augsburg, who quitted his native city for nuremberg. when they were able to take a proof, craftsmen were unwilling to believe it to be a book composed in movable characters; they were sure, on the contrary, that it was a true xylograph, cut in wood; and, in fact, from the title here reproduced, the error was excusable. this work, which is now called the _theuerdanck_, from the name of the hero of the romance, is ornamented with a number of wood engravings, numbered by arabic figures. we reproduce one of the last plates, in which theuerdanck--maximilian--is introduced to the queen--mary of burgundy. the designs of schäufelein recall very nearly the work of albert dürer, his master; but, as we said of him, these works, heavy and dull, although very clever, do not always suit as vignettes. again, our criticism does not extend so much to the _theuerdanck_, whose letters, excessively ornamented and much flattened, furnish a framework more suitable for the engravings than would a more slender character, which would be completely overshadowed by the german plate. when we have mentioned the _passional christi_ of lucas cranach, published by j. grünenberg at wittemberg in --twenty-six mediocre wood engravings--we shall have cited the most important of the interesting and rare volumes published in germany at the commencement of the sixteenth century. the netherlands, spain, and england were working, but without great success. in the low countries plantin and his gigantic enterprises may be recalled. in spain the taste had not yet developed itself; and although the drawing of illustrations may be careful enough, the wood-cutting is pitiable. we will mention the seneca of toledo in , and the "chronicle of aragon" in . of england we will speak later. in france, on the contrary, we find an enormous commerce in books at the commencement of the sixteenth century. all the publishers mentioned in the preceding chapter were still living, and they were feeling the effects of the french conquests in italy. the dithyrambic literature then inaugurated, and which had its origin under louis xii., exercised a bad influence equally upon the printers and decorators of the book. doubtless the composition of the text and engravings was done hastily, for the great people did not like to wait for this kind of history. _le vergier d'honneur_, written by octavian de st. gelais and andry de la vigne, was thus published about the end of the fifteenth century and ornamented with hasty vignettes, probably at the expense of antoine verard. upon the accession to the throne of louis xii., claude de seyssel, his master of council, composed _les louenges du roy louis xii._, and soon after translated it from latin into french for the same verard, who printed it in . the taste for historical works induced the publishers to produce _la mer des histoires_, which had already been published in the fifteenth century; thielman kerver put forth the "compendium" of robert gaguin in on account of durand gerlier and john petit. the french version of this work was given in by galliot du pré, with vignettes, and afterwards under the name of _mirouer historial_, by renaud chaudière in , by nyverd, and others; the same with the _rozier historial_, with figures, in and . among the most popular works was the _illustrations de la gaule et singularitez de troye_, by john le maire de belges, printed in paris and ornamented. in it was published by geoffroy de marnef, in by john and gilbert de marnef, by regnault, by philip le noir, and others, always in the gothic characters which prevailed in france at the beginning of the sixteenth century. we give from the curious book of john le maire an interesting woodcut representing queen anne of brittany as juno, in which we can without much difficulty see a remarkable sketch by a bourdichon or a perréal. the truly french style of this figure leaves no doubt as to its origin. at the same time, it may possibly have been inspired by the virgin of a german master, say one of , judging from the accessories, and even from the pose. this engraving will be found in the edition of of gilbert de marnef, in gothic letter, quarto. on the reverse are the arms and device of john le maire de belges. [illustration: fig. .--vignette taken from the _illustrations de la gaule et singularitez de troye_. queen anne of brittany as juno.] the time that elapsed from the death of louis xi. until the accession of francis i.--that is to say, from to --was, to employ an old expression, the golden age of french printing and illustration. under charles viii. and louis xii. the designers on wood were not yet affected by the neighbouring schools; neither the accentuated italian influence nor the german processes had reached them; they did in their own way that which came to them, and they did it in their own fashion and habit, without foreign influence. further, the kings did not ignore them, and louis xii. preserved to the printers of the university all their rights and privileges in a magniloquent ordinance, in which the art of typography was extolled in the highest terms. it restores to them all the advantages that they had lost. it recites, "in consideration of the great benefit that has come to our kingdom by means of the art and science of printing, the invention of which seems more divine than human, which, thanks to god, has been invented and found in our time by the help and industry of booksellers, by which our holy catholic faith has been greatly augmented and strengthened, justice better understood and administered, and divine service more honourably and diligently made, said, and celebrated, ... by means of which our kingdom precedes all others," etc., etc. (blois, th april, ). certainly louis made the best of himself and his kingdom in this preamble, but it must be recognised that france already held a predominant rank in the new industry, and that beyond the italians she had no fear of serious rivalry. the school of ornamentists made constant progress. before the books of hours, the booksellers contented themselves with miserable blocks, placed side by side, forming a framework of good and bad together; but after simon vostre, verard, and the others they were singularly refined. the borders, at least in the books of hours, had become the principal part of the book; they had in them flowers, architectural, complicated, and simple subjects, all of perfect taste and extreme elegance; and, as we have observed in the representation of anne of brittany in the _illustrations de la gaule_, the figure subjects were no longer mechanical, commonplace, and tiresome blocks, but, on the contrary, more often works specially designed and engraved by artists of merit. [illustration: fig. .--title of the _entree d'eléonore d'autriche a paris_, by guillaume bochetel. printed by geoffroy tory in may, , quarto.] geoffroy tory, born at bourges in , continued after vostre and verard the onward march of illustration of the book. he was a sort of encyclopædist, who knew and foresaw everything, but with a singularly subtler and finer genius than his predecessors. there is now very little doubt that at first tory was an engraver and printer. moreover, he published with jean petit one of his first volumes, the geography of pomponius mela, printed by gilles de gourmont in . tory was then an erudite and diffusive commentator. later he published a book with poor engravings (_valerii probi grammatici opusculum_, ), waiting until his good star should place him on the right road. he had for his mark, say the bibliographers, the cross of lorraine [symbol: double cross], small enough to be lost in the ornamentation of his plates. really this sign is found in tory's mark--the "pot cassé"--the broken jar--and also sometimes in the letter g, which was his ordinary signature. this opinion, which we will not try to contradict in a popular work like this, appears to us to err, as others used this mark, as may be judged from the essentially different touches of engravings bearing the cross of lorraine, and particularly those of woériot in the middle of the century. if m. a. bernard[a] may be credited, geoffroy tory cultivated all the sciences with equal success. for our purpose, suffice it to recognise his right to one of the first places in the art of decoration of books of hours. doubtless his travels in italy had contributed to modify his taste and to detach him a little from the sober and simple manner that then characterised french engraving; but he nevertheless preserved the indelible traces of the origin of his art, in the same way as some people cannot correct their provincial accent. the _heures de la vierge_, which he designed, and which he had engraved about , on account of simon de colines, is marvellously surrounded by ornaments, until then unknown in france; at the same time, and in spite of other tendencies, it is purely a french work, and the specimen given here is a convincing proof. [footnote a: _geoffroy tory, peintre et graveur, premier imprimeur royal, réformateur de l'orthographe et de la typographie_: paris, , vo.] [illustration: fig. .--full page of the _heures_ of simon de colines, by tory.] [illustration: fig. .--_heures_ of geoffroy tory. the circumcision.] [illustration: fig. .--_heures_ of simon de colines, with the mark of the cross of lorraine.] geoffroy tory composed a curious book, as poetic as learned, in which he studied at once the form of the letter from the typographic and the emblematic point of view, and also the french orthography of the time. he tells us himself that he was brought to commence this book on the fête-day of the kings, , when, after a frugal repast, he was, he says, "dreaming on my bed and revolving my memory, thinking of a thousand little fancies, serious and mirthful, among which i thought of some antique letters that i had made for monseigneur the treasurer for war, master jehan grolier, councillor and secretary of our lord the king, amateur of fine letters and of all learned personages." tory called his book _champfleury, auquel est contenu l'art et science de la deue proportion des lettres ... selon le corps et le visage humain_, and he published it himself in small folio, putting upon it the sign of gilles de gourmont, in . at heart tory had been fascinated by the theories of dürer on the proportions of the human body; and he says, "the noble german painter albert dürer is greatly to be praised that he has so well brought to light his art of painting in designing geometrical forms, the ramparts of war, and the proportions of the human body." he wished to indicate the true measure of letters to his contemporaries, "the number of points and turns of the compass that each one requires." the most amusing part of this curious treatise is his short academical preface, where, under a playful form, the great publisher studies the orthography of his time, and exclaims against the forgers of new words, the latinisers of the language, "the skimmers of latin, jesters and gibberers, ... who mock not only their shadows, but themselves." the entire passage was copied by rabelais, nearly literally, and it indicates that its author was possessed of good sense, which, unhappily, all his contemporaries were not. for the technical part, he added to his theories a number of designs of geometrical letters, but he was carried away, after the fashion of the time, by greek and roman models, perhaps a little further than he meant, losing himself in the midst of idle dissertations. to these geometrical engravings he added small and charming figures, said to be by jean perréal, as well as emblematical letters of the nature of the y which is here given, with explanatory text and commentary. to him this y had two branches: one of virtue and one of vice; that of virtue shows palms, crowns, a sceptre, and a book; that of vice birches, a gallows, and fire. [illustration: fig. .--emblematical letter y, taken from the _champfleury_ of geoffroy tory.] with the importance that cannot be denied to his works, geoffroy tory founded a school; and it was from his workshop that the plates came for the book of paulus jovius on the dukes of milan, published by robert estienne in , quarto. the portraits of the dukes in this work have been attributed to tory himself, but he died in , and there is not the least indication that he engraved these sixteen portraits with his own hand sixteen years before their publication. besides, our doubts as to the cross of lorraine being the exclusive signature of tory, as has been believed, lead us to think it the collective mark of a workshop, as we meet it on works long after the death of the master. as a proof, the mark is found on the engravings of _l'entrée du roi à paris_ in , which cannot be taken as a posthumous work of tory, for these engravings had their origin at a certain and special date. but in spite of the absence of the monogram, the admirable block from the diodorus siculus of antoine macault might, from its design and engraving, be considered as by tory himself. holbein, who, about the same time, designed a somewhat similar scene, the king of france seated on a throne receiving poison from the hands of death, never did anything better. within the scanty proportions of the design, all the figures are portraits. duprat, montmorency and the three sons of the king may be recognised; macault, on the left, is reading his translation to a circle of nobles and men of letters. this admirable page is one of the truest and most skilful of the monuments of french engraving; it is equal to the best inventions of holbein, and it marks the culminating point of the illustration of the book before the exaggerations of the school of fontainebleau. geoffroy tory was not the publisher. the diodorus siculus, doubtless prepared two or three years before, was not published until , in quarto, with his ordinary mark of the "pot cassé." [illustration: fig. .--macault reading to francis i. his translation of diodorus siculus. wood engraving attributed to tory.] we have now arrived through him at the reign of francis i., who was called the father of letters, and who for various reasons favoured the arts. doubtless grand paintings and the decoration of the royal palaces interested him more than vignettes in books and the efforts of printers; but, at the same time, books occupied him. he studied much, and in his travels accumulated many volumes. an account in the french national archives shows that claude chappuis, his librarian, packed entire cases, which were sent to dauphiné at the time of the wars of piedmont, the carriage costing twenty livres tournois. francis had, moreover, following sudden impulses, curious fits of wantonness and mischief. it was perceived a little later that the doctrines of luther were propagated by the book; and the sorbonne was up in arms, on the pretence of imposing its own expurgated text of the bible on the publishers and tolerating no other. theodore beza, enemy of the sorbonnists, said with regard to this (we translate the antique french literally), "our great doctors with cherubic visage have forbidden men to see the holy bible in vulgar language, of which every one has knowledge, because, they say, the desire of knowing everything engenders nothing but error, fear, and care. _arguo sic_, if they so, for its abuse, wish to take away this book, it is clear also that it is their duty to put away the wine with which each of them makes himself drunk." [illustration: fig. .--robert estienne, after the engraving in the _chronologie collée_.] this piece is only cited to show to what lengths matters had gone, thanks to printing. it is very certain that all the pamphlets, placards, and other horrors published to raise religious warfare, did not aid in the progress of the book. the king was not always disinterested on the technical question; books merited encouragement, at least as much as castigation, and besides, as time passed, they gradually transformed men and ideas. in spite of apparent severities, was not the king himself a little touched by contact with the new religion, like his sister marguerite, or his sister-in-law, renée of ferrara? however that may be, he twice showed himself a resolute partisan of the celebrated robert estienne, son-in-law and associate of simon de colines, whose works in point of erudition and typography assumed day by day more importance. robert estienne had the great honour of being chosen from all his contemporaries by king francis as the royal printer. this prince had ordered to be engraved for him by claude garamond, after the design of ange vergèce, the first cutter of matrices of his time, a special greek character in three sizes, which was used in to compose the "ecclesiastical history" of eusebius. these are the famous royal types--_typi regii_--as estienne did not fail to indicate on the title-pages of his works. it has been said since that francis i. founded the royal printing house, but the truth is that estienne kept these characters in his own office for use in the royal editions; they may now be seen in the imprimerie nationale at paris. robert estienne married the daughter of josse badius, of asch--badius ascencianus, one of the first parisian typographers of the time. we reproduce the mark of badius, representing the interior of a printing house, and shall return in a special chapter to the functions of these workshops. meantime it appears proper to present to the reader a printing office of the time of robert estienne and geoffroy tory. [illustration: fig. .--printing office of josse badius at the commencement of the sixteenth century.] robert estienne does not appear to have concerned himself much about the decoration of the book. the purity of the text and the characters were essentials with him, erudition, and not art. he published many works in latin and greek, among them the _thesaurus_, a great latin dictionary published in , also a bible, with notes by vatable, revised by leon de juda. from that came trouble. leon de juda was a partisan of zwingli; the sorbonne accused the bible of leaning towards the huguenots; francis i. took the part of estienne, but when that prince died estienne fled to geneva, where he was accused of having imported the royal types. the truth was that he simply imported the matrices. [illustration: fig. .--portrait of nicholas bourbon. wood engraving of the commencement of the sixteenth century.] at this time everything served for the decoration of the book: portraits, blazons, topographical plates, costumes, and emblems. small portraits engraved on wood usually ornamented the works of the poets, like that of nicholas bourbon, for example, marvel of truth and skill. the blocks of frontispieces in the folios were multiplied; large initial letters, ingeniously engraved and stippled, like that at the commencement of this chapter, were used. jacques kerver reproduced in for himself, and with plates made for him, the famous _songe de poliphile_, published by aldus in . the widow of the publisher denis janot, jeanne de marnef, published one of the most delightful books of the time, _l'amour de cupidon et de psyche_ of apuleius, with delicious figures in wood after italian engravings. many more could be named in the extraordinary profusion of charming books. [illustration: fig. .--king and death. vignette from the "dance of death" by holbein.] without entering into detail, something must be said of lyons, then a most extensive and prosperous centre of bookselling. lyons had the signal honour of publishing first in france the celebrated cuts of the "dance of death" of holbein, the basle painter. doubtless treschel, the printer, was not the first, as a copy of a german edition is known, because in the lyons edition the cuts are worn and broken. however, the cabinet d'estampes of paris has some of the figures of the dance with a german text, probably printed by froben at basle. treschel's title was _les simulachres et historiées faces de la mort autant elegamment pourtraictes que artificiellement imaginées_, and the volume in quarto was printed by frelon. the _icones veteris testamenti_, which preceded the publication of the "dance of death," had also been printed at basle before lyons. with holbein, as with geoffroy tory, we arrive at the zenith of illustration and marvellous skill of the engraver. if we were to institute comparisons, it was hans lutzelburger who cut the blocks after the designs of the basle master, but, contrary to what generally happens, the translator reaches almost to the height of his model; the line is perfection itself, it is precise and intelligent, simple, and, above all, explicit. if the work of lutzelburger be admitted, it must also be admitted that holbein designed his cuts before , date of the death of the basle engraver; but it was precisely before that holbein lived in basle, and it was after he had travelled. we will add nothing to the universal praise of the book of treschel, of lyons; everything has been written of holbein, and repetitions are unnecessary. we would ask the reader to compare the francis i. of tory and the king in holbein's "dance of death;" there is a certain family resemblance between the two cuts, which is a singular honour for tory. at the commencement of the century basle had a school of _formschneiders_ working for export. besides the numerous products used at lyons, it had also a trade in wood blocks, which, having been used, were afterwards sold. among these exchanges of engravings were many plates of brandt's "ship of fools," sold in to galliot du pré, publisher, of paris, who used them in the _eloge de la folie_ of erasmus. the reign of francis i. saw a great advance in the national art of illustration. the arrival at the court of italian artists of the decadence, such as rosso and primaticcio, produced a revolution in taste. the exaggerated slightness of the figures brought by these artists from beyond the alps was considered as of supreme distinction; in their twisted draperies and mannered poses was seen a precious beauty that tempted the ready intelligence of the court of france. the simple and ingenuous figures of the old french artists were ranked among the refuse of another age, and their compositions were regarded with contempt, and deemed antique. the rage for emblems and for allegories and mythological figures generally was well suited to these eccentric and bizarre inventions. from another side, an entire class of artists or artisans, book illustrators first, then enamellers and jewellers, made use of these italian models, with which the king encumbered his galleries, and which, at great expense, covered the walls of fontainebleau. one can understand what these skilful men made of such a movement and of so thoughtless an infatuation. the publishers saw the demand, and composed works of which the sale was assured by the subjects that they furnished to other designers. this explains the quantity of alciati's "emblems" and ovid's "metamorphoses" published at lyons and paris, and copied and recopied a hundred times by the art industries of the time. without it the enormous success of mediocre productions, as the "emblems," for example, in which the meaning of the enigma or rebus cannot always be seized, is ill understood. it was alciati who made this literature the fashion. he was a sort of epicurean and miserly jurisconsult, who had as many lords and masters on earth, as the kings and princes who liked to bid against each other to engage him. he had quitted italy, seduced by the offers of francis i., but when sforza paid him a larger sum, he returned, giving as reason for his vacillation that the sun had to travel the earth and warm it by its rays; this was an emblematic answer, for his emblems had all the coarse, sceptical humour which not a few had then already discovered. at most these philosophical aphorisms, if we take them seriously, have their droll side in that their author often practised the reverse of his teaching. a miser, he abuses the avaricious; flying his country for the love of gain, he blames those to whom "a better condition is offered by strangers." yet he is sometimes logical and consistent, as when he assures us that "poverty hinders the success of intelligence," and when, finally, lover of good cheer, he died of indigestion in . [illustration: fig. .--page of the "metamorphoses" of ovid, by petit bernard. edition of .] his book of "emblems" had a vogue that lasted until the seventeenth century, and repetitions were infinitely multiplied: at paris by wechel in ; at lyons by hans de tornes, of suabia, one of the greatest lyons publishers; by roville, also one of the first lyons publishers, and by bonhomme; at venice by the alduses; in fact, everywhere, translated into french, spanish, and italian. bernard salomon, called _le petit bernard_, born at lyons, was one of the designers of the school of fontainebleau--that is to say, of the franco-italian school of which we have spoken above--who furnished many of the engravings for books printed at lyons. he illustrated the edition of alciati's "emblems" published by bonhomme in ; and designed skilful little plates, which, with the text, were surrounded by a border from the workshop of geoffroy tory, for ovid's "metamorphoses," published by hans de tornes in . bernard had all the defects and all the qualities of those of his time, from john cousin to the least of them; he was a primaticcio on a small scale, but agreeably so. his designs for the new testament were also very careful, but in them more than elsewhere the manner and the affectation of the school of fontainebleau are apparent. [illustration: fig. .--portraits of madeleine, queen of scotland, and of marguerite, duchess of savoy, after the originals of cornelis of lyons.] [illustration: fig. .--portraits of francis, dauphin, and of charles, duke of angoûleme, after the originals of cornelis of lyons. woodcuts taken from roville's _promptuaire des médailles_.] the workshops of the second city of france, we see, had at this time attained considerable importance; but before the books of which we shall speak, roville published two anonymous books, one _l'entrée du roi henri ii. à lyon_, in , ornamented with very graceful woodcuts, the other the _promptuaire des médailles_, comprising a series of charming portraits under the pretence of reproductions from the antique. the designs of the _entrée_ are often attributed to john cousin, as it is a rule with certain amateurs to give a known name to a work; but it must be remembered that lyons then had celebrated artists, petit-bernard, alluded to above, and cornelis de la haye, of whom we have more to say; and it is not necessary to go to paris or to rome to find the author of these illustrations. [illustration: fig. .--captain of foot from the _entree de henri ii. à lyon_ ( ).] cornelis de la haye was a painter who executed nearly the same work as francis clouet in paris, portraits on panel, in a clear and harmonious tone, then much the fashion. during a journey of the king, he had, if brantôme may be credited, portrayed the entire court, keeping the sketches for himself. ten or fifteen years after, catherine de medicis, passing through lyons, saw these portraits and highly praised them, recognising the old costumes, astonished at the courtiers of the day, whom she had never seen in such dress. this artist is now known, thanks to various works that have been found, among others two portraits of the sons of francis i., preserved by gaignières, who attributed them resolutely to cornelis, doubtless on the faith of inscriptions that have disappeared. both of them were engraved on wood at lyons and published in roville's book the _promptuaire des médailles_, mentioned above, with small differences of detail altogether insignificant. it is not impossible then that cornelis designed these portraits, and that they were drawn on wood after the cabinet models spoken of by brantôme. the delicate figures of the _promptuaire_ are the work of a master; and the differences mentioned are those of the artist, not of the copyist, who would not be permitted to change anything. it is the first time, we believe, that these comparisons have been made; they will perhaps help the learned lyonnais to pierce the mystery, but in any case our suppositions are more honourable to cornelis de la haye than the fancies of robert dumesnil (_peintre-graveur français_, tome vi., p. ). to judge by the four little medallions here reproduced, the art of engraving on wood was rarely more skilful than in these portraits. it would not be astonishing if a man like cornelis had designed the figures of the _entrée de henri ii._ in any case, why should we choose john cousin instead of petit-bernard? at this time, we know, the kings carried in their suite their ordinary painters; but we do not know that john cousin followed the court to lyons in . he did not hold an official position, like clouet. this artist produced well-authenticated works; one of them is signed, and leaves no doubt: the _livre de perspective de jehan cousin senonois, maistre painctre_, published in by jean le royer, printer to the king for mathematics. this profession of printer for mathematics had its difficulties of engraving, for le royer tells us in his preface that he had himself finished the plates commenced by albin olivier. in another practical treatise, entitled _livre de portraiture_, published in , john cousin is styled _peintre géometrien_. it is beyond doubt that this master produced for many works figures and ornaments, but what were the books? the manner was then to repeat the engraved borders of titles, the _passe-partout_, in the centre of which the text was printed. cousin designed many of these title-pages on wood; that of the _livre de portraiture_ affords a curious element of comparison; but he was not by any means the inventor. in was sold at antwerp a book printed from engraved plates after john vriedman, by gerard juif, which is simply a collection of engravings for title-pages for the use of publishers. [illustration: fig. .--title of john cousin's _livre de portraiture_, published in by le clerc. (the spot on the title is in the original, preserved among the prints of the bibliothèque nationale.)] it is about this time that metal plates may be seen in conjunction with wood engraving in the illustration of the book, and the best artists attached their names to important publications of this kind. we have explained in a former chapter in what this process is least convenient in the impression of a book. in fact, two successive printings, that of the plates and that of the text, were additional trouble and a frequent cause of errors; but wood-cutting was somewhat abandoned in the middle of the sixteenth century, especially for separate plates, and engraved plates took a considerable importance under different artistic influences. the first was the facility of engraving a metal plate compared to the difficulty of cutting a wood block. it thus naturally happened that the artists of the burin wished to employ their art in illustration, and taste was soon drawn to the new process. in france the first volume of this kind was printed in by topie de pymont in folio: the _pérégrinations en terre sainte_ of bernard de breydenbach, with figures on engraved plates copied from the mayence edition of . since this manner was abandoned until about , as much for the reasons given above as for others, we only meet with a stray plate now and again, which remains as a bait, and relates to nothing. under the reign of henri ii. the smallness of the volumes did not always admit of wood engravings, and the artists in metal found a footing among illustrators; they made attempts, such as that of the _histoire de jason_ of réné boivin in , which came out under charles ix. in a charming volume of engraved plates by p. woériot. the "emblems" of georgette de montenay were also in the burlesque style of alciati, but they had an advantage, as the author assures us:-- "alciat fist des emblèmes exquis, lesquels, voyant de plusieurs requis, désir me prist de commencer les miens, lesquels je croy estre premiers chrestiens." this orthodoxy does not make them more intelligible, but the engravings of woériot, unskilful as they are, import an element of interest which surpasses the rest. it was always at lyons, the rival and often the master of paris in typography, that the author printed his work. by the privilege dated , five years before publication, we see that it is permitted to peter woériot, engraver of the duke of lorraine, to portray, engrave, and cut in copper the said figures called emblems for the time and term of five years ( th october, ). peter woériot sometimes signed his prints with the small lorraine cross adopted by geoffroy tory's workshop, as may be seen in our engraving. copper plate engraving had by this time established itself, and the works that were so illustrated spread themselves. du cerceau published his admirable collection of _plus beaux bastiments de france_ in folio - , which had numerous plans and views of the royal and princely castles. thevet put forth his _cosmographie universelle_ and his _hommes illustres_, the latter adorned with skilfully engraved portraits. in paris the publishers mamert patisson, who married the widow of robert estienne and took his mark, adrien le roy, and robert ballard, published the celebrated _ballet comique de la royne faict aux nopces de monsieur le duc de joyeuse_, composed by balthasar de beaujoyeux, valet de chambre to henri iii.; and in this book, in which were put hasty etchings, the king displayed all his immodesty and depravity. the book has often had the unconscious mission of transmitting to posterity the unworthiness of its author or of its heroes. from this time the book has left its golden age to enter into the boastings of courtiers and political abstractions. [illustration: fig. .--engraving by p. woériot for georgette de montenay's _emblèmes_.] among the publications opposed to the government of the time, the two associates james tortorel and john perrissin, of lyons, had published a celebrated collection of plates on the religious wars that stained the reign of charles ix. with blood. at first engraved on metal, these plates were worn out, and were gradually replaced by others engraved on wood, on which several artists worked, among them james le challeux and also john de gourmont, one of the most celebrated wood-cutters of the sixteenth century. this was a work composed of single leaves in folio size, which had an extraordinary sale among the religious people of the time. at the same time, illustration on wood did not stand still. the portraits of authors diffused by the pencil of clouet and his school were commonly put at the head of their works. we cannot say whether clouet himself designed the portraits of tiraqueau and of taillemont in ; of du billon, the author of the _fort inexpugnable_, in ; papon and ambroise paré in ; grevin, ramus, and others; but the precision of these physiognomies recalls the peculiar manner of the french artists of the sixteenth century. the "poems" of ronsard in contains a series of very clever portraits, among them that of muret, his commentator, one of the most perfect of its kind. christopher de savigny, author of the _tableaux accomplis de tous les arts liberaux_, published by john and francis de gourmont in , is represented at full length in the frontispiece of his work, offering the book to the duc de nevers, to whom it is dedicated. this plate in folio, probably engraved by john de gourmont, is the best finished that we have seen. the work of savigny, forgotten as it may be now, had a great reputation in its own time; and bacon took from it the idea of his "advancement of learning." speaking of the duc de nevers, it will not be without interest to our readers to mention here a manuscript found by us in the bibliothèque nationale, which enables us to give an account of the work then necessary for the publication of an illustrated book. in the duke arranged for the impression of an apologetic book, of which no trace remains; and his _intendant_ writes a long letter to him on the subject of composition and bindings. it was necessary that the work should be produced quickly, bound and gilt, for presents. the _intendant_ thinks calf will be the most expeditious covering. "it would be much the best to use black or red calf, ... well gilt above, and not vellum, which is a thin parchment that quickly shrinks." the statements of this man of business show that five proofs of each sheet were taken for typographical correction, and that twelve full days were wanted for the binding. the most interesting part of this memoir is that which treats of the engraving on wood of the portrait. the plate was designed by an artist who had afterwards gone away; it was not satisfactory, but the ornaments would pass. the _intendant_ proposes to "fix a little piece of wood in the block that could be drawn upon." here we see correction by elimination. the pear-wood on which the original figure was engraved was to be cut out, and a square of boxwood substituted, "forasmuch as in this task the pear-wood, which is the successful, well-cut block, is the wood that is harder." [illustration: fig. .--portrait of christopher plantin, printer of antwerp. engraved by wierix.] the portrait of the duchesse de nevers was better, yet the pear-wood had given way under the work. "that of madame is more passable. nevertheless, there is still something to say to one eye. the wood cannot carry the subtlety of the line." here, in a few clear and explicit lines by a man of the time, we see the economy of a publication of the sixteenth century, at a time when wood engraving was declining, to give place to engraving on metal, which was soon to reign supreme, through the most important book house of the century: the plantins of antwerp. christopher plantin, like jenson, came originally from tours. after having learned his art with macé at caen, he went to paris, from which the wars soon drove him. he left for the low countries, and there philip ii. nominated him as chief printer--"architypographus." established at antwerp in , he surrounded himself, as had the estiennes and alduses, with most of the learned and literary men of his time, among them justus lipsius, to whom balzac attributed the latin prefaces signed by plantin. it is certain that he was neither an estienne nor an aldus. his artistic probity caused him to submit the proofs of his works to strangers, with promise of recompense for faults indicated; the estiennes employed the same system. plantin, not to be behind any of his contemporaries in typographical perfection, brought from france the celebrated type-founder william lebé, and charged him to furnish a special fount.[a] under the orders of philip ii., he printed the celebrated polyglot bible, in eight folio volumes, absolutely perfect in its execution; unfortunately the spanish government, having advanced funds in the course of publication, prosecuted him with the utmost rigour to obtain repayment. this very nearly shut up his printing house, but he took courage and overcame his difficulties, until he became, in , the year of his death, the principal publisher of flanders. his mark was a hand holding a compass, with the motto "labore et constantia." [footnote a: in the bibliothèque nationale is a copy of an octavo _album de caractères_, in which lebé has written, "this gloss, made in paris ( ) by me, is my fourteenth letter, and the text is made on the pattern of the preceding one for size, but of a better art; and from this was printed the great bible of antwerp by plantin, to whom i sold a fount" (folio ). on folio he wrote, "i do not know whence came this small hebrew that i received from plantin to make a smaller one for him. he sent me this half-sheet, and i have not seen at venice another part."] [illustration: fig. .--plantin's mark.] plantin died at the age of seventy-four, leaving a prosperous business to be divided between his three daughters. his first house at antwerp employed seventeen presses even at the time when he was in trouble, and he had branches at paris and leyden, of less consequence. his second daughter married moretus, and to him descended the antwerp workshop; he and his descendants continued the printing house until recently; the house of the great printer and publisher is now a typographical museum. the plantin printing office--"officina plantiniana"--was as well managed by its descendants as by himself. the fashion of engraving in metal spread itself before the death of the head of the house, and his successors continued it. the principal engravers with the burin of the low countries were employed by them: wierix, galle, pass, mallery, van sichern; it was a real school of illustration, that created by degrees a precious and sustained style, not without influence on the artists of that epoch. it was from this particular manner that came thomas de leu and leonard gaultier in france; and from antwerp came those small religious figures that have lasted to our time in their incomprehensible mysticism. the title-pages of the plantin printing office inaugurated the _passe-partout_ engraved by the burin, overloaded and complicated, of which the seventeenth century took advantage. to tell the truth, these elaborate displays, blackened by ink, do not accord well with the titles; and there is a long distance between this decadence and the books ornamented with wood blocks by the italians and french of the commencement of the century. exception must be made in favour of rubens, who designed many of these titles. the heavy and squat architecture of the time was least of all appropriate to these decorations, which wanted grace. it passed from plantin into france through the engravers; it went to rome with martin de vos and john sadeler; it imposed itself everywhere; and from that day to this it has not ceased. at the time of which we write it had taken its flight in france, and spread itself in europe with extraordinary success. engraving in relief, holding its own until then, gave way little by little before this invasion. when henri iv. mounted the throne wood engraving had finished its upward movement, it still remained in the _canards_, or popular pieces sold at low prices, but it is easy to see what these hasty vignettes are worth. [illustration: fig. .--frontispiece of a book from plantin's printing office. metal engraving.] we have now seen the history of the book and its decoration in the sixteenth century in france: at first french epics in italy, books of hours, romances of chivalry; then about , with the reign of henri ii., the religious pamphlets commenced, bookselling spread itself; the strife between illustrations on metal plates and those in relief assumed shape, it continued under henri iii., and terminated abruptly by the victory of the first at the extreme end of the century. with political passions, printing had become a weapon of warfare, which it will never cease to be. they knew in the sixteenth century what perfidious accusations or excessive praises were worth. the book followed the fate of its author. if the writer was burned, so was his book. witness the _christianismi restitutio_ of the catholic servetus, printed at vienne, in dauphiné, and consigned to the flames with its author at geneva in . a single copy was saved from the fire, and is now preserved in the bibliothèque nationale; it is the identical copy annotated by colladon, the accuser of the unhappy servetus, and still bears traces of fire on its leaves. typography and the illustration of the book in england in the sixteenth century did not make the same progress as in france and italy. much good work was done, but it was mostly with foreign material. type was obtained from french and dutch founders, and most of the woodcuts had the same origin. in the early part of the century most of the publications were translations of popular foreign books, such as voragine's "golden legend," caxton's translations of cicero, boetius, etc. too many restrictions and privileges obtained to encourage or allow of the establishment of an english school, which was to come later with the spread of wealth and education. books were mostly printed in gothic type, or "black letter," and the woodcuts were of the coarsest kind. an exception was the beautiful prayer-book of john day, , known as queen elizabeth's prayer-book, from the fine portrait of the queen, which we reproduce, on the previous page; but in this the woodcuts were designed by albert dürer and hans holbein. pynson was the first to use roman type in england, in the _oratio in pace nuperrimâ_, , quarto; and the first english bible in roman type was printed at edinburgh in . it is thought that until about printers were their own type-founders, as no record exists of founding as a separate trade until that time. [illustration: fig. .--portrait of queen elizabeth from the "book of christian praiers," printed by john day, .] the greatest achievement of the sixteenth century in england was the printing of the first english bible, in coverdale's translation, in , folio, but even this was printed abroad, the latest investigation giving it to van meteren at antwerp. the woodcuts in it are by hans sebald beham; we reproduce one representing cain killing abel. tyndall had previously printed abroad an english new testament. another importation was brandt's "shyp of folys," printed by pynson, , and john cawood, , the woodcuts in both being copied from the originals before referred to. [illustration: fig. .--woodcut from coverdale's bible, . cain killing abel.] folio was the size usually adopted, and in this size the series of chronicles appeared: arnold, printed abroad in ; fabian, in ; froissart, by pynson, in two volumes, - ; harding, by grafton, ; hall, by the same, ; holinshed, in two volumes, . in the same size chaucer was first given to the world entire by t. godfrey in , and many times reprinted, and sir thomas more in . polemical and religious treatises were mostly printed in quarto, as were the poets: spenser's _faerie queene_, in ; langland's _pierce plowman_, in ; and sidney's _arcadia_, in . plays were also printed in quarto, in which shape at the end of the century some of shakespeare's single plays were issued. from the great perfection to which the liturgies, or books of hours, had been brought by vostre, verard, and others in france, it is not perhaps extraordinary that the service books for english use should have been mostly printed abroad. those for salisbury and york were produced at paris, rouen, and antwerp. a salisbury primer in english was printed by john kyngston and henry sutton in , and wynken de worde printed a york manual in . the first english common prayer book, known as edward vi.'s, was printed by grafton in , who also printed in henry viii.'s primer in latin and english. edward's book is curious as having on the last page a royal order as to the price at which it was to be sold: "no maner of persone shall sell the present booke vnbounde aboue the price of two shillynges and two pence. and bound in forell for ii_s._ x_d._, and not aboue. and the same bound in shepes lether for iii_s._ iii_d._, and not aboue. and the same bounde in paste or in boordes, in calues lether, not aboue the price of iiii_s._ the pece." cranmer's catechism was printed by nicholas hill in , with twenty-nine woodcuts by hans holbein, one of which we reproduce, representing christ casting out devils. translations from the classics were popular, and in the second half of the century arose that passion for voyage and travel which has so largely contributed to the wealth and extension of england. this was begun by eden's translation of peter martyr's "decades of the new world; or, west india," london, , quarto, followed by hakluyt's "principall navigations, voyages, and discoveries," , folio. many accounts of single voyages and discoveries were issued, and the taste thus created culminated in the establishment of the east india company in the last year of the century. the first specimen of copper plate engraving for books in england is a frontispiece to galen's _de temperamentis_, printed at cambridge , and the number of books containing copper plates engraved before is extremely limited, the most notable being portraits of queen elizabeth, lord leicester, and lord burleigh in archbishop parker's bible of ; saxton's atlas, , the first atlas in england; harrington's translation of ariosto, , with forty-seven engraved plates. [illustration: fig. .--woodcut by hans holbein from cranmer's catechism, .] the first printer at cambridge was john siberch, . peter of treves established himself at southwark in . among his productions is a higden's _polychronicon_, , folio. john oswen printed at ipswich , and among the english towns in which printers established themselves in the century were york, canterbury, tavistock, norwich, and worcester. the establishment of the reformed church, and the diffusion of education among the people which followed, created an original english school of literature in the sixteenth century, and this gave employment and great impetus to typography in england, so that by the time we reach the end of the century we find a great improvement in the art of the book, to be carried to still greater perfection in the next. [illustration] chapter iv. to . tendencies of the regency of marie de medicis--thomas de leu and leonard gaultier--j. picart and claude mellan--lyons and j. de fornazeris--the book at the beginning of the seventeenth century in germany, italy, and holland--crispin pass in france--the elzevirs and their work in holland--sebastian cramoisy and the imprimerie royale--illustration with callot, della bella, and abraham bosse--the publishers and the hotel de rambouillet--the reign of louis xiv., antoine vitré syndic at his accession--his works and mortifications; the polyglot bible of le jay--art and illustrators of the grand century--sébastien leclerc, lepautre, and chauveau--leclerc preparing the illustration and decoration of the book for the eighteenth century--the book in england in the seventeenth century. [illustration: fig. .--letter engraved by a. bosse.] now we have arrived at a critical epoch, in which the science of the old printers transformed itself gradually into commerce, in which taste lost itself under the influence of religious architecture. the title of the book represents the portico of a cathedral, with columns, mitred saints, and crosses, of little decorative aspect. figures on copper plates replaced the foliage and arabesques of the older booksellers. through the plantins and their imitators, the architectural passion was far spread. it inundated france, ran through germany and italy, and reigned pre-eminent in holland. literary taste also underwent change; manners were no longer those of the sixteenth century: bold, free, and gay; from the religious wars a certain hypocrisy arose; bombast replaced the natural; the gods were preparing, as a contemporary said, to receive louis and his spirit. it is not that artists were wanting at the opening of the seventeenth century who could, in giving scope to their talent, show themselves worthy successors of those who went before them. unhappily the booksellers no longer had a loose rein; they had the rope, for they were hung or burned at the least infraction of political or religious propriety. yet the reign of henri iv. was relatively an easier period for the artisans of the book, in which they were less confined to the strict terms of excessive regulations; but after this prince severity increased, and during the year a new law was promulgated punishing with death the printers or distributers of prohibited books. doubtless the books that were thus secretly sold, and prohibited in defence of good manners, were neither _chefs-d'oeuvre_ of typography nor art. the author threw off the indecencies by which he hoped to make profit and fame, regardless of type or illustration. but during the regency of marie de medicis, it was not only the authors of a bad standard that were in danger of being hung; the printer or seller of the pamphlet or book of a reputed heterodox author was also hung, and it became difficult to steer safely among the prohibitions. enormous numbers of works were made with frontispieces decorated with colonnades and mitred saints, and bearing high-sounding titles of sound orthodoxy. a somewhat gross mysticism, from the office of plantin, formed the most solid stock of every respectable dealer. [illustration: fig. .--title of the _metanealogie_, engraved by leonard gaultier.] under henri iv. and the minority of louis xiii., two french illustrators received from the school of antwerp their inspiration for the ornament of the book. thomas de leu, probably from flanders, was allied with the old parisian painter and engraver of celebrated portraits, antoine caron, in furnishing the engraved plates for the _images de plate peinture des deux philostrates, sophistes grecs_, paris, claude cramoisy, , folio; and leonard gaultier, his contemporary, collaborated with jaspar isaac and other artists in the book. leonard gaultier contributed most to spread in france the plantinian style, and his somewhat cold but characteristic talent suited this art more than that of any one else then could. he was an engraver of portraits, now rare and valuable, in the style of wierix or thomas de leu; but, at the demand of publishers and booksellers, he composed other plates, at first historical figures representing the royal family and the nobles for the publisher leclerc, in a simple and true manner; he also designed pious figures, recording a miracle or representing the ceremonies of a jubilee and other devotional things. but he made his great success in the composition of frontispieces to theological and pious works, printed for nearly all the booksellers. leonard gaultier had a fashion of his own with pilasters and grecian columns, under which he boldly placed entire councils of cardinals and bishops; witness the heading of the _bibliotheca veterum patrum_, into which he crowded nearly forty figures. he united also with a certain grace the sacred and the profane, placing among ideal saints the sinning fine ladies of the time, with their large collarettes and jewels falling on naked breasts. the work of andrew valladier, chaplain of the king, entitled _métanéalogie sacrée_, published by peter chevallier in , was adorned with a title of this particular kind, in which gaultier had no rival, and which preserves the precision of flemish masters in the detail of ornaments of the toilet. he was one of the first to work for sebastian cramoisy, printer and publisher, who had established his shop in the rue st. jacques at the sign of the "stork." we shall have occasion to speak of him later in connection with the royal printing house, of which he was the first director; he is mentioned now because in leonard gaultier engraved for him the frontispiece of _l'aigle français_, a collection of sermons by thomas girault. the publisher used the same plate in for the sermons of raymond de hézèque. besides the publications of sebastian cramoisy and chevallier, leonard gaultier adorned also those of nicholas buon and many other publishers of the time in paris and lyons. with such a profusion of works emanating from a single artist, without reckoning those which were produced in great quantity by men of less note, wood engraving was dead. at most it dared to put a wood block of a printer's mark on a title; more ordinarily this mark was not alone sufficient, and showed the disdain in which taste then held wood-cutting. thus goes fashion, heedless of the most elementary rules of art. to put type within an engraved title, or to ornament a printed text with engravings, is a heresy of principle that was established in the eighteenth century, by the strength of its cleverness and talent. but at the beginning of the seventeenth, in spite of leonard gaultier or thomas de leu, these overloaded titles, overpowering the opening of the book, offend the eye by their excessive blackness, and incontestably make us regret the admirable frontispiece on wood of the preceding century. this is all the ornament, properly so called, of the reign of louis xiii. leonard gaultier composed also small vignettes for an edition of homer, but they are mediocre and unskilful, and it must be said that there were others following the same path. john picart made a frontispiece with architecture and figures for the _histoire de la maison de châtillon-sur-marne_ for account of sebastian cramoisy. a cold and hard artist he was, the rival of gaultier, and one of the most employed of the vignette engravers of paris. there was also jaspar isaac, a mediocre craftsman, but who could design clever titles, among them that of the continuation of the _annales_ of baronius for the publisher denis de la noue. then claude mellan, whose great and clever talent did not disdain second-rate works, in which he gave free play to his burin. it must be said, however, that his bold touch did not well accommodate itself to reduced spaces, and that he was not working in the field necessary to his inventive powers. we mention his portrait of louis xiv. at the head of the _code louis xiv._; the title of the _perfection du chrestien_, in which is included a portrait of cardinal richelieu, a. vitré, , folio; that of the _instruction du dauphin_ for cramoisy, ; that of the works of st. bernard for the royal printing house; and, perhaps the best of all, the _poésies_ of pope urban viii., of which we here give a copy. [illustration: fig. .--title engraved by claude mellan for urban viii.'s _poésies_, printed at the royal printing house, in .] lyons did not remain far behind in the movement, but how changed from its great reputation of the sixteenth century! j. de fornazeris engraved the frontispieces to justus lipsius, published by horace cardon in . peter favre and audran imitated them. c. audran designed for claude landry the _theologia naturalis_ of theophilus reynaud, and the bookseller picquet ordered from him the title for the _annales minorum_ in . everywhere taste was modelled on the works of the capital, to name only the principal centres, rouen, rheims, sens, down to venes, a small town of tarn, where william de nautonnier published in his curious book _mécométrie_, whose frontispiece was bordered by views of cities, with an equestrian portrait of king henry. and if we pass to germany, we find mayence with mediocre engravings for titles according to the formula and process used elsewhere, the title of the _droit civil_ of aymar vailius, that of the works of st. bonaventura in for the bookseller antoine hiérat, and that of the _viridarium virtutûm_, rather cleverly treated by the burin in . what a period had passed since gutenberg, fust, and schoeffer! there was still one yves schoeffer at mayence, but only the name lived; nothing more remained of the old printers of the other century. it was the same at bamberg, cologne, nuremberg, and basle, in all the cities that made the honour of typography and the book in former times. cologne was neither better nor worse favoured than others. the booksellers boetzer, kinck, and de binghy had passable engravings for their titles; and the commentaries of salmeron may be mentioned, with portraits from the german originals of the fifteenth century. at nuremberg there was a curious specimen treating of natural history by basil besler, in which the artist gives the interior of a zoological cabinet of the time; but the blocks and the typography of the city of koburger are wanting. basle held its own later in relief engraving. meantime there was a mediocre set of the dance of death on copper, published by miegen, . at jena and frankfort-on-the-main were prosperous printing houses, but engravings and ornamentation were neglected. frankfort employed the frontispiece in the _traité du commerce_ of sigismond scaccia, published by zuner in ; it was divided into compartments, in which the bourse, the exchange, and the port of the city were represented. it is scarcely necessary to mention the italian cities which followed the movement. venice from the middle of the sixteenth century had used engraved frontispieces, among which was that of domenic zenoi for the _portraits des hommes illustres_ of nicholas valegio. in the same city james piccini worked for account of sgava in , but he was equally at the service of roman publishers, for whom he designed a number of titles. along with him frederic greuter adorned the publications of alexander zanetti, not without talent, but without individuality. bologna, brescia, florence, and naples, had no original sentiment; they followed indifferently the manner of the day. in holland, artists were rather numerous. the family of the passes designed vignettes for books, and engraved frontispieces, admirably studied and composed. the clear and truly personal style of their works places their illustrations in the first rank among those of their time. they had, at the same time, the genius that created and the intelligent burin that faithfully translated an idea. they imagined with art the scenes that they depicted without at all copying their predecessors. from , the date of the publication of the _hortus deliciarum_, one of their best works, up to about , they were in holland, at arnheim and at amsterdam. in we find one of them, the most celebrated, crispin the younger, designing figures for the _manège royal_ of pluvinel, published by angelier in paris, and for another edition, with folding plates, in for william lenoir, at the sign of the "white rose crowned." this magnificent work, in which the king, louis xiii., is represented receiving lessons from the rider pluvinel, had a third and more complete reimpression in with another publisher, michael nivelle. here we see the dutch accredited in france, in paris, in the city then the most ready to understand and pay for the works of eminent artists. in gombauld published an _endymion_--boileau later associated gombauld with other poets to declare him a maker of pitiable sonnets--nicholas buon, the bookseller named above, undertook the publication, and employed pass, leonard gaultier, and j. picart to furnish plates in octavo size. heavy and black as were these vignettes, they do not the less make a good appearance in the edition of the forgotten poet; and it is due to truth to recognise how much pass was above his collaborators. the following year, , he engraved the _dionysiaques_ of nonus, for robert fouet, and the _roman des romans_ of du verdier, comprising more than ten engravings, in a very free and bold manner. the _berger extravagant_ and the _académie de l'espée_ came in , among numerous others. [illustration: fig. .--title of pluvinel's _manège royal_, engraved by crispin pass in .] to speak truly, crispin pass did not devote himself entirely to parisian publishers; he always preserved interests in flanders so as to return there from time to time; but he did not find in his own country the ready and assured sales of paris. still the city of leyden had then one of the most renowned workshops of typography; the elzevirs had commenced to make a good place for themselves among the printers of europe by the extreme correctness of their editions, the distinctness of their work, and their marvellous art in the taste and economy of the book. in reality, the sizes and characters of their books were very small, but if the smallness of the page did not allow room for vignette or ornament, they bore a certain practical elegance that was not without charm. the origin of the printing house was due to louis elzevir, who published in an edition of eutropius at leyden. he left sons, who associated themselves together, and founded a house which was unrivalled. [illustration: fig. .--title of the _imitation_ of the elzevirs.] bonaventure elzevir, grandson of louis, was the most illustrious of this family, so remarkably devoted to its art. he took abraham as partner, and together they put forth those little latin classics in duodecimo of which the value is now so great. among others, pliny issued from their presses in the year , in three volumes, virgil in , and cicero in . to-day amateurs, above all those afflicted with bibliomania, hunt for unbound elzevirs, because they have full margins. from about to these volumes were composed of paper of rather small size, making a page of a hundred and thirty to a hundred and thirty-three millimetres; from onwards the paper was larger, and the page from about a hundred and thirty-five to a hundred and thirty-seven. one must be a book-lover to understand the interest attaching to these figures, and employ his entire activity in the discovery of these undiscoverable books, which are concealed as soon as they are met with. one of the most esteemed of their works is the _de imitatione_ of thomas à kempis, printed by john and daniel elzevir about , and known as the edition without date. but as the association of john and daniel is known to have lasted from to , the date appears to be very plausible. we reproduce the entire title of this typographical _bijou_, which merited a cleverer engraver. the rarest of all the numerous elzevirs, possibly by reason of the popularity of its subject, is the _pastissier françois_, louis and daniel elzevir, amsterdam, , of which m. morgand had an uncut copy, measuring a hundred and forty-three millimetres, in . the benzon copy sold in for three thousand two hundred and fifty-five francs. it is to be remarked that the elzevirs frequently avoided dating or even signing their books, for reasons easy to comprehend. publishing numerous works, they were afraid of compromising themselves in the eyes of the powerful, and they let them go forth without any trade mark. these artists in typography were, besides, the most prudent and subtle of men. working at a time when bookselling had become an acknowledged commerce, and a trade requiring all the skill and resources of others, they wisely availed themselves of these, gathering for themselves honour and profit without having done more than seize their opportunity. employing the characters of claude garamond, of james sanlecques, and the papers of angoulême, m. didot thence claims them as french publishers. in france the elzevirs had no rivals; but a fashion was introduced from the end of the sixteenth century of associating together publishers in the production of important and costly books. there were, among others, the company of the "grand navire" in , of the "source" in , and of the "soleil" in . in several publishers united and founded a second company of the "grand navire." these were the two cramoisys, sebastian and gabriel, denis béchet, john branchu, denis moreau, claude sonnius, and denis thierry. the associates took a ship as their mark, but without putting their names on the masts, as the original company of the "grand navire" had done. they published, at common expense and divided profits, great works, of which each one of them had the right of sale, but of course reserving to themselves the right to publish such others as they pleased. sebastian cramoisy passes as the chief, the moral director of another company, formed to publish the fathers of the church, with the royal types, a company affiliated to the "grand navire" and signed in by denis moreau, gille morel, stephen richer, claude sonnius, and gabriel cramoisy. but as regards their personal works, if they had neither the perfection nor the aspect of those of froben, aldus, the estiennes, or even of plantin, they at least surpassed the french books of the time. formerly syndic of the corporation in , twenty-nine years before the constitution of the "grand navire," cramoisy was besides sheriff of paris, and he exercised his trade in a shop in the rue st. jacques which had been that of father nivelle, the _doyen_ of booksellers, who died in at the age of eighty years. the position of cramoisy made it natural for cardinal de richelieu to fix his eyes on him for the direction of the royal printing house. this establishment, founded by the king in , was installed within the louvre, in a long series of rooms which formed a workshop without rival in the world. sublet des noyers was named superintendent, trichet du fresne corrector; and under this triple direction the presses commenced to work. the first book was the _imitation de jésus-christ_, dated , folio, a fine book enough, but not to be compared to the elzevir editions. the types used in this book are attributed to claude garamond, founder of the sixteenth century, to whom are due the greek types of francis i. with the royal printing house, as often happens with state enterprises, the cost was great, and the return nothing. only a few years after its foundation it had swallowed up nearly , livres, a very heavy sum for a badly balanced treasury; it had produced sixty or seventy volumes of moderate value; and after cramoisy the management was so little in earnest that it turned the workshops into a stable, called "the little stable of the king," at the commencement of the eighteenth century. [illustration: fig. .--plate taken from the _lumière du cloistre_. copper plate by callot.] to return to the artists of the book under louis xiii. and cardinal richelieu, we must go back a little, before the foundation of the royal printing house, and we shall find the french school of illustration at a time when callot was giving it a vigorous lift and trying to do away with its affected and hard style. it must be acknowledged that callot was not a vignettist, a special designer; his art aimed higher, and ordinarily succeeded better; yet he did not disdain frontispieces, and made them for the _coustumier de lorraine_, the _harpalice_ of bracciolini, and for a crowd of others of which the enumeration would be tedious. certain of his works passed into italy, where they raised a little the debased level of the book. then he adorned several works with etchings, among them the _lumière du cloistre_, published by francis langlois . it was one of the symbolic and sententious works with which the public taste is never satiated, and a kind of guide for the priest. at the bottom of the little etching here given, representing birds falling from a tree, we read,-- "ses petits hors du nid le courbeau jette en bas, lorsque par leur blancheur ils lui sont dissemblables. le bon prélat de mesme au cloistre n'admet pas ceux qui n'ont rien d'esgal à ses moeurs vénérables." callot also made another set of emblems on the life of the virgin mary, and published in a series of prints in quarto for the tragedy of _soliman_ of bonarelli, for the account of cecconnelli. france imposed herself on fallen italy, she got her works dispersed there, and if an engraver arose there, he did not disdain to consecrate himself to france. witness della bella, who went from italy to france, where he was taken under the protection of cardinal richelieu. it was about the time of the establishment of the royal printing house, and it was expected that employment would be found at once for him. callot was the model chosen by the young italian artist, and this choice might have been less happy. della bella took from his master the philosophic vein, the drollery of design, which he exercised at first in humorous frontispieces, among others that of scarron's works, where nine fish-women, taking the place of the muses, dance around the poet. but he passed from gay and pleasant to severe, and made large pages of architecture for serious titles. in he designed the plates for the large and undigested volume of valdor on louis xiii., published by antoine estienne at the royal printing house. his success was not there; della bella was a painter of groups, of ornaments, of subjects somewhat heavy and overdrawn, but which, after numerous transformations, opened a new way to the vignettists of the eighteenth century. [illustration: fig. .--title of the _manière universelle_, by desargues, in , by abraham bosse.] with abraham bosse the decoration of the book took a considerable extension. numerous and charming ornamented letters, heads of pages, and tailpieces appear. there are few artists that have done so much as he for graceful illustration and harmony between the vignette and the printed page. his prodigious fecundity made him attempt every style; and after the gaieties of the print in which he laughed with his contemporaries, he adopted a grave air to trace more severe subjects on copper. however, the book entitled _la manière universelle_, by desargues, with numerous geometrical figures and an agreeable frontispiece, bearing the dedication to the seigneur de noyers, superintendent of the royal printing house, was a critical work, in which bosse, under a serious standard, did not spare an enemy. we do not bear ill-will to the artist, however, for the following year he published fourteen plates for the suetonius printed at the louvre. he successively designed plates for the _histoire de st. louis_, numerous vignettes for pious books, figures for the _pucelle_ of chapelain and for the _larcins de la fortune_. he was always himself, refined and ingenious, whether in the most barren or the most complicated subjects. [illustration: fig. .--print by abraham bosse representing the booksellers of the palace under louis xiii.] he has left us in a celebrated print a representation of a bookseller's shop of his time. it is for us an interesting page, in which is shown simply and rather naïvely the picturesque side of these stores, with the dealer and his wife selling new works to their customers. the shop is compact, and very much like the open-air stalls of to-day; posting-bills above the shelves indicate the "new books;" and if the inscriptions given by bosse be credited, the palace dealer offered his books with singular eclecticism: boccaccio, aretin, the _astrée_ of d'urfé, the bible, and machiavelli. in the hands of the woman is seen the romance _marianne_: "icy les cavaliers les plus adventureux en lisant les romans s'animent à combattre; et de leur passion les amants langoureux flattent les mouvements par des vers de théâtre," says the text of bosse. what was commonly done then is still done, shopping and rummaging the stalls, and those of the palace were attractive. if we credit sauval, the great number of booksellers, in the middle of the century, was due to the wits of the hotel de rambouillet. the passion for novelty, for recent works, had produced that quantity of publishers, he says, that we have seen on the pont neuf, and that we still see to-day at the palace and the university, but of which the number is so multiplied in all these places that in the palace they count more than other dealers; and as to the neighbourhood of the university, they are obliged, in order to lodge the rest, to extend the ancient bounds from st. yves to the river (sauval, _antiquités de paris_, viii., ). in fact, each year saw an increase in the number of publishers in corporation, with syndicate and adjuncts. under the reign of louis xiii., the single year had fifty to take rank, and among them antoine vitré, who was to become the most illustrious of his contemporaries. but, as there were no more than six printers, it may be inferred that all the rest were booksellers, in the true sense of the word, of those who encumbered afterwards the great _salle_ of which sauval speaks. antoine vitré was syndic in may, , on the accession of louis xiv. he had four adjuncts. with him the book marked the solemn style that the commencement of the century had given to it. royal printer for the oriental languages from , he undertook a syriac work, the first that was attempted in paris. the project of a polyglot bible gave him the idea of acquiring for the king the oriental manuscripts and matrices of savary de brèves. the king left to him the care of negotiating the business, but did not reimburse him without numerous difficulties, in the midst of which the printer was made to lose the means of conveniently continuing his trade. the advocate le jay charging himself with the enormous expenses necessitated by the polyglot bible, it was composed in the hope that cardinal richelieu would pay the cost. he was willing to do so, but required that his name should figure on the book; and as le jay, an independent man, formally opposed it, vitré met with ill-will from the minister, which increased from day to day. in the impression was finished, but le jay was ruined, and if we admire the paper, the type, and the extraordinary size of the nine volumes of the polyglot bible, we find in it so many faults, errors, and misprints that it has fallen to nearly nothing, hardly being worth its binding. there were terrible mortifications in the business, and vitré had to submit to them more than any one. nevertheless he did not let his presses stand still, and he published successively arabic, turkish, and persian works. his action against the savary heirs, as representing the king, in the acquisition mentioned above, continued also after the impression of the bible, and hindered his progress. he struggled on; and the assembly of clergy, of which he was the printer, sought to help him out of his difficulties. the matter being once terminated, the cardinal being dead, and vitré having been named by colbert director of the royal printing house in place of cramoisy, he died in his turn, and was later accused of having destroyed the types and matrices of the polyglot bible, so that they should not be used after him. this fable, long accredited, has since been ascertained to be false, for the punches and matrices passed to the royal library, thence to the royal printing house, reorganised in . antoine vitré, in spite of his misfortunes, was a great personage. he was painted by champagne and engraved by morin, as was richelieu himself. the portrait was reproduced in the book of m. delaborde, _la gravure_ (p. ). such was the man whom we meet at the beginning of the reign of louis xiv. as syndic of booksellers; and it was by no means a sinecure, a canonry giving honour and profit, quite the other way. with the draconian rules on the subject, the syndic assumed a heavy burden towards the king, as well as towards his kinsmen. religious quarrels envenomed questions, and the revocation of the edict of nantes was to have for its immediate corollary new and more severe royal ordinances. the reign of louis xiv. saw the zenith of engraving with the burin, but not that of printing or illustration. doubtless it would be puerile to pretend that typography had not made any material progress; it had done so in engraving and in composition; work was done more quickly, because the presses had been made more perfect. but the wise harmony of the old printers, their sure taste, even in their old irregular blocks, was no longer there to form a graceful and charming whole, which is to modern precision as a picture by van eyck is to a chromo-lithograph. under louis xiv., titles became regular, following, as we have said above, and modelling themselves on, the affected and peruked people who read them. all art entered on this path of sublimity and grandeur. the painter le brun is the highest exponent of this false olympus, where an heroic pose became necessary for the most humble movements. made popular by engraving by pesne, audran, poilly, edelinck, and a hundred others, this tendency overran everything: art and industry, painting and tapestry, illustration and typography itself. all was grand, in reverse of other times, when all was small and mean. the embellishments of the book were full of gods in perukes and goddesses in armour, louis xiv. as apollo, as the sun illuminating the world. "nec pluribus impar" was not the device of one man; it was the mighty and glorious cry of a whole people, from great to small, from the sublime painter to the modest printer. ordinarily these exaggerations are not useful to the arts. here they were. but, for the matter that specially occupies us, it does not appear that the book was much advanced. it approached a marvellous epoch of a delicate and graceful art; but it did not find its form; it dragged painfully after the plantinian works, heavily throwing its etchings and burins in the middle of texts, gross and in bad taste. yet taste in literature had an onward tendency; molière and la fontaine produced on their contemporaries the effect that in our day the naturalists have produced on the romanticists; but this was not for long. majesty recovered its rights with bossuet, boileau, and the others. [illustration: fig. .--tailpiece of sébastien leclerc for the _promenade de st. germain_.] sébastien leclerc was one of the rare artists of the end of the seventeenth century who dreamed of the vignette in the midst of this invasion of pompous commonplace. successor of callot in manner, induced by the publishers, he began this style with a romance of la calprenède, and continued with the _promenade de st. germain_ of louis le laboureur, bailie of montmorency, of whom boileau said such curious things. this is one of the rarest books of leclerc, and we reproduce one of the pages, with a charming tailpiece, which comes very near those of the eighteenth century. there was, moreover, a charm in this ingenious designer; he adorned the works of his contemporaries with graceful vignettes and decorations full of suppleness. it may be believed, besides, that he did not remain behind his _confrères_ in figure composition or allegorical and divine emblems. his art did not throw off the errors of the existing school; he was content not to copy any one and to make his works truly his own. such were, for example, the vignettes of the _histoire de turenne_, where the heads of the chapters, the ornamented letters, and the tailpieces, harmoniously agree, and make the book, a little heavy in impression, a most agreeable work. leclerc then found himself ready to design vignettes for the works of racine for the publisher, claude barbin, another name frequently encountered in boileau. the title of vol. ii. merits attention. the same year of this last publication, , sébastien leclerc illustrated the "metamorphoses" of ovid for benserade, the engraving of which cost the king more than , livres. thus adorned, the book had not a bad appearance, but a satirist of the time, hardin very probably, made on it this quatrain:-- "mais quant à moi j'en trouve tout fort beau: papier, dorure, images, caractère, hormis les vers qu'il fallait laisser faire a la fontaine." it may be imagined what an engraver could produce working from and dying in , that is, a life of work the longest that could be hoped for. leclerc was the absolute contemporary of the king. he died, like him, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, leaving work widely scattered among books, funeral orations, and placards. after the example of callot and bosse, he did not disdain satire. one of his prettiest vignettes served to illustrate some pamphlet of richesource against the journalists of his time; it represents a dandy of about offering his gazette. by the side of this unrivalled antagonist it is permitted to place lepautre, twenty years older than leclerc, but whose studies had been principally on architecture. in the moments that he left his special work he devoted himself to frontispieces and vignettes; nevertheless, although he had before him the charming designs of leclerc, he confined himself to a cold and hard manner, keeping, besides, as much as possible to titles, in which his particular talent could find scope. he designed also the chartreux missal of , the _gallia christiana_ after marot, the _dioptrique oculaire_ of p. chérubin, engraved by edelinck, and a thousand other works of small repute. [illustration: fig. .--small figure of sébastien leclerc for richesource's pamphlet.] very different was francis chauveau, who, without having the delicacy of sébastien leclerc or his art of arrangement, treated at least with grace little figures and illustrations. certainly there is an enormous distance between these correct and commonplace engraved plates and the delightful wood engravings of the time of geoffroy tory, for example. but, be their worth what it may, they suited very well; and even with molière they did not make such a bad figure. chauveau was associated with many of the works of leclerc, who caused him often to be less heavy, inasmuch as leclerc corrected in engraving many of his compositions. it was so with molière, and still more with racine in the plate of the _plaideurs_, in which chauveau revealed himself a precursor of the eighteenth century. unhappily he did not always follow this manner. successively, and with various luck, he illustrated _alaric_, _andromaque_, and the "metamorphoses" of ovid for benserade, with leclerc; the _pucelle_ of chapelain, and the _tragédies_ of racine, to which le brun did not disdain to put his hand. in short, the connecting link between the beginning of the seventeenth and that of the eighteenth century in the development of illustration is sébastien leclerc. he had known the artists of the first period; he was to see at his death appear one of the precursors of the vignettists of the following century, claude gillot. thanks to him, overburdened titles and unskilful vignettes underwent a gradual transformation. in the delicacy and tenuity of his designs may be seen the dominant note of the eighteenth century, coquetry, and choffard is divined. he was nearly the only one who did not fall into the exaggerations of the engravers of the time; he kept beside them without touching them, and preciously preserved his own well-accentuated personality. by the smallness and slenderness of his figures, leclerc recalls somewhat the school of fontainebleau; but he is above all the reflection of callot, a lorrainer like himself. in holland, a frenchman, bernard picart, son of stephen and pupil of leclerc, was making a great name as an illustrator. he established himself as a print-seller at amsterdam at the sign of "l'etoile," and successively designed vignettes for many works, among others the boileau of . his vignettes and tailpieces, without possessing either the spirit of leclerc or the grace of the eighteenth century, express an ingenious and inventive art that had broken with the strained traditions of preceding epochs. from these two artists the decoration of the book rapidly advanced. the form is found, and charming designers are not wanting to apply it. the troubled state of england during the greater part of the seventeenth century no doubt accounts for the fact that the art of the book made but very little progress. theological controversies, the persecutions by the puritans, and, above all, the great civil war and its antecedents and results, gave rise to a flood of publications of an ephemeral kind, which from their nature were hurriedly produced; and there was little room for pure literature and art. in the early part of the century, under the influence which elizabeth left, and which james fostered, some important works were issued, with finely engraved illustrations; but wood engraving declined further and further, until it was artistically dead, to be revived in the next century. the works of the numerous poets and dramatists were printed in quarto, and collected editions of them in folio. thus were issued the works of shakespeare, first collected by jaggard and blount, , folio, with an engraved portrait by droeshout, the faithfulness of which was vouched in an opposite page of verse signed by ben jonson. "don quixote" first appeared in an english dress in - , published by e. blount in quarto; and jaggard, blount's partner in the shakespeare, published boccaccio's "decameron," in two volumes folio, . among other notable works of the early part of the century were drayton's "polyolbion," ; chapman's homer, - , folio, three volumes; lord bacon, whose essays and other single publications appeared in the seventeenth, to be collected as his "works" in the next century; and william prynne, whose _histrio mastrix_, , so offended charles i. by its references to the queen and the court ladies, that the author had to undergo a severe and degrading punishment. many of these works were illustrated with meritorious engravings on steel and copper by w. hollar, p. lombart, w. marshall, hole, w. pass, w. faithorne, and r. vaughan. so that here were all the materials for the foundation of an english school, to be cruelly broken up shortly afterwards by the distractions of civil warfare. in robert barker first printed the authorised version of the holy bible, which has been more often reprinted than any other book, and which exists to this day as the great standard of the english language. the taste for books of travel which arose in the last century was largely increased by the voyages and discoveries of the english in north america and the subsequent puritan exodus there. these early accounts of virginia and new england, many of which are tracts of a few leaves only, now command fabulous prices. the great collection of voyages under the name of "purchas: his pilgrimes," was printed in five folio volumes, - , while de bry, hulsius, and linschoten were enriching the world with their collections of travels, printed in germany and holland. all of these works were adorned with finely engraved plates, those to "purchas" being engraved by elstrack, and, besides, it had a famous map of the world, engraved by hondius. the controversial spirit engendered by the religious quarrels of the century and by the great civil war gave incessant work to the printers; and the many tracts and pamphlets thus produced were frequently illustrated by rude and coarse woodcuts, of no value from an artistic point of view, but curious from the indications they afford of the costumes and manners of the time. the first edition of walton's "angler" was printed by r. marriott in , mo, with plates in the text, engraved on steel by lombart. butler's "hudibras" appeared in - , and milton's "paradise lost" in , quarto. fuller's "worthies of england" was printed , folio. we have roughly mentioned the principal english books of the century, and next approach the revival of literature and art in the eighteenth century. [illustration] chapter v. the book in the eighteenth century. the regency--publishers at the beginning of the eighteenth century--illustrators in france; gillot--the school of watteau and boucher--cars--the younger cochin; his principal works in vignettes--french art in england; gravelot--eisen--choffard--the _baisers_ of dorat; the _contes_ of la fontaine--the publisher cazin and the special literature of the eighteenth century--the younger moreau and his illustrations--the revolution--the school of david--duplessis-bertaux--the book in germany; chodowiecki--in england; boydell and french artists--caslon and baskerville--english books with illustrations--wood engraving in the eighteenth century; the papillons--printing offices in the eighteenth century. [illustration: fig. .--letter by cochin for the _mémoires d' artillerie_ of suvirey de st. remy.] like experience has shown us in our time, but in another manner, the beginning of the eighteenth century produced, in the manners and tastes of the french, an unconscious but tenacious reaction. it seemed as if the conceptions of romanticism had lasted long enough, and that the cycle of middle age chevaliers had passed away, and that a return to what is called nature was effected in literature and art. at the death of louis xiv., olympus and its gods, majestic poses and suns, had become wearisome. by a little half-open door, gaiety escaped from its prison and fled. for the book that door was the hand of sébastien leclerc. the ancient school was replaced. constrained during three quarters of a century, french manners began to be joyous under the regency of the duc d'orleans. if the representatives of another age still lived, if rigaud always painted his portraits in peruke, there were new-comers, enlivened by the new fashions, less solemn and more bewitching. le brun was then far in the past, and as amusing to the ladies of the regency as are now to us the fashions of the second empire. the book, after its manner, followed the movement, and gradually found the elements of its decoration in the tendencies of the day. small sizes were multiplied, types showed elegance, and vignettes became more and more agreeable and intellectual. amateurs had their _ex-libris_ engraved. the smallest pamphlets were covered with ornamental letters, vignettes, and tailpieces, already very clever. costume also, in its shorter and lighter form, gave to designers a means of agreeably composing a page of illustration and disseminating fancy in the figures. these revolutions worked themselves simply from day to day, as taste became more pronounced and exacting. the commerce of the book was still extending from the end of the preceding century; and if the number of printers was limited and arrested by certain somewhat hard laws, production in paris was enormous. among regulations that weighed most heavily on publishers figured the obligation put upon them by the ordinance of to deposit eight copies of illustrated books. in the king issued other regulations to affirm the rights of the university against the corporation, forcing the masters to assist in a body at the processions of the sorbonne and to offer on the day of the purification a candle to the rector. in spite of this ordinance, more religious than useful to commerce, the fashion of vignettes increased. the principal shops were searched, as they are still, for novelties; the rue st. jacques and the quai des augustins, where they were grouped, were resorted to. the most important booksellers in were coignard, the barbous--who essayed afterwards, with lengley dufresnoy, to copy the elzevirs,--cavalier, robustel, fournier, ballard, and d'houry. of the two last, d'houry printed the calendars, and ballard had the privilege for music. another, leonord, published the books of the dauphin. at these and other publishers', recent works were examined, those who did not buy gave their advice and took ideas, and so fashion slowly formed itself. it was thus that houdart de la motte published with g. dupuis in a collection of fables, with illustrations of claude gillot, which was the talk at the booksellers'. in this book all was original: the author, who had had, five years before, the eccentric idea of translating the iliad without knowing a word of greek; the text, a kind of imitation of la fontaine, without salt or savour; the size, quarto, admirably printed by dupuis, in the rue st. jacques, with plates by coypel, massé, and, above all, the charming vignettes of gillot, the most pleasing and clever of all his collaborators, a sort of callot fallen into the eighteenth century, and who ought to take the first place by birthright. gillot has been called, not without reason, "the last pagan of the renaissance;" and this pagan had the honour to give us watteau. [illustration: fig. .--vignette by gillot for the _chien et le chat_, fable by houdart de la motte, in .] the count de caylus tells the story. gillot had quitted the pencil for the etching needle on seeing the work of his pupil. he had no reason to complain; his pictures were of no value, and his prints gave other artists the idea of imitating them. the whole french school of the eighteenth century may have had its origin in this forgotten book, illustrated by the master of watteau. in fact, in the manner of the little etching here given we may easily perceive the coquetry and affectation that were later the dominant tone of vignettes. for, it may well be said, the graceful, feminine, and arch manner of which we speak was, above all, conventional and false. in opposition to the designers and engravers of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century, who reproduced naturally scenes of daily life in ideal conceptions, it came, through the moral education of the artists, that they put forth the ideal in the most ordinary things of life. shepherds were no longer the gross, rustic peasants that we find in primitive flemish paintings or in the "hours" of simon vostre; they were coxcombs, pomaded and adorned with ribbons, playing the bagpipes, and making love to the shepherdesses of the court. at first it was watteau who influenced all the engravers in the pretty and the smart; boucher did the rest; and fatally the book followed, and followed impetuously, surpassing, if possible, the painted works. if the severe poses, the grave touch, of the preceding century are no longer found, they often go a little far in the contrary sense. it may be well said here that the arts are ordinarily the result of the manners of an epoch. the system of law was not without influence on the entire eighteenth century, by the terrible manner in which he upset fortunes, awoke appetites, gave rein to aspirations hitherto held in check. claude gillot, the designer, was one of the first victims of the scotch banker; he lost his fortune on the exchange; but who may say what his artistic ambition dreamed of in the midst of all these disorders? one thing is certain: that watteau, his pupil, broke off very short with the style of the seventeenth century. laurent cars was the engraver who multiplied the compositions of boucher, and made them the fashion. he engraved also, after the painter of shepherds and nymphs, illustrations to molière, the most agreeable that there are for style and spirit. in engraving certain works of lemoyne, cars did not completely desert the ancient school. he appears at the beginning of the eighteenth century as if divided between two manners each equally possible to him. the work of these engravers was almost exclusively in etching, biting with acid a copper plate covered with varnish, on which the drawing was made by means of a point. this process, always previously used for sketches, served also for finishing vignettes, which up to then had been finished by the burin. the suppleness of the work was greater, and the artist remained more himself than he could be with the stiff cutting instrument of the seventeenth century. the sizes of books had not yet all come to octavo or duodecimo. the works of molière published by prault in in six volumes quarto, under the direction of marc antoine joly, give the idea of an important work, not at all of theatrical pieces. to tell the truth, these somewhat exaggerated dimensions allow artists more room for illustration; later, when smaller forms predominated, text and engravings were so compressed that they were not always clear and readable to every eye; but the quarto was not graceful, it was not in harmony with the finikin, the pastoral pieces, then presented, and it had to disappear as a current size in illustrated publications. the class of artisans employed on the book is not identical in the eighteenth century with that of printers and publishers. in the beginning, as we have seen, the cutters of wood blocks and the printers were often the same people, preparing their characters or their blocks, and afterwards putting them under the press. large printing offices had very quickly changed that. each particular work had its special workman. typography had its type-founders, compositors, forwarders, inkers, and pressmen. in the eighteenth century this was complicated by designers, engravers, plate-printers, and these different professions occupied themselves on the book in manipulating the sheets in their turn. in the midst of this crowd, the designers and engravers, esteemed as was their collaboration, were not the most honoured. their homes often reflected the effect of their life as clever artists, quick to spend the money earned during the week; and we shall have occasion to name some of the more miserable among them. the booksellers, on the contrary, had become great personages. in the preceding chapter we have seen cramoisy and vitré, to name only them, acquire the greatest honours, the latter painted by philip de champagne, with many others lords of the court. in the eighteenth century there were brunet, ballard, mariette, chardon, didot, and a host of others, during the time of watteau, boucher, and cars, of which we shall shortly speak; and these several publishers had houses of their own, and furnished shops and printing offices with the best apparatus. saved from falling into negligences by royal regulations on printing, they composed with admirable characters, on paper of the first order, imperishable works; and, usual consequence of their high situation, they paid the artists badly charged with their work. it would be long and tedious to enter into this matter in detail. they made progress by slow degrees, and in good time they marvellously united copper plate engraving to printed text, so marvellously, that in comparing their works to the wood blocks of the sixteenth century, it may be asked which of the two styles is superior in elegance and good taste. [illustration: fig. .--vignette for _daphnis et chloe_ by cochin, for coustelier's edition.] one of the ancestors of this group of vignettists was the younger cochin, who had engraved the plate of the monks in the fables of houdart, illustrated by gillot. cochin, in spite of his passion for allegory and his very marked taste for affectation, gave, it may be said, with the designer-engraver st. aubin, an enormous impulse to the art of adorning books. from the beginning of his career he worked for the publishers, composing frontispieces, ornamented letters, and tailpieces, or transferring to copper the drawings of others. singular type of artist, besides, educated, well brought up, epicurean and spendthrift, friend of great lords, and protected by madame de pompadour. when he travelled in italy with her young brother abel poisson, cochin did everything, was ready at the least request, inventing curious menus, giving representations of fêtes, and yet finding the time to decorate books and design vignettes profusely. he worked chiefly for jombert, a sort of learned bookseller, king's printer for the artillery, who dates from july, . jombert was visited by painters. he gave little private soirées, which cochin attended, and where he daily made numerous friends. it was in this house, of so special a character, and, it may be said, so little artistic at first sight, that cochin invented his best frontispieces, among them that of the _calcul différentiel_, that of the _astronomie physique_, and the plates of the _méthode de dessin_, after boucher. he was one of the first to produce engraved titles, with which the publisher prault ornamented his dainty volumes, and which were imitated, up to the end of the eighteenth century, by all the illustrators who followed. in that to the works of madame deshoulières the letter itself is engraved. since then the open letter has been copied in typography. these vignettes were used many times by publishers, sometimes simply effacing the inscription, sometimes reproducing the original design by a different artist. the boy with the swan had decorated in a "jerusalem delivered" in italian, by the same publisher, prault; it was then engraved by aveline. fessard engraved the second plate, which is here reproduced. [illustration: fig. .--title-page engraved by fessard after cochin for the works of madame deshoulières, .] nearly all the frontispieces of the book with vignettes of the eighteenth century preserve this arrangement: an ornamented and draped border, with garlands of roses, symbols, and cupids, in the middle the title, in red and black, composed in open letter, often a scroll with the address of the publisher, but rarely a mark. it was the time of little winged cupids, goddesses, and gods. the goddesses were the favourites of the kings, madame de pompadour or the princesses, but rarely the virtuous marie leczinska, too homely and too much ignored to tempt the artists; the kings or the princes were the gods. after jombert, prault, and coustellier, cochin worked for françois didot, syndic of the printers, for whom he prepared a set of illustrations to molière. unfortunately didot died in , and the project fell with him. of the work of cochin there only remains the set of _tartufe_ etchings in octavo. in the vortex into which he was plunged, he successively illustrated the works of rousseau, published at brussels, quarto; those of boileau, published by david and durand, octavo; and henault's "history of france," in the same size, with numerous vignettes. one of these should be noted in a book treating of printing; it is that in which cochin pretends to show to his contemporaries the interior of a workshop in . without doubt the sketch of this print was taken in one of the houses frequented by him--at jombert's, didot's, or david and durand's--for that room in which compositors are working and printed sheets drying was not an invention of cochin, and served to reproduce a printing office of the eighteenth century. [illustration: fig. .--vignette taken from p. corneille's _théâtre_, by gravelot.] with cochin soon worked a number of designers and aqua-fortists, too prudent to lose the opportunity. the fashion arrived for books beribboned, festooned, and flowered. hubert françois gravelot had carried to london this style of new works, which he knew how to decorate, in his manner, better than any one, with letters, figures, and tailpieces. he did not engrave much himself, leaving this work to lesser artists, and contenting himself with subtle invention and graceful subjects. with eisen, cochin, and moreau, he is the french artist in the sense of the time, free, bold, and ingenious, but perhaps a little out of place in england. he published his plates to the "decameron" in , one of the most curious of his sets of plates, and a hundred various vignettes. on his return to france he designed the _théâtre_ of p. corneille, from which the _galerie de palais_ is here reproduced, on account of the illustration of bookselling which it gives. in the large _salon_ of the palace was still, as in the time of abraham bosse, a place where shops were fitted up and the new books discussed. side by side with the dressmakers and merchants of every category, the bookseller offers to his customer the recent products of parisian presses. certain works were sold under cover and not shown; there is here something to pique the curiosity of unoccupied young men who strolled about and prolonged their stay in the galleries. [illustration: fig. .--border designed by choffard in .] eisen has a simplicity, a good taste, and a special and singularly perfect economy of artistic effect combined with typography. it appears hard that the designer had no consultative voice in the choice of impression and disposition of the book. the union of the two forces, the vignette and the composition, is so close that it may be believed one was made for the other, neither venturing to assert itself. in the pretty and elaborate inventions of the artists reigned a lackadaisical affectation that was delightfully becoming; the rock-work, which it still had, suited admirably the borders of the first page. the _lettres d'une peruvienne_ has a very agreeable title, but little different, on the whole, from that of madame deshoulières, by cochin. it is the same with the _lettres turques_, published at amsterdam in , and generally in all the frontispieces signed by him. as to the other decorations of the book, there were also a number of ingenious artists, confusing cupids and flowers, imposing blazons, delighting in playing with accumulated difficulties. under this assuredly involuntary but real direction, publications attained proportions of luxury and coquetry until then unknown. the volume of _baisers_ of dorat would not have lived but for eisen and the delightful fancies with which he adorned it. at the same time, we find choffard, another designer and etcher of much repute, and sought after by the booksellers. under his pencil the vignette became a _chef-d'oeuvre_, the tailpiece was a delightful compound of judicious and sportive ornament, the taste for which grew more and more. from delicate foliage are suspended roses, shepherds' pipes, lyres, and zithers. with the zephyrs scrolls or ribbons float, carried by winged cupids. the initial letters are real pictures, of such fineness and precision that the difficulties of their reproduction prevent us from putting them before the reader. when the _fermiers généraux_, those great amateur financiers of the last century, conceived the idea of an edition of the _contes_ of la fontaine at their expense, their eyes naturally fell upon the artists best prepared to illustrate the inimitable fancies of the great poet, eisen and choffard. the first had for his task the composition of the plates, choffard the general decoration. ficquet was added for the portrait of the _bonhomme_ la fontaine--ficquet, whose specialty in this _genre_ was dazzling in its delicacy and spirit; diderot wrote a short introduction; the composition was confided to a printer of the first order, and it was put on sale by barbou. [illustration: fig. .--vignette by eisen for the quiproquo in the contes of la fontaine, in the edition of the fermiers généraux.] it is not a book to be recommended from a moral point of view, but the typographical art, joined to that of designers and engravers, never obtained a more complete success: the size in octavo, the impression clear, united with the dimensions of the plates in a harmonious elegance, well calculated to please the three rich personages and the joyous amateurs to whom the _contes_ address themselves. true, eisen has dressed the greater part of the characters in the costume of his time, which is a little hurtful to one's feelings to-day; it may be imagined, however, that it was la fontaine who was mistaken, so that these delicate, risky tales appear to be created for the seigneurs of the time of louis xv. all the special literature sought for then by rich people had not the value of the _contes_. there was at rheims a person, who has to-day become the _mode_, as he was in the time of louis xvi., who sold under cover a quantity of licentious books of the better kind, adorned with figures by eisen, marillier, or cochin; this was cazin, an artist in his way, but whose good name suffered under a scandalous trial. an order of the council of state in enjoined him to cease his trade in the place royale at rheims, where he sold his particular merchandise. it appears that the sentence was not without appeal, for we find cazin at paris about . he was one of those who were ruined by the revolution, after he had popularised the editions known as _petits formats_, printed by valade, of paris. [illustration: fig. .--card of the publisher prault, uncle by marriage of moreau le jeune.] we have come to the most beautiful illustrated books of the eighteenth century, and to the illustrious artists of whom we shall speak in good time should be added the younger moreau and st. aubin, the former nephew by marriage of the publisher prault, and therefrom a decorator of the book, the other thrown by gravelot into full work, and rapidly becoming the most subtle and adroit of the etchers of the time. moreau did not wait long after his marriage before setting to work. he began with ornaments destined for the _histoire de france_ of president henault; then he composed, in his own personal manner, titles and tailpieces for his uncle. in the book he is the propagator of garlands of roses, which he grouped with an ideal grace; he twined them in the borders of his frontispieces, and put them judiciously in his tailpieces. he excelled in inventing subjects referring to the text which were not commonplace ornaments suitable for anything. the tailpiece on p. , taken from the works of molière, brings forcibly to mind the _médecin malgre lui_, with its wood-cutter unmercifully beaten with sticks and muffled in a scientific robe. it is the same with other illustrations, that cannot be displaced from the position assigned to them by the artist without disappointment. [illustration: fig. .--tailpiece from the _médecin malgre lui_, by moreau le jeune.] the year , which saw the publication by de bret of the works of molière, may perhaps be considered as that in which the french book of the eighteenth century reached its culminating point. m. de laborde, first valet de chambre of the king and governor of the louvre, published with de lormel, printer to the academy of music, his celebrated collection of _chansons_, dedicated to the young dauphiness marie antoinette, and partly illustrated by the younger moreau. the work is exquisite, of powerful yet simple grace. the sentimental note of the century was struck in it, the insipid love of shepherdesses there tenderly sighed, and the designer has delightfully rendered this arch side of the pastoral song. our task does not permit us to linger over the works of this prodigious and charming artist, but we must mention his inimitable plates to j. j. rousseau, the finest and most agreeable of his compositions and vignettes, also his _chef-d'oeuvre_, the _histoire du costume_. [illustration: fig. .--vignette of the "pardon obtenu," designed by moreau le jeune, for laborde's _chansons_, in .] as evidencing the activity of french artists of the book in the eighteenth century, we cite the number of works illustrated by the respective artists enumerated in the last edition of m. h. cohen's valuable _guide de l'amateur de livres à gravures du xviii^e siècle_:-- aliamet, . audran, . aveline, . baquoy, . basan, . binet, . borel, . boucher, . bovinet, . cars, . chedel, . chenu, . choffard, . cochin, . coypel, . dambrun, . delaunay, n., . delignon, . delvaux, . duclos, . duflos, . dunker, . duplessis-bertaux, . eisen, . elluin, . fessard, e., . ficquet, . flipart, . fokke, . folkema, . fragonard, . freudeberg, . gaucher, . ghendt, . godefroy, . gravelot, . grignion, . gutenberg, . halbou, . helman, . ingouf, . langlois, . le barbier, . le bas, . lebran, . leclerc, . legrand, . lemire, . lempereur, . leveau, . longueil, . marillier, . martinet, . masquelier, . massard, . monnet, . monsiau, . moreau, . née, . pasquier, . patas, . pauquet, . petit, . picart, . ponce, . prévost, . prud'hon, . queverdo, . rigaud, . roger, . romanet, . rousseau, . st. aubin, . scotin, . sève, . simonet, . tardieu, . tilliard, . trière, . doubtless some of these ascriptions are for frontispieces only, but as a list of the principal book illustrators of the time, and as showing the measure of their popularity, this table is of much interest. with the revolution the decline of the book arrives, as that of all the arts. moreau, friend of david, had become affected by the new ideas and the burlesque renaissance of greek and roman art. he made his apology on the altar of the gods, and engraved portraits on wood to punish himself for having painted the elegancies of fallen tyrants. at this game, nerve, as well as suppleness, was lost; and if he had had only the artistic knack of the revolution, his daughter, married to charles vernet, could not have written of him, "that which can be most admired is, at the same time, the fecundity and flexibility of moreau's talent, that marvellous facility of conceiving a picturesque scene and disposing it in an interesting and truthful manner in the least extended space." this was true before, but after? in spite of his passion for the ideas and men of the revolution, moreau found himself at the end of his resources. renouard, the publisher, received him as he had received st. aubin, to whom he advanced sum after sum to prevent him dying of hunger. like most of his contemporaries, moreau, pressed by want, "took, quitted, and retook the cuirass and the hair-shirt." he had drawn for everybody: for louis xvi., for the republic, for napoleon i. the worst of it is that after his designs for ovid, molière, and rousseau, dating from the reign of louis xvi., he should have done them again in , , and . the difference was great, even probably for his publishers, renouard and dupréel. it does not appear that the pontiff of the new school, david, knew of his distress; and moreau succumbed in to a cancerous scirrhus of the right arm, forgotten and in the greatest misery. we have passed a little quickly to the end of the century because it is of no importance to name each of the publishers and artists, but only to sketch briefly their tastes or their manner. we have not dwelt long on the engravers so called, because of their number; but their dexterity remains proverbial; they handled etching with extreme suppleness, and often interpreted the drawings of illustrators in remitting them to the needle. many of these, not to say all, made use themselves of the etching needle, st. aubin for example, who knew how to give to the work of others his personal mark and distinction. [illustration: fig. .--title designed by moreau le jeune in for the publisher prault.] the revolution passed over some among those that it ruined, and, as stated above, they followed the movement, and lost themselves in the school of david. it was duplessis-bertaux who, after having furnished to cazin, the publisher, vignettes for his _recueil des meilleurs contes en vers_, , and many other books, after having worked for didot, devoted himself to patriotic engraving and to the reproduction of scenes of the revolution. when he published his _tableaux historiques_, in three volumes folio, adorned with nearly two hundred large plates, it was under the consulate, that is to say far from the time when the work was begun. renouvier assures us, with his exclusive disdain for the eighteenth century, that duplessis-bertaux was a mystifier, and that his scenes of the revolution were a hoax, "in the kind of spirit in vogue under the directory." the truth is that the artist, in place of being a cheerful callot, as might be thought from his manner of engraving, so like that of the lorraine artist, was imbued with the emphatic and exaggerated impressions of the first republic, its _sans-culottes_ in the poses of the sabines and its _tricoteuses_ apeing penelope. the immense artistic advance made in france in the eighteenth century in the manufacture and illustration of the book made itself felt throughout europe. in germany, chodowiecki, born at dantzic of a family of apothecaries, developed his talent from ornamenting the boxes of his father, and from to he designed numerous plates for books and almanacs, a little heavy in engraving, but singularly clever in composition. there were a few others also designing, and kilian, folkema, and ridinger produced some fine engravings, but the book did not make so much progress in germany as in france and england. in england a vast improvement was manifested. fine types were cast by baskerville and caslon; printing machines were perfected. the illustration of books by engraved plates was in the first half of the century almost entirely done by foreigners, but an english school was arising, which attained perfection in the latter half of the eighteenth and first half of the nineteenth century. wood engraving also, which, with the exception of blocks for head and tailpieces, had become almost a lost art, was revived by bewick, to become later one of the chief adornments of the book. before english printers obtained their best founts of type from holland, but the establishment of the caslon foundry rendered them independent. william caslon, the first great english type-founder, was born , and died . the foundry still exists, pre-eminent in the beauty of its characters. baskerville established a foundry about , and printed at birmingham with his own types a number of extremely beautiful books. the impetus given to fine printing by these two men rapidly spread itself, and laid the foundation of the perfection which english book-making reached. as mentioned above, gravelot illustrated many english books in the early part of the century. he designed a set of plates to shakespeare in mo, , and another in quarto, , besides numerous frontispieces and other plates in all kinds of books. among other foreigners who engraved for english publishers were grignion, kip, van der gucht, houbraken, and bartolozzi. bartolozzi, who was very prolific in the production of engraved plates, may perhaps be called the founder of that great english school of engraving which arose with the establishment of the royal academy in and the encouragement given by alderman boydell. houbraken and vertue engraved a set of fine portraits in folio for rapin's "history of england," ; william hogarth designed plates for butler's "hudibras," ; and among other curiosities of english engraving before were sturt's edition of the common prayer, entirely engraved on copper plates, , and an edition of horace entirely engraved by pine, . that the taste for illustrated books soon grew to be great is evidenced by the publication of such expensive works as boydell's edition of shakespeare, in nine volumes folio, commenced in , and adorned with a hundred plates from pictures specially commissioned by the spirited publisher; claude's _liber veritatis_, with three hundred engravings by richard earlom , sir robert strange's engravings of fifty historical prints about , collections of views in great britain by kip, buck, and boydell; holbein's "collection of portraits" , a hundred and fifty plates to shakespeare engraved by s. and e. harding , all of which cost great sums to produce, and greatly contributed to the elevation of public taste. among the artists of the latter half of the century who contributed to the decoration of the book are thomas stothard, whose very beautiful designs, extending into the next century, excelled those of all his contemporaries in their grace and spirit; robert smirke, best known by his plates for shakespeare, "don quixote," and "gil blas;" burney; and richard westall. it may be said generally that the english books of the eighteenth century were of a more solid character than the french, although english art, especially in the decoration of the book, owes much to french initiation. it is curious to read now the opinion of a contemporary french engraver on english art. choffard, in the preface to basan's _dictionnaire_ , wrote, "they" (the english), "having been supported by some foreign talent, are trying to create talent among themselves; but they have not seized the flame of genius that vivifies all art in france." [illustration: fig. .--tailpiece engraved on wood by john baptist papillon (before ).] however, what had become of engraving by cutting in reverse, the figure in relief, from which printing could be done? it had, we may think, nearly disappeared in the midst of the continued invasion of the burin and etching. it only appeared from time to time in head and tailpieces, remaining purely typographical and lost in other decorations. there were always wood engravers, not very clever, capable only of working simple lines without charm. one of them resolved to resuscitate the art, and made various attempts about the end of the reign of louis xiv. and beginning of that of louis xv. he was named john papillon, and was born at st. quentin in . his experiments did not go beyond a book of prayers, with thirty-six figures in relief after sébastien leclerc. his son, john baptist, succeeded him, and continued to engrave without ceasing subjects of ornament, letters, often tailpieces, of a good style upon the whole, and taking an excellent place in an elaborate book. unfortunately, grace had fled; the processes that the practitioners exhibited one after the other were lost; and the papillons reconstituted, we may say, a vanished art. john baptist also published in a theoretical treatise on wood engraving, abounding in historical errors, but in which something to learn may be found if taken with discernment. he says in his preface, "now that excellent work is done on copper, wood engraving is neglected, and the use lost of designing and cutting the shadows of the pencil on the wood block; most of those who work in it have neither design nor taste, and only follow their own ideas; it is not astonishing that only very mediocre pieces come from their hands, to say nothing stronger; the profound ignorance of nearly all who meddle with it contrives more and more to destroy the beauties of this art in which many people find neither pleasure nor grace. to obviate all this, if it be possible to me, i have undertaken to give my precepts and observations to those who wish to apply themselves to my engraving." it was probably the essays of papillon that provoked curious experiments on the part of other wood engravers. duplat, at the beginning of this century, proposed to prepare a relief on stone, and as this would be broken under pressure, he invented a mould; that is to say, he took a leaden matrix from the stone cutting, and ran a resistant metal into this mould, thus obtaining a relief similar to the stone. renouard, the publisher, made the trials; and the younger moreau made the designs. moreau become an essayer of processes in ! one of the plates of la fontaine's _fables_, published by renouard in , in two volumes, mo, is here reproduced. [illustration: fig. .--experiment in engraving in relief by moreau le jeune for renouard's edition of la fontaine's _fables_.] it appears, however, that the publisher was thwarted by bad printing. the printers of didot or mame, much as they consecrated all their care to it, did not yet know perfect workmanship; they put the most intense blacks into fine sheets. the great publishers trusted that better days would leave to more clever men the task of perfecting the invention. [illustration: fig. .--portrait of thomas bewick.] wood engraving owes its revival and almost perfection in england to thomas bewick, who published his first work in , his "general history of quadrupeds" , and his "birds" . in these works he not only depicted his subjects with the most scrupulous fidelity, but in the tailpieces of the several chapters he drew the most quaint, humorous, and faithful representations of country life. he, with his brother, john bewick, and their pupils, among whom was luke clennell, had an influence upon english art and the decoration of the book in england which exists to our day. not alone with us, for he may be said to have repaid the debt which we owed to france for her illustrated books of the eighteenth century by stimulating the art of wood engraving, which was practised by tony johannot and the other illustrators of the nineteenth century. to return to the eighteenth century, with which this chapter is specially occupied, we have said that the royal printing house, after various fortunes, still existed; and in it worked, for better or for worse, at the louvre. according to the budget of that year, it cost the king , livres, of which the director had , . there were, on the other hand, a certain number of official printing offices, that of war, for example, which was devoted entirely to the work of the ministry. it was situated at versailles, and was created in . it is told of louis xv. that, being one day in this workshop, he found a pair of spectacles, left as if in inadvertence on a printed sheet. as his sight was weakening, he took the spectacles and looked through them. the sheet was a hyperbolical eulogium composed, as if at random, by the director bertier, in honour of the king. louis xv., having read the dithyramb, replaced the spectacles, and quietly said, "they are too strong; they make objects too large." who would believe that at the end of the century of voltaire and rousseau a craftsman would be found desirous of leading back the typographical art to its cradle, and of making xylographs again, under the name of polytypes? a german was the original who conceived the plan. he obtained an order of council for the establishment of his presses in , but the same council suppressed them st november, . his process was to substitute for movable characters a plate of fixed letters, and probably engraved. another eccentricity of typography at the end of the century was the introduction of "logography" by john walter, the proprietor and printer of the _times_ newspaper, which consisted in casting whole the words in most common use, in place of separate letters. the system had soon to be abandoned, but the early numbers of the _times_, which was started january st, , were printed on it. in the eighteenth century there was a printing establishment for each of the constituted bodies; the king, the queen, the princes, each had their own. the royal lottery occupied a special printing house. the young inmates of the blind asylum worked under the direction of m. clousier, royal printer. louis xvi. authorised the celebrated haüy, their master, to allow them to print; and in they composed an essay on the education of the blind. pierre françois didot was in printer to the prince, afterwards louis xviii.; and he published the _aventures de télémaque_, in two quarto volumes, from this special printing office. the english colonies in north america early established printing there, their first book, the "book of psalms," known as the bay psalm book, being dated . by the middle of the eighteenth century literature held a strong position in the colonies, the greater part of it being, as might be expected, english; but the revolution and subsequent establishment of the united states created a national american literature, which has flourished to this day. among the printers of north america in the eighteenth century, the most famous was the celebrated philosopher dr. benjamin franklin, who served his apprenticeship to the printing press in london. he returned to america in , and worked as a printer with his brother at philadelphia. [illustration] chapter vi. the book in the nineteenth century. the didots and their improvements--the folio racine--the school of didot--fine publications in england and germany--literature and art of the restoration--romanticism--wood engraving--bewick's pupils, clennell, etc.--the illustrators of romances--the generation of --the book in our days in europe and america. political imitators had not been found for the french revolution in all the neighbouring countries of europe, but its greco-roman art established itself, and by degrees was introduced into the studios of painters and the printing offices. prud'hon, gerard, girodet, and later desenne, without counting the younger moreau and his contemporaries of the older regime, rallied to the new study, forming a school of illustrators and vignettists with which the publishers could resolutely advance. england followed suit with flaxman, west, fuseli, barry, and a crowd of others. among the publishers the powerful family of the didots took first rank, and its members, at once type-founders, printers, booksellers, and _savants_ of the first order, were the best fitted to direct an artistic and literary movement. when napoleon crowned himself emperor of the french, the elders of the family had already brought about a number of perfections and discoveries in their profession by which their workshops had profited. françois ambroise, who died in the year of the empire, had given an exact proportion to types, a free and elegant turn, but perhaps too regular and precise to be agreeable. he had also invented a press called the _presse à un coup_, in which the impression was taken by a single pull instead of being produced by a series of successive strikings. his brother, pierre françois, spoken of in the preceding chapter, was a type-founder and paper-maker at essones, and counted among his official titles "printer to the comte de provence," as françois ambroise was to the comte d'artois. of these two branches equally faithful to typography, pierre didot, son of françois ambroise, became the head on the death of his father. born in , he had studied his art with passion, and had merited the installation of his workshops in the louvre, where he published a celebrated collection known as the louvre editions, the _chef-d'oeuvre_ of which was the works of racine. the splendid execution of this book, in three large folio volumes, was a true typographical revolution. never in any country had scrupulous perfection of detail been joined to so masterly a knowledge of disposition and form of characters. the great artists of the davidian school had the honour of seeing their drawings reproduced as illustrations, and those named above designed the fifty-seven plates with which the edition was adorned. pierre didot displayed a great affectation in only printing two hundred and fifty copies of his irreproachable and marvellous work, of which a hundred had proofs of the plates before letters. published by subscription, the ordinary edition was issued at , francs, and with proofs , francs. to these superb works firmin didot, his brother, added ingenious discoveries. struck with certain difficulties of printing as well as of correction, he imagined the welding together of the types of a forme, when once obtained without faults, so as to avoid the trouble of new composition. this process, useless for books of small number, had a capital importance in the case of reimpressions of popular and successful works. he named this method stereotype, and from he published a racine in mo by this method; but the originality of the method, which he was the first to call stereotype, ended with its name, for the process had already been discovered by william ged, a goldsmith of edinburgh, in , the first book produced in this manner being an edition of sallust, printed in , vo, "non typis mobilibus ut vulgo fieri solet, sed tabellis seu laminis fusis, excudebat." this admirably directed house, we may indeed say this school of typography, formed with renouard, claye, rignoux, and others, the greater number of the french publishers of the middle of the century. when the czar alexander went to paris, he wished to do honour to the greatest french practitioners in the science of printing, in the persons of the brothers pierre and firmin didot. but these were not the only ones. the sons of pierre françois, henri and pierre françois ii.--the latter specially applied himself to paper-making, under the name of didot st. leger--followed in the footsteps of their father and uncle. pierre françois made at essones an excellent paper, which he brought to the perfection of making it in endless rolls, such as are made to-day for rotary machines. bernardin de st. pierre retired to essones about the end of the last century, and there married the daughter of pierre françois ii. it is a curious coincidence that the same village contained at once the man whose works at the beginning of the century had so extraordinary a success and the great family of printers who had given definitive impetus to typographical work. it was in this tranquil circle that the author of "paul and virginia," at the age of sixty, sought repose; that the publication of his book was resolved upon with all the luxury due to its success, with admirable type and with plates by prud'hon and others. he added to it the _chaumière indienne_, written in , on the eve of the terror, which is one of the most delicate novels of the time. the homely and sweet literature of bernardin de st. pierre, the heroic inventions of girodet, gerard, and chaudet in the greek or roman style, the clever but severe typography of the didots--such is the composition of the book at the beginning of the century, and also its avowed tendency and good taste. under louis xv. the nymphs carried panniers; polyeucte had peruke and sword. it would be unbecoming not to give juno or venus the head-dress adopted in paintings and vignettes. at the time which now occupies us fashion in clothing directed designers also. the hair of goddesses was _à la titus_; the waist was under the arms; golden circles were on the brow. simple mortals walked naked on the roads, with plumed casques and superb shields. there were heroes putting forth their disproportioned arms, others raising their eyes to heaven in impossible attitudes. such were all the vignettes, from girodet to the humblest, the last, the most forgotten. it happens, by an oddity of which the cause is vainly sought, that this classic and revolutionary school of david identifies itself so well with the napoleonic epoch, then with the people of the restoration, that it seems expressly made for them. at the same time, under louis xviii. and charles x. the romans and greeks had not the bold carriage of their early days; they became more citizenised, and assumed the air of the national guards of the kingdom of which later an excessive use was made. england also had a splendid series of publishers and printers. from boydell, harding, the murrays, fisher; from bulmer, bensley, strahan, the whittinghams, and hansard, to our day, there has been an unbroken and constantly increasing line of clever, practical men, adorning the professions to which they devoted their energies, often realising that fortune which properly directed energies command. in the first half of the century a vast number of splendidly printed books were issued, ornamented in the most lavish manner with beautiful illustrations, engraved on steel or copper plates, and with delicate woodcuts. book illustration in england may be said now to have reached perfection. when the banker-poet samuel rogers wished to bring out an illustrated edition of his works, he employed the two most capable artists of the time, thomas stothard and j. m. w. turner; and they produced an admirable series of designs, which were exquisitely engraved by finden, goodall, and pye. the work was printed by t. davidson, in two volumes, octavo: the "italy" in and the "poems" in ; these two volumes, from the perfect harmony of the typography and illustration and their combined beauty, may be referred to as the perfection of book-making. a very charming series of volumes is found in the "annuals," "keepsakes," "amulets," and similar annual publications, illustrated with beautiful steel plates by the best engravers. the splendidly printed and illustrated bibliographical works of dr. t. f. dibdin may also be mentioned. they extend to several volumes, and were printed by bulmer and his successors nicoll and t. bensley, illustrated by engraved plates and woodcuts by f. c. lewis and others. h. g. bohn, besides the fine series known as "bohn's libraries," numbering over six hundred volumes, in every branch of literature, art, and science, published many finely illustrated books, and as a bookseller had the largest stock of his day. charles knight did marvels in popularising literature in his day. william pickering published a long series of very beautiful books, and in conjunction with charles whittingham, printer, of the far-famed chiswick press, revived the aldine or old-faced types; one of the most beautiful of his publications was sir harris nicolas's edition of walton's "angler," in two volumes, imperial octavo, with a very fine set of steel plates, designed by stothard and engraved by augustus fox and w. j. cooke, besides engraved vignettes and representations of fish drawn by inskipp. in germany perhaps the most remarkable achievement of the century is the extraordinary series of volumes of english authors, now ( ) numbering , , issued by baron tauchnitz, of leipzig, which, although eminently popular in their character, are well and tastefully printed. among the most notable of the printing and publishing houses of germany, many of them combining the two trades, are j. g. cotta, dating from ; breitkopf and härtel, dating from ; justus perthes, founded ; t. o. weigel, ; f. a. brockhaus, ; b. g. teubner, ; w. drugulin, ; j. j. weber, , etc. germany has advanced with england and france in fine typography and illustration in their several kinds. the modern school of book illustration in germany undoubtedly has its origin in the influence given to it by the designs of the artist adolph menzel, amongst which a series of two hundred illustrations to the works of frederick the great, engraved on wood by the vogels, unzelman and müller, show him to be one of the most powerful and accurate draughtsmen of the century. to return to france, a new literature arose that was to react against the greek full of gallicisms; but the movement, in reversing the ancient state of things, in wishing to replace antiquity by the middle ages, old romans by old french, completely changed the physiognomy of the book. the engraved vignette and the copper plate of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were to lose their supremacy and to give way to etching and wood engraving, also a revival of the middle ages. [illustration: fig. .--wood engraving by clennell after west, for the diploma of the highland society.] it is not sufficiently known that wood engraving, after the unfortunate attempts of papillon in france, was restored in england by thomas bewick, who founded a school, of which, at the commencement of our century, clennell and the brothers thompson were members. one of the thompsons went to france about the middle of the restoration, doubtless with the hope of profiting by his art, and he offered to the print department of the national library the diploma of the highland society, a large folio wood block, very adroit and very curiously cut, after the drawing of the celebrated benjamin west, and copied from clennell's original block of the same subject. m. duchesne, then keeper of the prints, speaks of this last process as of an apparition: "this print makes apparent the long-neglected and often reappearing art of wood engraving, which, though it could never equal copper engraving, nevertheless merits the attention of amateurs when a capable hand is exercised upon it." it was, we see, a curiosity then, this relief cutting, of which the resurrection was to give an enormous impulse to the book from the facilities of printing and the economies realised by the possibility of intercalation in periodicals. in fact, metal printing necessitated so much trouble, more for engraving than for the impression. with wood blocks surrounded by type the ordinary press sufficed. the _magasin pittoresque_, which was commenced in , and the success of which from the first was very great, was born of these new combinations. before it the _messager boiteux_ of strasbourg and other popular almanacs progressed very well with their illustrations on wood. a kind of firm of engravers, at the head of which were best and andrew, undertook the illustrations of the _magasin pittoresque_. in a few years progress was immense, other publications came into existence, and a definitive return was made to the vignette in relief. the french illustrated paper preceded our _illustrated london news_ by nine years. lavish use was now made of wood engraving, which had thus been suddenly revived in the very midst of the new romantic effervescence, amid a war of books, which, in order to please, had above all to captivate the eye, reacting at once against the spirit and the art of the restoration. never before had artists to such an extent taken active part in a purely literary warfare. all the fantastic tendencies of young france were embodied in the lame and halting lines of the time and similar wretched doggerel. doubtless the leaders of the school did not go quite so far, and their reputation even suffered from such theories; but, as always happens in such cases, the disciples outstripped their masters. [illustration: fig. .--vignette by devéria for the _fiancé de la tombe_.] the brothers johannot were the first to join in the fray, under the flag of the poets and others of the romantic school, such as victor hugo, de vigny, paul lacroix, george sand, and devéria, most ruthless of illustrators. the last-named had designed vignettes on wood, of all others, for baour-lormian, that is to say for the foe of the new ideas, at once the interpreter of ossian and the bourgeois bard, full of fire and fury against everything in turn. the _légendes, ballades, et fabliaux_, illustrated by devéria in , although a sort of compromise with the lovesick swains of mediæval times, did not escape the shafts of ridicule. in the midst of this movement the book became democratic; it was printed on sugar-paper for reading-rooms and scullery maids. the generation of romancists diffused its paper-covered works, printing a thousand copies and selling five hundred with great difficulty. poets publishing five hundred were happy with a sale of two hundred and fifty. unheard-of titles were then needed to catch the eye, ridiculous and ghastly frontispieces to tickle the fancy of the riffraff. paul lacroix called himself the "bibliophile jacob," and invented surprising headpieces and foolish designs. and then, as in the fifteenth century, as in the old times, certain signs become popular with the reading public. in the place of the doctrinals, complaints, and disputes, so common in the titles of those epochs, new fancies spring up and have their day. eccentric devices recommend romantic trash, in which the assassin's dagger, blood, and the horrors of the tomb have replaced the insipid fantasies of the fallen regime. pétrus borel, the werewolf, a sort of historic ghoul prowling about the graveyards, enjoyed a monopoly, as it were, of the ghastly titles and contents of this charnel-house literature; it was for his _champavert_, published in , that gigoux composed a kind of bluebeard surrounded by female skeletons, that opened the eyes of publishers to his value as a vignettist. although he threw himself soul and body into the romantic movement, the young artist did not alone design subjects called "abracadabrants," following the neologism of the time, any more than the booksellers only published romances. an attempt was made, by publishing them in parts, to still further popularise the old writers at all harmonising with the current taste. the publisher paulin thus issued the _gil blas_ of le sage, with illustrations in the text by the younger gigoux, of which the best was hoped. the history of this celebrated enterprise has been written by the artist himself in the curious _causeries_ published recently by him, fifty years after his work on gil blas; and this interesting view of an epoch already far distant gives us in a few words the ordinary economy of these popular impressions in parts. [illustration: fig. .--vignette by john gigoux for _gil blas_.] it appears that paulin, publisher in the rue de seine, not being very well off, had associated himself with a man of business named dubochet, who had before made an enormous fortune with gas. the two represented fifteen thousand to twenty thousand francs, and they ordered a hundred drawings on wood from the young artist. he set to work with precaution, for dubochet was hard to please, without knowing much about the business, and fined the engravers for the least faults. gigoux set himself to give his compositions in simple line, without complicated shadows, so as to allow the wood-cutters to preserve a free outline. it was nearly the same thing as the process of the old artists of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, of vostre and holbein: true engraving in relief. the success of the first sheets was extraordinary; new vignettes were ordered from gigoux; in place of a hundred they wanted three hundred, then four hundred; then at the end of the work they counted six hundred at least. money filled the chests of the firm, but when the artist claimed a small share of the benefits, they laughed in his face. properly speaking, it was the first serious attempt at illustration by the recovered method of engraving in relief, but it was not the only one. curmer, the publisher of the rue richelieu, prepared a bible in and several other volumes, among which were the "paul and virginia" and the _chaumière indienne_ of bernardin de st. pierre. he had also collected around him a circle of artists that included wattier, devéria, and meissonier, who was the most perfect and correct of the designers on wood. meissonier designed very soberly, without effects of light, little scenes admirably cut by an engraver named lavoignat, a master in the largest sense of the word. curmer wrote in in the preface to one of his books, "we hope we have raised a monument to wood engraving. it is easy to judge of the resources presented by this art. we are compelled to have recourse to england to accomplish our work. peace to willing publishers!" [illustration: fig. .--vignette by daumier for the _cholera à paris_.] curmer acknowledges the importance of english specialists in this new process for vignettes, and the willing publishers were not wanting; they came from all parts. he himself did not stop on the way; he continued his work on a large scale; and charles blanc was able to say of him later, as well as of furne, "he desired to illustrate books for everybody, as the great booksellers of the last century had illustrated their rare editions for a small number of privileged persons." but he did not always confine himself to wood engraving; he also employed etching and lithography. these, requiring separate printing, did not make intercalation with the text any easier than engraving with the burin; but they served to illustrate periodicals, the _charivari_ and _l'artiste_, as well as some books, where they replaced the engraved plates of the preceding century. at the same time, the latter process was not altogether neglected; about it was revived, and steel was used in place of copper, as it better resisted repeated impressions. the publisher furne, while he employed wood engraving, adorned with separate plates on steel his better publications. for him worked raffet, one of the romanticists enamoured of the napoleonic epic, which he had popularised, with charlet and bellangé, by the pencil, wood, and lithography. raffet had transferred upon wood, as if in play, the three hundred and fifty-one vignettes of the _histoire de napoléon_, by de norvins, which would to-day suffice for the glory and reputation of many artists. in fact, the analytical and inductive spirit of the artist led him to leave nothing to the chances of inspiration and commonplace of illustration. he laboriously reconstituted, fragment by fragment, the physiognomy of the "old army;" and imbued with the perfect science of detail, he allowed his pencil full play in bold and luminous inventions, where may be seen again, with their peculiar appearance, the heroes of other days, the soldiers of the rhine and italy, of austerlitz and waterloo. a truly lively period was that of , a living and unthinking generation. by the side of those great artists of whom we have spoken, and who will be more admired some day, there were the fantasists traviès and daumier, who adorned the illustrated journals with innumerable sketches, and grandville and gavarni, one caricaturing animals in a celebrated book, _les animaux peints par eux-mêmes_, which is more than a _chef-d'oeuvre_; the other coolly studying the vices and faults of his time, with the precision of an anatomist, in _les anglais peints par eux-mêmes_ of labedollière, in the _diable à paris_, without counting a thousand other works which his penetrating imagination produced. [illustration: fig. .--vignette by gavarni for _paris marié_.] presently photography came, which was to reverse completely the conditions of illustration of the book by the numerous means of reproduction to which it gave birth. then wood engraving entered on a new phase, a complete transformation of its ordinary terms, under the influence of gustave doré. little by little it had been attempted to render in relief that which engraved plates only had hitherto done. black, half-tints, lowered tones, were tried where formerly a simple line, bold and spirited, signified everything. the house of hachette, founded by one of the normal teachers of the liberal movement, at the beginning of the century, was, together with lahure, the promoter of relief so inclusive and practical. the numerous periodicals of these publishers spread the taste afar. england, for its part, entered on the road, followed by america and germany. to-day wood engravings have reached perfection, finesse, and suppleness; but they are not, properly speaking, engravings on wood. [illustration: fig. .--balzac writing his _contes drôlatiques_. vignette by gustave doré.] [illustration: fig. .--wood block by bewick, from his "fables," . the fox and the goat.] we have seen that french publishers were largely indebted to english wood engravers for their blocks. the school that was established by bewick and his pupils made enormous progress. from the "fables," published in , we reproduce an illustration as also a specimen from the second volume of the "british birds." luke clennell was one of the most distinguished of bewick's pupils; and he made some excellent blocks, among them the illustrations to an edition of rogers's "poems" ( ), engraved from pen-and-ink drawings by thomas stothard. it was stothard's opinion that wood engraving best reproduced pen-and-ink drawings. other pupils of bewick were j. jackson, john thompson, who engraved harvey's beautiful illustrations to milton and henderson's "history of wines," s. williams, orrin smith, robert branston, and c. nesbit. the most prolific and perhaps the most popular book-illustrator of the century in england, was george cruikshank, who engraved most of his own designs on wood, steel, or with the etching needle; the catalogue of his works by mr. g. w. reid, formerly keeper of the prints in the british museum, occupies three quarto volumes. the designs of "phiz," as h. k. browne called himself, largely contributed to the popularity of the works of charles dickens; and the mere mention of richard doyle and john leech will recall the palmy days of _punch_, although both of these artists did excellent work in book illustration. from the days of the bewicks to the present wood engraving has formed the most widely used means of illustration in england and the united states. its adaptability to the printing machine renders it admirably suited to the production of books in large numbers and at low expense. without it we could not have our _graphics_ and _illustrated news_, nor the floods of cheap but splendidly illustrated magazines which are appearing on both sides of the atlantic. true, many of these blocks are due to the "processes" which photography has made available, but they are nevertheless the outcome of wood engraving. we cannot leave this subject without mentioning the admirable "treatise on wood engraving," by w. a. chatto, with numerous illustrations, published originally by h. g. bohn in and since reprinted. [illustration: fig. .--wood block from bewick's "british birds." the common duck.] [illustration: fig. .--wood engraving by clennell, after stothard, for rogers's poems, .] in our days the great paris publishers have returned to the books of the eighteenth century, ornamented with vignettes on copper; many of them purely and simply imitate by photographic processes the pretty editions of eisen and moreau, but they do not merit the name which they bear. as to those whose specialty is handsome books with figures by contemporary artists, those who always are in the front, as the mames, quantins, hachettes, plons, jouausts, of france; the longmans, murrays, macmillans, kegan pauls, cassells, and chattos of england; the harpers, scribners, lippincotts, and houghtons of the united states, they are to us what the ancients of whom we have spoken were to their contemporaries. now the processes of illustration are without number: wood, metal, heliogravure, phototype, and others. and if the mechanical means, if the heliogravures, have at present the importance claimed, they by no means add to the intrinsic value of wood engravings, but to the rapidity and economy of their manufacture. the book, the true book, has nothing to do with all these inventions, and may well confine itself to the burin or the relief block. but as regards the book, properly so called, it never was the object of more excessive care or of more unfortunate precipitation. it may be remarked that works least destined to live in the libraries, those thousands of lame pamphlets on questions of small provincial erudition or the cap-and-sword romances, are ordinarily the best and most carefully printed, in opposition to other more important works composed in heads of nails and on worn-out paper. there are in reading-rooms a good number of pamphlets that will not be found in fifty years, and will be worth their weight in banknotes, even if dirty and tattered, on account of their intrinsic value. [illustration] chapter vii. types, impression, paper, ink. after this summary, and necessarily very compressed, sketch of the general history of the book, it will not be without importance to place some technical information before the reader, to explain as clearly as possible the function of the presses, the practical side of typography, from the engraving of the character and the founding of types up to the binding, taking by the way composition, impression, and collation. many of these operations have been already sketched in the preceding part of our work; we have spoken of engraving of the punch, of impression, of the thousand details that constitute the typographic art, and the knowledge of which is so little diffused. we return to it now, with more method, on the different subjects, and shall try to point out the principal features. we have seen in our first chapter what patient researches the discovery necessitated for the mayence printers in the founding of the character in matrix. true, the punch and the matrix had existed from time immemorial for coins and seals. to engrave in relief a punch of material hard enough to strike a resisting metal, and to run into the space obtained by this blow a melted alloy, which took at its extremity the same form as the punch had given, is, in a few words, the whole economy of the process. for the engraving of the punches a sort of burin of tempered steel was used, which scooped out the part intended to remain white in the letter. from the beginning the printers themselves engraved their own characters. the most ancient, whose constant preoccupation was the imitation of manuscript, copied the gothic letter of ordinary writing. soon afterwards, jenson, the french refugee at venice, designed a round letter, like that of sweynheim and pannartz, the roman publishers, in ; and his type, absolutely perfect, is used to this day. in france the introducers of the invention in paris also imitated the roman, but multiplied abbreviations until they became tedious. we can imagine what the engraving of a character could be where so few letters stood alone, where lines abridged the nasals; the words _pro_, _pre_, figured as in manuscripts; the sign signified _cum_ or _con_ in latin or french words, without reckoning a thousand other rigorous usages. this truly perplexing profusion of signs as well as the want of precision and clearness in the letter enables us now to recognise the first parisian _incunabula_.[a] [footnote a: see above, figs. , , .] the first english printers used gothic or black letter. caxton brought his first fount from cologne, but that which he made afterwards for himself was of the same character. wynkyn de worde, pynson, and their successors used the same style; and for official publications and bibles the black letter was used up to the seventeenth century. [illustration: fig. .--type-founder in the middle of the sixteenth century. engraving by jost amman.] but the art of the founder-engraver was destined to specialise itself. there were artisans in this branch, and among them in france, in the fifteenth century, simon de collines, who engraved good roman characters about . later was claude garamond, of paris, who died about , a pupil of geoffroy tory, the most celebrated of all of them; tory definitely proscribed the gothic character, of which vostre and verard had made constant use. garamond worked in this way, producing with microscopical precision new letters, among others those of robert estienne, the most marvellous and the most distinct. it was he who was charged by francis i. to form the celebrated royal greek types. he assisted in getting up the _champfleury_ of geoffroy tory. on his death william lebé succeeded him, and inherited his punches. lebé engraved by preference hebrew characters, of which he made a specialty. his travels to rome and venice had given him a singular value in his art; and when he died about the end of the century, he was incontestably the first cutter of oriental characters in the whole world. philip ii. of spain had begged him to engrave the letters of the bible of which plantin had undertaken the impression, and francis i. had charged him to make types for the estiennes. at the commencement of the seventeenth century we find james sanlecque, pupil of lebé, and his son. during this period several women succeeded their husbands as type-founders. in the eighteenth century philip grandjean, an artist who was royal printer to louis xiv., was keeper of the foundry afterwards united, in , to the royal printing house; fournier succeeded the lebés, then p. s. fournier the younger, who engraved with great success. in our days we have seen above the didots themselves working their punches; and one of them, henri, founded microscopical characters for a la rochefoucauld about the middle of the nineteenth century. we have referred to english type-founders of the eighteenth century in chapter v. the type, or character used in printing, is a composition of lead and pure antimony, which, melted, form a resisting and at the same time supple mixture. lead alone would be crushed, and the first printers often suffered in making their experiments. the proportion of the mixture is four of lead to one of antimony. the matrix is combined in such manner that the _eye_--that is to say, the part of the character intended to produce the impression--and also the shank intended to hold the letter are cast together. the letters, once founded according to their different forms, are afterwards disposed in boxes with compartments, or "cases." these cases serve to classify the character by letters, italics, capitals, lower case, punctuations, accents, etc. as we have said, the relation of letters among themselves in the composition of a language is called the "fount." for example, it is certain that the italian employs the letter _a_ more than _b_, the letter _a_ appearing in nearly every word; a compositor to compose in this language should therefore have more of _a_ than of _b_. the relation between these two letters and all the others is the "fount." in french the proportion of a fount is about , _a_ for _b_, , _c_, , _d_, , _e_, etc. the fount varies with the languages. in english the proportion is , _a_ to , _b_, , _c_, , _d_, etc. before there were in all twenty different "bodies" of letters that bore fantastic names. the "parisienne" was the smallest size, and the "grosse nonpareille" the largest. in the sixteenth century a character called "civilité" was invented. it sought to imitate fine cursive writing. in the last century this idea was reproduced, and the "bâtarde coulée," which did not have great success, was made. in english types, joseph moxon in had eleven sizes; caslon in had thirty-eight. [illustration: specimen of imposition] when a printer wishes to compose a work, he first decides in which body he will print it. his choice made, he places in the compositors' "cases"--that is, in the boxes placed before each one of his workmen--the chosen character, with its italics, capitals, signs, etc. then he gives them the "copy," that is to say the manuscript of the author to be reproduced. the compositors take a "galley" according to the size of the book; and, letter by letter, by running their fingers through the different cases, they place side by side the words laboriously composed, and necessarily presenting their reverse, so that they will show their proper face when printed. the composition terminated, the process of "imposition" takes place. this is the disposition by pages in an iron chase, in such manner that the sheet of paper shall be printed on both sides, the pages exactly following one another. it will be seen by the specimen on the preceding page that if the two sheets be brought together, page of ii. will fall exactly opposite page of i, page opposite page , and so on. nothing is easier than this combination for folio, quarto, or octavo sizes, but as the smaller sizes are multiplied even to mo, tables are necessary to prevent error. the imposition is completed by building up the composition in a chase by means of pieces of metal called "furniture," which regulate the margins. when the whole is in proper place, it is squeezed up and adjusted by means of sunk reglets. the chase may now be placed under the press without fear of the characters falling out or getting mixed. a pressman takes a "proof" after having rubbed the relief of the characters with ink, and on this proof are corrected the author's or compositor's faults by indications in the margin by understood signs. by this amended proof the compositor amends his faults one by one: leaves out superfluous characters, puts turned characters straight, spaces or draws closer the lines, etc. the corrections finished, the time has come to print. in the time of geoffroy tory this operation was made as we shall explain; it was the same before and the same after. two pressmen have tempered with water the tympan, or more elastic part of the carriage, against which will be directed in good time the blow from the type; they have also damped the paper intended for the impression, so that it may retain the greasy ink with which the characters are charged; then the formes are washed before putting them under the press. in the figure which we reproduce, which dates from about , we see the workshop of jodocus badius, of asch, father-in-law of two celebrated printers, vascosan and robert estienne. the press rolls--that is to say, the formes--have been placed in the "carriage," or movable chase, which, coming forward, receives the sheet of paper and the ink, and returns under the press to receive the blow of the "bar." in the room, lighted by two windows, the compositors work. in front one works at the bar, while his comrade distributes the ink on the "balls." these balls are leather pads, on which the greasy ink, made of lampblack and oil, is spread, to more easily rub the forme after each blow. ordinarily the inker had two functions: he prepared the ink, distributed it, and kept his eye on the printed sheets to correct faults, blots, and difference of tint. here the workman is simply occupied by the balls. printed sheets and prepared paper are on a table by the side of the press. this press is composed of the rolling chase, the tympan, and the "frisket," a smaller tympan, which work against one another. the tympan, we have said above, receives directly the blow. and it was so for nearly four centuries; the mechanical means of our days have a little changed the work, but the principle is always the same. [illustration: fig. .--mark of jodocus badius of asch, representing the interior of a printing office about . engraving _à la croix de lorraine_.] towards the end of the sixteenth century, a press cost about a hundred and twenty-seven crowns, with its diverse utensils, as may be seen in an unpublished piece analysed by dr. giraudet, of tours, in a very interesting pamphlet: _une association d'imprimeurs et de libraires de paris réfugiés à tours au xvi^e siècle_. the workshop of jamet métayer, of tours, cost a rent of eighty-three crowns--about twenty pounds of current money. workmen were then paid by the "day;" and it came to be one of the expressions then so much used in manual labour, corresponding to the sum of the least work of a good workman. m. ladevèze, printer, thought that the "day" represented the work of about twenty thousand roman or cicero letters employed by a compositor. with us the "day" of compositors and pressmen is differently calculated. the latter have to take a certain number of sheets. the sheet, composition and press work, cost nearly seven crowns, or nearly two pounds. jamet métayer paid twenty crowns for four sheets in italics; he demanded three months for the work. the primitive presses were wooden screw presses, and they so remained until the beginning of this century, when lord stanhope, a celebrated electrician, author, and politician, perfected them and gave his name to a new machine. his improvement consisted in that the bar was no longer fixed to the vice, but to a cylinder outside. a counter-weight brought back the platen at each blow. pierre didot had previously made metal platens. in the use of the stanhope press commenced in france. england had, besides, taken a preponderating place in typographical invention. the printer of the _times_, john walter, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, seeking to publish his journal quicker, associated himself with craftsmen who constructed mechanical presses for him. the didots lost no time, and themselves made improvements. in , the presses of the _constitutionnel_, thanks to the application of steam, produced twenty thousand papers an hour. in our time there are machines that print only on one side, as well as double machines, printing both sides at once. the rotary machines, with endless paper, take thirty-five thousand impressions an hour. in the newspaper machines of marinoni, the great inventor, the paper is unrolled, printed, cut, and folded without leaving the machine, and falls into a place from which it is taken ready for the subscriber. the latest perfection of the printing press is the walter press and the rotary machine of r. hoe and co., of new york, extensively used throughout the world. the elaborate book has little to do with these marvellous processes, although in its turn it largely benefits by the improvement of the printing machine. it is apart from our purpose to speak at length on the manufacture of paper. it is certain that it was well made before the invention of printing, for most of the accounts of the fifteenth century are written on linen paper, very resisting and well sized. later on rags were used in this manufacture; and here, in a few words, is how paper was made in the mould, or "hand-made" before the invention of machinery for the purpose:-- [illustration: fig. .--paper-making. workman engaged on the tub with the frame of wires. engraving by jost amman.] the rags, having been thoroughly cleansed, were put into vats, where they were worked up under a beating press until they were reduced to pulp. this pulp was thrown into hot water and stirred until the mixture was uniformly made. then a mould of fine wire cloth, fixed upon a wooden frame, and having a "deckle" to determine the size of the sheet, was taken; in the middle of this frame was disposed, also in brass wire, a factory mark, intended to appear in white in the sheet of paper, and called the "water mark." this mould was dipped into the vat of pulp and drawn out again. after gently shaking it to and fro in a horizontal position, the fibres of the pulp became so connected as to form one uniform fabric; and the water escaped through the wires. the deckle was then removed from the mould, and the sheet of paper turned off upon a felt, in a pile with many others, a felt intervening between each sheet, and the whole subjected to great pressure, in order to absorb the superfluous water. after being dried and pressed without the felts, the sheets were dipped into a tub of size and again pressed to remove surplus size. this primitive method of paper-making is represented in fig. , and the same principle is still in use for the production of hand-made paper. machinery has effected many improvements and economies in the production of woven paper. china and japan have their special paper manufacture. in japan the material employed is the bark of the _morus papifera sativa_. [illustration: balance used by jenson, at venice.] according to their fineness, size, and weight, papers have received different names, proceeding from the water mark. faust at mayence used paper marked with a bull's head. jenson at venice used a balance of which the form varied. this latter came from a mill which furnished vicenza, perugia, and rome. jenson used, besides a crown, a cardinal's hat. the bull's head underwent transformations, it had stars and roses, and was special to germany, and it may sometimes be found in italy. the wires and bridges served to determine the size of a book. looking at a folio leaf against the light, the wires will be seen to be horizontal, and the bridges vertical. in quarto they will be reversed, the paper having been folded in four instead of in two. the bridges become horizontal. they return to the vertical in octavo, and so on. as for ink, it was from the beginning a composition of lampblack and oil of different quality and nature, mixed with resin to obtain a greater and quicker dryness. ink for engravings was more carefully made. for coloured inks various powders are mixed with the oil and resin, and a title in red and black has to go through the press twice: once for the red and once for the black. from the above it can be understood that illustrations in relief can easily be introduced into the composition, whether in combination with text or in separate pages. another question presents itself: did the old printers employ casting, or did they print directly from the wood block itself? in other words, the block having been cut, did they make with it a mould into which melted metal could be poured to obtain a more resistant relief? the fact is difficult to elucidate. it appears to-day that simon vostre, verard, and others printed relief engravings on metal, but were they cut directly or obtained by casting, as they are now? it cannot be determined yet. chapter viii. bookbinding. the binding of the first printed books--ancient german bindings--binding in the time of louis xii.--italian bindings--aldus--maioli--grolier--francis i.--henri ii. and diane de poitiers--catherine de medicis--henri iii.--the eves--the "fanfares"--louis xiii.--le gascon--florimond badier--louis xiv.--morocco leathers--cramoisy--the bindings of the time of louis xiv.--the regency--pasdeloup--the deromes--dubuisson--thouvenin--lesné--the nineteenth century--english binders--roger payne--francis bedford. leading the reader now towards the final perfection of the book: printing, which had stirred up and reversed so many things, created, so to speak, the art of binding. previously the binder was simply a workman sewing together the leaves of a manuscript, with no science or device but to clasp the whole together solidly with cord and string. as luxury increased the old binder was no longer thought of. on the wooden boards which closed the book, jewellers encrusted their wares, lavishing ivory and precious stones to the taste of the amateur or the bookseller. generally these works covered books of precious miniatures, the _horoe_, or manuscripts that were deemed worthy of such magnificent clothing, rarely copies without importance. printing at once disordered the tribe of copyists as well as the binders did jewellers. the demand increasing, rich bindings were soon abandoned, and each bookseller applied himself to the work, or at least covered in his own house books intended for sale. the fashion was not then to expose for sale, as now, unbound books. purchasers wanted an article easy to handle, and which they were not obliged to return for ulterior embellishment. so to the public were presented the works laboriously composed by gutenberg, schoeffer, and fust, somewhat after the manner of manuscripts, which they pretended to imitate, with their solid wooden boards covered with pig or calfskin. at the four corners, copper nails, with large heads, prevented rubbing against the shelves of the bookcase, for at that time books were ranged on their sides, and not as they are to-day. we must return to the bibliomaniac of the "ship of fools" to get an idea of these depositories; before him may be seen ranged on a desk large folios, with nails on their sides, in the shelves, so defying the dust, in place of being placed upright on their edges, which rendered them liable to spots and stains. (see fig. .) unhappily the wooden sides had in themselves a germ of destruction, the worm, capable first of reducing the sides to powder and then ravaging the body of the work, the ligatures and cords. certain preparations destroy the insect, but the precaution often has no effect, and it is thus that the disappearance of volumes formerly so abundant, but almost impossible to find now, may be explained. [illustration: fig. .--bookbinder's shop in the sixteenth century. engraving by jost amman.] from the beginning the operations of the binder were what they still are, except for improvements. they consist in the collation of the sheets of a book, folding them, beating them to bring them together and give them cohesion, and sewing them, first together, then on the cords or strings, which form the five or six bands seen on the backs. primitively these cords were united to the wooden boards, and over both was placed a resistant skin, on which from relief or metal engravings were struck the most pleasing decorative subjects. pigskin, white and fine, lent itself, especially among the germans, to these fine editions; and although they were issued in great number, the wooden boards have not permitted them all to exist in our time. the most ancient that we are able to cite are german works of the time of louis xi.; they are very strong and coarse. the cords in them form an enormous and massive projection. the inside of the board was often without lining of paper or stuff. in the case of fine editions a sombre velvet was sometimes used, such as verard used to bind the books of the father of francis i., as we have before said. art did not enter into these works of preservation until about the end of the fifteenth century, with arms and emblems. at the beginning of the sixteenth century, some bindings were ornamented for louis xii. and the queen, anne de bretagne; but not more than five or six specimens remain. they are of coarse aspect. the workman who tooled the binding here reproduced from the curious example of m. dutuit, of rouen, has thrown his subjects one upon another. arms, porcupines, ermines, are treated so as to be confusing, and form a medley that is not pleasing. in recalling the delightful borders of vostre and pigouchet, contemporaries of this mediocre work, it is astonishing to see the degree of inferiority reached by a profession that should be inspired by graceful subjects of decoration. [illustration: fig. .--binding for louis xii. collection of m. dutuit, of rouen.] it happened that france again found in italy masters capable of revealing secrets of composition and arrangement to enable her to strike out a new road. the italian wars would not have had these artistic results if it had not been for the enormous sums that they swallowed up. the curious part of the enterprise was that a war treasurer, a financier, employed by the french kings in these expeditions, through his relations of taste and friendship with the alduses of venice, brought to france the love of sumptuous bindings, of editions superbly clothed. he was named jean grolier, that bibliophile of the sixteenth century, who was, above all others, even king francis, the first to appreciate the art of binding. it is not too much to say art, for if better had not been done before, it may safely be said that nothing better has been done since; and the books of grolier remain as the most perfect and most admirable types of this kind of decoration. born of an italian family established at lyons, where most of his relatives did a great business, jean grolier had the good fortune to succeed his father, stephen grolier, treasurer of the duke of milan. he became in his turn minister of finances, and was called to accompany the kings in their expeditions in italy. the situation of the treasurers during these campaigns was important; they handled the pence levied with great trouble in the cities of france "for making war." many abused their trust, and were punished, and among others the lallemants, whom documents show us to have been in connection with grolier, and who suffered, with semblançay, the most terrible trials of the time. italian art gave then a free course in the decoration of books. of the interior we have spoken in our first chapters on the wood engravings; for the exterior, the cover of the volume, foliage, golden flowers worked with a hot iron, and polychromatic compartments obtained by coloured pastes were multiplied. thus was produced on the outside that which it was not sought to obtain on the inside, the variation of tints so select among the italians, and so forsaken since the invention of printing. in the midst of these literary men was a lover of books and fine connoisseur who, not content with choosing the best editions, such as those of ferrara, venice, and basle, bound them superbly, with compartments of admirable tone, and had his name and device inscribed on the sides in the fashion of the time. he was named thomas maioli, and following the custom of the amateurs of the time, he offered the enjoyment of his library to his friends. "tho. maioli et amicorum," he inscribed, as did later grolier, as also did others, but he somewhat modified the enthusiasm of his friendship by a sceptical device, "ingratis servire nephas," which might very well be the cry of the owner of books betrayed by his borrowers. maioli did not alone use these devices; he had also a macaronic phrase of which the sense is not very clear: "inimici mei mea michi, non me michi." he also sometimes used his monogram, which was composed of all the letters of his name. the relations of grolier with this unknown and mysterious bibliophile, whose name is not always found outside his volumes, are not doubtful. brunet possessed a volume that had belonged to maioli and had passed through the hands of grolier. what better proof could be wished of the communion of ideas and tastes between the two collectors? but these amateurs were not alone. beside them were princes and great lords, lay and ecclesiastic. from the commencement of the sixteenth century bookbinding had received an enormous impulse from the tastes and the predilections for these lofty fancies. and it cannot be ascribed to the simple skill of the workmen experimenting in that line. in the century that saw italian artists occupied in making designs for mounted plates and painting beautiful ladies, the courtesans of venice could not be alarmed at finding them painting models for bindings, with compartments of varied tone and style. maioli affected white on a dark background, that is to say on a background of dark leather. he made scrolls of foliage in white or clear paste with a very happy effect. this was the time when grolier travelled in italy, in the suite of the french, and when he began his collections. he had adopted as his heraldic emblem the gooseberry bush, which in french came very near to his name--_groseillier_; and his motto was "nec herba nec arbor" ("neither tree nor herb"), explicative of the moderation of his wealth. he was soon in connection with the alduses, and through them with the principal learned men and binders of the time, for it was not in the offices of the manutiuses that could be found workmen, like those of the chamber of accounts in france, obliged to swear that they did not know how to read. the master was not hindered by details of difference of language, and it followed that his workmen understood greek and latin, for he often gave them instruction in those languages. how far off these erudite and conscientious workmen appear to-day! following the fashion, grolier put his name on the upper side of his books--"jo. grolierii et amicorum"--in gold letters, and on the other side a pious motto, the sense of which was a hope often uttered by the financiers of the sixteenth century, imprisoned and hung every instant: "portio mea, domine, sit in terra viventium." generally all the grolier books which came from the alduses have the name on the upper side and the motto on the other side; the title was placed above the name, and often disposed in rows. some large volumes had the cover ornamented with an architectural design, like the jamblichus of the libri collection, which had on the front the façade of a temple, with the title in rows on the door. this volume was printed by aldus in , and probably decorated by him for the account of the great french amateur. jean grolier is said to have himself designed some of the subjects of his ornaments, and their perfection indicates an active and enlightened supervision. on his return to france, where he had a house near the porte de bucy, he was put in relation with geoffroy tory, the artist best fitted to understand him, and who was at once painter, engraver, printer, and binder. it was there that, in the leisure of his financial functions, between two projects of revictualling the forts of outre seine and yonne, grolier invented combinations, sought interlacings, and laid out foliage. tory himself teaches us these works in combination. he invented antique letters for grolier, he tells us in his _champfleury_. it was for him, too, that he interwove so finely his compartments for binding, and that he reproduced the delightful ornaments of his books of hours in golden scrolls. as we have said, grolier placed his titles on the sides of his books on account of the arrangement of the works on the shelves of the library where they were laid. for this reason also the back was neglected, and no ornament used upon it; thick and heavy with its projecting bands, without decoration between the bands, this part of the bound volume was a kind of waste in a splendidly cultivated garden. the profusion of books brought about a revolution. there was no longer room to place on their sides the innumerable books that were produced; they were then placed on their edges, as now, and the back also was decorated. for this the bands were made to disappear, and replaced by decorative subjects in compartments like the sides. then with grolier the bands reappeared, and the title was placed between them, as it still is. the books of grolier have been divided, according to their production, in four or five principal classes, in which they may always be placed. first were the works ornamented in compartments, gilt, with scrolls in full gold; then the same with the scrolls _azurés_, that is to say equally gilt, but having parallel lines like the _azure_ of heraldry. following comes the school of geoffroy tory, with gilt compartments in the style of the great french decorator; last the polychromatic bindings, in which, by the aid of colour or mastic, the alternating tones are mixed. grolier also had some mosaic bindings, composed of little pieces of leather connected by incrustation or paste, pure italian bindings; but these were not numerous, especially if compared with those conceived in the manner of geoffroy tory. one of these latter works is here reproduced from one of the beautiful books in the collection of m. dutuit. this copy has the back flat, and the interlacings of the decoration are most complicated and clever. [illustration: fig. .--binding for grolier in the collection of m. dutuit.] grolier got his levant moroccos through the dealers of venice, to make sure of the material he employed. born in , the treasurer-general of outre seine lived until . in an original manuscript shows him much occupied with finance at over eighty-four years of age; but his passion for bindings had cooled down, for few books signed with his name are found the manufacture of which could descend to the son of henri ii. after great trials, after having seen semblançay suffer at montfaucon, john lallemand beheaded, and himself having come nearly to losing life and fortune at one blow, grolier passed away quietly in his house, having collected most of the fine books of the time and many curious medals. christopher de thou, his friend and _confrère_ in the love of books, had saved his reputation before the parliament of paris. after his death his library was transported to the hotel de vic, and from there dispersed in , a hundred years after. thus from italian art came french binding, still remaining original. the kings did not fail to follow the movement, and even to anticipate it, thanks to the means at their disposal. we have seen francis i. at work with the energy of an artisan at least; but geoffroy tory was his principal inspirer, and who knows but that he was the chief operative for the prince, as for the great financier? [illustration: fig. .--binding for francis i., with the arms of france and the salamander.] [illustration: fig. .--mark of guyot marchant, printer and bookbinder. he published the _danse macabre_ of .] we have said that louis xii. knew nothing of fine bindings. during his travels in italy he had received presentation copies of magnificently covered books, and among others that of _faustus andrelinus_, that was bound in calf in honour of the king. he, who was so little expert in fine arts, purchased the entire library of the sire de la gruthuse, and substituted his own emblems for those of the high and mighty lord. francis i., with innate sentiment for masterpieces and the powerful protection he had given them, did not allow the experiments of grolier to pass unnoticed. the king did not desire to be behind the treasurer, and the workmen were put to the task. he adopted the salamander, which emblem he used on his castles and furniture and the liveries of his people; he lavished it also on the sides of his books. on the side the "f" is often seen crowned, then the emblem of france and the collar of st. michael. in the binding of which a facsimile is here given, geoffroy tory has singularly inspired the gilder, if he did not himself make the design. for it must not be thought that this work is done at a single blow by means of an engraved plate or a block. on the contrary, every line is impressed by the hot tool that the workman applies by hand to the gold laid on in advance, making it, so to speak, enter into the skin or morocco. there is the art; blocks serve only for commercial bindings, quickly impressed and intended for ordinary purchasers. [illustration: fig. .--binding for henri ii., with the "h" and crescents.] under the reign of francis i. the binders were the booksellers, as verard and vostre were. the king was ordinarily served by a publisher named pierre roffet, and he frequently figures in accounts that have been preserved. roffet not only bound, but it appears that he rebound books to patterns which the king desired. philip lenoir and guyot marchant were also royal workmen. the latter, whose mark is here reproduced, frequently added to it the saints crispin and crispinian, patrons of the leather-dressers, who prepared the leather for the binder. [illustration: fig. .--binding for henri ii. (mazarine library)] the discoveries of grolier did not allow the binders much time to be idle. thousands of volumes were then destroyed to make the boards for sides. from this many discoveries are made in our days by pulling to pieces sixteenth century work, unknown playing cards, and early printed works. to mention only one example, twenty leaves of the "perspective" of viator were discovered in the national library of paris. the board thus formed was covered indifferently with sheepskin, parchment, calf, morocco, or goatskin; the books were sewn on raised or sunk bands, according to the owner's taste; the edges were gilt, sometimes gauffered, and designs often impressed upon them to match those of the sides. in large folios wooden boards were still used, more solid, and protected from rubbing by nails in relief. but the inside of the cover was as yet only covered with paper. leather linings were very uncommon. the reign of henri ii. increased yet more the importance of bindings; it was the time when grolier collected, and clever artists came from all parts. geoffroy tory had given the best models for letters and interlacings. the queen, catherine, derived from her parents the taste for decoration in gold and colours, and patronised the artists called by her from the court of florence; and the favourite, diane de poitiers, duchess of valentinois, rivalled her in luxury and expenditure. henri ii. in the decoration of his castles, as well as his books, introduced equivocal emblems, of which the signification may be doubtful, but those of his mistress may be recognised, not those of the legitimate queen. he interlaced two reversed "d's" by an "h," in the form shown in the border on the preceding page. strictly speaking, we ought to see there two "c's" back to back; but as we find the "d" on all the bindings displaying the arms of diana, there can be no doubt, and queen catherine doubted less than anybody. other emblems of diana are to be found in the arcs and crescents that are plentifully displayed. the library of diana was large, owing to the king not hesitating to take valuable books from the public collections for her. two centuries after her death it was dispersed, and the greater part of the books belonging to the national collections were restored on the deaths of those who then purchased them. hence the largest number of the bindings of henri ii. and diana of poitiers will be found in the national library of paris. [illustration: fig. .--italian binding for catherine de medicis, with the initials "c. c."] queen catherine also had special patterns with a monogram identical with the double "d" mentioned above, but the branches of the "c" were a little longer than the branches of the "h;" she also used a "k" on the sides of her books. the specimen which we reproduce is a purely italian work. from kings and queens the fashion passed to the great lords, it having come to the kings and queens from a private individual. the constable anne de montmorency adorned his bindings with a cross and spread eagle. among the amateurs of binding of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries using distinctive marks, we may mention philip desportes, the poet, who used two [phi] enlaced, as did also superintendent fouquet in the seventeenth century. the brothers dupuy adopted the double [delta], arranged as a star. colbert had a curled snake (_coluber_ for colbert!), the gondis two masses of arms, madame de pompadour three towers, etc. fouquet beside the [phi] used a squirrel on some of his bindings. [illustration: fig. .--binding with the arms of mansfeldt, with _azure_ scroll work, from the didot collection.] in germany, count mansfeldt adopted the ornamental style with arms, of which a specimen is here given; and marc laurin de watervliet also decorated and dedicated his books to his friends, using the motto "virtus in arduo." among the lords of the french courts who favoured polychromatic ornament and bold compositions were the young valois, louis de sainte maure, marquis of nesle, and henri de guise, called "le balafré." charles ix. had his emblems and devices, the double "c" crowned the legend "pietate et justitia," but his brother, henri iii., loved the decoration of books more than he did. the passion of the king for miniatures which he cut out of books is known; this passion for golden things he repeated on bindings, for which he chose special designs. henri iii. was an amateur of dances of death; he visited cemeteries, attended funerals, and took a death's-head for his emblem. this emblem was not his invention; long before him marot had addressed an epigram to a lady in which he brought love and death into close conjunction. however that may be, the king chose skeletons and penitents' tears to ornament his books. he also tolerated diamonds, although he absolutely prohibited them in the clothing of ladies or fixed the number _pro rata_ with the rank of the authorised person. there was in this prince a singular mixture of taste and artistic acuteness by the side of a mania or hallucination which was reflected on the most intimate objects of his apparel or of his furniture. thus if we find, at the end of the sixteenth century, a death's-head on the sides or the back of a volume, the binding is of the period of henri iii. the binders of his time are known by the mention that is made of them in the royal accounts; the eves were the most celebrated among all of them. nicholas eve was charged with the binding of the statutes of the order of st. esprit, with which the king gratified his friends. mention of this work is found in the clairambault manuscripts, where we read, "to nicholas eve, washer and binder of books and bookseller to the king, forty-seven and a half escus for washing, gilding, and squaring the edges of forty-two books of statutes and ordinances of the order, bound and covered with orange levant morocco, enriched on one side with the arms of the king, fully gilt, and on the other of france and poland, with monograms at the four corners, and the rest flames, with orange and blue ribbons," etc. [illustration: fig. .--sixteenth century binding, called _à la fanfare_. in the dutuit collection.] louise de lorraine, wife of henri iii., counted for little in the life of her husband; nevertheless she had a certain number of books decorated with their united escutcheons. the bindings attributed to eve were decorated all over the sides and back with interlacing patterns of geometrical character, the spaces between the parallel lines and in the middle of the figures left at first quite blank, but afterwards filled in with palm branches and wreaths of foliage; to these delicate and elaborate yet brilliant toolings have been given the name of bindings _à la fanfare_. this designation requires explanation, and is a good example of the grotesque style adopted by modern amateurs in their appellations. [illustration: fig. .--le gascon binding.] the fine work of that time prepared for the coming in the seventeenth century--about --of the works of le gascon, or at least for the artist with whom in our days are connected the works of the reign of louis xiii. under henri iv. the fleur-de-lys occupied most of the covers of the royal books, from vellum to levant morocco; works in this class had nothing very remarkable. the first years of louis xiii. revealed a new process, inspired by the eves. le gascon embroidered delightfully on the fanfare ornaments; showing the fibres of the leaves, he made a new kind of ornament, consisting of minute gold dots elaborated into lines and curves of singular brilliancy and elegance. of this style, called _pointillé_, we give a specimen from the collection of m. dutuit. the fashion had arrived all at once; lace, banished from clothing by severe edicts, found a refuge on the covering of books. the times were hard then for binders; they were constrained to live in the university and to employ only its workmen. a binder was never his own gilder; he employed the _gaufreurs_ of shoe-leather, more expert and bolder, to gild his leather. among these artisans was one named pigorreau, whom the edict found living in the midst of publishers and working for them; he was compelled to choose either to remain bootmaker or become bookseller; he chose the latter, against the syndics of the trade, against every one, and he made enemies for himself. he revenged himself by turning the masters into ridicule in a placard. [illustration: fig. .--le gascon binding for cardinal mazarin.] le gascon was probably the assumed name of an artist in this style. the _guirlande de julie_, worked by him for mademoiselle de rambouillet, gave him great honour in the special circle of this little literary court. it was the fashion then for poor authors to put a fine covering on their works and to offer them to the great for their own profit. tallement des reaux notably signalises the poet laserre, who displayed his luxury in irreproachable bindings. and then the farmers of the revenue, successors of grolier in financial trusts, formed libraries for pure fashion, never opening the volumes covered for them in sumptuous attire. if we may believe sauval, author of the _antiquités de paris_, they went further, and on covers without books inscribed imaginary titles and fantastic squibs to mislead their visitors. the bookcase being carefully closed, it was difficult to discover the imposition. sauval writes, "in place of books, they are content with covers of levant morocco, on the backs of which, in gold letters, are inscribed the names of the most celebrated authors. a binder of the university assured me that not long since he and his _confrères_ had made them for a single financier to the amount of , crowns!" the works of le gascon will be found more among great personages than with the so-called collectors, which gives value to their grace and charm. the king's brother gaston possessed them, then mazarin, an example from whose library is here reproduced. on this binding le gascon worked gilt compartments and elaborate arabesques; in the middle of the sides are the arms of the cardinal and his pretentious device: "arma julii ornant franciam!"--"the arms of jules the ornament of france!" in spite of the profusion of subjects, nothing could better please the eye or indicate a man of taste. but if le gascon be a legendary personage, he had an imitator or rival, very near to him, named florimond badier, whose works had at least the advantage of being signed. at the bottom of the inside cover of an inlaid morocco binding in the national library at paris is the inscription "florimond badier fec., inv." the analogy between this work and those known as le gascon's is palpable; inside and outside, the cover is stippled with small tools (_au petit fer_) in the same manner. florimond badier was not appointed bookseller until , and so could not have composed earlier bindings attributed to le gascon, but this resemblance of style evidences the existence of a parisian school, the adepts of which copied one another, as they do nowadays. the work was soon simplified; pallets and wheel-shaped tools were invented to produce that which was improperly called _dentelle_; this mechanical work was done by a wheel-shaped tool, previously heated, on gold in sized leaves, on which it impressed its projections. with louis xiv. the passion for gilding increased. charming festoons were designed, but they were soon abused, and inundated the libraries. on the sides were seen rising suns, arms, and golden garlands. cramoisy directed the royal bindings, the king having devoted large sums to the purchase of levant leathers. in the director of works ordered red moroccos; in he received twenty-two dozen skins, amounting, with the expenses of transport, to , livres tournois. successive supplies were made, and were used for the royal library, sixty-nine dozen in , forty-six dozen in , and three hundred and thirty-three dozen in , costing the king more than , livres. on these admirably dressed skins, which, in spite of incessant use, still remain now as in their first days, the king caused to be applied, according to the size, tools of borders, having in the middle the arms of france, with the collar of st. esprit. among the binders mentioned in the very useful work of m. j. j. guiffrey on the expenditure of louis xiv., we find gilles dubois, who died before ; levasseur, binder of huet, bishop of avranches; la tour, mérins or mérius, who died before ; and also ruette, the reputed inventor of marbled paper for fly-leaves of books: to him the bindings of the chancellor de séguier, with their ornament of the golden fleece, and of madame de séguier, are attributed. it was probably these men who decorated the books of the brothers dupuy, fouquet, and colbert, marvellous works of solidity, if not always of elegance, which have resisted all assaults. unhappily, in many instances the mechanical _dentelle_ overburdened the work, and gave it a commonplace regularity. in the condé, colbert, and perhaps even madame de longueville's collections, there are many specimens of this kind with two or three filleted borders. we have come to an epoch when the difficulties resulting from confusion between the booksellers' and binders' trades began to be understood. the revocation of the edict of nantes had implicitly prepared a crowd of measures and rules in all branches of national industry. it was a good occasion to prevent the artisans of binding unduly parading themselves as booksellers and selling merchandise of which they understood nothing; louis xiv. interfered, and separated the two communities. the binders then became the _relieurs-doreurs_ of books; they had their own organisation, but remained subject to the university; the heads of the fraternity were called the "guards." the principal arrangements of the regulation of were: the members of the corporation had the sole right to bind books, from the elegant volume to registers of blank paper. five years of apprenticeship and three of companionship were necessary to obtain the brevet of freedom and to hold a shop. moreover, it was indispensable to read and write. one regulation ordained that the workman should be "able to bind and ornament ordinary books or others, to render them perfect and entire, to sew the sheets at most two together with thread and real bands, with joints of parchment, and not paper, and in case of infraction the said books were to be remade at the expense of the offender, who was besides condemned to a penalty of thirty livres for each volume." their establishment was confined to the quarter from the rue st. andré des arts to the place maubert; they regulated the sale of calfskin and of tools; in a word, they were surrounded by precautions by which the production remained always under the supervision of the masters and completely satisfied the client. this calculating policy was, in fact, a close imitation of the royal ordinance of . [illustration: fig. .--mosaic binding of the eighteenth century for the _spaccio de la bestia trionfante_.] the mosaic bindings used from the end of the reign of louis xiv. were an application of pared leathers of colours different from the background, pasted on to the side. the binders of the regency composed a great number, attributed now to pasdeloup, as all the crayons of the sixteenth century are called clouets, and all the panels on wood holbeins. it is not that there was great originality in these works, or a particular art; more often the workman did no more than transcribe le gascon or eve or the older binders, and accommodated the processes of these artists to the fashion of his time. in this style we may cite the _spaccio de la bestia trionfante_, printed at paris , for which the binder designed a cover of doubtful taste and, above all, an undeniable want of proportion. the tendency was then to flowers occupying three-fourths of the page, to compartments too large, to open pomegranates, like the _spaccio_ here reproduced. if pasdeloup had discovered these mediocre combinations, he could not be proclaimed the regenerator of a fallen art. the bastard style of these works may be compared to their mosaics, constructed of pieces; it is a little of everything, and together it is nothing. however, in the midst of the quantity of mediocre things, some pleasing decoration is from time to time met with; the design of a volume with the arms of the regent and his wife, mademoiselle de blois, wants neither elegance nor taste; without being perfection, it has better proportion and balance. [illustration: fig. .--mosaic binding of the eighteenth century, with the arms of the regent. m. morgand's collection.] we should, however, hesitate to give names to all these works. besides pasdeloup, there were the deromes, abandoning a little the mosaics, devising flowers and _dentelles_ in combination, and no longer the simple products of the fillet. they formed a dynasty; and if the pasdeloups were at least twelve, there were fourteen deromes all booksellers and binders from the reign of louis xiv. the most celebrated was james anthony, who died in . peter paul dubuisson was not only a binder; he was a designer. he invented heraldic ornaments, and composed models of gilding tools, in which his contemporaries emulated him. he was intimate with the delicate vignettist eisen, and the counsels of an artist of this value could not but be useful to him. it is an extraordinary thing that in this world of celebrated printers, amateur financiers, and notable painters and engravers, not a single man can be met to give a real impulse to the art of which we speak, and to prevent the dull continuance of experiments on the whole so poor. doubtless the _dentelles_ of derome had a certain air of gaiety, to which the books of the eighteenth century accommodated themselves perfectly; the tools of dubuisson produce most pleasing designs; but the old, the great binders, had altogether disappeared. besides, derome massacred without pity the rarest works. he loved edges very regularly cut, and he did not fail to hew down margins opposed to his taste. he sawed books as well; that is to say, in place of sewing the sheets on to projecting bands, he made a groove in the back, in which the cord was embedded. the books have no resistance. to these celebrated names of french binders of the eighteenth century we may add le monnier, who worked for the orleans princes; tessier, his successor; laferté, who decorated the small volumes of the duc de la vallière as chamot covered the large ones; in chamot was royal binder. there was also pierre engerrand, then biziaux, an original, who worked for madame de pompadour and beaumarchais. boyet, or boyer, worked ( - ) in the style of le gascon, with the same minute tooling, but simpler in character. duseuil put very elaborate and delicate tooling on his covers from about to . the revolution effaced many of the fine works which displayed the symbols "of a royalty justly detested," and mercier wrote certain wicked little poems against binding. lesné was the poet of bookbinding, and he invented the process of plain calf without boards. certainly from grolier to lesné there were numerous changes, so numerous that, in spite of the nude calf, it may be said that the art was nearly dead. in our days it has a little recovered. amateurs have found new names, and often artists, to patronise: trautz-bauzonnet, capé, duru, lortic, marius michel, in france; bedford, rivière, zaehnsdorf, pratt, in england; matthews, bradstreet, smith, in the united states; and many others. unhappily, fortune does not permit every one to furnish his library luxuriously; the true connoisseur searches rather for groliers, eves, and le gascons, than concerns himself about modern workmanship. whatever may be its value, it is only fit to clothe the works of the time. a book published by lemerre and bound by petit is in true character, but a fifteenth or sixteenth century book passed under the hands of trautz-bauzonnet himself will be very much like an ancient enamel in a modern frame newly gilt. bookbinding in england has, with very few exceptions, never attained the artistic excellence reached in france. from the earliest times to the present day servile imitations of foreign work only are seen. the one purely original english binder is roger payne, who from about worked for thirty or forty years in london, performing with his own hands every stage of the work, even to cutting his own tools. the result was good, solid work, with perfectly original and often very beautiful decoration, appropriate to the character of the work itself. his favourite style was drooping lines of leaf ornaments in the borders and geometrical patterns in small tools. after him came charles lewis, who was an artist in the true sense of the word, and, coming down to our own time, francis bedford, who, never pretending to originality, copied the best designs of the old french and italian binders. his full calf books, with handsomely tooled backs, are models of solidity and taste; and his decorations on the sides of morocco-bound books are always in good taste, and often of great elegance. the binders of the present day, perhaps for lack of patronage, seem to have abandoned originality; and although much excellent work is done, it is no more than a copy of the eves, le gascon, derome, and the older artists. parallel with the luxurious bindings with which we have been exclusively occupied, there has always been the commercial work, prepared in advance. liturgical works, above all, are sold in this form. books in the grolier style or other grand personages were worked from a pattern engraved in relief, leaving nothing to the caprice of the artist, by being applied to the side by a press. this process is termed blocking. germany made use of this process principally; also vostre, verard, and tory employed the same means. even the interlacings and the capricious arabesques of grolier were imitated by means of a fixed plate, parts of which were finished by hand to make it appear a complete work of imagination and handicraft. [illustration] chapter ix. libraries. art, science, and literature took refuge in convents before the invention of printing, and libraries did not count many books. according to daily wants, the monastery scribes copied the treatises lent by neighbouring houses, and the collection was thus painfully made during many centuries. two or three hundred works constituted ordinary collections; the powerful abbeys found in their staff the means of enriching their libraries, as we have said, but they were the privileged ones. excepting kings and some princes, few people possessed a library. the great expense of transcription, the want of facility for procuring originals, and the enormous price of manuscripts left no hope to bibliophiles of moderate fortune. typography, on the contrary, having multiplied books and put at relatively modest prices reproductions formerly inaccessible, private collections commenced. we have had occasion to speak before of grolier and maioli; they were the most illustrious, but not the only ones. at first a public library was an unknown thing. the richest and the most easily got together, that of the king of france, was private. since john the good in france the acquisitions were numerous, and gutenberg's invention contributed to augment the stock of volumes everywhere. charles viii. and louis xii. found or took in their expeditions in italy, and were able to add to the original nucleus, many rare editions, especially from the sforzas at pavia, who had marvels without number. brought together at blois, under the care of john de labarre, the royal library did not yet occupy a very large space, in spite of its increase. under charles v. the number of books was about a thousand; about or they were nearly doubled, and the printed books did not number more than two hundred. so restricted, the royal library travelled with the other treasures of the crown; francis i. transported it from blois to fontainebleau, and even parts of it to the italian wars, as related above. in its new quarters the royal collection, in spite of the successive accessions of the books of john d'angoulême, grandfather of the king, and of those of the dukes of orleans, counted but , manuscripts and a hundred and nine printed books on the shelves. the king, ambitious in literature no less than in arts, nominated an illustrious _savant_, guillaume budé, to the office of master of his library; and this qualification was maintained by his successors until the fall of the royal power. with budé commenced the system of continuous acquisitions. the treasury was liberally opened to vendors of rarities. at this time the books, placed upon their sides, one upon another, gave no idea of a modern library, with its volumes ranged on end, having their titles between the bands of the back. in speaking of grolier, we remarked that the sides of a binding alone had importance on account of their place on the shelves; it was the same with francis i. under henri ii. the fontainebleau collection was somewhat pillaged for diana of poitiers, but, as a corrective for this dilapidation, the king adopted a measure, since preserved, which substituted for acquisitions a regular and uninterrupted supply; this was the contribution by publishers to the library of one bound copy on vellum of all the works printed under privilege. the ordinance was made in ; the successors of henri ii. had only this means of increasing the number of their volumes, with the exception that charles ix. expended a large sum in the purchase of grolier's collection of medals. such was the working of the royal library for about a half-century, but the idea of making it public had not come. diffused as was then the passion for books, it had not yet been democratised to the point of being understood by the people. amateurs and lovers of reading formed special collections in their houses, at times rivalling that of the king. then the fashion was no more to lay the books on their sides, but they were now ranged to allow room for new acquisitions. henri iv., who had not his great-uncle's predilection for fontainebleau, commanded the removal to paris of the books buried in the castle. he added to them those of catherine de medicis coming from marshal strozzi; and as the college of clermont had become vacant by the dispersion of the jesuits, he lodged the library in in one of the rooms of that establishment, under the care of james augustus de thou, master of the library. we now see the royal collection brought to paris, which it has never quitted; but before its definitive installation, before it was made public, it passed through a century, during which additions were made, purchases increased, and the number of manuscripts and printed books augmented in enormous proportions. henri iv. desired to place it near the court, to avoid pillage and to have the chief librarian near to him. the return of the jesuits in upset the first establishment a little; the college of clermont was evacuated; the books were transported to the cordeliers and distributed in rooms on the ground and first floors, whence the names of upper and lower libraries. there was a mass of volumes very little used, for the public did not enjoy them, and the king held them as his own; but the time was near when the collection was to take a very serious step under the influence of the brothers dupuy in , and afterwards of jerome bignon. always shut up in the incommodious chambers of the cordeliers, the library contained , volumes, manuscript and printed, perhaps less than some private libraries; after the dupuys it had at least , printed books. mazarin was the first to comprehend the natural use of collections of books: publicity. his private library, placed before in his magnificent house in the rue richelieu, where later was definitively lodged the royal library, was opened to readers every tuesday, from eight to eleven and two to five. dispersed in , at the fall of the cardinal, it was later reconstituted, and in less than ten years afterwards the former minister was able to open it in its new quarters, the college of the four nations, where it is still. while the mazarin library was administering liberally to the wants of the public, that of the king remained closely shut up in the rooms of the cordeliers. colbert, influenced by this state of things, offered two houses in the rue vivienne to the king, where the books could find a more convenient lodging, and allow room for increase. the removal was made in . the royal collection for fifty-five years was lodged only a few steps from its final resting-place, the hotel de nevers. so was called at the end of the seventeenth century the splendid mansion of mazarin, situated near the porte de richelieu, in the street of the same name, whence his books had been previously torn and sold to all the dealers. divided into two parts at the death of the cardinal in , the palace fell, one part to the duc de mazarin, the other to the duc de nevers, his nephews. at first the king dreamed, under the advice of louvais, of acquiring the land in the neighbourhood of the rue vivienne and of elevating a monument for his library, for the thought of putting the hotel de nevers to this use had not then occurred to him; but the duc de mazarin having alienated his part of the palace in favour of the company of the indies, abbé bignon, then royal librarian, perceived the part he could play from that fact. thanks to the administration of colbert and the liberalities of the king, the collection had been augmented threefold. at the time of the removal to the rue vivienne, nicolas clément worked at the classifying and cataloguing of , volumes. he distributed them into methodical classes, and devoted nine years-- to --to his work. but this first unravelling was soon insufficient. less than four years after, he commenced a new inventory in twenty-one volumes, which occupied thirty years, having been finished in the course of march, . this time the numbers amounted to , printed volumes; his twenty-three principal divisions, containing all the letters of the alphabet, are very nearly preserved up to our day. in the question of publishing this enormous work was agitated, and on this point clément had a curious correspondence with a learned dane named frederick bostgaard; he also, in a celebrated pamphlet, _idée d'une nouvelle manière de dresser le catalogue d'une bibliothèque_, indicated practical observations; he resolved this arduous question for important collections by difference of sizes; but his project was not executed, although favoured from the first by abbé bignon. as the collection was not available for workers, the work of clément had only a relative importance. a councillor of the prince of waldeck, a german of the name of nemeitz, who travelled in france in the beginning of the eighteenth century, having seen it in the houses of the rue vivienne, says that the library occupied then twenty-six rooms and contained , volumes in all; it was shown voluntarily to strangers, but not to the public. nemeitz gives some other curious particulars as to the libraries of paris (_séjour à paris:_ leyde, , vo). the bank of law, that had been lodged for some time in the hotel de nevers, alienated by the heirs of mazarin, soon disappeared with the ruin of his system. as we have said above, bignon appreciated the importance of the neglected palace for commodiously lodging the royal collections. this was in . the collection was about to be subdivided into four sections, or, as they were then called in the administrative style, four distinct departments: manuscripts, printed books, titles, and engraved plates. the master of the library pressed the regent to profit by the occasion, to which he agreed. in the month of september the removal commenced, and from the rue vivienne, the royal library, the first in the world and the most valuable, as naudé says, entered the former palace of the cardinal, which it was never to quit again. we approach the epoch when this great scientific establishment was to quit its private character and to open its doors to the learned of all countries. in it was decided to print the catalogue of some divisions only: theology, canonical law, public law, and _belles lettres_. this resolution coincided precisely with the opening of the doors which took place in , in which year appeared the first volume of the catalogue comprising the sacred scriptures. at the end of the eighteenth century the royal library was finally established; the printed books then comprised about , volumes, and access was had by a staircase leading to six grand saloons, which were surrounded by galleries. from this moment the rooms became too small. at the revolution the number of books had increased to , , and projects of enlargement commenced, to be continued to our time; but, in spite of these proposals, the surface occupied by the library has remained the same since the time of louis xv. enlargements and alterations have been made year after year on the same ground without much new construction. but how the treasures have been augmented to this time! if the printed books at the revolution represented a little more than , volumes, to-day they exceed two millions; the prints number two and a half millions; the medals, , ; the manuscripts, something over , . if we have thus brought the summary history of the national library of paris to our days, it was to avoid mixing it with other matters. we have entered into such detail regarding it as is fitting for the most important library in the world. we now return to the seventeenth century. at the time when henri iv. carried from fontainebleau to paris the nucleus of volumes that was to have so brilliant a destiny, the passion for books had singularly spread itself in france. we have already spoken of mazarin; after him cardinal richelieu designed to open his private collection to the public, and in his will he manifested his clearly held intention. he went further in his last wishes: he prescribed the daily sweeping and dusting of the precious collection, and its augmentation by a thousand livres tournois each year. the great personages of the time were not behind; and sauval says that in the seventeenth century there were , or , private libraries in paris, numbering , , volumes. in the provinces there were few public libraries. the communities and learned societies, the jesuits and other religious houses, and the universities had collections at orleans a library was opened for germans, and the students of that country were able to work at their ease under the supervision of two librarians. at the end of the eighteenth century the number of libraries had increased in large proportions; the amateurs had made their influence felt. the book was not sought only for what it contained, but also for its exterior clothing. only the great libraries open to everybody remained eclectic, and provided a little of everything. besides the royal library, there were in paris a great number of other collections, which the revolutionary storm upset and often destroyed. that of st. germain des près was burnt in . that of st. geneviève, founded in , had benefited by celebrated donations, among others those of the cardinals de berulle and de la rochefoucauld; the arsenal, created by the marquis de paulmy, was successively enriched by important acquisitions, among which was the collection of the duc de la vallière. these collections still exist, and are open to the public, as also are the national library, the mazarine, the sorbonne, the museum, the school of fine arts, the city of paris, the institute, the louvre, and the several scientific faculties. the provinces have not been behind in the movement. many of the great cities contain a considerable number of books easily accessible, among them the libraries of bordeaux and rouen, amounting to , volumes; troyes and besançon, , , etc. few important centres have less than , . these collections have been generally composed of those of the religious establishments, closed by the revolution. in our time public libraries are augmented by the legal deposit, gifts of the state, legacies of private persons, and purchases. the legal deposit in france relates almost exclusively to the national library, and proceeds from the measures taken by henri ii. in . each french printer has now to deposit a certain number of copies of the works that he issues, and these volumes go to swell the number of books in the rue de richelieu. at the rate of , a year, the time is easily anticipated and very near when the space will be found insufficient. some measures will have to be taken. germany, the cradle of printing, was not favoured in the beginning. it had, however, in the seventeenth century, in wolfenbüttel, a little town in the duchy of brunswick, a curious collection of books, in a detached building, of which the engraver merian has preserved for us the physiognomy; it contained nearly , volumes, an enormous number for the time. the rather low rooms were shelved all round; in the middle were cases of the height of a man, also filled with books; the readers helped themselves, and were seated for working. the exterior of the building, without being sumptuous, was isolated and detached. in our time this collection includes the bible, glass, and inkstand of luther and his portrait by lucas cranach. another curious library, dating from the beginning of the seventeenth century, is that of the city of leyden. an engraving by woudan shows its state in , with its classifications and divisions. the books were ranged in cases provided with breast-high desks. the books were placed with the edges in front, and not as now, and were so attached that they could only be consulted in their place. each body of shelving contained a series of authors: theology, philosophy, mathematics, history, medicine, law, and literature. the room, of square shape, was lighted by windows right and left. between the bays were portraits, views of cities, and maps. on the right, in a shrine, was enclosed the legacy of joseph scaliger. communication was less liberal than at wolfenbüttel; the readers were obliged to take the books from the shelves themselves and read them standing before the desks. in england, the celebrated oxford library should be mentioned, augmented and restored in by sir thomas bodley, ambassador of queen elizabeth. the generous overtures of this rich gentleman met with unanimous approbation. he offered to the library of the university the volumes collected by him during his travels on the continent, whose value exceeded £ , . the first stone of a new building was laid in , but from the collection was open to readers in a provisional locality. david loggan, the engraver, has preserved for us interior views of the bodleian of the seventeenth century. the rooms are disposed in the form of the letter h, with pavilions to east and west, united by a gallery. the books were and are still in the body of the library, placed against the walls, with tables and immovable seats. the volumes were not displaced; they were consulted in their own place. each room had two floors, with access to the second by stairs. in london it was hans sloane who had the idea of founding a great collection by offering to the state for £ , his collection of books, which was valued at £ , . created in by an act of parliament, the british museum, as it was named, was quickly augmented by many private libraries, among which was the library of printed books and manuscripts collected by the kings of england from henry vii. to william iii., which was added in the reign of george ii. the very extensive and valuable library of george iii., , volumes, was added by george iv. the harleian collection added , volumes, and robert cotton his manuscripts. to-day the printed books amount to , , , and are only surpassed by the national library of france as well in number of books as in number of readers. this immense collection increases at a great rate, one source being the compulsory deposit of a copy of every new book in order to secure copyright. donations and legacies are constantly being made, and an annual sum for purchases is voted by parliament. besides the copy deposited by publishers in the british museum, the law of copyright compels the deposit of four other copies, which go to augment the collections of the bodleian library of oxford, the university library of cambridge, and the libraries of edinburgh and dublin. if we search among the cities of europe where establishments of this kind are most honoured, berlin will take the third place with , printed books and , manuscripts, preserved in the imperial library. the building, constructed between and , owes its special form to frederick ii., who desired that it should take the form of a chest of drawers. on the façade an inscription in the latin tongue, but conceived in german spirit, indicates that here is a spiritual refectory--_nutrimentum spiritus_. following come munich, with , printed books; vienna , ; dresden, , ; then the universities: leipzig, whose library, founded in and reorganised in , contains , books and , manuscripts; heidelberg; göttingen, etc. in italy, florence keeps, in the national library, , volumes, proceeding from various amateurs, and formed since . the collection of the goldsmith magliabecchi, that was open to readers since , has been transported there. besides this library, florence possesses the celebrated laurentian, created by cosmo de medicis in the middle of the fifteenth century, where are united more than , manuscripts of an incalculable value. milan has at the brera a collection of , printed books and , medals, and at the ambrosian, due to cardinal frederick borromeo, , printed books and , manuscripts. rome possesses a dozen collections and celebrated deposits. the vatican, not numerous, is most choice; the importance of its manuscripts is known to the entire world, but only a part of the , printed books are catalogued. the library of victor emmanuel, formerly of the jesuits, amounts to about , volumes. at venice the splendid monument called the antiqua libraria di st. marco has changed its destination; constructed in the sixteenth century and commenced by sansovino for a library, it is now a royal palace. this city has lost that which had made its glory, and its collections are very modest in our days. the magnificent educational establishments in the form of public libraries provided in the united states deserve special mention. nearly every city has its public library, supported by a small tax; and many large libraries are wholly supported by private munificence. the first to be established was founded in by benjamin franklin in philadelphia, and still exists as the library company; many important bequests have been made to it, the latest being £ , by dr. richard rush. the library now numbers , volumes. the congressional library of washington, besides its annual income from government, receives by deposit for copyright a copy of every work published in the united states; it now has , volumes. the astor library and the lenox library of new york were both founded and endowed by the families whose name they bear; the former has , volumes, the latter , . the city of chicago recently fell heir to the magnificent sum of over one million sterling for the establishment of a library of reference, and new york was benefited by the late mr. tilden to the extent of £ , for a public library. when we have named the libraries of st. petersburg and moscow for russia, stockholm for sweden, and the escurial for spain, we shall have mentioned very hastily the most important establishments in the world. for more than four centuries the love of books has preserved and fortified itself, and increases each day. if we were to endeavour to approximately imagine the number of printed books diffused, we should be frightened at it. it is by miles that to-day are counted the shelves of the national library or of the british museum; and each year the production is accelerated, as is also the number of readers. the end. index. albi, first printer at, . alciati, books of emblems, . alding, henry, printer in sicily, . aldus manutius, son-in-law of torresani, ; printer in venice, , , ; books for grolier, . america, north, printing in, . antwerp, early printing at, ; plantin, . _ars memorandi_, block book, . _ars moriendi_, block book, . asola, andrew d', successor of jenson, . audran, c., engraver, . augsburg, _formschneiders_ at, . badier, florimond, bookbinder, . badius, jodocus, printer in paris, , . baldini, designs for early italian books, . ballard, printer for music, . bamberg, early printing at, , . barcelona, first printer, . bartolozzi, engraver, . baskerville, printer of birmingham, . basle, first printer, ; school of engraving, . beaujoyeux, balthasar de, _ballet comique_, . bechtermuncze, henry, pupil of gutenberg, , . bedford, francis, bookbinder, . belfort, andrew, printer at ferrara, . berlin, imperial library of, . bernard, _le petit_, designer, . bewick, thomas, engraver, , , , . bible, gutenberg's, , ; of , the mayence, ; first english, ; authorised version, ; the polyglot, plantin's, ; richelieu's, . _biblia pauperum_, block book, . bignon, jerome, royal librarian, . binding, early, . biziaux, bookbinder, . blind asylum, printers in , . bocard, andrew, printer in paris, . bodleian library, . bohn, h. g., publisher, . bologna, francisco da, engraver of type, . bonhomme, printer in lyons, . book, the, earliest forms of, , . books of hours, , ; for english use, . booksellers of paris, , , , . bosse, abraham, engraver, . botticelli, plates to dante, . boucher, designer, . bourdichon, john, artist, . boydell, alderman, publisher, . boyet, bookbinder, . brandt's "ship of fools," . british museum, library, . brothers of common life, printers, , . browne, h. k., book illustrator, . bruges, early printing at, , . buckinck, arnold, printer at rome, printed the first atlas, . budé, guillaume, royal librarian, . cæsaris, peter, and john stol, second paris printers, . callot, engraver, . cambridge, first printing at, . cars, laurent, engraver, . cases for type, . caslon, william, type-founder, . catherine de medicis, bindings for, . "catholicon," the, of , printed by gutenberg, . caxton, william, first english printer, , , . cazin, publisher, . cerceau, _bastiments de france_, , . chaillot, robin, publisher in paris, . challeux, james le, wood engraver, . chamot, bookbinder, . _champfleury_, geoffroy tory's, , . characters, variety of, . charles vii. sends jenson to mayence, . charles viii., royal library, . charles ix., bindings for, . charles of angoulême, books specially printed for him, . chauveau, francis, engraver, . chess, caxton's book on, . chodowiecki, engraver, . choffard, engraver, , . clement v., _constitutiones_, , printed by schoeffer, . clément, nicholas, royal librarian, . clennell, luke, wood engraver, , , . cochin the younger, engraver, . colbert, bindings for, , . collines, simon de, type-founder, . cologne, first printer, . "cologne chronicle," . colonna, francis, poliphilus of, , ; in french, , . colophons, use of, by early printers, . commin, vincent, bookseller in paris, . companies of printers in france, . copper plate engraving, ; in england, . coster, laurent, alleged inventor of printing, , . cousin, john, designs for books, . cramoisy, sebastian, printer of paris, , ; director of bindings for louis xiv., . cranach, lucas, his _passional christi_, . cranmer's catechism, , . cruikshank, george, book illustrator, . curmer, publisher of paris, . dances of death, , , , . dante, , with engraved plates, ; , with botticelli plates, ; , printed by bonnini, . day, john, printer, . della bella, engraver, . deromes, bookbinders, . desportes, philip, bindings for, . devéria, engraver, . dibdin, t. f., bibliographical works, . didot, françois, printer of paris, . didot, pierre f., printer of paris, , . didot family, , . dijon, first printer at, . diodorus siculus, geoffroy tory's edition, . donatus, the latin syntax of, , . doré, gustave, influence on illustration, . doyle, richard, book illustrator, . dritzehen, andrew, associate of gutenberg, . dubois, gilles, bookbinder, . dubuisson, peter paul, bookbinder, . duchesne on wood engraving, . duplat, relief engraving on stone, . duplessis-bertaux, engraver, . du pré, john, printer of books of hours, . dupuy brothers, bindings for, , ; royal librarians, . durand's _rationale_, , printed by schoeffer, . dürer, albert, pupil of wohlgemuth, ; "apocalypse," , ; influence on geoffroy tory, . duseuil, bookbinder, . eisen, engraver, . eltvil, first printer, . elzevirs, printers at leyden, . emblems, books of, , . england, bookbinding in, ; public libraries, . english books, in the fifteenth century, ; in the sixteenth century, ; seventeenth century, ; eighteenth century, ; nineteenth century, , ; school of engraving eighteenth century, . engraved plates, first book with, ; in france, , . engravers, employed by plantin, ; in relief, the first, . engraving, introduction of metal plates for, ; the process, ; in the books of hours, . erasmus, visit to aldus, . estienne, robert, printer in paris, , . etching, process of, . eustache, william, printer of books of hours, . eve, nicholas, bookbinder, . ferrara, first printer, . fichet, william, ascribes invention of printing to gutenberg, . flemish, illustration, ; printers, early, , . florence, national library of, . foligno, first printer, . fontainebleau school of engraving, . fornazeris, j. de, engraver, . foucquet, john, artist, . fount of type, . fouquet, superintendent, bindings for, , . fournier, type-engraver, . france, early printing in, . francis i., father of letters, ; bindings for, ; royal library, . frankfort, books of the seventeenth century, . franklin, benjamin, printer at philadelphia, ; founded first american public library, . french book illustration, , , , , ; provinces, public libraries of, . fresne, trichet du, corrector of royal printing house, . furne, publisher of paris, . fust, john, _et seq_.; in partnership with gutenberg, . garamond, claude, type-founder, , , . gaultier, leonard, engraver, , . gavarni, designer, . ged, william, inventor of stereotype, . gering, freyburger, and crantz, first printers in paris, . german books, in the seventeenth century, ; eighteenth century, ; nineteenth century, . german public libraries, . gigoux, john, vignettist, . gillot, claude, engraver, , . giunta, lucantonio, printer at venice, . gondi, bindings for, . gourmont, john de, wood engraver, . grandjean, philip, royal printer, . grandville, designer, . gravelot, hubert francis, engraver, , . grolier, john, bindings for, . guadagnino, artist of venice, . guise, henri de, "le balafré," bindings for, . gutenberg, john, _et seq_.; at mayence, ; death of, . haarlem, book illustration at, . hachette, publisher of paris, . hagenbach, peter, printer at toledo, . hahn, ulrich, printer at rome, ; printed first illustrated book in italy, . hardouins, printers of books of hours, . haye, cornelis de la, painter, . heilmann, andrew, associate of gutenberg, . heinlein and fichet introduce printing into paris, . henri ii., _entrée à lyon_, , ; bindings for, ; royal library, . henri iii., bindings for, . henri iv., royal library, . hoe printing machines, . holbein, "dance of death," , ; cranmer's catechism, . holland, artists in the seventeenth century, . illustrations, first, in books, ; in the sixteenth century, . imposition, process of, . ink, composition of, . ipswich, first printer, . isaac, jasper, engraver, . italian, books in the seventeenth century, ; influence on french illustration, ; on bindings, . italic type introduced, . italy, public libraries of, . jenson, nicholas, sent to mayence to learn type-founding, ; printer at venice, , . johannot brothers, engravers, . john of cologne, master _à la navette_, . jombert, printer of paris, . junius, hadrian, narrator of the coster legend, , . kerver, thielman, printer of books of hours, , . knight, charles, publisher, . koburger, first printer at nuremberg, , . koelhof, first printer to use signatures, . labarre, john de, royal librarian, . laborde, _chansons_, . laferté, bookbinder, . la fontaine, the _contes_, . la marche, oliver de, his _chevalier delibéré_, . laserre, luxury in bindings for, . la tour, bookbinder, . lavoignat, wood engraver, . lebé, william, type-founder, , . le brun, painter, . leclerc, sébastien, engraver, . leech, john, book illustrator, . leeu, gerard de, printer at antwerp, . le gascon bindings, . le jay and the polyglot bible, . le maire, john, _illustrations de la gaule_, . le monnier, bookbinder, . lenoir, philip, bindings for francis i., . lepautre, engraver, . lesné, poet of bookbinding, . letters of indulgence, the first printed, . lettou, john, early english printer, . leu, thomas de, engraver, , . levasseur, bookbinder, . lewis, charles, bookbinder, . leyden, the elzevirs at, ; public library of, . libraries, . library, national, of paris, . lipsius, justus, employed by plantin, . logography, invention of, . lorenzo, nicholas di, printer of _el monte santo di dio_, first book with engraved plates, . loslein, peter, printer at venice, . louis xii., ordinance on printing, ; bindings for, , ; royal library, . louis xiv., bindings for, ; regulations for bookbinders, . louvain, printer in , . lutzelburger, hans, engraver of "dance of death," . lyons, first printing at, ; in the sixteenth century, ; seventeenth century, . machlinia, william, early english printer, , . macon, first printer at, . _magasin pittoresque_, . mainyal, george, associate of gering, . maioli, thomas, bindings for, . mansfeldt, count, bindings for, . mansion, colard, printer at bruges, , . manuscripts, influence of printing upon, . manutius. see aldus. marchant, guyot, his "dance of death," ; bindings for francis i., . marinoni printing press, . marnef, geoffroy and gilbert, french printers, . mayence, revolution at, in , ; printing in the seventeenth century, . mayer, henry, printer at toulouse, . mazarin, cardinal, bindings for, ; his library, . meissonier, designer on wood, . mellan, claude, engraver, . menzel, adolph, book illustrator, . _mer des histoires_, , , . mérius, bookbinder, . meslier, denis, publisher in paris, . metal plates used for illustration, . metlinger, printer at dijon, . milan, printing in the sixteenth century, ; public libraries of, . montenay, georgette de, his emblems, . monteregio, _calendario_, first book with title-page, . montmorency, anne de, bindings for, . moreau the younger, engraver, . moretus, printer of antwerp, . mosaic bindings, . motte, houdart de la, his "fables," . necker, jost, engraver of the _theuerdanck_, . neumeister, john, printer at albi, . neumeister, john, printer at foligno, . nevers, duc de, book published in , . notary, julian, early english printer, . noyers, sublet de, superintendent of royal printing house, . nuremberg, first printer, ; books of the sixteenth century, ; chronicle, , ; books of the seventeenth century, . orleans, public library at, . os, peter van, his _biblia pauperum_, . oswen, john, first printer at ipswich, . oxford, first printer, ; bodleian library, . palermo, first printer, . palmart, lambert, printer at valencia, , . pannartz, arnold, printer at rome, . paper, manufacture of, . papillons, wood engravers, . paris, fust's visit to, ; first book printed at, ; public libraries of, . pasdeloup, bookbinder, . pasquier-bonhomme, printer in paris, . pass family, engravers, . pasti, matteo, designs for valturius, . paulin, publisher of paris, . payne, roger, bookbinder, . perréal, john, artist, . pfinzfing, _theuerdanck_, . pfister, albert, printer of bamberg, . philippe, laurent, publisher in paris, . photography, use in illustration, . picart, bernard, engraver, . picart, john, engraver, . piccini, engraver, . pickering, william, publisher, . pictor, bernard, printer of venice, . pigouchet, philip, printer of paris, , . plantin, christopher, printer of antwerp, . pluvinel, _manège royal_, . poitiers, diane de, bindings for, . poliphilus, printed by aldus, , ; by kerver, , . polytypes, invention of, . pompadour, madame de, bindings for, . portraits as illustrations, , , . prault, publisher of paris, . prayer-book, queen elizabeth's, ; edward vi's., . presses, printing, . press work, process of, . printers' marks, . prohibitions on printers, , . _promptuaire des médailles_, printed by roville, . psalter of , the first dated book, . ptolemy, , first printed atlas, . pynson, richard, early english printer, , , . racine, works, the louvre edition, . raffet, wood engraver, . ratdolt, erhardt, printer at venice, ; printed first title-page, , . rembold, berthold, associate of gering, . richelieu, cardinal, his library, . roffet, peter, bindings for francis i., . rogers, samuel, his poetical works, . roman character, , . rome, first printers, ; public libraries of, . rood, theod., first printer at oxford, . roville, printer of lyons, , . royal printing house in paris, , . royer, john le, printer for mathematics, , . ruette, bookbinder, . rüppel, berthold, first printer at basle, . st. albans, first printer, . st. aubin, designer and engraver, , . st. pierre, bernardin de, and the didots, . salomon, bernard, designer, . sanlecque, james, type-founder, . schäufelein, designs for the _theuerdanck_, . schiedam, early printing at, . schoeffer, peter, associate of gutenberg and fust, . schongauer, martin, influence on french art, . schönsperger, printer of augsburg, . séguier, bindings for, . siberch, john, first printer at cambridge, . sicily, first printer, . sizes of books, , . sloane, sir hans, founder of the british museum, . smirke, robert, book illustrator, . southwark, first printer at, . spain, book illustration in, . _speculum humanæ salvationis_, . spindeler, nicholas, printer at barcelona, . spire, john and vendelin of, printers at venice, . spyes, weigand, pupil of gutenberg, . stanhope press, . steel plates for illustrations, . stereotype, invention of, . stothard, thomas, book illustrator, , , . strasbourg, gutenberg's retreat to, . sweynheim, conrad, printer at rome, . _tailleurs d'images_ of the middle ages, . tauchnitz, baron, publisher of leipzig, . tessier, bookbinder, . ther-hoenen, arnold, first printer using arabic numerals for pages, , , . _theuerdanck_, printed at nuremberg, . thevet, books with plates, . thompson brothers, wood engravers, . thou, james augustus de, royal librarian, . titian, influence on book illustration, . title-page, the first, , ; illustrated, , . toledo, first printer, . tornes, hans de, printer in lyons, . torresani, andrea, succeeded jenson, . tortorel and perrissin, plates on the religious wars, . tory, geoffroy, printer and engraver, , , . toulouse, first printer, . travel, books of, , . treschel, john, printer at lyons, , . treves, peter of, first printer at southwark, . trithemius, account of peter schoeffer, . turner, j. m. w., designs for rogers' works, . type-founding, , . united states, printing in, ; public libraries in, . utrecht, early printers at, , . valdarfer, christopher, printer at venice, . valencia, first printer, . valladier, andrew, _métanéologie_, . valturius, _de re militari_, , . veldener, john, printer at louvain, . venice, first printers, ; first title-page printed at, ; sixteenth century work, ; seventeenth century, ; libraries of, . verard, antony, printer in paris, , ; his books of hours, . versailles, printing office of the minister for war, . vinci, leonardo da, influence on book illustration, . vitré, antoine, publisher of paris, . voragine, "golden legend," venice, , . vostre, simon, printer in paris, ; his books of hours, . vyel, andrew, printer at palermo, . walchius, story of fust's visit to paris, . walter, john, printer of the _times_, , . water marks in paper, . watervliet, marc laurin de, bindings for, . watteau, engraver, . wechel, printer in paris, . wensler, michael, printer at macon, . westminster, caxton first printer at, . westphalia, john of, printer at louvain, , , . whittingham, charles, printer, . woériot, peter, engraver of emblems, . wohlgemuth, michael, designs for the _schatzbehalter_, . wolfenbüttel, public library of, . woodcuts, first book printed with, . wood engraving, revival of, , , . wynken de worde, early english printer, , . xylographs of the fifteenth century, . zainer, gunther, printer at augsburg, . zell, ulrich, pupil of gutenberg, , , . zwoll, book illustration at, . transcriber's note in this text version, symbols and greek letters in the text are replaced by their name, enclosed in square brackets, e.g. [phi], [double cross]. in addition, oe ligatures are replaced with the letters oe, and superscripts are introduced with the caret character, e.g. xviii^e practical bookbinding. illustration practical bookbinding by paul adam, _director of the düsseldorf technical school of artistic and practical bookbinding._ translated from the german by thos. e. maw, librarian king's lynn public library. with illustrations. london scott, greenwood & co. ludgate hill, e.c. new york d. van nostrand co. murray street (_the sole right of translation into english rests with scott, greenwood & co._) contents. page metric and british systems compared vi. preface vii. introductory remarks on working methods and materials _a._--materials for sewing and pasting _b._--materials for covering the book _c._--materials for decorating and finishing _d._--tools part i. forwarding. chapter i.--general preparatory work chapter ii.--sewing chapter iii.--forwarding: cutting, rounding, and backing chapter iv.--forwarding: decoration, of edges and headbanding chapter v.--boarding part ii. finishing. the book cover chapter vi.--making the cover chapter vii.--work with the blocking press chapter viii.--treatment of sewn books, fastening in covers, and finishing off chapter ix.--hand finishing chapter x.--account books chapter xi.--school books, mounting maps, drawings, &c. conclusion index list of illustrations page. fig. glue-pot for heating by petroleum. figs. & holding whilst folding. fig. lifting into the press. fig. open sheets laid out for gathering. fig. sections fanned out for drawing out. fig. sections fanned out for pasting. fig. suggestions for mounting on guards. figs. - suggestions for folding plates and maps. fig. collating. fig. rolling machine. fig. sewing frame. fig. arrangement on the sewing frame. fig. arrangement of threads in holländering. fig. small stapling machine for single sheets. fig. arrangement of staples in brochures. fig. arrangement of threads in old style of sewing. fig. arrangement of threads with double cords. fig. divisions for sawing-in. fig. machine for sawing-in. fig. suggestions for single and double end papers. fig. suggestion for double end paper with tear-off. fig. overcast end paper. fig. loops for attaching to frame hooks. fig. loops for taking frame keys. fig. suggestion for sewing on four cords. fig. suggestion for sewing on six cords. fig. suggestion for sewing two-sheets-on. fig. thread-sewing machine. fig. wire-sewing machine. fig. rotary guillotine. fig. lever guillotine. fig. top edge arranged for when trimming three edges. fig. rounding the book. fig. rounding machine. fig. backing machine for small shops. fig. backing machine for large shops. fig. backed book arranged for trimming. fig. marbling outfit. fig. suggestion for sprinkling colour. fig. comb marbling. fig. suggestion for curl marbling. fig. bouquet or peacock marbling. fig. eye marbling. figs. & arrangement of flat and rounded edges. fig. top edge arranged for gilding. fig. headband shears. fig. headband working. fig. board-cutting machine. fig. spring back. fig. boarded book. fig. section of edge rule. fig. english style of lacing boards. fig. view of the most general styles of binding, showing the divisions of the work. (table) fig. corners cut for turning in. fig. corners: right and wrong. fig. paring with offenbach or berlin knife. fig. paring with french knife. fig. blocking press. fig. appliances used in blocking backs. fig. colour roller. fig. stuck-on gauges. fig. turning in the head. figs. & the head: good and bad. fig. the pasted-down book. fig. treatment of tear-off. figs. & simple line designs. fig. half-calf extra tooled in blind. fig. leather binding with simple design in blind. fig. simple gold tooling on sides. fig. tooled cover. fig. specimen of tooling done in the düsseldorf technical school. fig. leather binding by oswald kob, bozen. fig. cover with laurel motive done in the düsseldorf technical school. fig. leather binding with fern motive done in the düsseldorf technical school. fig. simple gold tooling on squares. fig. design in gold for squares. tools by, f. clement leipzig. figs. & two designs in gold for squares. figs. , three simple backs. t, d, b = title; n, t = , & sub title. fig. type-holder with centre position. figs. , , four backs tooled in the düsseldorf technical , & school. fig. group of backs tooled in carlsruhe technical school. figs. & two richly decorated insides done in the düsseldorf technical school. figs. , , four richly tooled backs & fig. rich half-calf extra binding. figs. & tooling on heads. figs. , tooling on the edges of the boards. , & fig. motive executed in the düsseldorf technical school. fig. case to protect book. fig. cut-out case. fig. book cover. fig. cover in case form. figs. & end papers for account books. fig. boards cut out at head. fig. suggestion for account book back. _k_ pared edge; _t_ part to be pasted. fig. suggestion for account book back. fig. boarded account book. fig. to show where turn-in is to be cut. fig. hand numbering machine. fig. suggestion for back of guard book. fig. pattern for dust flaps. (leinwand = linen hinge.) fig. eyeleting machine. figs. - showing stages of pinning down for stretching. the metric and british systems. table of comparison. +-------+-----------+------------+------------+-------+ |metres.|decimetres.|centimetres.|millimetres.|inches.| +-------+-----------+------------+------------+-------+ | . | . | . | | . | | . | . | . | | . | | . | . | . | | . | | . | . | . | | . | | . | . | . | | . | | . | . | . | | . | | . | . | . | | . | | . | . | . | | . | | . | . | . | | . | | . | . | | | . | | . | . | | | . | | . | . | | | . | | . | . | | | . | | . | . | | | . | | . | . | | | . | | . | . | | | . | | . | . | | | . | | . | . | | | . | | . | | | | . | | . | | | | . | | . | | | | . | | . | | | | . | | . | | | | . | | . | | | | . | | . | | | | . | | . | | | | . | | . | | | | . | | | | | | . | +-------+-----------+------------+------------+-------+ weight. gramme = . grains. - / grammes = oz. avoird. kilogramme = grammes = . lb. avoird. length. metre = centimetres = . inches. roughly speaking, metre = a yard and a tenth. centimetre = two-fifths of an inch. kilometre = metres = five-eighths of a mile. volume. cubic metre = litres = . cubic feet. litre = cubic centimetres = . gall. heat. calorie = . british thermal units. comparison between fahrenheit and centigrade thermometers. +----+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+ | c.| f.| c. | f. | c. | f. | c. | f. | c. | f.| +----+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+ |- |- | | | | | | | | | |- | - | | . | | | | | | | |- | . | | | | | | | | | |- | | | . | | | | | | | |- | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | . | | | | | | | | | | | . | | | | | | | | | . | | | | | | | | | +----+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+ to convert:-- degrees c. to degrees f., multiply by , divide by , then add . degrees f. to degrees c., first subtract , then multiply by and divide by . preface. nowadays the bookbinder does not bind only those books given to him for this purpose as was the case in former years, for present conditions necessitate his undertaking many kinds of work which have little or nothing to do with the binding of books, particularly such as are connected with the making or finishing of printed matter and paper goods, or where pasting, gumming, and glueing are required, which, in their turn, are connected with paper and cardboard. on the other hand, some branches of the bookbinder's craft have now become quite distinct, and have developed into special industries, and have so enlarged and extended that even their particular methods of working and technical terms have quite changed. cardboard goods, leather goods, photo albums, maps, and even account-books are treated by particular firms as specialities. as we must now keep within clearly defined limits, we shall treat here only the work of bookbinding proper as far as it is concerned with the making of the book for publisher, bookseller, and buyer, and also the making of account-books, whilst the other work given to the binder, commonly called "fancy goods," must be excluded. _editions de luxe_, charters, illuminated addresses, &c., are likewise excluded, as they are quite apart from the ordinary work of the bookbinder, belonging solely to artistic bookbinding. when any such work is required the intelligent worker will not be at a loss; besides, he will derive ample assistance from the illustrations for this class of work. the parts of this little book have been so arranged as to correspond to our present-day division of work: preparatory work, forwarding, covering, and finishing. in england and france the various processes have for a long time been similarly termed, and although in germany we could not follow their lead without any deviation, because our method of work and division of labour are so different, yet the basis of this arrangement has been used in this book. every text-book has some drawback, the greatest of these being that a practical demonstration on the subject is more helpful than the most detailed written description, and yet even in the latter a text-book is limited. for the rest, i have tried to be as brief and clear as ever possible and to avoid faults which i have discovered in my former writings of a similar kind. paul adam. _düsseldorf, germany, ._ introductory remarks on working methods and materials. the bookbinder works with quite a large variety of materials which are mostly what we might call "half-made," that is to say, such materials as have already undergone some hand or machine process in order to make them fit for the work of the bookbinder. this is not the place to go into details as to the source of all these materials or the manner of their production: that may be seen in special treatises. we separate into various groups the materials we use. a.--materials for sewing and pasting. the bookbinder himself prepares his paste from wheaten flour and boiling water. put in a shallow vessel, by preference a stone or enamelled metal wash-basin, the quantity of flour required for about eight days, pour in as much water as will make a mixture by soaking and stirring of the consistency of honey. add to it boiling water, first slowly, then quicker, stirring all the time. it does not do to add the water too quickly, as that is likely to make the paste knotty or lumpy, because it cannot be stirred quickly enough and the gluten develops unequally. if added too slowly, the starch is not heated quickly enough and does not thicken sufficiently or not quickly enough, and the paste turns out too thin. good paste, when cold, should not be stiff like pudding, but should be easily worked with a brush. in order to prevent a skin forming on the top whilst cooling, pour over the paste as much cold water as will cover the surface immediately after the mixing with the boiling water; this water is afterwards poured off. in summer when the paste is made, and whilst still hot, add a few drops of turpentine and mix well; this preserves the paste and keeps off insects. the addition of alum to the paste tends to make it watery, besides having no preservative properties. if required, paste may be thinned by adding a little warm water. potato flour is often used fraudulently for making paste, but this should only be taken when it is possible to use it up quickly, and not for books, but only for fancy goods, as this flour does not possess great adhesive power and is unsuitable for leather. glue is made from the well-known cake glue. the best english glue, although the dearest, is the cheapest to use. good glue whilst soaking in water should still retain a certain degree of stickiness, must not be greasy, and should have no disagreeable smell. glue if weighed before soaking and afterwards dried and again weighed should give no perceptible loss in weight. good glue should not have a disagreeable taste, and above all should not betray the presence of salt. to obtain the proper consistency in glue for bookbinding, a quantity of the cakes is taken and sufficient water poured over it to cover well. the next day the gelatinous mass is taken out of the water and dissolved in the glue-pot by placing the softened glue in a pot standing in an outer vessel containing boiling water. glue should never be boiled nor placed directly on the fire, as that causes the loss of the best part of its adhesive property. glue and paste are generally worked with a brush. for paste a large hollow brush is used; this holds a large quantity of paste and covers a large surface. for glue a closer brush with a metal fastening is used, because here the hairs cannot be secured with pitch owing to the brush being constantly exposed to heat. on the paste brush there must be neither ring nor anything else of iron, as this used in paste would cause rust, and rust would give iron stains to light-coloured leathers. for the same reason no enamelled vessel should be used for paste after the enamel has once been chipped or worn. laying the glue or paste on a material is called glueing or pasting. a zinc-plate is the most serviceable pasting-board, as the paste is easily washed off. glue can be scraped or soaked off and used again. pasting-boards of mill-board or paper are hardly to be recommended, as their use entails a considerable loss of material. of other adhesive substances, dextrine, gum, gelatine, and isinglass are used for certain purposes. the two former are always used cold, the two latter warm. the former are dissolved in cold water; gelatine and isinglass are soaked exactly like glue, the water poured off, and then melted in the glue-pot. dextrine and gum are used by the bookbinder almost exclusively for pasting larger surfaces, and for laying on these substances a broad thin brush fastened with a metal strip is used. fig. .--glue-pot for heating by petroleum. to heat the glue and to maintain the heat a glue-heating apparatus is used. the upper part always consists of the glue-pot. the better kinds are made of copper or brass wrought or moulded in one piece. for the sake of convenience a partition is let into this pot so that thick and thin glue may be ready for use at the same time. the glue is not heated directly over the flame, but by hot water; to do this the glue-pot is placed within a larger vessel containing water, the glue-pot at the same time closely fitting to the outer rim of the larger vessel. this contrivance is placed over a petroleum, gas, or spirit lamp, which gives the required heat. in some districts where brown coal is found, it is heated on a specially made contrivance with the brown coal waste. the latest method of heating is by electricity. the apparatus necessary for this has been put on the market by the firm w. leo, stuttgart. the majority of bookbinderies, large and small, use a strong linen hemp-spun thread for sewing, the strength of which depends upon the weight and size of the sheets to be sewn. as it is inconvenient to be obliged to be continually beginning a new thread or knotting, most bookbinders use a reel of thread. the so-called marschall thread is the best. the book is held together by cords, for which the so-called sewing cord is used. there are now special kinds made for the purposes of the bookbinder; these are lightly twisted out of a long fibrous material so that afterwards they can be easily undone for the subsequent necessary scraping out. certain kinds of bindings are sewn upon tapes; strong raw linen tape of - - / cm. being the material most generally used. for machine sewing, thread is generally used. tinned iron wire, ready wound on spools, is also used. it is made in various sizes and used according to the weight of the sheets. b.--material for covering the book. the real protection against outward injury to the book lies in the cover, the inside of which consists of boards more or less strong. of the kinds on the market the bookbinder uses grey-board, which is made from waste paper and rags. it is grey, very tough, and flexible, but dearer than other raw materials. straw-boards made from straw and waste paper are cheaper, but less flexible, and are easily broken. they take a very high polish under the calendering machine and become very hard, and are therefore very suitable for some work if flexibility is not essential. they are generally used in all cloth binding. so-called leather-boards are unsuitable, for, in spite of great toughness and pliancy, they are certain to cockle and always remain spongy. wooden-boards are unsuitable for bookbinding on account of their small resistance, but are indispensable for fancy goods and portfolios, as they can be so nicely cut and are less liable to subsequent cockling than any other kind. besides these, yellow and blue boards are made. these are coloured to suit and serve quite special purposes, mostly fancy goods; but they also are not used in bookbinding, on account of their high price. the thinnest boards are known as middles. this is a strong whitish material made entirely from waste-paper. it is used for lining backs, limp bindings, and in all cases where flexibility, together with durability, is required. in finished work--books, fancy goods, maps--the boards are never left exposed to view, but are covered with paper, cloth, or leather. for the inner side of the cover of the book white or coloured paper is frequently used, note-paper of the smallest size being more rarely used. all marbled or pressed papers are made in one standard size. besides the end papers for inside of books, a figured paper has of late been made known as "litho printed" for fancy goods. this has been put on the market in the most varied kinds, and also with cloth-like impressions, under the names damask, brocade, and leipzig end papers. the use of this paper has of late been almost discontinued. the dearest are those printed with designs in gold. cloth is more durable than paper, calico being mostly used. this is made in all colours and designs, and was formerly imported from england; but to-day german manufacturers produce a really good article. plain linen cloth, black, green, or grey, sail cloth, buckram, mole-skin, and beaver are used in the making of account-books. silk is used in the bookbindery as end papers in extra work, and also for fancy goods and for lining boxes. the lower grades are seldom used, the better qualities being mostly taken. to-day velvet is still used in the bindery, chiefly as a covering for portfolios, albums, and addresses, and except for metal clasps remains without ornamentation. the bookbinder's best material, to which is given the choicest, most expensive, and most painstaking decoration, is leather in its various kinds. sheep-skin, undyed or split and dyed, serves for school books and other cheap work. goat-skin and morocco are better kinds, the latter being preferable both as regards price and quality. morocco is made from the skin of the goat. morocco, levant morocco, and maroquin all denote the same kind. it is a strong, coarse-grained leather imported from the levant, very tough and durable. cape morocco, also called _maroquin écrasé_, is similar to this. this has a very large, artificially smooth-pressed grain, and hitherto has been higher in price than all other leathers. calf (matt or polished) is quite smooth and is only used for fine work. cowhide is similar to this, but of coarser texture, and is only used for leather goods, portfolios, and albums; for other work in the bindery it is not easily enough worked. celluloid is one of the latest materials used for covers. there is evidently a good opening for this in the wholesale manufacturies, stamped goods, and small fancy goods; whilst on the other hand it is of little value to the smaller shops, as it requires machinery for gilding. c.--materials for decorating and finishing. for the decoration of our work, either during or after production, there will be a large variety of materials used. colours are used for the decoration of the cut edges and the cut heads of books. the smooth, uniformly coloured edges are made by a body colour--carmine, scarlet, chrome yellow, silk green, indigo blue. all these colours must be very finely ground before using; the addition of a little paste or dissolved gelatine makes the colour adhere. for marbling the edges halfer's marbling colours are now exclusively used; these are to be had ready for use. amongst the binders' materials gold takes quite an important place. leaf-gold in various colours is supplied either by the gold-beater or the wholesale dealer. the colour most used at the present time is orange gold, which is about the same in tint as our current gold coinage. red gold is somewhat deeper in tone. green gold and lemon gold are considerably altered by an alloy of silver, and are sold cheaper. besides gold there are still other leaf-metals used, principally aluminium as a substitute for silver. the latter is still being used, but its unfortunate property of turning black will by-and-by drive it from our workshops. bronze-leaf is also used for very small jobs in large quantities--makers' names on hat linings, ties, &c. like silver, it is also liable to rapid oxidization, which takes place with especial rapidity upon leather. gold leaf is made in various sizes. the larger size, about mm., is the best to use, whilst the very small sizes are better suited for some work. as a ground-work for gilt edges, the so-called _poliment_ (armenian bole) is now generally used. this is cleaned bole, made into a paste, and applied in a solution not too thin. to make the gold stick to the surface, glair or white of egg is used in all cases. it must be properly diluted according to whether it is to be used for gilt edges or hand-tooling. finished work, especially smooth surfaces, is improved by the application of varnish, and is at the same time rendered damp-proof. the so-called bookbinder's or leather varnish is used for leather, cloth, or pressed dark papers. map varnish, also sold as photographer's varnish, is suitable for light articles, maps, placards, &c. at present, spirit varnish with its quick drying and high surface is almost exclusively used for this purpose. turpentine varnishes are no longer generally used in bookbinderies; in colour printing copal and amber varnishes are used. the ready-made headband is an article specially manufactured for the bookbinder. it is fastened on the book in suitable lengths to cover the place where the body and back of books join at head and tail. these headbands are to be had in the most varied styles, according to price and requirement. for ordinary work a cheap cotton is good enough, for fine half-calf bindings a silk headband is used if it is not intended to weave by hand a headband of silk thread for decoration known as a worked headband. besides the headband, the book-marker is required, generally a silk braid in bright colours. it is often necessary to fix clasps to heavy books and also to the smaller hymn-books and prayer-books. these are made to suit all requirements and in various styles by firms making a speciality of this work. the stronger the metal used, the better the clasp and the easier for the worker to handle, as clasps of poorer quality are sometimes spoilt even whilst being fixed to the books. imitation metal fastenings are necessary for certain purposes, although their use is now considerably limited. these are the stamped metal rims and corner pieces, which are indispensable in the manufacture of sample cases, &c. the fancy goods with their decorated borders which were so popular at one time have disappeared from the trade; on the other hand, there has been a demand for fancy coloured cords made by twisting cords together. d.--tools. the bookbinder's workshop of to-day presents quite a different aspect from that of our forefathers, even if we go back only years. the work benches as now found in small leather or jobbing shops stand near wide and lofty windows, each bench having a large drawer at each worker's place. underneath, between the legs of the bench, there is a board fixed on supports upon which boxes containing colours or any other materials in use are placed within easy reach; and so that the board may not inconvenience the worker sitting in front of it, a semi-circular opening is cut at each worker's place. at each place there is a stool, somewhat higher than an ordinary chair, with three legs and a round flat seat. the legs are connected by strong bars for the worker to rest his feet upon. shelves for the larger tools are conveniently arranged on the walls, so as not to be a hindrance, but still within easy reach. a few smaller chests with drawers are required for the storing of smaller tools and pieces of metal ornament, &c. a sufficient number of wooden presses, pressing boards in folio, quarto, and octavo, with the screw key, as well as the press jack belonging thereto, must be conveniently placed. the screw key is used when applying heavy pressure; the press jack serves as a support during certain work which necessitates laying the press on the edge of the bench. if we add a few larger and smaller cutting boards and a few sewing frames, we have completed the list of the large wooden tools. the bookbinder requires very many small tools, even if we take into account only those necessary for ordinary shop-work. iron rules and squares in various sizes, shears, knives, compasses and spring dividers, folders, files, pincers and hammers of different sizes, chisels, gouges, and punches. the finisher's tools are: gold cushion, gold knife, scraper, steel; and furthermore, for hand-tooling, letter-box, fillets, rolls, ornaments, and letters, all very fine and very dear tools, which must be kept in special cupboards and boxes so as to protect from possible injury. the higher the class of work done in the shop, the larger must be the stock of these tools. these are the tools for general work and which no shop could be without; but what makes our modern workshop so different in character from what it was in former times are the many mechanical contrivances without the aid of which practical and profitable work is now inconceivable. the most necessary iron ally of the bookbinder is the cutting machine, either with lever or wheel action, the former for light, the latter for heavy work. machine manufacturers vie with one another in their efforts to introduce inventions and improvements; but to-day it would seem impossible to make a discovery likely to be of any importance. the second most necessary machine is for cutting boards. those with a wooden pedestal and table are not so much to be recommended as those made entirely of iron. when gilding in large quantities has to be done, a blocking press is necessary; lever action is always to be preferred to the balance or rotary action, the latter being of advantage for blocking or relief work, and also for fancy paper work. even the best blocking press has some drawback; to be of any value, it necessitates quite an arsenal of plates and dies for blocking, and also calls for the constant replenishing and renewing of the same. the standing press is used for heavy pressure applied to large batches of books. an iron press with two uprights will be found sufficient even for heavy use in most bookbinderies. the rounding machine is now out of use. the binder rounds the back of the book with a hammer, and then it is backed in a backing machine, which puts the ridges on both sides of the book. the latest machine now being used in some of our large binding shops for this purpose is called the rounding and backing machine, which completely rounds and backs the book. the rolling machine of to-day is lighter than were the first models of this machine; besides, the work is in many cases unnecessary, as modern printed books are generally carefully rolled before they leave the printer. the wire-stitching machine came into use in england about years ago, but is now abandoned. the wire-stapling machine is used for pamphlets, school-books, &c. eyeleting and round-cornering machines are smaller appliances, whilst the backing machine mentioned above is a very useful ally. machines for scraping and paring leather are used least of all, as there is little for them to do in a small bookbindery. the foregoing is not an exhaustive list of our tools and machines, but we will bring to a close these introductory remarks on the usual appliances, as mention will be made of the others in their proper place. part i. forwarding. chapter i. general preparatory work. books reach the bookbinder either in the sheets just as they left the printing press or folded and stitched. this folding and stitching is, of course, part of the binder's work, so we will begin with the sheet as it left the press; this sheet must in the first place be folded ready for further manipulations. by folding we mean the arranging of the parts of a sheet in the order of succession required for reading. to facilitate this work the printer marks not only the page numbers on each sheet but also gives each sheet a number, these numbers being known as signatures. every sheet is printed on both sides; the front side is called the first side, the other side the perfecting impression. both sides are marked by a number or (more rarely) a letter. this mark stands at the right-hand side at foot of first page and is called the first signature; the second signature takes the same position on the second side of the sheet, that is, on page . take any book haphazard and you will find the true signature on the first and the second signature on the perfecting impression, always in the same position. in order to show at a glance whether the signature is the first or the second, the compositor adds an asterisk, thus-- * or a a* first second first second signature. we will see later that there is still another reason for the signature in the place mentioned. when the sheets are to be folded, all the sheets of an impression are laid one on top of the other and all lying the same way. the modern quick-printing presses gather the sheets automatically, so that a sheet is rarely laid the wrong way, excepting through want of care in looking over them, or in the knocking-up in the printing office a few sheets or a whole batch are thrown out of order. according as we are dealing with folio, to, or vo _format_ we must order the gathering of the sheets and, of course, the position of the signature. the commonest _format_ is vo, that is to say, the size which gives eight printed leaves (or pages) to the sheet. at the same time, the method of folding this _format_ is the most economical and includes the others as well. when folding vo sheets the pile lies in front of the worker in such a way that all the second signatures lie uppermost at the foot of the outside right page and all the first signatures at the left on the under side of the sheet; or, in other words, all first-side leaves are turned face downward and perfecting impressions face upward. printed sheets are never folded according to the edges of the paper, but always registered by the printed columns or the page numbers. the novice finds this by holding the sheet against the light, but the experienced worker is able to fold the sheet without so much as lifting it from the table. figs. and --holding whilst folding. the manipulations for the folding of an vo sheet are as follows: the right hand holds the paper-folder and creases down the folds, the left gathers the sheets and moves them about aided by the right. .--the right hand takes hold of the sheet at the right a little below the middle, brings it over to the left, when it is taken by the left hand and properly adjusted according to page numbers or corner of printed page (fig. ). .--crease with folder from bottom to top (the folder is held slanting to the crease, but the edge is used). .--with the right hand the right and the left hand the left of the folded sheet are taken hold of at about the middle of the longer sides, nip together, make a short turn so that the left hand brings the sheet with its fore-edge to the folder's body, the left hand lets go, takes hold of the sheet between both ends at the middle fold, and adjusts pages and edge of fold alike (fig. ). .--the right hand creases from top to bottom. .--left hand turns sheet over to other side, both hands take hold as before, nip together last fold, and adjust pages and fold. .--crease from top to bottom, laying aside sheet to left, fold lying to right. the whole process, which demands considerable dexterity, is only to be thoroughly learned by example and imitation; but study the illustrations, which are correctly drawn from life. this is the way sheets are folded when they come direct from the press; but if they had already been folded in quires, as is usually the case with school and hymn books, the sheets would simply be folded in the middle for convenience of storage and despatch. in this case the quires must first be opened, the crease taken out, and the sheets laid open. this work is called "breaking the backs." the unfolded sheets are folded in exactly the same manner, but before the last crease the sheet is turned, creased from bottom to top, and put aside in such a way that the sheet is turned over, that is face downwards. if this precaution is not observed, the folded sheets would afterwards be found in wrong order. at this point we might remark that the top, both of the book and the single page, is called the head, the bottom the tail. these commonly used terms will very frequently crop up. the folding of a to sheet is exactly the same, excepting that the last fold is omitted; the second signature lies face upwards at top on the right, the first signature lies downwards at top left hand. folios are made up but rarely nowadays, except in artistic _éditions de luxe_, bibles, and missals; they are simply folded in the middle; the signatures appear as in vo _format_. duodecimo _format_, that is, a sheet printed to make pages on each side, is so printed that the third part of the sheet has to be cut off with a knife or machine. this work is done in various ways: the sheet may be folded without regard to the one-sided elongation; after folding the part is cut off with a knife or machine at the proper place and the detached portion inserted in the middle of the main section; the small section is therefore called "the inset." on the other hand, the inset may be cut off before folding and then separately folded and inserted. this is the more usual method. the cutting off of the inset prior to folding can be done in such a way with the modern quick-printing presses that the sheets are adjusted and cut off in the machine, or they may be folded in sections of six--eight sheets and cut open in the fold. for cutting open such sections a very sharp knife is required, either the usual bookbinder's knife or, better still, a somewhat longer two-edged paper-knife rounded at the end. formerly, when printing was not done with such accuracy as now, the sheets were folded into sections by means of points. the compositor made a point on both sides between main sheet and inset in the furniture where the division had to be made; if pins were stuck into the table through these points each of the sheets following could be placed on the pins. thus all sheets are brought to perfect register and may be cut with knife and rule or machine exactly through the points. this work is called "working to points." the detached portion appears as a long printed slip upon which are four pages or columns side by side. they are folded in a very simple manner. the page on the right is brought over to lie on the page to the left, registered, and creased in the middle, and the double sheet is now folded once more in exactly the same way. inserting is done as follows: the sheets for insertion are placed to the right, the main sheets at the left side of them; the right hand takes a sheet to be inserted at about the middle of the fore-edge, the left hand at the same time taking a main sheet in such a way that thumb, middle, and index finger open the sheet about the middle of the upper fold, and raise it so that the right hand can easily slip in the insertion. whilst doing this, the left hand slips to the back, where the forefinger manages the adjustment of the sheet inserted. the insertion is nicely fitted into the back and must lie close to it. this work is also very easy, but it also is much easier to learn it from example and imitation than by written instruction. if the insets were already arranged before folding, that is to say, had the sheets been arranged according to page numbers immediately after printing as before mentioned, strict attention must be given to see that each main sheet has its insertion, otherwise the page sequence would be thrown into confusion in binding. in folding, every fold must be sharply creased down; but a firmness of body in the sheets, a smoothness of the single sheet, and a proper sharpness in each separate fold can only be obtained by pressing the sheets. for this purpose the sheets must first be "knocked up," that is, they must first be adjusted at head and back by knocking them together on the table. sheets are never pressed without being counted at the same time; this is done both for convenience in pressing and for checking the work. knocking-up can only be done upon a firm level surface; the beginner had better not take too many sheets at one time, say from to : these are moved to and fro between the palms of the hands so that the back fold and upper fold are worked in turn, and at these sides the sheets are brought into line. knocking-up proceeds quickly if the sheets are handled lightly and freely. the single batches thus levelled are brought together and they in turn knocked up in the same way. care must be taken that single sheets do not hang back, _i.e._, that all sheets come up to the levelled edge. the knocked-up sheets are counted off--thin paper in hundreds, thick paper in fifties. to do this any big lot is taken hold of with the right hand--one soon learns to judge the quantity to be taken by the fingers--by the fore-edge, giving the hand a turn so as to bring the backs uppermost, when the sheets will fan out at the back and thus make the counting an easy matter. the left hand counts--pardon, the head counts, but the left hand tells off the sheets in such a way that the middle and index fingers are alternately inserted in , , , , &c., whilst counting , , , , &c., and at the same time throwing over the sheets held. every th lot of four sheets gives , and, of course, any other number you please can be counted in the same manner. each lot is once more knocked up, placed in piles crosswise, and afterwards pressed. fig. --lifting into the press. the contrivance for pressing most generally used nowadays is still the bookbinder's little wooden hand-press, with wooden, or perhaps iron, screws; the former are lighter and handier, the latter heavier but more durable and therefore of advantage where heavy pressure is demanded. each lot is placed between pressing-boards; these are about - / cm. thick and vary in length and width according to the sheets or books to be pressed. according to the grain of the wood we speak of long and cross boards. on top of the upper and underneath the lower batch we place a cross board; it does not matter which way the grain runs in the other boards used. this precaution is taken to obviate the probable breakage when the cheeks of the press run parallel with the grain of the two outer pressing-boards. the pile of sheets between the pressing-boards is so placed that the nuts of the press are at first raised as high as the pile about to be pressed requires, then the press is put on the table to the right in front of the worker so that the head of one screw at the front touches the table edge. the pile is drawn on to the front edge of the table, the left hand slips underneath, and the chin presses on top. whilst raising the upper cheek of the press with the right hand, the pile is inserted between the opened cheeks, is adjusted, and the press screwed up, first by the hand screws and then by the screw key used for this purpose. to do this the press with its high cheeks is held firmly between the legs and the nuts screwed up with the screw key as tightly as ever possible. at this stage we might mention a work which is very frequently done in the printery, but seldom in the bindery: this is the so-called gathering before folding. this work, as we have already mentioned, is done so that printed matter for publication can be properly stored or prepared for sending away. fig. --open sheets laid out for gathering. the sheets are taken just as they left the press and piled up side by side in a row in order of number on a long table, each pile of sheets in exactly the same position as the others and just as they would be placed for folding; that is to say, for vos the first signature at the bottom left-hand side underneath, the second signature being at the bottom right-hand side on the top. generally the work is gathered in batches of - sheets. the sheets in question are then laid out (see fig. ). the worker takes a board the required size, upon which he places the sheets when gathered; he begins at no. pile, takes off the top sheet, being very careful not to take two, lays it upon the board, and so he goes the length of the table, taking the top sheet from each pile. he lays the pile of gathered sheets on the end of the table or another table standing behind. they are there received by another worker, knocked up, and folded in the middle. if only one worker can be spared for the job, the gathered sections are placed to one side, but each is laid crosswise over the other so that they are easily picked up afterwards for knocking up and folding. if the work has more than five or six sections, the separately gathered sections must be afterwards again gathered in the same manner. perhaps there may be placed in the last section parts of a sheet--the title, addenda, corrigenda, frontispiece, diagrams, &c. the treatment of these will be dealt with presently (pp. - ). sheets so gathered must be afterwards opened out for folding in the bindery. the section is opened, the crease well pressed out, and the whole smoothed down quite flat, care being taken that all sheets lie the same way, the opened sections lying side by side according to the signatures. before the folded sheets are arranged or gathered, there is frequently still some pasting to be done. the title, for instance, is seldom printed with the first sheet, but is usually made up with the preface, contents, &c., after printing the last page, often as part of the last sheet. on this account the last sheet must be examined before folding to see how it is composed. if it happens that the sheet is to be exactly halved, it is best to cut the sheet in the middle and fold each half separately. it is even worth while cutting the sheet into quarters if the sheets can be pinned on, because it is then possible to fold the cut sheets in lots of five or six and to draw out each one singly, as it is commonly called "pulling out." this pulling out is very easy work; each folded batch is separately opened in the middle, fanned out with a paper folder so that each sheet stands back about / - cm. behind the other, and the batch folded together again; it would then appear as in fig. . fig. --sections fanned out for drawing out. take the batch lightly between the finger and the thumb of the left hand, and with the right draw off the sheets from the top one by one, knock them up, and firmly press down the back fold. every part of a sheet which after folding makes less than four pages (equal to two leaves) must be pasted on. to do this the parts to be pasted are fanned out from the back with the pasting side uppermost, that is to say, the sheets are fanned out with the folder in the same way as described for "pulling out," until they lie like steps or stairs, each sheet displaying an edge of about mm. in this manner all sheets so lie upon each other that each is about mm. behind the one under it. the narrow margin is pasted; to avoid pasting more than the proper margin of the top sheet, a piece of waste paper should be laid on top at the right distance from the edge. each leaf has thus a narrow pasted edge by which it is secured to the main sheet. so that the pasted edges do not stick together whilst each sheet is being fixed in its place, which, of course, takes time, the batch is taken between the fingers immediately after pasting, and by a few light movements the sheets are worked a little further apart. fig. --sections fanned out for pasting. take the batch at a between the finger and thumb of the right hand, at b in the same way with the left; the upper leaves slip gently backwards if the right hand bends the batch lightly upwards so that the sheets are pushed to b, the left first allows the sheets to slip back and then holds them firmly so that the right may repeat this movement several times. the batch is then so placed across the table that it lies to the right of the worker with the pasted edge away from him, whilst the pile of sheets to which the parts are to be pasted lies to the left, also with the back edge away from him. leaf after leaf is taken up, carefully adjusted to back and upper fold, and pasted on to the main section and lightly rubbed down to right and left with the finger-tips, putting aside to the left each sheet as finished. under certain conditions, the pasting on of a so-called correction may be a very disagreeable task. if errors have been made in composing or printing a page which escaped notice and correction at the proper time, a revised page is printed, and this must be inserted by the binder in the place of the faulty one. this inserting is done after the folding; the faulty leaf is so cut off that a narrow margin is left in the back to which the rectified leaf is pasted. if maps or plans accompany the work these also must be inserted; thin sheets need simply be pasted on the back edge like other sheets and fixed in their right place; but thick paper is not easily pasted on and, besides, would always pull away the next leaf. it is therefore joined to a narrow strip of paper about cm. in width and this is pasted and fixed in the back. if several plates have to be inserted at the same place, or to be fixed at the end of the book, they are joined together in sections of suitable thickness. for this, thin paper is hinged in the back of the book, that is, the two plates are pasted over each other after pasting a narrow margin of about mm. when dry, the double leaf so obtained is folded together in the middle of the pasted little guard. as this process lessens the leaf which has the back-fold by as much as is pasted to the other, the latter is cut down by mm. beforehand. if there are many such plates to be joined together, they are made up in sections of or according to the thickness of the paper, and every or cut down according to circumstances, and the same number left the full size. when all have been properly cut, the edges are fanned out and pasted. then as many as make up a section are taken up and fanned out a little further, the pasted edge of no. is laid on , on , on , and the batch set aside on the left and the same process gone through with the next lot. when dry, the plates thus guarded together are creased together at the back. plates on thick paper must likewise be mounted on strips of paper. these are cut from thin, strong note-paper and are so arranged that their thickness in the back is the same as the thickness of the plates. it is well to select a paper which when double is as thick as the plates. in case the plates are extra thick, the guard is made four-fold. the width of the guard must be measured to correspond. if a guard of double thickness only is required for filling up, it is cut twice the width of the guard and mm. added for pasting on the plate. this gives × cm. + mm. = mm. if a guard of four-fold thickness is necessary, the result is × cm. + mm. = mm. the plates are fanned out narrowly with the back edge uppermost, pasted, and each plate affixed to one of the made guards. this work is called "mounting on guards." when the pasted plates are dry they are folded in the back on the following plan according to whether the guard must be two-fold or three-fold. fig. --suggestions for mounting on guards. thus the folded guard completely fills out the space in the back of the book. besides, two, three, or more plates can easily be made into a section if the little guards are made up within each other. despite this levelling work, the pasted part will still be noticeable; the thoroughly dried sections are therefore taken in batches of four or five, knocked up at the back edge, and the thick part carefully hammered on a stone or iron bed. just as paper strips have been used in this work, linen can be used for guarding atlases and mounting large maps which are intended for long and constant use. to fill out the back, cardboard or thick drawing-paper the thickness of the plates (or, if anything, a little less) is used. of this material strips are cut cm. in width and same length as the height of the work, cutting a strip for each plate of course. besides these strips, cut some soft white calico into strips cm. in width. these are pasted, laid quite straight upon a clean board, two strips of paper are placed in the centre side by side on top of the pasted strip, and at right and left of each a map is hinged on, the first face downwards, the second face upwards. when dry, the section so made is creased in the middle, knocked down with the hammer, and pressed for a time. by this method two plates are hinged on each guard; by the other each plate had its own guard. many books are issued with plates larger than the _format_ of the book itself; they must be brought to the right size by folding, but in such a way that the folded plate is secure from injury during any subsequent trimming. before making a single fold in the plate, the worker should clearly see his way through his scheme for folding, so as to bring the plate to the size required with the smallest possible number of creases. plates which are slightly wider and longer than the size of the book are easily made to fit if they are folded once or, if necessary, twice across the middle, pasting the edge of one fold on a guard and then fixing in its place in the book. figs. - --suggestions for folding plates and maps. if this will not do, the plate must first be folded up from the bottom edge far enough to escape damage in trimming, and then the long side must be similarly folded. larger plates must take more folds, always working on the principle that the length of the book should first be obtained in the best possible way, and afterwards the width is taken as the guide in making the folds. in doing this the plate must be folded now to the front, then to the back, so that on drawing it out it opens in a zigzag fashion. for the sake of clearness we give illustrations showing the most general methods of folding. the part marked a is secured in its place in the book by mounting on a paper guard; but one may, by cutting out the map properly, leave a small margin which will serve as a guard as shown in figs. , , and . in all cases, however, it is essential that the thickness of the folded plates should be equalised by inserting guards in the back of the book. formerly, when several plates were inserted one after the other, it was customary to place them in such a way that they were trimmed at top and bottom alternately; now they are placed so that they are all trimmed at the top edge: this is much better, because it keeps the top edge smooth and close, thereby keeping out dust and insects. the accompanying sketches are based upon this principle. the so-called two-page illustrations in periodicals must be treated in the same way. these are only possible in the middle of a section, where they would be caught into the back and injured if the following precaution were not observed. such illustrations are taken out, the back edge pasted, and then placed in the back so as to adhere to the following sheets, projecting about / cm. the printed sheets thus treated must now be collected by the same process--that is if they have not been gathered in open sheets in the printery--into volumes; this work is generally known as gathering after folding. as in gathering open sheets, the piles of folded sheets are placed side by side; but as these take up so much less room than the open sheets, in most cases the whole work may be laid out at one time. clear the longest table procurable, which if not long enough must be extended by the addition of small tables, trestles, &c., upon which are laid the batches of sheets in fifties, and, beginning with the last sheet, work up the row until the title page is reached and the gathering ended. starting from the left, the gathered sheets are placed to the right; after the last sheet, _i.e._, the title page, there should be sufficient room for placing the gathered sheets and also, if possible, for knocking up and collating, that is, checking the sequence of the sheets. the gatherer begins with the last sheet on the left, draws the top sheet with the right hand on to the left hand held flat to receive it, and so goes along the row, drawing from each pile one sheet, which drops into its place on top of the preceding one in the left hand. this work can be carried on simultaneously by several persons following each other, but there must be a sufficient number of persons stationed at the end ready to knock up and collate the gathered sheets. in order to simplify this work and to enable one to take up the completed gathering at the title page, the pile containing the title page sheet is plainly marked across the back with a blue or red pencil, so that one sees on the back of each single sheet a coloured mark easily seen in the gathered and knocked-up sheets. fig. --collating. to collate a book it is taken in both hands. taking a good hold of it by the right hand at the top edge, it is lightly held by the left at the bottom towards the back. now make a turn downwards with the right so that the whole pack of sheets springs upwards and spreads out at the back like a fan, and the controlling left hand lets them go one at a time, whilst checking the sequence of the signatures, that is to say, the sheets must be checked to see whether instead of the right signatures following in due order there is not a second signature or perhaps none at all. in such a case the sheet must be taken out and re-folded. it may be well to refer now to another more detailed branch of this work which is necessary for certain purposes. if books which have already been used or bound are sent for re-binding it would be very unsafe to rely upon the pages being in proper order, especially if they have been much torn and have to be mended. very frequently the leaves of a section have been misplaced. in such cases the book is laid flat upon the table, the head lying to the top, and, beginning at the title, leaf by leaf is lifted with the point of a knife after the way some ignorant persons have of using a moistened finger. the knife point is not inserted under the leaf lying uppermost but is lightly placed at the top of the leaf near the page number and the leaf pushed up from the side so that the left index finger takes it as it separates from the succeeding leaf whilst the eye scans the page numbers , , , , , &c. also with other things that do not admit of any other method of collating, _e.g._, ledgers, documents, &c., this is the only possible way of doing it. nowadays, paper received in the printery has been so well calendered beforehand--that is to say, polished between rollers--and after printing the sheets are once more so well rolled that the gathered sheets may at once be prepared for sewing. old paper, however, must be beaten or rolled to make it firm and solid. the former work will be completely forgotten at no very distant date, as the younger generation of masters and men show less and less inclination to learn it. for beating, a stone about the height of a low table, and a surface about the size of a sheet may be used, or a cast-iron plate about cm. in thickness embedded in a block of wood the same height as the stone. upon this firm base--which, of course, must stand on the ground floor or in the cellar--the book, or section of it if too thick, is beaten with a short-handled iron hammer, the face of which measures about sq. cm. all corners and edges are well rounded off, and the face is slightly convex. the handle must be short, not above cm. long, cut oval, and just thick enough to be well grasped. the hole in the hammer is made so that the handle drops a little at the (outer) end. in beating, the sections should be held by the left hand after being knocked up. in order to prevent injury to the paper, the sections are placed between pieces of waste paper of same size, also a mill-board or piece of waste paper to size is laid upon the beating stone. the right hand wields the hammer, which must strike the sections (or book) fairly and squarely with the full face. the beating is begun at the edge, and blow after blow is given in gradually lessening circles until the centre is reached, the left hand, of course, keeping up the necessary motion of the sections. it requires considerable practice to do this without shifting the sections, but if this happens they must again be knocked up. the experienced workman knows by the touch where the book has been beaten much or little and works accordingly. the main thing in this, as in all other work, is that the book should be again pressed for some time--for a night at the least. the beaten volumes are divided into several lots or sections about a finger thick, and pressing-boards placed between them. if any sections show folds or creases even after pressing, they must be once more beaten and pressed. fig. --rolling machine. the work of beating, as already said, has been almost entirely superseded by the rolling machine. in treatises by theorists, one finds over and over again that books are not so well bound nowadays owing to the "practice of hand-beating being discontinued." this opinion is absurd, and arises from a very superficial technical knowledge and wholly imperfect acquaintance with the requirements of our craft. a machine-rolled or unbeaten book is always much better than one imperfectly beaten, for here nothing is demanded but sheer force, and that is always exercised with better results by a machine. as already pointed out, our modern printed books do not require any such work; besides, the so-called surface papers and printed illustrations prohibit both beating and rolling, as such work would destroy the high surface of the paper. old books, on the contrary, where the paper is unsized, spongy, and swollen, require some such work, as pressing alone, even for days, has not the required effect. in beating, the work should be divided into sections or lots of to sheets; they need not be counted, they are measured by the eye. for rolling, however, the sheets must be counted off exactly, from to ; they are knocked up and placed between zinc plates of same size and passed through the rollers obliquely, the upper back corner being first inserted. it is well to introduce the second lot before the first has quite passed through the rollers; this not only saves the rollers but avoids the extra pressure on the lower corner when a section leaves the rollers. for this reason it is advisable to insert the lots right and left alternately. the first lot rolled should be examined to test the amount of pressure, and at first a lighter pressure should be applied to avoid risk of injury. we have now come to the end of the processes through which a book has to pass before it is actually made up into book form. before we take up this work there is incidental work to be mentioned which comes before the work of binding proper. this is the stitching and treatment of stitched or bound books for binding and the necessary repairs thereto. the stitched or brochured book is no true book form; it is nothing more than the gathered sheets of a work in a temporary form, handier and more convenient, and therefore more saleable. to prevent leaves from falling out in the event of their being cut open, they are lightly stitched together--_holländert_. how did the name originate? it is difficult to say. perhaps books stitched in this manner were first brought out in holland. with this method of sewing, the sheet only gets one short thread in the middle; but as the sewing of each sheet separately would entail a considerable loss of time, that old contrivance of the bookbinder for most kinds of sewing work, the sewing frame, is here made use of. a base or bed has on each front corner a perpendicular screw, upon which is placed a movable cross-bar with a slit. this bar is regulated by two screws; lay cords are fastened to hooks which are slipped through the slits, the other ends being knotted to metal keys fixed under the base. a narrow movable bar, bevelled to the front of the bed, holds these keys when the lay cords are tightened. fig. --sewing frame. there are no lay cords on the sewing frame for the work of holländering as in other kinds of sewing, but two strips of zinc plate about to - / cm. in width are fastened so that at the top they are attached to the hooks and at the bottom are held with a pin. the lot to be sewn is placed rather slant-wise on the bed of the frame to the left, the back turned outwards, the head to the sewer, all sheets, therefore, facing away from the worker. fig. --arrangement on the sewing frame. the left hand takes the upper sheet with thumb and middle finger, so that the forefinger at once falls in the middle of the sheet, turning the sheet so that the head _a_ lies to the left and face upwards as shown in the illustration; zinc strips are stretched at the points _x_. the left hand is introduced into the opened sheets from behind to take the needle when pushed in and then to draw it out again; the right hand inserts the needle from outside, and also draws out the needle inserted from inside by the left hand. all kinds of sewing on the sewing frame are divided between both hands in the same way. the threaded needle is now introduced into the sheets to the right of the right strip at the back fold and again brought out to the right of the left strip, the sheets being meanwhile held open by the left hand. the thread is drawn out, except for a short end, the second sheet taken and laid open, and the needle is now introduced to the left of the left strip and brought out to the left of the right strip; and so on, each time introducing the needle from the right side to the right of the strip and from the left side to the left of the strip, drawing out accordingly. the thread is only to be seen on the outside of the strips. the so-called english darning-needle--a long needle with a long eye--is used by the bookbinder. a special thread is made on purpose, the highest number being used for holländering. when the sewing frame is packed so full that the sheets can no longer be kept properly squared, a sharp knife is taken and the threads cut off along the metal strips, and the sheets are then removed from the sewing frame. every sheet is now independent of the other, and has a thread in the middle, of which a little may be seen at each needle-hole. these ends are afterwards pasted up in the work to follow. it is clear from this method of sewing that it is not necessary to tie a second thread on to the first when finished, but simply to begin with a new thread, letting the ends always project a little. this method is the more recent and practical. it admits of one kind of sheet being sewn immediately after folding: nay, more: whilst one folder is still busy folding, another may begin to holländer. it is not till afterwards that the sheets are gathered. gathered sheets are sewn in the same way, and are more easily knocked up than when sewn on cords and the threads left uncut after the old style instead of on metal bands. in holländert sheets the threads lie as shown in fig. . fig. --arrangement of threads in holländering. fig. --small stapling machine for single sheets. lately, in brochuring, the sheets are not holländert, but sewn with wire on the machine. this is a very good method when the finest possible staple closing from the outside is used. for this work a small machine is used, similar to those used for wiring documents, copy-books, and single sheets, which have an automatic wire-drawing action. the batch of sheets is here arranged face upwards to the right of the worker. the right hand takes the sheet by the head, opening it at the same time with the forefinger, and inserts it in the groove of the machine, which is at the same moment set in motion. with each different sheet the position of the staple must be changed so that all do not stand the same height, as it would cause the paper to be cut through in pressing. the accompanying sketch shows the arrangement of the collected brochures. fig. --arrangement of staples in brochures. it is barbarous to sew more tightly with wire, for in the necessary pulling to pieces to bring them to their former state for binding they are sure to be more or less damaged. sewing with a large machine using strips of gauze cannot be recommended. the further treatment of holländert or wire-sewn sheets is dealt with towards the end of the chapter. most of the books given to the small binder do not come to him fresh from the printer, but sewn, used or unused, cut open, or as published. the sheets for binding must, as far as possible, be restored to the condition they were in before they were sewn. it is absolutely necessary that they should be made into loose single sheets. this work is called "pulling to pieces." the outer cover is torn off, the thread or wire inside the sheet removed, and the sheets very carefully separated one by one. when they are all pulled to pieces they are pushed open a little at the back, first to one side, then to the other, and scraped with a knife from top to bottom so as to remove all dirt, glue, &c., adhering. where the sheets had been cut open and the inner leaves worked out of place, they must be well pushed into the back again. the sheet is lightly held half-open in the left hand, and the leaves are knocked into the back with a long folder or knife. if sheets are found badly folded they must now be properly re-folded. any torn places must be repaired. a special chapter ought really to be devoted to this, for repairing and restoring is an art in itself. here, only the most necessary work can be mentioned. there are three different kinds of tears: tears in the print, in the margin, and in the back. the first may be torn with slanting edges; in such a case, both edges must be carefully pasted, fitted to each other, a piece of paper laid over and under, and then well rubbed down. if the tear has not slanting edges, but is clean cut, it is always best to paste the edges likewise and to join the pieces by overlapping very slightly. it always looks better than the patching with strips of paper--a method adopted even by good workmen. the pasting on of pieces of tissue paper is to be condemned. in cases of repairs like the foregoing, a piece of unpasted tissue paper may be laid on the repaired place and rubbed down, so that any paste exuding cannot do harm, and besides, it will serve to strengthen a weak place. it may be used, however, only on condition that the tint is exactly the same as that of the other paper. tears at the margin are repaired by pasting on strips of the same paper or of a kind as near as possible in texture and tint. to make the mend less noticeable, the paper should be torn beforehand, that is to say, by tearing one side of the paper the edge is less sharply defined and appears more like part of the sheet and is hardly perceptible. tears in the back (if outside) leaves are mended by pasting them down on to the following inner leaf; afterwards the glue makes this place still stronger. if the middle leaf is likewise torn, a narrow strip is pasted into the back. this may be cut true by the straight-edge if a very narrow strip suffices, but if the tear is here also sideways a piece of torn paper must be pasted on. if there are backs, torn off corners, or the like to be put in, a suitable paper is selected, a piece a little larger than the missing piece cut off the edge of the damaged leaf neatly pasted, the patch laid on slightly overlapping, and well rubbed down under a piece of waste paper. when thoroughly dry, the loose edges of the patch should be carefully torn off so as to slope and taper off nicely. when all parts are repaired and the sheets again in proper order, the book is pressed for a while between boards. it is thus that good books are treated, and although it would be better to return books of no special value as not worth the labour, still it does happen that cheap books--mostly school books and periodicals--have to be repaired. a quick way of getting through such work is as follows:-- a larger piece of similar paper is well pasted and laid upon a clean cutting-board, and from this piece strips of the required width are cut, laid down in their place, and cut to length with the shears, and well rubbed down under waste paper. if the pasted piece becomes dry before it is used it must be coated again. all repaired sheets must be laid between mill-boards to dry. worn and damaged periodicals are repaired in the same way. generally the numbers are curled towards the fore-edge. before commencing to pull to pieces they should be rolled towards the back, especially close to the back, to straighten them. the leaves must all be well pushed into the back, turned down corners (so-called dogs' ears) must be turned up, and two-page illustrations must be pasted away from the back. there are generally single or double leaves at the end of each copy or sheet--these must be pasted on. this work is not done singly, but the whole volume is at once laid open from back to front for pasting. all parts of the sheets to be pasted are placed at the front edge of the table, the edges fanned out, the other sheets wherein they are to be placed being meanwhile pushed further back so that they are not touched during pasting. the fanned-out sheets are pasted and each is rubbed down on to the sheet following. it has already been said that in pulling to pieces the wire or thread sewing must be removed; this is not always easy. to begin with, the wires must be first bent upwards; if they are firmly glued to the outside of the back, the latter has first to be softened by smearing it very thickly with paste, and after leaving it some little time the glue may be scraped off and the wires loosened. not until then can the wires inside the sheets be removed and the sheets separated. the backs of books that have been bound are softened in the same way. even to-day--heaven help us!--well-got-up books, even illustrated works, are sewn through sideways with coarse wire staples. great care must be used in removing these and in separating the sheets, so that the bookbinder may at least try to undo the harm caused by barbarous methods practised either in thoughtlessness or ignorance. it sometimes happens that the back of a book is so bad that it is necessary to cut it clean off. the leaves are then made up into sections of to , levelled at the back, and overcast with a fine needle and fine thread. this work can be done quicker with an ordinary sewing-machine, adjusting it for the longest stitch. new works consisting of thin single sheets are done in the same way. chapter ii. sewing. modern books are fastened together by sewing; as a rule thread is used, and always in sewing good books. thread sewing is very much better than wire stitching. in the first place, thread has not the disadvantage of rusting, to which wire is always subject; secondly, thread does not break the paper in the back, as so frequently happens when cheap paper containing much wood fibre is wire-stitched. the greatest advantage of thread sewing over wire lies in the flexibility of the spun thread; with sharp pressure it lies flat in the sheet, whilst wire does not give at all. besides, it is flexible the whole length, and this adds greatly to the life of the book. all thread sewing is now done by machinery and is really satisfactory. only the very smallest job shops sew their books by hand. the principle of sewing is to fasten each sheet to several cords or bands by means of a long thread running right along the inside of the sheet. these cords give the book its hold to the cover; therefore the more cords used, the more firmly is the book secured to its cover. there are now two methods of fastening the sheets on the cords; first, there is the older method of passing the thread along and out of the sheet, around the cord, and again into the sheet, and repeating the same movement at the next band. fig. --arrangement of threads in old style of sewing. nowadays, this method is almost entirely discarded. when for special reasons, or on account of its greater strength, it is desired to imitate the old method, the sewing is done on double cords; that is to say, for every cord two cords are stretched alongside each other and regarded as one. this sewing is more tedious, as the thread must take up each cord as shown in fig. . fig. --arrangement of threads with double cords. these somewhat elaborate modes of sewing have been simplified in recent years by making saw-cuts in the back, in which the cords are laid. by this means the sewing thread never actually passes out of the sheet, but is drawn behind the cord lying in the saw-cut and thus holds it. that is why we "saw-in" our books. the sawing-in is done with a broad saw; the so-called "tenon saw" being the one most generally used. the saw-cut must correspond exactly to the thickness of the cord to be used, should be less deep than wide, and should not take up too much glue when glueing up, as this might easily turn brittle. by inclining the saw to right and left alternately during sawing, the resulting cut will be something like this ¯¯¯¯¯/__\¯¯¯¯¯; this is the best and most usual form. the common practice of widening the cut by means of a coarse file gives a triangular cut like this ¯¯¯¯¯\/¯¯¯¯¯ which is objectionable, as the groove gets filled with glue, thus rendering the thread liable to break. as many cuts must be made in the book as there are cords to be used, besides the so-called kettle stitch at head and tail by which the thread is passed from one sheet to the other. dividing the back for sawing-in is done by marking off cm. from the head and twice as much from the tail and dividing the rest into equal portions with the dividers. an octavo should never be sewn on less than four cords, and a folio on six. if obliged to use less through low prices, then three must be taken as the minimum number, and that only in exceptional cases. if the books are very small--as, for instance, prayer-books and hymn-books less than cm. in height--it may then be permissible to sew on two cords. the division for the different sizes for sawing-in is made as shown in fig. . fig. --divisions for sawing-in. the saw-cuts at the kettle stitch are less deep and quite narrow; they only mark the place where the thread is to pass in and out. it may be wondered why the distances between the cords, when using four or six, are unequal; the reason for this will be explained when we come to the sewing of such sizes. in sawing-in, the batch to be sawn is knocked up head and back and put between two boards--if the volumes are thin, several may be laid together--so that the back projects about / cm. beyond the edges of the boards. the first and last sheet of each volume have previously been laid aside, as these, with one exception, are not sawn-in. books and boards are now clamped in a small hand-press, which is screwed up by hand only. for convenience of working, the press with the screws is laid flat upon the table, so that the nuts are against the table edge. the press is propped up at the back by the press-jack. the divisions for the cords are marked on the back with a lead pencil after measuring with the dividers, and the cuts made according to the markings. if several volumes of the same size are to be sawn-in, the top sheet of the first batch sawn is used as a guide for marking the others, thus saving the work of measuring each one with the dividers. where much sawing-in is done, a sawing-in machine is employed. the sheets are placed, backs downwards, in a moveable box, which is led over a system of circular saws. fig. --machine for sawing-in. after the work of sawing-in, the first and last sheets are replaced, the volumes again collated, and the end papers put in place; the sheets are now ready for sewing. end papers are the blank leaves which the binder places at the beginning and end of a book. they vary according to the style of the book. every end paper consists of a "fly leaf" (this lies over the title page in the book), the "paste-down," and in most cases of a "tear-off." for the stronger end papers and in half-leather bindings a cloth joint is used. whilst dealing with these end papers, we must not forget the narrow guard; it is worked on the prepared end paper (as will be shown later) by folding over, and serves to enclose the title or end page with which it is sewn. the words joint, guard, and swell may here be more clearly explained, as they are used very frequently in the bindery. in the first place, we call the part where back and cover are joined by a sort of hinge "the joint," also strips of leather, cloth, &c., used for making this part are called "joints"; secondly, the slightly raised part of the back, caused by pressing or sewing, is shortly called "the swell"; and any strips of linen or paper fastened into the back of the book for hingeing maps, plates, &c., are called "guards." for use as end papers, a paper must be selected which suits in quality and tone the printed paper. nothing shows lack of taste more than the use of a blue end paper with a paper of yellow tone. for both back and front a double sheet is necessary and is cut the required size. a paper guard, about the width of three fingers, is made from a piece of stout waste paper and pasted on a narrow margin at the back of the double leaf, in order to protect it in the joint and also for fastening on the cover. if there are single leaves to be used up, two of these might be pasted to each other narrowly on the back and upon this the guard; this is the so-called double end paper. if instead of these only a single leaf is taken, then we have a single end paper; this is used for cheap school books and generally at the back only. the accompanying sketch shows both these end papers with the small guard already folded. this folding of the guard is not very easy for the beginner. the leaf is placed face upwards, square in front of the worker, and a very narrow margin at the back edge bent upwards about mm. in width, the forefinger and thumb of both hands shaping and bending the guard, working from the centre to the ends. fig. --suggestions for single and double end papers. should the sheet from which the end papers are made be a little wider than required for the end papers, the tear-off may be folded at the same time; with double end papers, the leaf which is to be pasted down later is inserted between fly leaf and tear-off, and therefore is called "insertion." fig. --suggestion for double end paper with tear-off. if the end papers are to have a cloth joint it must be placed within the two leaves or, better, pasted in face inwards. double cloth joints are no longer used in printed books, as they make the end papers too thick, and in the subsequent rounding the first sheet is apt to break. the joint is here also folded on as before. formerly, when linen joints were used, the end paper was simply made by inserting the strip of cloth and hingeing on the outside leaf about cm. from the fold. this, however, has many disadvantages, therefore the end papers are made as explained, then carefully tearing off the outside leaf in the back in pasting down and cutting it as required it is pasted on to the board, as will be more fully explained under "pasting down." the french paste a double leaf before the first and last sheets after having pasted a covering leaf around these. for extra work, the following style of end paper is the best; it is used in england for all high-class work, and in germany also it has been adopted by all the first-class firms. the end papers consist merely of single leaves the size of the sheet. these are fanned out at the back to make a small margin and pasted. the first leaf is then pasted down on the end-paper sheet so as to leave a margin of about mm.; the second leaf is pasted level with the back. all end papers are proceeded with in the same way. if these are to have a cloth joint it must be pasted on the outside also only mm. wide. when the end papers are dry, they must be stitched down along the back, mm. from the edge, with the sewing-machine adjusted to its longest stitch. it is unnecessary to knot the ends of the thread--they are cut clean off. when there is no sewing-machine, the volumes must be overcast by hand. this overcasting is done by inserting a fine needle near the back of the knocked-up sheets from above and drawing the thread almost quite through, the second and following stitches all being made from above. the thread would then appear as in fig. . fig. --overcast end paper. these end papers are made up before sawing-in and sawn in with the book, and when it is not possible to stitch them with the machine they must be sawn in before overcasting, or the sawing would cut the threads. now for the sewing. we stretch the requisite number of cords, which are secured to the hooks at the top by a simple loop which is easily undone as soon as it is taken off the hook. at the bottom a double loop is made, through which a key is passed so as to hold the stretched cord underneath the moveable board. fig. --loops for attaching to frame hooks. fig. --loops for taking frame keys. the length of the cords is regulated by the thickness of each book, and as it is possible to sew a number of books at the same time when they are all sewn the same way, the length of the cords is regulated accordingly; it also depends upon the kind of books to be sewn. cheap books get cm. for every cord on each side more than the thickness of the book, that is cm. plus the thickness of the book. school books get still shorter cords. for extra work, where the ends of the cords are laced through the boards, one should allow double. it is easy to calculate the length required for a single volume, but rather difficult for a batch of books varying in thickness; it is then better to measure. for example, suppose we have to sew a batch of six books, all differing in thickness but measuring in all cm. high; we would allow for cheap work: vols., each taking cm. extra lengths = cm. + total height, cm., making cm.; for extra work: vols., each taking cm. extra lengths = cm. + total height = cm. length of cord. the collated batch of books is laid on the bed of the sewing frame as in holländering (fig. ), the sheets taken hold of in the same way, and laid open for sewing. of course the cords are adjusted to the saw-cuts, and it is better to push them more to the right than to the left, so as to give the left arm full play. here also, as in holländering, the left hand does the work behind the cords inside the sheet, whilst the right inserts the needle from the front and again brings it out. fig. --suggestion for sewing on four cords. fig. --suggestion for sewing on six cords. the first and last sheets--called end sheets--are sewn a little differently from the others, as the needle is here not inserted and drawn out exactly at the cord but at a little distance from it so as to allow them to be adjusted afterwards. sewing[ ] with us is invariably begun with the last sheet at the right, working on to the left, and reversing the process with the following sheet, and so to the end, so that the thread one way passes from and the other to the worker. with all other sheets, excepting the end sections, the thread is inserted at the kettle stitch and brought out at the next cord, round the cord, and inserted at the same hole, to be brought out again at the next cord, and so on till the thread comes out at the other kettle stitch and is inserted in the next sheet to go through the same process. with books sewn on four cords, it is allowable to skip one of the two middle cords alternately, so that each time the thread passes on to the right the right middle cord is skipped, and the left is skipped when the thread passes in the opposite direction. this facilitates and shortens the work without taking away from durability or quality. books on cords may be treated in the same way; the right and left of each pair of cords may be skipped alternately. it was for this reason that we paid attention to the distribution of the cords on the back when sawing-in (see fig. ). footnote : in england, france, and part of holland, sewing is begun with the title page. this method of sewing is known as "end to end," in contradistinction to "two sheets on." the former is the better method and is essential for valuable books, unless the sections are exceptionally thin. the latter is "good enough" (_i.e._, not worth much) for the trade and cheap work. as far as strength is concerned it would do, but a book sewn in this way does not swell sufficiently in the back to make a proper backing groove. it is an old rule in bookbinding that each sheet after it has been sewn should be pressed down with the needle so that the backs of the sheets lie close and firm together; this is called "pressing down." should this, however, not be sufficient, the back must be knocked firm from time to time with the dividers or a rule. the first and last sheets must be fastened to the one following and preceding respectively; but in the course of the sewing this enchaining to the preceding sheets--the so-called kettle stitch--is only necessary in the case of very thick sections. it is done by passing the needle through and bringing it out between the two preceding sheets at each end and thus chaining on the then top sheet to the one lying underneath. the two-sheets-on sewing is done by laying open the second sheet on top of the first after making the first stitch in the first sheet and then passing the needle through the second sheet, then the third stitch is made in the first sheet and the fourth in the second sheet. one length of thread is used for the two sheets. where the sheets have not been cut open, the left hand lightly takes the sheets in turn where they have been cut, a folder is placed in the middle and is shifted from one to the other as required. the process is the same whether there are only three cords or even six. fig. --suggestion for sewing two-sheets-on. it has already been said that several volumes of the same kind can be sewn on top of each other on the sewing frame; in this case the volumes must be separated from each other after the sewing is completed. the free ends of the cords are untwisted so that they may be scraped open more easily afterwards, and then one volume after another is drawn along the cords to the ends until they are twice the length of the free cords away from each other, which, of course, will vary according to the subsequent style of binding. so then we allow and cm. according to circumstances; but this length is curtailed to cm. in the cheap school books, because the shorter the cords the quicker they are scraped open. every cord is cut in the middle between the books with the shears, thus separating each volume from the other. the strands of the loose ends of the cords are now completely untwisted by inserting the cord in the groove of the scraper and repeatedly rubbing it up or down with the back of a knife. after scraping the cords, the end-paper guards are always pasted down; the book is laid with the back to the front edge of the table, the first sheet with the end paper is turned downwards, the end-paper guard is bent up a little so that it stands away from the sheet, paste it neatly and carefully, close the section and adjust it so that the sheet in the end paper is level with the others, but not the end paper itself--this must project a little at the back. when only one finger is required for pasting it must be the middle finger, so that the forefinger is free from paste and ready to take hold of anything. if stitched end papers are used for extra work, a sheet of paper is laid on the second sheet so as to leave mm. free, paste this strip and bring down upon it the once-more closed first sheet, taking care to square it at the outside with the body of the book. the folder should be brought down firmly over the outer sheets after pasting down so as to ensure the paste sticking. if the pasting-on of the joints is not properly carried out, the result will be that in most cases the book opens badly when finished. in half-cloth or other simple bindings, the scraped cords may be pasted on at once. bring a little paste (about the size of a pea) upon the point of a folder under the slightly raised cord, pasting the latter evenly and neatly upon the paste-down of the end paper so that the pasted-down strands of the cord lie like a feather. to prevent the pasted cords sticking to each other, the books are piled up back and front until dry. in extra work, the cords--which are also longer--must by no means be pasted on; a piece of waste paper or a cover the size of the sheet is pasted outside the sections under the cords, level with the backs. this serves partly as a protection for the end papers and partly to make a good joint when covering. the volumes so prepared are now glued up. they must be knocked up at head and back; they are then placed with the backs outwards on a board specially kept for this work--the glueing board--with the fore-edge of which they must be exactly level. on top must be placed a smaller board or a heavy piece of iron, likewise level with the book. the book backs are thus held firmly between the glueing boards, the left hand holding them firmly by pressing on the top, the right hand glueing the backs with very hot but not thick glue; rub this well in with the point of a hammer, and after having firmly squeezed the glue out of the brush, use it for taking off the surplus glue from the backs. an old trick of the bookbinder is to heat the hammer for this work. it is a bad plan to give the back a thick coating of glue and then allow it to dry, because it at once becomes brittle. some experienced workers place the books between the glueing boards so as to leave about cm. projecting, as it is thought that the glue thereby gets better between the sheets; but this method is out of date and is of no special value. it is, however, of great importance that the glued book should be laid so that it is truly square at the head as well as the back, for if this is neglected no amount of trouble will save the book from being cut out of shape. before passing on to the next chapter we have still to mention the mechanical contrivances for sewing. for small as well as large binderies, machines have been invented both for wire stitching and thread sewing; the former are more generally used, the latter not being sufficiently perfect in construction to meet all demands for speed and accuracy. then also the method of fastening the book in the cover differs so much from the traditional method that we must still hope for improvement. when this comes to pass, this machine will then supersede the wire-stitching machine, with all its unavoidable disadvantages. the working of the machines is so simple that they are attended to almost entirely by girls. we refrain from giving descriptions of mechanical appliances within the limits of a short treatise, as any day may bring forth new inventions which are certain to effect great changes in this department. besides these costly appliances there are also simpler sewing-machines for small shops, by which books are sewn in very simple fashion over steel needles, by means of which the cords may afterwards be drawn along. fig. --thread-sewing machine. fig. --wire-sewing machine. as these machines demand very large saw-cuts, they can only be used for trade work and any cheap lines. we only mention them to draw attention to their existence. unprinted paper and music are sewn on tapes as well as cords. this method of sewing is described in chapter ix. chapter iii. cutting, rounding, backing. fig. --rotary guillotine. in nearly all cases the book is trimmed after glueing, and it is best to do this before the glue is quite set. even in extra work books are nowadays trimmed on three sides, that is, before the book is rounded each side is cut one after the other. this method has the advantage that it is quicker, that the top and bottom corners of the round fore-edge cannot break, and that it is easy to treat every side during the process of marbling. of course, in the best work the book is first cut at the front, rounded, pressed, and then cut top and bottom. under present conditions we might completely abandon the old method of trimming with the plough, for, although this is a most valuable tool, it would not pay to use it now, and the shops where it is still in use are few and far between; besides, our german machines now do the work so thoroughly and accurately that we are able to execute the highest class of work by their aid. fig. --lever guillotine. the machines worked by a lever are very suitable for small shops and small books. rotary action is for heavier work and is more suitable where both heavy and light work have to be done. the fore-edge is generally trimmed first; the back of the book is carefully adjusted to the "back gauge," the back gauge is so adjusted by moving backwards and forwards that the knife comes exactly upon the point marked beforehand. the first principle to be observed in trimming is that as little as ever possible should be taken off the book. measuring and marking for trimming are done with the dividers; the latter is called "marking for cutting." when the back gauge has been adjusted so that the points lie directly under the knife, the clamp which holds the book in position is screwed down and the machine set in motion. the book must be cut smooth and quite free from any jaggedness, and if this has not been accomplished the knife must be ground or, at least, well sharpened. something must be done in trimming top and bottom to prevent the groove at the back from receiving too much pressure. the simplest means is to glue a thick board on the under side of the clamp. if a piece of stout cloth has been pasted to this board, it will afterwards be easily removed from the clamp if it is lightly glued on at two places only. if cloth is not used, pieces of the board will adhere to the clamp and cause no little inconvenience. instead of this, there are metal plates sold which are fastened to the clamp in a simple way, either by screws or springs, and they are just as simply removed. the bottom edge has to be cut first, as one is thus able to adjust the head--which, of course, must be rectangular--against the back gauge and then to make the bottom edge parallel. after cutting this edge, the book is turned round and the bottom edge adjusted on the back gauge so as to get the top edge ready for cutting. whilst doing this, care must always be taken that the book is placed under the clamp so that the arrangement made for saving the groove from pressure is effective. fig. --top edge arranged for trimming when trimming three edges. as our machines are made to cut from left to right, the book back must be on the left. very often a book contains so many folded plates that it is considerably thinner in some places than at others. these thin places must be properly packed with paper or strips of board, otherwise the knife is sure to tear or jag, no matter how sharp it may be. this packing may be left in the book until the book is quite finished and then taken out. if any fibrous matter has stuck to the bottom sheets through cutting on a much-used bed, it must be removed with a very sharp knife. the trimmed volumes are "rounded," _i.e._, they are rounded and the groove made at the back to which the boards have to be fitted. for this reason the grooves must be made to suit the thickness of the boards to be used. fig. --rounding the book. to round a book, slightly damp its glued back, place it on a firm stone or metal bed, and knock it round with a hammer. properly speaking the process is as follows: the left hand takes hold of the back of the book lying flat before the worker and works it into a round form, the right hand helping all the time by beating it along the back from one end to the other. in this way each side is treated alternately until the back is evenly rounded. the rounding of the fore-edge should be equal to one-third of a circle. books that have been hammered so much that they fall straight from the centre towards both sides are called "over rounded"; if, on the contrary, the book is round at the sides and almost straight in the middle the book is called "flat rounded." the latter occurs when the thread used in sewing has been too thin or held down too much (see page ). great care must be taken to avoid what is called springing a section--this is generally caused by a break in the glued back; but it is almost impossible to round a book perfectly if the sections are very thick or if it contains many pasted-in plates. there are now very useful machines for rounding books, also hand machines. the work connected with these consists simply in turning the book a few times, pushing the back up to the rollers each time. fig. --rounding machine. when the book is properly rounded, it is "backed," that is, it is so placed between backing boards that they are away from the back just as much as is required for the groove, the width of the latter depending upon the thickness of the boards; a small thin volume gets thin boards and therefore a small groove; a thicker volume requires thick boards, and, of course, a deeper groove. the made groove should be a little deeper than the board set in it. the book and backing boards are placed in a wooden press, screwing up by hand and once more carefully adjusting. to do this, the press is first placed lengthwise on the table so that one end projects a little over the front edge of the table; the evenness of the rounding is then perfected--one hand at the back and the other at the front edge pushing and adjusting. the better and truer the book has been rounded before laying in the boards the less there will be to do when placed in the press. if the rounding is correct, the head and tail must be examined to see that they are exactly rectangular, for the book may have been knocked untrue, and the evenness of the grooves--which are easily disturbed--is also examined. backing and rounding is the most important work as far as regards the appearance of the book when finished; it must be done with the greatest exactitude and requires much practice. although it is hardly perceptible, yet the great difficulty lies in the book itself being so very easily shifted. when the book is placed in the press without a fault it is screwed up as tightly as possible with the screw key, and through this the grooves already project over the edges of the backing boards; but a sharp groove can only be obtained by the help of the hammer. the hammer, however, must not be used blindly on the back, but by lightly knocking, blow by blow, the first and last - sheets must be brought over the edges of the boards. this done, the whole of the back is well pasted, and after remaining thus a short time it is then rubbed with the point of the hammer along the sheets until all superfluous glue is soaked and scraped off. with a handful of paper cuttings the back is rubbed smooth and clean. the use of a toothed _cachir_ iron is strictly forbidden, but the round side of this tool may be used instead of the hammer. fig. --backing machine for small shops. for backing, we have also a useful machine--the backing machine. for small shops it is made for clamping only, and the making of the groove is done with the ordinary hammer. for large shops this machine has a roller going right across the back which forms the groove down each side. fig. --backing machine for large shops. valuable books are either trimmed at the front and at once backed or they may be backed before trimming. this is generally done with bulky books, as they are liable to throw out a section, and this danger is lessened by backing first. the work of backing remains the same. if the fore-edge has already been trimmed, care must be taken that the grooves do not suffer during trimming after backing. one way of effecting this is to lay the book on a special cutting board with the edge up to the groove, or by making use of the arrangement on the clamp already described, and adjusting the groove of the book to the blocks fixed on the clamp. should the fore-edge not have been cut, the book must again be knocked straight after backing; to do this a strong cord is tied round the book about - / cm. from the back, the book is then laid upon a firm bed, and the back again knocked straight; this work is called "tying up." fig. --backed book arranged for trimming. it facilitates the work if the book is taken up and lightly held in the left hand whilst the right holds the hammer and knocks the round inwards until the book is once more square. the squared book is now trimmed, and it is not until the trimming is finished that the cord is loosened. in pressing, several volumes of the same size can be done in the hand press at one and the same time. chapter iv. marbling, gilding, &c., the edges and headbanding. the edges of a book are nearly always finished off in some way or another, as the plain white edges would quickly become soiled. as a matter of fact, the binder always uses a covering of gold or colour for this purpose, and care should be taken that this way of treating the edges is decorative and not the reverse. in small binderies the edge is most usually sprinkled. a small brush with a handle (such as is used for blacking shoes) is dipped into a very thin coloured liquid and rubbed over a fine sieve which is fixed in a frame. the sieve is kept at sufficient distance from the edges of the book to allow the little drops of colour to fall like a fine rain. for this work the book is screwed up in the press (which is laid flat) by means of the press-jack. as a sprinkling colour, nut-wood stain thinned with water is used, or indigo, carmine, prussian blue, mahogany brown, green cinnabar, all well diluted with water, with the addition of a little paste and borax or a few drops of dilute carbolic to prevent the paste turning sour; aniline dyes have a common appearance. the sprinkle must fall very finely upon the edges, therefore the first large drops should be taken out of the brush by giving it a few preliminary rubs over the sieve. a few variations are made in sprinkled edges by scattering damp sawdust, sand, or bran on the edges before sprinkling, thus producing a coarser kind of sprinkling. similarly rice, barley, even starch or drops of wax are used. all these edges are out of date and in really good workshops are every day falling more and more into disuse, preference being given to marbling upon a sized ground. for the production of even marbling an edge-marbling roller has recently been brought out. rubber rollers--one or two--together with the automatic colouring rollers bearing aniline dyes mixed with glycerine, are made up into a handy contrivance by means of which smooth coloured edges can be rolled over. these edges are passable only when carefully and skilfully executed; as a rule they look coarse and common and are taken up only by badly equipped shops. marbling rollers can be used for comb marbling as well as for small veined marbling. we may say that the coloured edge is the oldest style. earth colours which cover well--cinnabar[ ] (red or green), carmine, chrome yellow, graphite, bismuth, and also other colours that cover well, indigo, carmine, and prussian blue--are ground to a fine powder and thoroughly mixed with water and a little paste or gelatine so that the edges may be evenly covered. footnote : cinnabar if not _red_ must be a preparation with other colour.--_trans._ only printed books are put in the press, and in this case they must first be rubbed down with alum water. after about five minutes the colour may be laid on. hog's-hair brushes are used for this. recently, eosin has been used to colour red and picric acid for yellow, both well diluted with water. the paste edge is a variety of the coloured edge; it is produced by loading paste with a very strong colour so that it covers well when laid on. with the blunt point of a stick, a bluntly pointed cork, or even the finger-tip, figures may be traced in the colour when laid on, and then the figures may be brought out better by going over the lines with a pointed stick. the work demands a skilled draughtsman if a good effect or something more than the very simplest design is desired. the book must be pressed for pasting the edges, and the paste colour must not be laid on too thickly or it will spring off when dry. coloured as well as paste edges will take gold tooling and afford considerable scope to the skilful and thoughtful workman. the finest way of finishing edges and the one allowing greatest variety of treatment is known as marbling; this is a special process. formerly regarded as a secret art, it is now an easily acquired branch of our work, thanks to the careful experiments and excellent demonstrations of the master bookbinder, herr joseph halfer, of buda pesth. the whole process of marbling depends upon the peculiarity possessed by colours of floating upon a sized surface when they are mixed with oxgall, and a colour containing more gall forcing off the one first applied. besides, the colours may be drawn about with a pencil or stick without their mixing. if the smooth edges of a book are brought into contact with such a floating surface-colour they will take up the colours completely. ground and colour must each have certain fixed degrees of consistency, and the atmosphere both in and out of doors has also a great influence upon the work. the prepared body, shortly known as "the body," is at present always composed of boiled carrageen moss. to every litre[ ] of water exactly g. are added and the liquid is put in a saucepan, which is never used for any other purpose, and placed on the fire, great care being taken to catch it just at boiling point or it will all boil over. at the right moment take the saucepan from the fire and strain the contents through a hair sieve, what remains being thrown away as useless. the body may be used the next day, but for figured edges it is better after having been kept three days, and for veined marbling five days. the vessel containing the body must be kept covered so as to exclude all dust. footnote : not quite a quart. gum tragacanth (known as "gum dragon") can also be used as a body, but halfer's colours are not intended to be used with this. a marbling trough to contain the body is used whilst working; it is made of zinc plate, is about cm. in width, cm. in length, and cm. in depth, and has a sloping partition soldered near one end, and the colour not taken up is drawn into the division thus made. illustration: marbling trough a bowl, about cm. across the top, is kept for each colour, and also a hog's-hair brush and a birch-twig brush. a small bundle of birch twigs is tied round with thread, leaving about cm. of the twigs free, the thickness of the lowest part tied not exceeding cm. the bristles of the brush are tied back so as to form loops and held awhile in boiling water so that they retain their shape after drying and untying. with a brush made up in this way, drops may be laid on anywhere. for all drawn-out edges only bristle brushes are used, whilst for all other edges a brush is used only for laying on the first colour. for some edges a wide brush is used, so that the whole trough can be filled at one blow; a carpet brush with a short handle is most convenient to use. a little stick for tracing the colours is also necessary--a butcher's skewer is as good as anything. besides this, the colours are drawn by combs of various widths; these are easily made by glueing pins with their heads at fixed distances between two strips of mill-board: the result is a tool resembling a comb. all requisites can be conveniently kept in a little wooden box together with the colours. nowadays only halfer's ready-made colours are used. fig. --marbling outfit. any one wishing to learn the process of marbling edges would be wise not to attempt all the styles at once, but should be content to learn one before proceeding to another. we will commence with "comb" marbling, also known as "feather" marbling. when marbling is to be done, the colours must always be tested first. a little colour is shaken into each bowl and its brush placed with it, and one or two drops of prepared oxgall added to each colour so as to make the colour float on the surface. one prepares one's own oxgall. an ox gall in the gallbladder is procured from a butcher, a glass funnel is placed in a bottle which has been weighed beforehand, and the bottom of the gall bladder is pierced so that the bladder empties its contents into the bottle. after finding the weight of the gall, add to the weight of the gall alone one-sixth and pour into it spirit of wine until the weight is equalized; shake thoroughly and strain the mixture, which will now be quite clear and ready for use. the colours, with their brushes, are placed in the order in which they are to be used, beginning with the darkest and finishing with the lightest. a drop of colour is let fall from the black brush upon the body, the surface of which had previously been drawn off with a strip of paper; the surface of this drop must be about the size of a crown piece. if part of the colour sinks to the bottom, the body is too thin or the colour too thick, or the drop was too large and could not spread quickly enough; in the latter case the surplus colour will be seen lying at the bottom and will have no connection whatever with the colour on the surface; but if a cloudy connection can be traced from the surface to the bottom then the body has already become sour and in most cases unfit for use. if the colour does not retain its smooth outlines and becomes jagged, it also shows that the body is too old. if, however, the drop extends as desired and shows none of the faults above mentioned, a drop of blue colour is let fall in the centre of the first, which drives out the first drop in the form of a ring; when it has not this effect, but strongly contracts again, a drop of gall must be added, the colours wiped off to the sloping partition, and the whole process repeated. if the action of the colour was too strong, a little undiluted colour must be added. if the result is satisfactory, a drop of red is added to the blue. the colour scheme is seen in the accompanying drawing. lastly, yellow is dropped into red, and black is thereby reduced to a very thin ring. illustration: s--black; b--blue; r--red; yellow in centre. before each new sprinkling, the old layer of colour must be wiped off. to do this, cut strips of stout waste paper about two fingers in width and a little longer than the trough is wide. the edge of the strip is placed slantingly at the end of the tank in the surface of the body and the surface colour drawn off, at the same time lightly pressing the ends of the strip against the sides of the trough. when the colours are satisfactory, the little stick is traced in and out amongst them. if too much colour follows the stick, the body is too thick; only a narrow line of colour must follow the stick. if the colours are thus correctly prepared, the whole trough is sprinkled in the following manner: along the middle of the trough the darkest colour is sprinkled in what we might call links, that is, each drop is linked to the one preceding. fig. --suggestion for sprinkling colour. the second colour is sprinkled on in the same way; one circle, however, is on the right and the other on the left of the centre colour. into each drop of the second colour let a drop of the third and then of the fourth colour fall. illustration: colour trace form. the colours must then be traced crosswise with the stick in this form and then likewise with the comb. neither stick nor comb should be dipped more than about mm. below the surface, otherwise the body is set in motion and the colours disarranged. the combs should not be made too fine, to teeth for every cm. is the best width and sufficient for most cases. if the comb is drawn back again from the other end it produces drawn-back marbling; this is rarely applied. the finished comb marbling can be still further varied if figures are traced in it with the stick as shown in fig. . fig. --comb marbling. fig. --suggestion for curl marbling. illustration: double comb colour form. if a double comb is made--one that allows two combs to pass each other, their teeth being cm. apart--bouquet or peacock and eye marbling can be produced. the double comb is drawn over the length of the trough, at the same time moving the two combs up and down evenly. this motion causes the colours to assume the form shown in the accompanying illustration. bouquet or peacock marbling is produced by drawing the double comb through the finished comb marble design, and if the double comb is used immediately after the cross tracing with the stick, eye marbling is the result. with a little thought it would be easy to invent other fancy designs, but these are better applied to paper, as trimmed edges are more beautiful and effective when the marbling is of simpler design. fig. --bouquet or peacock marbling. fig. --eye marbling. large marble, called also turkish marble, is produced as follows, using the same arrangement of colours. only the first colour is laid on ringwise; all other colours are scattered in smaller drops from brushes. a darker colour is chosen for the last--brown, blue, olive, grey--to which is added a few more drops of gall and as much spirit of soap (_spiritus saponatus_), as sold by the druggists. this last colour is prepared in a larger and shallow basin. the largest brush is taken with the hand and dipped, shaken out a little, and then lightly knocked on the left hand so as to sprinkle the colour. the drops will fall in a dense shower, and, owing to their extra impetus, will drive together the preceding ones, and yet they will form the principal colour in the design. if it is desired to have veins of white in the design, a few drops of gall should be added to a little water in a bowl and used as any other colour; the same applies when using white in comb marbling. in a similar manner the so-called kremser style of marbling is produced, but fewer colours are then used, generally only black and red, red and blue, brown and blue, green and red, at the end sprinkling a little of the strong principal colour to which, besides the spirit of soap, a drop of pure stone oil--not petroleum--from the chemist has been added. as last colour, blue grey (black with a little blue), brown, or grey is used. recently, a sort of paper termed trichinal marble has been very prominent on the market. black and light brown or red and light brown or black, red, and light brown, or white, are all sprinkled on with a brush, length (not cross) wise drawn through, and then grey with a few drops of turpentine (but very driving) is sprinkled on with a small brush. the single drops have ragged edges and produce a peculiar effect. thin-veined or french marbling is done upon the same ground, though it can also be done on a somewhat thinner body. the colours, however, are diluted by % water, and, consequently, more gall is added. as a rule, only two colours are used; blue, red; brown, blue; brown, green; black, red; black, blue. the first colour is laid on in rings with a brush and must be strong enough to spread over two-thirds the width of the trough; the second colour is sprinkled over with a little birch broom in drops that spread out to the size of a half-crown. lastly, the so-called sprinkling-water is sprinkled over with one dash from the large brush as already explained. sprinkling-water consists of two parts water and one part spirit of soap. the small veins must be driven quite close together and the eyes made by the sprinkling-water must not be larger than a small pea. it should be observed that for this kind of marbling only the darker shade of red is to be taken, as the light carmine lake colour sinks and does not give a fine effect. india red is best of all. the sprinkled colours are first tested with strips of paper; cuttings of clean note-paper are saved for this purpose. the edges of a book can be marbled only when the book is level or straight, therefore they must be marbled either before rounding or the book already rounded must be levelled by knocking it on a stone or metal slab. in all cases the marbling is done--both with papers and books--by dipping from one corner to the other diagonally opposite, but never deeper than just sufficient to take off the layer of colour. to prevent the colour from getting between the leaves, the edges are held between zinc plates, which must be dried each time after using. to make the paper or edges take the colours more readily and to prevent any subsequent running off, the edges are lightly washed down with alum water. this wash is made by boiling g. of alum in / litre of water and using it solely for this work. the alum solution is laid on with a sponge, with which the edges are washed over. the moisture must have thoroughly soaked in, therefore it is necessary to do it minutes before marbling. if, however, the edges have become thoroughly dry they will take the colours badly. this occurs in from to minutes, according to the temperature. marbling can only be done in a warm room where the temperature is equable and where there is no dust. the marbling bath must be of the same temperature as the room. the body must be skimmed each time before sprinkling the colours, but the colours must be sprinkled on immediately afterwards. an excellent treatise on the work of marbling edges has appeared under the title: [ ]_fortschritte der marmorirkunst. von joseph halfer. william leo, stuttgart._ footnote : the development of the art of marbling. illustration: pressing board profile gilding edges takes up most time when only occasional books are to be done. the fore-edge can be treated either flat or round. in every case the book must be placed in the press within boards. these boards are narrow strips, about / cm. thick and up to cm. in width; they must be of equal thickness and bevelled only on long side, the edge itself must be rounded. many makers send out boards bevelled right from one side to the other. this kind is very unsuitable and has many disadvantages. the boards must not be made from wood of very open grain, and firs and oaks must not be used. the boards are to be somewhat longer than the edge about to be treated, so that the edge may be as firm and tight as possible and at the same time easy to work upon; two outer boards are added to those regularly used, as shown in figs. and . the inner boards are quite flush with the book: the latter must on no account stand back. the outer boards are about mm. behind the others; the book is so placed in the press, and here again the book and boards must be exactly level with the press cheeks. the press is then screwed up as tight as possible. if the inner boards have not perfectly straight edges they must be planed down. figs. and --arrangement of flat and rounded edges. the edges are to be scraped down quite smooth with a scraper or, if necessary, with a knife; the scraper must not be sharpened for this purpose as the carpenter sharpens his tools, that is, not to a cutting edge but as though it were for carving, until a bevel (or turned edge) of about mm. has been ground. the edge thus gets a turned edge, with which the book is scraped. if it should cease to "take," the old edge is rubbed down with a steel and a new one made by a few firm strong rubbings. the edge should be wetted a little to prevent its heating. flat edges are scraped with a flat scraper, rounded edges with one suitably rounded. in this case the round of the blade must be more decided than that of the edges, as it would otherwise be impossible to get into all parts of the edges. scraping with pieces of glass is an antiquated, clumsy method. when scraping, the press should lie flat on the table edge, the other end being supported by the press-jack. in scraping, the blade is held in both hands, scraping away from the worker, the scraper sloping forwards. the press must be made immovable. scraping is continued until all places have been gone over and the whole is perfectly smooth and even. when this is accomplished, the edges are thinly coated with paste, which is well rubbed in along the sheets with a bundle of waste paper until the edges look as if burnished. it is advisable to damp the edges before scraping, as the blade then takes hold more uniformly. then bolus is mixed with glair as a body colour, laid on sparingly, very evenly, and free from streakiness, using a thick hair brush for the purpose. bolus is sold to the trade ready prepared under the name "poliment." some time before using, it should be scraped into a suitable vessel and mixed with glair. the latter is prepared by adding the white of an egg to / litre of water and beating to a froth. it is then strained through a piece of linen or, better, through a filtering paper. after the bolus ground has dried (which takes a few minutes) the gold is laid on. there are various methods of doing this. the surest and quickest way is to lay it on with the gilder's tip. a row of long badger hairs is glued between two pieces of cardboard; this is drawn a few times over the hair of the head, which makes it take the gold easily. gilders' tips are to be had at any colour dealer's. gold is taken from the gold book, laid upon the gold cushion, and cut into suitable strips with the gold knife. the gold cushion consists of a piece of calf stretched raw side out on a board. between the leather and the board there is placed a pad of cotton wool, and over the wool a pad of blotting-paper. the gold knife is a thin, pliant, two-edged knife without a sharp edge, in fact it is better to blunt the fore-edge from time to time by rubbing it on a polished steel. if the knife is too sharp it will cut the leather cushion. taking the gold from the book will not be found a very easy task. the top leaf covering the gold is turned back, the book with the uncovered leaf of gold laid on the cushion, and the book slowly lifted up. the gold-leaf remains flat upon the cushion and may be cut with the knife as required. if a draught has turned the gold-leaf over or made it lie unevenly, it may be righted by lightly tapping with the knife on the cushion near the gold; careful breathing on the centre of the leaf will help in more awkward cases--the rest must be learned by practice. never attempt to take hold of gold-leaf with the fingers; only the experienced workman knows how to carry gold-leaf with a finger. for gilding the edges the deep red gold is always used, or else the so-called orange gold, which is somewhat lighter in tone, but never the lemon or green gold. for flat gilt edges the gold is cut about mm. wider than the book and into as many strips as would make up the length of the edge if joined together. before laying on the gold, the bolused edge is brushed down with a hard clothes-brush to remove all hair, dust, &c. glair is now liberally applied with a thick hair brush, laying it on separately for each strip. the gold is now lifted from the cushion with the gilder's tip so that it very slightly projects over the end of the brush and is transferred to the wet edges. the tip is brought to within cm. of the surface of the edges and with a quick motion the whole surface of the gold is at once brought into contact with the glaired edges, which will instantly take it up quite greedily. the gold slightly overlaps on to the inner boards. in this one continues, preparing the edge for each fresh strip and laying on each strip so that it slightly overlaps the other until the whole length is covered with gold. if the gold should be injured in any way, the press must be tilted so as to allow a little glair to run under the gold to the spot and then a larger piece is laid over the faulty place. when it is seen that all parts are completely covered, the press-jack is put aside, the press is taken by the screws between the beams and raised high overhead so that the gilded part is turned downwards. one end is carefully lowered until the glair has run to one side and dripped off. as soon as the greater part of the moisture has been removed, the press is either placed upright with the edge to the wall and head downwards or it is laid across the table where it will not be disturbed, with the head of one screw on the table edge. in this way the moisture runs off quicker, as the whole length of the edge drains together. when dry, the edges are burnished, and it is in seizing the right moment to do this that the clever finisher shows his skill. the first test is made on the boards. if the gold comes off on scratching the portion on the inner board with the finger-nail, the edge is still too damp; if the scratching makes it shine, it will be all right. the experienced worker can trace the progress of drying with more certainty by breathing on the edges; the slowness or rapidity with which the breath disappears points to the dry or moist state of the edges. when it is believed that the proper degree of dryness has been obtained, the edge is polished with a burnisher. a piece of tracing paper which has been waxed on the upper side--that is, the side next the burnisher--is laid on the fresh edge to protect it from injury. the burnisher is then worked crosswise, stroke by stroke, over the paper (through which the edge can be observed) the length of the edge; if it is noticed that gold and moisture adhere to the paper near to the boards, the work must be laid aside to wait a little longer. if, however, the whole process has gone on satisfactorily, the edge is gone over with a linen rag and a little beeswax. it is not at all better to use a silk rag instead of linen, for it happens too easily that tiny threads stick to the gold unnoticed and are afterwards rubbed into the edge. after going over the edge with the waxed rag, the bare edges may take a greater pressure in burnishing, and if no flaws are now perceptible there need be no hesitation in burnishing with very strong pressure. the burnisher must be held quite level, the long handle fixed against the shoulder and the lower end firmly gripped with both hands just above the metal fastening. the fore-edge of the burnisher is not to be held parallel to the sheets, but must be at a slight angle; it thus slips better over the paper and there is less danger of making rills and furrows, and the polish is obtained more rapidly. flat edges are always burnished crosswise, but at the end a broad burnisher may be used for going over the edges lengthwise with a few slow, firm strokes, so as to ensure a very level surface. quick burnishing must always be avoided; it heats the gold, which rubs off under the burnisher, and causes holes which can never be remedied. as soon as one length has been burnished, the waxed cloth must be applied before proceeding further. slight flaws in the gold itself, or due to bubbles in the glair, may be put right by touching the faulty places with a small brush dipped in rectified spirit and immediately laying on a piece of gold; if the edges had not yet been gone over with the waxed rag, it would be sufficient to breathe on the place, lay on the gold, and burnish under paper. this need only stand a few minutes, as it quickly evaporates, and may then be burnished again at once, first with, then without, the tracing paper. it must be observed that such faulty places must be burnished in the direction of the sheets, never crosswise. rounded edges are more difficult to work; the scraping alone being more troublesome. each piece of gold is halved, laying on each time a little beyond the deepest part of the round. the press is so lowered as to give a decided slope to the half of the edge to be operated upon. the gold is cut to a little more than half width, and only the under side to a little beyond the middle is glaired, which in this case must be done very freely. the strips of gold-leaf are laid on as before. when one side has been covered with gold, the press is turned and the other half of the round similarly treated. care must be taken that there is always a liberal supply of glair in the depth of the round. to drain off the superfluous glair the press is placed so that the glair runs off on the long side; the gold is in consequence better taken up in the round. burnishing is here also done under a piece of paper, and it is better to work crosswise, first one half to the centre of the round and then the other. only thin books are burnished along the edges with a round burnisher. after the round edges have been burnished crosswise they are burnished with the round burnisher. burnishers are made of agate or of bloodstone; the latter is said to produce a higher polish, but this may be due to our being more accustomed to its use. in selecting burnishers the flat ones should not be too wide and the strongest of the curved ones should be taken. top and bottom edges undergo the same treatment in gilding as the flat fore-edge, except for a few slight necessary differences in the method of fixing the book. in the first instance, long boards are used instead of the outer boards--these protect the book from injury. the boards (the short sides of cross-boards are often used instead) are laid exactly in the groove at the back, but the outer boards are set back so that they are exactly in a line with the depth of the round edge. if this precaution is neglected, the chances are that little ridges will appear in the fore-edge where pressure has been applied. fig. shows the arrangement in the press. scraping is done from the back to the fore-edge. as the back is not pressed so solid as the rest of the edge, it frequently happens that it does not get scraped so smooth. in this case recourse may be had to a fine file and fine sand-paper. the rest undergoes the familiar process. take care that no glair runs on to the fore-edge when applying it or when draining it off. it is convenient to place the press crosswise on the table so that the fore-edge stands at its lower side; the glair then drains off the whole length of the edge more evenly and drains more towards the fore-edge. many finishers elevate the press, letting it drain towards the fore-edge; there is no danger to the latter if the press is tipped forward from the top. on no account must the glair be allowed to drain towards the back, as this part is very open and all the moisture would gather there. fig. --top edge arranged for gilding. besides the method of laying on the gold-leaf with the gilder's tip there is another which is specially used in gilding hymn-books; a piece of gauze is stretched across a frame, passed over the hair, and then the gold for the entire length of the edge is at once picked up and laid on. round edges may be similarly covered by means of a couple of threads or horse-hairs stretched on a frame. the threads can be shifted to the short sides of the frame; they are adjusted to the width of the edge, allowing for the rounding, and are slightly greased by passing over the hair, and thus pick up the strip of gold at the edges. just before laying on the gold, the threads are adjusted so that the gold fits the shape of the edge. then plenty of glair is applied and the gold quickly and truly laid on. this method is not exactly difficult, but it is not quite so safe as laying on with a gilder's tip, especially for very large edges. the simplest way of laying on for flat edges is by means of strips of paper. this has the advantage of allowing a larger number of gold strips being made ready for laying on at one time. select a piece of stiff and not too thin paper, cut into strips about the width of the strips of the gold-leaf, draw one side of the paper across the hair, and then take up the leaf so as to allow it to project a little over the edge of the paper strip. after glairing, strip by strip is laid on. for very cheap work it is often necessary to gild edges with alloyed gold. such edges are not so carefully and thoroughly prepared; in particular, they are not scraped, but rubbed down with sand-paper. blood serum is used instead of white of egg; this is prepared by allowing ox-blood to stand a few days and then filtering off the clear liquid. aluminium is laid on a gelatine solution: one tablet of gelatine to / litre of water. gilt edges are also frequently tooled or scraped and painted. this work comes within the sphere of the art binder and cannot be dealt with in this book. all other coloured and marbled edges can be burnished in the same way as gilt edges. in good work this must always be done. in small shops headbands are made to this day of striped calico, which is cut into strips of cm. wide right across the pattern, and one edge is pasted round a thin cord. after drying, pieces the exact size of the back of the book are cut off. the back of the book at the head is glued with a not too thin glue and the headband glued on so that the pad made by the cord lies on top of the edges and thus covers the place where book and cover join. fig. --headband shears. woven headbands are now to be had so cheap that it is no longer necessary for the binder to make his own. the cheaper kinds are woven of cotton, and of these there are bands made which have two pads, each edge having a different colour. this band is cut along the middle for use; for the rest, it is cut into pieces according to the width of the book and then glued on to the back. better kinds in silk are only woven on one side, therefore the cutting asunder is not necessary. for work in quantities, the headbands are cut the size of the back with the adjustable headband shears. for extra work the headband is hand-worked in silk. this work can only be learned by practice, although its execution is not difficult; such books are only headbanded after boarding. to make the filling for the headband, cut into strips pieces of vellum which have been pasted together, between which a piece of tough, thin pasteboard may be pasted to further strengthen. these strips are cut a little less than the height of the squares and a little longer than the width of the back. so as to facilitate the work, the strip is at once curved to the rounding of the back. take two silk threads of the kind sold as "cordonnet" silk, each thread of a different colour. both threads are threaded in a sewing needle, the threads taken double, the ends of both double threads knotted together. the book is clamped in the ends of a press and stands slanting a little outwards. the needle is inserted in the back groove of the first sheet at the left hand underneath the kettle stitch and the thread drawn out to the knots. thus one thread is always above and another below. the strip of vellum is now placed upright on the outside edge of the head, the thread is brought over from below, and is stitched from above to below close to the head, with the hanging needle through the first sheet under the kettle stitch outwards. bring the same thread once more up over the strip, let the needle hang in the hollow of the fore-edge, taking in its stead the other thread which takes up the first, bringing it out underneath the vellum strip. by this, the first thread is firmly drawn as a chain stitch into the headband now beginning. the second thread is now brought upwards but need not again be taken through the sheet; it is taken back under the vellum strip once, and at the second time the needles are changed in the hollow as the first thread one more takes up the second thread and draws it into a chain. thus the work goes on; after several journeys the thread is once again drawn out through a sheet until both threads are brought out at the other end of the back and pasted down. the first knots must also be undone and the ends pasted so that they do not show on the back. it is essential that the vellum strips should be always firmly and evenly sewn upon the edge, and also that every winding of the thread and the chain lies quite regular. fig. --headband working. it is possible to make a variation by making a few stitches with a third thread of another colour in the centre of the headband. any vellum projecting at the ends must be cut off flush with the book. some books are given a marker; this is made of silk ribbon or of a cheaper kind specially woven for the purpose. it is cut long enough to allow of its projecting a little at the head and pasted there, and at the same time comfortably held by the finger at the corner diagonally opposite. the marker is glued on before headbanding. chapter v. boarding. the boards may be fastened to the covers in various ways, apart from casing, _i.e._, fixing books in publishers' ready-made cases. . fastening upon bands (ordinary fastening). . fastening below bands (fastening on a deep groove). . drawing the bands through the boards (fastening with laced bands). the boards for the books are nowadays manufactured from pulp, excepting in a few districts in pomerania and east prussia where wood boards are still occasionally made. of these pulp boards the better kinds are called mill-boards; the cheaper are called straw-boards. leather boards are not suitable for books as they invariably wrinkle or cockle. the boards may be cut to size before fastening on, or this may be done even after the fastening on has been completed. the former is generally practised where there is a board-cutting machine, but even then further attention is usually given to the shaping of the boards in the case of "extra" work. the board-cutting machine is a very useful ally, for by the aid of quickly adjusted rectangles and parallels a board may be cut perfectly true. the boards are selected according to the size and thickness of the book, marked out, and cut perfectly rectangular. the boards must slightly project at top and bottom as well as fore-edge so as to afford sufficient protection to the book. the margins so projecting are called the squares. small books are allowed a small square, as a matter of course, and large books a square correspondingly larger. fig. --board-cutting machine. where there is no board-cutting machine, the boards must be cut to size with the knife upon a cutting-board, using a straight edge for the line. the knife used is the well-known bookbinder's knife--henckel bros.' solingen make is the best. these knives--both in fixed and removable wooden handles--are made of "glass hard" steel. if the point is worn away, a piece about / cm. long is knocked off with a hammer on an iron edge, thus making a fresh edge. the cutting-boards must be of maple, beech, or pear tree. if it is intended to shape the edges of the board on the book, it must be cut about cm. larger each way so as to allow for further trimming. fastening the boards to the book is called "boarding." this can generally be done as well with paste as with glue; the former is preferable but necessitates longer pressing and drying. glueing is quicker, but the bands cannot then be pressed so evenly into the boards. for ordinary fixing on the bands, the insides of the boards are pasted to about cm. in width, the bands also pasted, and the board laid on, bringing it well up to the groove. if it is intended to glue up, the bands are also glued, provided they have not already been glued on--a method preferred by many experienced hands. the bands must be pasted so that they radiate from the back without any tangle; a morsel of paste the size of a pea is laid on the band from underneath with the folder or point of a knife, the band smoothed down, and the thing is done. after glueing-up, the book is pressed between boards. if zinc plates are placed under the boards whilst pressing, the pasted parts will be pressed quite smooth and shiny. fig. --spring back. for cloth or half-cloth binding a hollow back is frequently glued on. to make the covering material of the back more lasting, a back is made up of strong wrappers or some other tough material, which extends over the back underneath the cover. this backing material must be cut to cm. wider than the width of the back and about cm. longer each way than the book. this strip is pared very narrowly along both sides with a sharp knife on the so-called paring stone. a second strip--the backing--of the same material is cut the same length but exactly the width of the back of the book and is glued on to the middle of the wider strip. the overlapping parts at the sides are broken in towards the middle, close by the inner packing, and the crease well pressed down with the folder. these overlapping edges are then turned back again and a rule is laid on the packing parallel with the edge but drawn back to the middle about to mm. according to the thickness of the cover. if the moveable flaps are now again laid over towards the centre and narrowly creased near the first fold over the rule, a second parallel fold is obtained which allows the book to open much better. the back in section appears as illustrated in fig. after the middle part of the packing has undergone the necessary rounding. fig. --boarded book. rounding can be done either by rubbing the middle part round with a proper wooden tool in a rounding board having several hollows of various degrees of convexity, or by drawing the back with a rocking motion under a broad folder. such a made-up back must fit perfectly true to the groove and on the back. this is the hollow back. before fastening it to the book, the latter must have a piece of stout paper pasted over the back; good packing-paper is the best. newspapers and loose advertisements out of magazines are not at all satisfactory and must not be used. the book is glued and the paper laid on and glued. in doing a large batch the books may be pasted in the press and the paper pasted on. many experts glue the hollow backs on and use paste for the board. very frequently the glue comes through and spoils the end papers. it is better to raise the flaps of the back, paste the tear off of the end paper, paste the bands on to it, and the loose flaps as well, and then paste this on the outside and set the board on it. the latter must be set back a little further in this case so that the book moves freely in the joint. the back, therefore, is a hollow arch stretching over the book from groove to groove, the loose flaps of the packing adhering between book and board. the book is pressed until thoroughly dry--best between zinc plates. fig. --section of edge rule. for shaping boarded books an edge rule is used. this is a thin iron rule not much longer than the width of the book. on the long edge an iron pin about the width of the edge is soldered. this tool is inserted between book and board so that the iron pin lies close to the edge of the book; if the board is trimmed along this it will leave the board exactly as much larger than the book as is the width of the rule. knives or points must be well grasped in cutting boards. the edge must be clean and square. if the boarded book has a hollow back, first one end is shaped and the projecting back is neatly cut clean and straight to the other board with the shears, and then the other end is shaped. boards are fixed on a deep groove by pasting them on the outside to a width of about cm., placing them direct on the book, backing them firmly into the groove, and then pasting the bands very smoothly upon the boards. a folded piece of waste paper is placed on the pasted part, a piece of zinc plate over it, and the book then pressed. the double leaf is used to prevent any sticking to the zinc plate, which bands are particularly liable to do if the plates had not been properly cleaned after previous use. boards to be fastened into a deep groove must be lined with waste paper; this is done with paste. when packing, a narrow strip of paper must be brought over the inner edge of the board in the groove to the outside, so that the cut edge of the board is covered and does not strain or swell. this is also done when boarding, as follows:-- at the present time, all good half or whole leather bindings have the boards laced through in good shops. at the outset the bands must be left with longer ends for this-- cm. at least on each side. a parallel line is marked on the board along the back about to mm. from the groove. the board is fitted on the book just as was done when fixing in the groove, and exactly opposite each band a point is made on the marked lines. the board is then removed and at the points marked is pierced slanting inwards--about half right angle--with a pointed awl. the board is turned, and sideways, near every first hole, a second hole is made which likewise takes a slanting direction to the board. the bands are drawn through these holes, and to be able to do this the bands must be well pasted and twisted to a point; cutting off the extreme ends of the bands will facilitate the drawing through. to draw the bands quite firm and tight the boards are stood upright in the groove, the bands drawn through as tight as possible, and in this position--that is, with the boards half open--they are knocked down with a hammer upon a firm bed. the principal thing to be observed is that the bands are pasted fast in the holes, but where they are seen they are knocked down quite flat. the boards are now slowly closed, the ends of the bands projecting at the outside are cut off short, and the book pressed, using zinc plates inside and out. fig. --english style of lacing boards. the french method of lacing is not much practised in other countries; it is somewhat more roundabout, and is done before cutting--immediately after glueing up. the boards are each shifted to right or left for cutting and cut together. by so doing, the edges always correspond exactly to the back groove. illustration: pressing board profile. for every band there are three holes bored forming a triangle. the awl holes are directed towards the middle of this triangle. the band must describe this course. the end is pushed under the piece of the band seen on the inside of the board, the bands drawn tight, with board standing upright as before described, also well knocked down in the same way, and the end cut off just beyond the piece under which it is drawn. the book is then pressed between zinc plates. part ii. the cover. formerly only one way of making the cover was known, and that was the gradual making of it on the book itself. this has been considerably changed of late owing to the production of immense quantities for publishers' requirements. book and cover are now in many cases made separately, the former being afterwards glued into its cover or "cased." the publisher's case is nowadays a necessary evil, without which we cannot get along and which we have got to take into account. in spite of it, bindings are still being produced in the old approved way, particularly in small establishments and in high-class shops. before we proceed with the preparation of the cover after the trimming, we must know how it is intended to treat the book. in the preceding chapter we have learned the methods of boarding, and this now leads to the methods of covering. previous to that, however, we would like to give a plan showing the various ways of treating the volumes under consideration, and then the chapter on the covers may be given (see plan on page ). view of the most general styles of binding, showing the divisions of the work. table of headings: col. a: folding. pulling to pieces. col. b: sewing. col. c: holländering. col. d: gluing. pasting. col. e: pressing. cutting. col. f: marbling and gilding edges. col. g: rounding. backing. col. h: boarding. -------------------||------------------------| || work on the book. | ||------------------------| || | || forwarding. | || second| ||first stage. stage.| ||--|--|--|--|--|--||--|--| style of binding. || a| b| c| d| e| f|| g|h | -------------------||--|--|--|--|--|--||--|--| brochure ||--| |--| | | || | | || | | | | | || | | " paper boards ||--|--| |--|--| || |--| || | | | | | || | | school books ||--|--| |--|--| || | | || | | | | | || | | half cloth (bound) ||--|--| |--|--|--||--|--| || | | | | | || | | " (cased) ||--|--| |--|--|--||--| | || | | | | | || | | whole cloth (bound)||--|--| |--|--|--||--|--| || | | | | | || | | " (cased)||--|--| |--|--|--||--| | || | | | | | || | | half leather ||--|--| |--|--|--||--|--| || | | | | | || | | half calf, extra ||--|--| |--|--|--||--|--| || | | | | | || | | whole leather ||--|--| |--|--|--||--|--| || | | | | | || | | publishers' cases ||--|--| |--|--|--||--| | || | | | | | || | | table of headings: col. i: making the case. col. j: covering. col. k: pressing. col. l: preparing the leather. col. m: covering. col. n: fastening the book in the cover. col. o: pasting down. col. p: jointing. col. q: pasting down end papers. col. r: hand tooling and decorating. -------------------||-------------------------------| || work on the cover. | ||-------------------------------| || | ||casing. covering. finishing. | || | ||--|--|--||--|--||--|--|--|--|--| style of binding. || i| j| k|| l| m|| n| o| p| q| r| -------------------||--|--|--||--|--||--|--|--|--|--| brochure || | | || | ||--| | | | | || | | || | || | | | | | " paper boards || |--| || | || | | | | | || | | || | || | | | | | school books ||--|--| || | || |--| | | | || | | || | || | | | | | half cloth (bound) || | | || | || |--| | |--| || | | || | || | | | | | " (cased) ||--| |--|| | ||--|--| | | | || | | || | || | | | | | whole cloth (bound)|| | | || |--|| |--| | |--| || | | || | || | | | | | " (cased)||--|--|--|| | ||--|--| | | | || | | || | || | | | | | half leather || | | ||--|--|| |--| | |--| || | | || | || | | | | | half calf, extra || | | ||--|--|| | |--|--|--| || | | || | || | | | | | whole leather || | | ||--| || | |--|--|--| || | | || | || | | | | | publishers' cases ||--|--|--|| | ||--| |--|--| | || | | || | || | | | | | chapter vi. making the cover. the boards for making the covers are cut the required size exactly as when cutting for glueing; a packing of thin cardboard or thin wrappers is cut for the back. the width of the back from first to last sheet is carefully measured by laying across it a strip of paper, the dividers are adjusted to the measure, and this is transferred to the wrapping paper. the packing is cut to suit the boards in height. when cloth only is used for the cover, the cloth is cut to - / cm. longer and about cm. wider than the packing. the width of the back depends upon the question of cost or other consideration. in whole-cloth bindings the cloth is, of course, cut in one piece and to - / cm. larger all round than the boards and back taken together. glue is always used for cloth. as piles of pieces of cloth shift about in glueing, a touch of glue is given to two corners of the pile and left to dry a little. these corners hold the pieces of cloth in position whilst being glued and prevent the edges from being smeared. in glueing cloth it must be seen that the glue is well rubbed into the grain or artificial indentations. for covers which have only the back made, the packing is laid upon the middle of the glued cloth and the boards hinged on right and left at side of it, leaving, however, as much space between as is required by the joint and the thickness of the boards. as a rule, the space required will be as much as the thickness of the board. in making leather backs one allows a little more. the cloth back is at once turned in at head and tail after the boards have been laid on, and the cover rubbed down in the groove with the folder. turning-in is done by pushing the side to be operated on a little over the edge of the table, and with the thumbs the cover is pressed over the edges of the boards with a sliding motion, whilst the forefingers hold the cover underneath. whole-cloth bindings are turned in in the same way, but in this case the corners must be first cut off obliquely as shown in the illustration. fig. --corners cut for turning in. the cloth is cut off at the corners so close that only as much as the thickness of the board remains. thick boards have therefore more cloth left at the corners than thin ones. fig. --corners: right and wrong. the top and bottom edges must be turned in before the fore-edge. at the corners, the cloth is nipped a little with the folder, without, however, making an oblique fold; there should rather be a hollow round turn-over remaining which is only drawn on with the fore-edge, then from the corner slanting to the board. the edges must always be turned in quite sharp; there must never be a hollow place on the edge of the board. on the other hand, it looks bad if the edges have been much rubbed down with the folder, at least with cloth; it is different with leather. the turned-in cover is turned and the front side well rubbed down under paper with the folder. when cloth has once been glued it must not be allowed to lie long as it rolls up and sticks together, which renders it practically unworkable. the finished covers are laid between pasteboards to dry; only when the drying has to be done in a hurry may they be hung on stretched cords. the latest in this work is a case machine which turns out cases per hour. when leather is used, it must first be pared, that is to say, the parts to be turned in where it is too thick in the joint must be gradually thinned. fig. --paring with offenbach or berlin knife. the paring knife, of which there are various kinds, is used for this work. the best known and the most generally used are the offenbach and the berlin, both very much alike except for a slight difference in the edge. the quickest paring knife is made after the french pattern. this knife is called a "thrusting" knife because of the manner of using it, in contradistinction to those generally used with a cutting motion; but even these a skilful worker will be able to use with a thrusting motion. the under side of the paring knife is covered with leather. a lithographic stone or piece of marble will serve as a bed upon which to pare the leather. the stone is set in a frame under which there is a bar to hold it against the edge of the table so that it does not work backwards whilst in use. all edges are rounded off and the surface is ground and polished. ability in paring does not entirely depend upon the skilful use of the knife but also upon the way the left hand manipulates the leather and upon a thorough knowledge of the nature of the leather. it should not be forgotten that the latter has a grain, though very few bookbinders pay any heed to this. with many leathers it is a very difficult matter to pare against the grain, especially pig-skin and cow-hide. one may generally take it that a leather pares best in the direction in which it stretches least. the grain runs from the back to the sides. the offenbach knife is narrower and ground more to a square point than the berlin knife, the edge of which forms a sort of half right-angle to the blade. see manner of holding the knife in fig. . quick working is an advantage of the offenbach knife, which is due to the fact that less attention need be given to holding the leather on the stone, and paring proceeds from left to right, the left hand at the same time helping to push the knife. the berlin make pares from right to left; here the blade is held almost parallel to the edge of the leather, the point of the knife inclining to the leather; with the other the edge is cut over slantingly with the point outwards. to use the french knife requires more practice; the cutting edge is almost at right angles to the knife, and, besides, the method of holding it is somewhat unusual. for paring all thick leathers or large surfaces it surpasses all other makes in execution. to make the leather more workable for paring it is previously manipulated, that is to say, it is turned flesh side outwards and rolled to and fro, whilst firm pressure is applied with the second and third fingers of the right hand, thus making it pliable. fig. --paring with french knife. in an ordinary bindery thin or split leathers are mostly used; these do not require very much paring, which is only necessary for pig-skin and the finest moroccos. the latter leather is narrowly pared about to mm. wide along the edge for half as well as for whole bindings. only the back is pared the whole width, therefore to - / cm. has to be nicely gradated. broken places, inequalities of the edge, or even holes to be filled in, greatly add to the difficulty of the work. in the thicker skins also--thick places often occur in the otherwise thin skins--the joint must be thinned down. the packing is laid upon the wrong side of the leather and its position marked out with the folder. the leather is pared about cm. in width along this line, that is to say, it is pared so that / cm. right and left along the mark the thickness of the leather is reduced. as a rule, first-class books are not provided with a cover made in advance, and even those described by publishers as "super extra" do not rise above morocco goat. we have to do with the following leathers which are mostly used for the publishers' bindings: goat-skin (of oriental hybrid sheep), morocco goat, sheep-skin (unsplit sheep-skin), and split sheep-skin [or so-called skivers]. there is another goat-skin, not levanted, sold and used under the name "bastard" leather. "levanting" means to imitate by pressing the grain natural to the skins from the levant. most kinds of our leather receive their grain by such process. for whole-leather bindings a narrow margin is pared down all round the edges, the turn-in at the back is pared just as much as is necessary, and also at the corners. the leather corners are cut slant-wise at the outset, and the paring is done so that the thinning begins exactly at the edge of the board. in leather bindings the board, as well as the back packing, is glued on, rubbed down, and the edges then pasted and turned in, the leather is rubbed down sharply in the joint, the back, and on the edges; but a folder must never be used on the leather covering the board itself. it frequently happens that the board is finished off with round corners; in this case, the method of turning in cloth as well as leather is slightly different. the two neighbouring edges are turned in. the leather or other material is cut off not quite so close as for square corners, and the material is drawn very smoothly and neatly over the edges in little folds, using a pointed folder for the work. illustration: cover corner shapes, illustration: cover corner shapes, books not wholly covered with cloth or leather get corners of the same material as is used for the back. cloth corners are not cut singly, but a strip of material long enough for the required number of corners is glued and then cut with the shears into pieces of this shape or, better, placing them on the boards in such a way that the material projects a little over the corner of the board. first of all, the lappets of the top and bottom edges are turned in, the corners nipped in the manner shown, and then the lappets of the fore-edge are also turned in. leather corners are treated in the same way, but these are cut from waste pieces according to the zinc stencil plate kept for the purpose, and then pared down. illustration: cover corner shapes, glue is used for fixing on cloth corners, but strong paste is always used for leather. all edges and corners are well rubbed down with the folder and left smooth and sharp, but, on the other hand, the grain on the board side must be left uninjured. insufficient paring of the corners or using only the fingers for turning-in causes very thick edges; such work is out of date and would not be done by any thoughtful workman. illustration: half cloth or half leather corner. books bound in half-cloth or half-leather have the sides covered with paper; the latter often with cloth. when cloth sides are used, the material must always harmonize with the back both in regard to colour and texture. on each side to be turned in the paper is cut to - / cm. larger than the surface of the board to be covered. the paper is cut along the back with the knife and rule. the corners are turned down in half right-angles according to the size of the cloth or leather corners and somewhat smaller than these, and cut off with the shears as shown in the illustration, using the fold as a guide. illustration: small corner diagram in ordinary work with very small corners, especially in large quantities, the corners may simply be cut off diagonally, and if there are many covers they are knocked up and the cutting is done with knife and rule or with the machine. as a trade article for the publishers, the finished cover is lined with paper on the inside, both for the sake of improved appearance and to prevent the drawing outwards. for every board a sheet of paper is cut about / cm. smaller than the board and pasted on. the covers are placed between boards to dry. covers are generally decorated in some way; as a rule by means of the blocking press. where they get any hand tooling, it is always done on the book when bound, for which no case is made in advance. simple gold lines along the back and corners of the cover are excepted; such work is known as "filleting." chapter vii. work with the blocking press. we make a distinction between gold tooling and blind tooling. the latter is simply an impression on the leather or other material without the use of gold, whilst the other is an impression upon a specially prepared leather or other surface, using gold leaf. skill in blocking depends first of all upon a tasteful and suitable selection and arrangement of the engraved blocks and letters necessary for the decoration and inscription. the blocks, &c., are to be had ready made from the engravers in properly arranged sets; but still it is essential that the finisher should possess certain artistic taste and feeling, especially in making up the lettering. it must be borne in mind that in an inscription or title the principal part (word or line) must be distinguished by larger or heavier type; furthermore, two lines of equal length must never appear in an inscription. short words (the, and, for, &c.) worked into an inscription as separate lines add considerably to its appearance. see pp. to for what is said on the arrangement of the title in hand lettering. the same applies to the arrangement of all lettering. the blocks and letters are always fixed to the upper part of the press--the platen. to enable alterations to be made quickly or to secure pieces which may have slipped, there is a draw-out plate made in all modern blocking presses. the engraved blocks are not affixed to this plate with glue but with cobblers' wax. the following is a practical way of managing the ornamental blocks: on a thin but very strong board about the size of the article to be blocked, the blocks are arranged with the backs uppermost, the engraved face being next to the board. this board is fixed with wax exactly in the centre of the lower part of the press--the table. by "exactly in the centre" it is to be understood that the centre of the various blocks brought together lies on or near the centre of the draw-out plate. if there are more and heavier blocks fixed to the upper than to the lower side of the plate, the latter must be lowered a little--in a word, the plate must be so adjusted that all parts receive equal pressure. it is only by making a few trials that one can learn exactly what is right. the press should be warmed by this time, and it is well to slide in the table with the blocks adjusted upon it, and to let it remain under light pressure until plate and table are warmed throughout and no trace of moisture may be seen on either. now put a little wax on each block, lay over them a piece of stout wrapping paper, cardboard, or similar stuff, push in and press gently; the wrapper also may be waxed. after about five minutes, open the press to see whether all parts have stuck. until this takes place the press must remain closed. if, however, all pieces are sticking fast, draw out the table and examine the imprint of each particular part to see whether the pressure is equal; if this is not so, it remains to be seen whether such inequality is due to a faulty fixing of the plate and, if necessary, to rectify it; otherwise, pieces of paper must be made up into a suitable packing and laid upon the back of the blocks until all inequalities are removed and an even impression is obtained. this done, the back of the set-up blocks, or the wrappers affixed thereto, is waxed at as many places as required, or rather as far as the set-up blocks extend, the plate pushed in, and the press closed until the set-up blocks adhere to the upper plate. the lighter this first impression is made, the easier it will be to detect any inequality on the table (or matrix) and to set it right by backing up with paper. fig. --blocking press. before proceeding further, a few words must be said about the construction of our modern blocking presses. for modern blocking we use knee-lever presses, whilst balances are now no longer used. on the upper part there is a sliding plate--the so-called platen--which draws out on prismatic rails. a second plate works on hinges at the side of the sliding (or draw-out) plate and can be pulled out to the left. this plate is used principally for colour blocking--the other plate for gold. blocking can be done in gold and colour immediately after each other, and if the plate is in duplicate, four impressions can be made in succession without having to take off and change the plate. in the upper plate there are round borings for the gas burners or hot irons used for heating the press; the latter are out of date and do not produce a steady temperature. it now remains to insert the article to be blocked in the press so that it will be blocked exactly on the spot required. there are several ways of attaining this object, which are adopted according to the kind of work in hand. the surest way is to mark the place by pins. two large drawing pins are pasted upon pieces of cardboard, a second piece of board is placed over each one so that the head is embedded between the two pieces but leaving the points free. the gauges thus made are fixed with wax at convenient places, best on the middle line above and below the table but in such a way that they themselves are not touched by the plate. to prevent their falling off, a larger piece of cloth is pasted over them, always leaving the points visible. the surest preventive against falling off is to have screw-on gauges. a strip of metal having a slit in the middle can be screwed tightly to the table by means of a screw passed through the slit. at the end a steel point about / cm. long is riveted on. with this gauge the points can be adjusted to any position on the table as required. all work not turned-in which requires repeat blocking, and all such as requires blocking in more than one colour, is "pinned on." on the other hand, covers which are finished after being once blocked on back or side which require no second impression may be adjusted with the angle gauge or blocks. many make use of both at the same time. such covers then have been turned in all round when being worked, whilst "pinning on" requires that the covers should not have been turned in. the practical bookbinder who has to deal with turned-in covers frequently gets over the difficulty by making two incisions about cm. apart with the knife upon the turned-in edge at the place where it should be pinned on, and opening out the material at the incisions, thus making a loose margin for pinning on. for pinning on covers as well as backs, a template is cut from wrappers or thin board, which is adjusted on the cover and the register holes made with an awl. when pinning-on has to be done for blocking which has to be repeated very many times, the register points are strengthened behind with stiff paper to prevent them from breaking or tearing away and thus becoming inaccurate. fig. --appliances used in blocking backs. to enable the most various widths of backs to be quickly inserted and to supply a substitute for the thick layers of cardboard packing which make a fine impression impossible, a special contrivance with metal pads has been made. this is shown in the sketch herewith. mention has already been made of the table (or matrix). this is a bed of stout boards which is intended to serve the double purpose of saving the blocks when blocking thin articles (backs of covers, &c.) and also for strengthening and equalising the resistance from below when working on heavier articles. faults arising during working, such as insufficient adhesion of the gold (and an increased pressure) may be set right by pasting on pieces of paper to the matrix or table. the matrices consist of strong but thin material; the best is wrappers or the thinnest board. after use they are kept for subsequent repetitions of the same or for other work. the lettering must always be set up fresh for each job, whilst the ornamental pieces may be arranged on the tables or matrices at hand after the existing original impression. setting the type is a special art and calls for considerable taste and skill; the letters very easily slip out of the type-holder, especially where very small type is used, unless special precautions are taken to prevent this. here we will pass over the most important point in the arrangement of the types and refer to the paragraph dealing with "lettering" under "hand-tooling"; what holds good there always holds good here. lettering is always set upon special pieces of board and afterwards encased in a type-holder, as it demands much more attention and subsequent correction. these boards should likewise be wrappers of the same thickness as those used at the same time for the ornaments. for fixing, cobblers' wax is likewise used. the favourite method frequently adopted of using glue coated with paste is not to be recommended, because the letters do not admit of proper setting upon this gelatinous mass. not only do the lines of letters require to be kept right by means of a strip of metal or metal line, they must be carefully adjusted after taking a light impression, especially when using a very small type. the first pull must be under so light a pressure that on a soft paper everything is distinctly visible. the lines are arranged from this proof, whilst each single letter is carefully checked. where letters do not show up properly they must be backed up with paper of suitable thickness on the board until all unevenness disappears. the lighter the pressure applied the easier it will be to make corrections. letters heavily pressed at the outset can seldom be properly rectified afterwards. in large editions it does happen, in spite of all precautions, that single letters work loose and fall out; this may damage parts of the plate as well as valuable covers, and one therefore tries to guard against it. some take narrow strips of cloth and paste one round each line of type, others pour liquid glue between the lines which, when thoroughly dry and hard, is a very sure means of preventing the falling out of any piece of type. when everything is in order, the type is likewise inserted; various parts of the back of the board are well waxed and the table is then pushed in and the press closed tight. it remains closed until all parts are thoroughly dry, for it is only then that we may feel assured that no parts can fall out. the drying may be hastened by opening the press about a quarter of an hour later and drawing out the plate, likewise the table, and now allowing plate and table to dry by exposure. if any parts of the plate should lift, wax must again be applied and once more pressed. when the plates and press are got into working order, and the backs or covers have received their register marks by means of the template, the blocking may be commenced. the table is drawn out, a piece of work pushed in to the register, and the press closed. it is necessary that the press should have been previously regulated to the thickness of the article being blocked, and to begin with a light pressure at first, as heavier pressure can be applied afterwards if required. cloth requires sharper pressure than leather. large heavy covers are always blocked with the press quite closed, whilst small things like single titles, hat linings, ties, &c., are finished with only a short pull of the lever. the correct regulation of the pressure rests with the worker. we distinguish between blocking in blind, gold, colour, and relief. blocking in blind, both on leather and cloth, should not be attempted upon articles which have become very dry. a good plan is to store them in a cellar the night before and to bring out only as many as can be finished in the next half-hour's work. blocking in blind can only be done on matt or grained material, as its effect is nil upon a smooth polished surface. the finish can be considerably heightened in special cases by going over the impression with a brush and white of egg after the first blocking and then again pressing under less heat. calf leather, and undressed calf in particular, receives its splendid brown colour by being previously damped with boiled or distilled water to which a little spirit has been added. the impression on a damped ground is first made somewhat warmer and afterwards repeated when the press has cooled a little, occasionally wiping the blocks with a waxed cloth. the impression must in all cases be even in colour and have a high finish; if this is not so, the lighter places must be once more damped with a small brush and again impressed. articles to be blocked in gold must be prepared with some substance to which the gold will adhere. the finisher uses a fluid or dry adhesive according to the material he is working upon. of liquid sizes, diluted white of egg or, in some cases, dissolved gelatine or blood serum is used almost exclusively. these liquids, which are applied with a sponge or, for fine work, with a brush, are called the "ground" or "sizing." of dry adhesives, we know only the gilding powder, which consists of resin with now and then an addition of dried white of egg. the other powders used by the finisher are rice flour or potato flour; these are not used as adhesives but to prevent the gold sticking at places where it is not wanted. leather and cloth are sized with white of egg; silk and other woven materials are finished without special sizing, and also surfaced papers and cardboard goods, as they are treated with finishers' powder, a wet preparation being unsuitable. size for blocking is thinner than for hand finishing, and when it has to be washed over the whole of a cloth cover it is still further diluted. glair for brushing over an impression consists of one part white of egg and one part vinegar; to every / litre g. of powdered borax is added, the whole beaten to a froth and filtered. for coating-over, take one part white of egg, two parts water, and to every / litre add drops of glycerine and g. borax. if a larger quantity of glair is required for coating over, it may be thinned with water or vinegar; but size made with vinegar must not be applied to fancy coloured cloths. gilding powder may be yellow or white, the latter kind is rougher and is suitable for silk stuffs and also where blocking has to be done over colour on cloth. yellow powder is softer and is apt to clog the finer cut tools; it is more suitable for the preparation of paper _de luxe_, for blocking surface and chromo papers, and for photo cases. gilding powder is sprinkled by means of a box which has a double layer of fine gauze instead of a bottom. by tapping upon the box a fine shower of powder is dusted on to the surface to be gilded. glair is made in the workshop; the powder is bought ready prepared--to make it would take too much time. for blocking in alloyed metals, gelatine size is used, as it is a powerful adhesive. a tablet of gelatine is soaked in / litre of water overnight and next morning is dissolved in the bath. gelatine is used to cover the whole surfaces and is laid on when lukewarm. blood serum serves the same purpose. ox blood is allowed to coagulate, and the hardened mass thus produced is placed over a cloth strainer, or hair sieve, and the liquid albumen allowed to drain from it; the process is hastened by cutting the caked blood into small pieces. only the clear liquid which is strained off is to be used--a pinch of borax will make it keep longer. for finishing bindings, real gold-leaf--orange tint--is used almost exclusively, the cheaper green gold being used only for sample cases and school books. alloyed metal and aluminium (this is now commonly used instead of the quickly oxydizing silver) are used almost solely in the manufacture of papers _de luxe_ and for placards. pure gold-leaf is always laid on the sized cover after the surface to be blocked has been lightly gone over with a ball of oiled cotton wool, or a slightly greased rag. this must never be done to such a degree as to cause grease spots. calf must not be thus treated with grease, but if the gold is not likely to stick at certain places, the first impression may be picked out with a brush slightly oiled so as to make the leaf adhere. dark polished calf will, however, stand a little oil. fine leathers are first stamped and the impression is gone over with a brush, then the gold is laid on and again impressed. the gold is lifted from the cushion with a gilder's tip or a pad of cotton wool and transferred to the cover. the gilder's tips consist of square pieces of cardboard a little smaller than the piece of gold to be used, to the under side of which is pasted a piece of cloth. a handle of cardboard or a button is pasted on top for convenience of holding. draw this tip lightly over the hair, press it on the gold, which will lightly adhere to it, and then transfer the gold to the surface to be stamped, where it is pressed down with cotton wool, which should be surgical wool, as that kind is free from knots. many prefer a tuft of cotton wool rolled into a handy size, this is likewise drawn over the hair, and the rest done as before. when gilding powder is used, the gold must not be laid on with the pad. the gold must be placed on the powder by hand only, a task calling for considerable adroitness. the gold is taken up with the gold-knife, aided by a moistened finger-tip taking a corner, passed over the surface with the knife, brought to the required position with the hanging corner, and now the knife is taken away flat sideways. the gold must lie quite even on the powdered surface. any subsequent shifting of the gold is entirely out of the question, because the layer of powder would be disturbed and might not hold in places. to know exactly what degree of heat should be applied requires special study, and the pity is that fixed rules cannot be given--one day a black morocco goat-skin may stand a great heat, whilst on another day the same heat applied to similar stuff might burn it up. cloth is always the same, calf leather papers, skytogen, &c., are much more difficult. on the whole, the following rules may be observed:-- cloth white of egg (or glair) medium heat sheep-skin " slight heat goat-skin " medium heat morocco " medium heat silk white gilding powder short hot pressure surface papers and cardboards yellow " " short medium pressure calf glair hot (light leathers somewhat less heat) varnished paper little heat the latter contains sufficient adhesive matter in the colour without using any other size, even for alloyed gold, but the covers must, however, be slightly moist. for this purpose they are left overnight in a damp cellar or placed between slightly damped boards. we have already spoken of the matrix. where silk or other thin woven materials are to be blocked, a firm hard board must be laid on the table and frequently changed, otherwise the impression will be defective. for ribbons for wreaths, &c., a suitable piece of paper which had been damped some time before should be laid underneath. although relief blocking upon bindings seems to be out of favour, there are numerous styles of imitation relief practised nowadays, especially in imitation of cut leather or wrought metal. this work necessitates the matrix or table being prepared with great care, as it must be the counterpart of the plate. for this purpose an impression is first made upon a stout cardboard, which is fixed firmly enough on the bed to prevent its shifting, the block being affixed to the platen. upon this first cardboard are laid the raised parts according to the height required, likewise cut out of stout cardboard, continuing to place a layer upon the other until a true negative of the block is obtained. small and slightly raised ornamentation is not specially underlaid, using instead a piece of stout board well smeared with cobblers' wax, which, after standing awhile under the plate in the closed press, will make a very exact and firm base. matrices made up of several layers of cardboard pasted on top of each other are also, when finished, covered with a piece of pasted packing paper and then pressed. this leaf prevents single pieces from working loose and sticking to the block. for relief stamping, leather or cloth is stretched upon thin wrappers. the guide points must be made a little further apart on account of the material shrinking slightly under relief stamping. colour blocking, which has gained such unexpected popularity, gives the finisher no little trouble. as blind blocking is done by the press, so also may colour blocking be done if the blocks are coloured with the brilliant colours specially prepared for printing. a colour roller, made by moulding english roller composition on a wooden pin, is used for colouring the blocks. the worker himself may cast these rollers in a well-greased mould. the roller composition is dissolved in water, and after being poured into the mould is allowed to stand a few hours to cool. the colour blocker keeps about three rollers ready, of which one is used for light colours, another for middle tones, and the third solely for black. the rollers are either fixed in a fork with two handles or an axle goes through the wooden pin which is bound in leather at each end wherein the axle revolves in the hollow of the hand. fig. --colour roller. the rollers spread the colour upon a stone of suitable size. the colour should be laid on the rollers--not on the stone--not too thickly, and then evenly distributed on the stone by bringing the roller over it backwards and forwards. both stone and roller must always be cleaned after use; perfect cleanliness must be carefully observed throughout. the stone is cleaned with petroleum, the remaining colour is removed from the roller by passing it several times over a sheet of glass, rubbing it down with petroleum before again using it so as to remove any particle of dust adhering. in order that the colours may appear as bright as possible, a little varnish is added to them, which in every case must be of a kind to suit the particular colour. dammar varnish is suitable for light colours, and for darker colours amber varnish. where great brilliancy is required, venetian turpentine is added; but this lengthens the time required for drying if a little too much is added. in every case, however, a little siccative must be added to every colour; a few drops materially quicken the drying. colour blocking can only be done when the blocks have been secured to the plate, as this must be opened each time it is coloured. the simplest colour-printing is where one colour appears between the impression in gold, and in this case it is generally done by first making the impression in gold and then in colour. in more complex work several colours are to be used; at the present time the work is frequently produced requiring colours side by side and superimposed, together with gold, bronze, and aluminium. the process is in each case as follows: from the block supplied by the engraver an impression is made which forms a matrix. it is best to select a piece of board exactly the size of the covers to be printed and at the two places to be taken by the guide points pieces of vellum are firmly pasted, being already pierced for the guide points, these vellum additions being further secured by pasting over them a strip of paper or cloth. for every block to be used a similar board with its vellum additions is prepared. upon the ground of this first matrix the other auxiliary matrices are likewise first impressed with the block--all of them black, of course, so that it would be possible at any time to fit in the blocks. every new block for colour printing is pressed into the ground of the auxiliary matrix belonging to it; also for the so-called first-impression block. it must be understood that colour printing can be done well only upon a perfectly even and smooth surface, therefore it is wise with first-impression blocks, as well as larger colour plates, to repeat the impression, only slightly warm after having given a very hot impression the first time. surface papers are an exception as they generally stand very little heat. it helps here either to let the newly made covers get half dry or, better, to let them lie longer in a damp room. when different colours are to be superimposed, the order in which they are printed is a matter of some importance. as a rule, the so-called warm tones (yellow, brown, red, or colours containing much of these) are printed first; the cold tones (blue or others containing much blue) being afterwards laid on. white is also classed as a cold tone, but for technical reasons it must nearly always be printed first. if these rules are observed, serious mistakes will seldom be made. moreover, proof impressions of the different colours must be taken upon white cardboard, which should be marked for reference, in the same way noting the proportion of the colours used in mixed colours. if the outline block is to be printed in colour, it comes last; gold stamping being done first. the process of printing in bronze is similar to colour printing, as the bronze is dusted over a preliminary impression in colour (gold upon red or yellow ochre, aluminium upon white, coloured bronze upon a suitable similar colour). bronze is not printed upon colour, because the bronze sticks too easily to such surfaces in places where it is not wanted; it is then much better to use gold-leaf. should it be necessary on the score of economy to make a double working in bronze, the cover must be previously washed with glair. leaf metals, pure or alloyed, are printed upon colours after they have been slightly dusted with gilding powder, and with moderate heat. the colours, however, must previously be allowed to dry thoroughly. larger surfaces are wholly prepared with glair to prevent the gold from adhering where not required. most of the colours must cover well where it is not intended that they should have a translucent effect. a good covering is not secured by laying the colour on thickly but by properly mixing the colours, and often also by giving a second coat after the first surface has dried. above all, one must avoid too thick and greasy colours. black must always be printed with a strong good covering colour, as must also the outline block. for colour printing, the press must be of the same temperature as the room. in winter it is slightly warmed an hour before use, and when necessary this must be repeated later. there are quite a number of little dodges not easily communicated but which are quickly picked up in practice. fig. --stuck-on gauges. simple work is not adjusted by pins, but is pushed up to three guides; moreover, the gauge of the press is not generally used, but three little pieces of board are firmly glued to the table instead. the illustration (fig. ) will clearly show the arrangement. at the letters a the pieces of board are glued, to which the cover to be blocked is pushed up. to prevent these gauges from being pushed off, or to facilitate refixing in the event of their becoming loose, the gauge generally supplied with the press is brought close up behind them. chapter viii. treatment of sewn books: fastening in covers and finishing off. for better-class bindings and where hand tooling is to be done the covers are not made in advance as the books are formed and then case and covering made on the book itself. this results in a better appearance and a stronger connection between the book and its cover. it has already been explained (chap. v., pp. - ) how the so-called hollow back is made in boarding. this kind of back, however, is only used in ordinary binding in half or whole cloth. for leather or half-leather bindings a strip of wrapping paper or thin cardboard is cut. the exact size is taken with a piece of paper across the back from the first to the last section. this strip must be exactly the same length as the cut boards to be used. the strips--afterwards representing raised bands--are laid upon this packing; these strips are best cut from waste pieces of cow-hide, but if this is not to hand, paste pieces of waste goat-skin three ply thick, press lightly, and, when dry, cut out of this material strips not exceeding mm. in width. the position of the bands is carefully measured with the dividers and marked with pencil and straight-edge and the strips are then glued on in their places. the bands are left projecting over the edge until quite dry and at mm. from the edge, and are then pared down to it. illustration: headband. for extra half-leather work the backs are previously glued round on the book itself. a strong--not too thick--packing paper is selected, the back is thinly coated with rather thick glue, and the paper, a little wider than four times the width of the back, is so laid on the back as to leave, say, the first two sheets free. as far as it sticks, the paper is rubbed down, then folded back to the other joint exactly at the last section, brought back tight over the back, and now firmly rubbed down on the strip left free at the first sheet. exactly at the first sheet the paper is again folded over and pasted over the back, afterwards repeating the preceding glueing process. in this way the paper is folded from the joint and glued three times. the overlapping parts are cut off. the back now consists of four layers, the first of which is glued on to the book, the other three, of course, forming an arch over it, although they themselves are glued together. what is overlapping at top and bottom is cut off with the shears close by the headband, care being taken that the back is truly squared. the headband should be nearly but not quite as high as the squares. by so doing, the back will be / mm. shorter at each end after cutting than the boards. for this work the book is placed in the press so that the back stands out free. bands that are to be fixed on are likewise placed in position and are then glued on with a round. the backs are covered with cloth or leather. the former is cut the required size, that is, allowing to cm. in width to overlap at each side, glued, the rounded backing strip laid exactly in the middle, and then placed in the hollow of the left hand. the right hand takes the book and both are brought together so that the backing fits exactly in each joint but corresponding to the height of the boards. when this adjustment has been obtained, the parts overlapping on the boards are pressed down for a time, and after again seeing that the position is right, they are drawn over firmly. it is best to stand the volume on its fore-edge and, using the palms of both hands together, rub the covering material firmly down on the boards. when the back is properly drawn on, the head and tail are turned in. with hollow backs the joints must be well rubbed down. it is necessary to cut off a small piece of the corner of the board at the joints at top and bottom; this may be done either with a sharp knife or shears, and, of course, before the book is covered. to make the turn-in (on the book), the book is placed with its back on the table, letting both boards fall back so that they lie open on the table. take hold of the book at the edge between index and middle finger of the left hand and lift it out of the boards at the head; the right hand, with the help of the folder, turns the pasted lap inwards and rubs it well down without creases or wrinkles. after both pieces have been thus turned in, the back is further worked at the head to give it a good shape. fig. --turning in the head. the same process is gone through with books bound in whole cloth or half leather. in the latter case the leather must, of course, be pared down, as also in half calf or whole leather, the work with these being somewhat more elaborate. it is here of the utmost importance that the greatest attention should be given to careful paring of the leather, especially seeing that the leather is not too thick in the joint; if so, it must be reduced to the required thickness. it must be pared at the head so that the turn-over does not appear any thicker than the rest of the back. leather used for covering books must be worked with paste, and paste only. figs. and --the head: good and bad. it must be drawn tight over the bands, and these should be well rubbed down with the folder. the turning-in is done in the same way, but the overlap--as far as the actual width of the book is concerned--is again drawn out so that it projects about mm. over the headband. this projecting leather is pressed quite flat--not slant-wise--over the headband, so that seen from above it almost covers the latter. all half and full leather bound books have the corners of the boards next to the head pared down. this is done before covering--it not only makes the turning-in easier but the book has a better appearance and opens better. when the turning-in is finished, the book is opened wide and the boards adjusted so that both turnings-in are uniform and sharp and also that it has already, to a certain extent, a deep groove, and then closed. if no layer of waste paper has previously been sewn in, it may now be placed in the joint, so that after drying the boards may open quite freely and nicely. the closed book is now "tied up," that is to say, a cord is looped and tied right round the back at the joint. the turn-in is thus drawn in at the pared-down parts. behind the cord the head and tail are pressed down with the folder to right and left, slightly outwards; whatever may have been drawn in by the cord is put right on the inside edge and the edges are rubbed sharp and square with the folder. the book is lying throughout on the paring stone, not upon the press-board. the foregoing applies to made cases as well as to those backs which are pasted on the books. with the former it is necessary to round the backs. this is done by drawing the back underneath a folder with a wave-like motion. it can easily be done after being once seen. to give the back a good hold on the book from the very outset, the inserted part is pasted narrowly at the joint before being laid on the pasted leather so that at this place it firmly adheres to the back. backs that are stuck to the book itself are cut open about cm. long at the joints with a small knife in order to take the "turn-in"; for the rest the work is the same. corner making and covering are here exactly the same as already explained for the ready-made cover. books bound in half or full cloth with hollow backs are treated in the following way: the glued cloth is laid flat upon the table, the back of the book placed in the centre of it, the book lifted up, lightly pressing the cloth to the back with the flat hand only, and then sharply rubbing down the overlapping sides at the joint with the point of the folder, rubbing the sides as well. for this, lay the book on the edge of the table so that the back stands clear. if the sides were brought over the boards at once, neither a sharp groove could be obtained nor would it be possible to draw over the cloth without creases. we now come to the finishing of the books, but we must first deal with the fastening of the book into the cover. by covers is understood either a cover made to fit a book to hand or a cover to which a book is to be made to fit. the latter is the more difficult. the book, when pulled to pieces, without end papers and sewing, should be about one-sixth thinner than with the paddings of the cover, thin books, of course, a little more. thickness of thread and compressing or allowing to swell in sewing should equalize what difference there may be. if the book is ready trimmed, edges finished, pressed--it should always be cloth jointed--it is cased in. a packing is pasted on the back, that is to say, similar to glueing the back, the back is pasted on to the book itself, a strip of paper the proper width is laid on so that the two first sheets remain free, rubbed down, folded back from the other joint, pasted on the free margin, and the surplus cut off. in this way, not only is the back pasted over but it gets another covering of paper. the padding of the cover is now rounded, either by drawing it under the folder in the way mentioned or by drawing it to and fro over a chock fixed in the press. the book must suit the cover so that it fits tight into the joints. the padding of the back is glued, the book laid in, the boards at both sides well drawn over, a covering of paper laid over the back, and then well rubbed down with the flat folder. the pressing that finds so much favour is altogether superfluous, as it takes absolutely no effect upon the glued back. it is only when the covers are somewhat too narrow that the joints are improved by pressing. after the glue has set a little, the end papers are pasted on, _i.e._, they are pasted over and lie open until thoroughly dry. it is done as follows:-- insert a piece of waste paper under the cloth joint, the joint itself getting a thin coat of rather weak glue. the bands, which must remain free although cut off to leave only cm. in length, are laid over the joint and likewise glued. now lay the book square before you, the open board next the table edge, and with the point of a knife first lift the bands from the cloth joint, lay them taut over the smooth board and smooth them down with the knife so that everything lies smooth and even, taking special care that the bands are not noticeable in the joint through any evenness. the cloth joint is now drawn over and well rubbed down on the board, the latter being at the same time well pressed on the joint so that it has quite a straight sharp edge. the book lies open in this way to dry, but it may be turned, placed on a board, pushed up to the joint, and the other side similarly pasted on. fig. --the pasted-down book. plainer bindings, especially school books and publishers' cheap cases, are often pasted down with only the outer leaf or white end paper and without a cloth joint, whilst here the coloured end paper has still to be pasted down; in the former case proceed as follows:-- the back--without packing--is simply glued over, the packing rounded. the book is properly placed in the cover, and the outside fly leaf--afterwards an end paper--and bands are pasted, the latter at the same time being smoothed out with a knife or folder; the boards are then closed, pressing them over very sharply. the book is turned and the other side done in the same way, and at once pressed. where a cloth joint has to be pasted on, a paste-down must be pasted on to the board. the practice of doing the coloured end papers at the same time as the book is not so good as subsequent pasting down, as they are then less likely to be injured during trimming and colouring the edges, &c. the paste-down is first cut to size a little less than the book itself and fastened in with thin glue so that the paper is close to the joint but not so close as to cause it to swell. the counterpart of the fly leaf is pasted on to it, both leaves are cut with a knife close along the joint, for back and front, about / cm. wide, are pushed up, thinly pasted, and pasted into the book up to the pressed joint. the leaves so hinged in are now raised, the under leaf thinly coated with thin glue, the leaf closed and rubbed down under paper with a folder. immediate pressing is to be avoided, as the thin glue is very easily squeezed out. after a while the pressing is done, of course, when zinc plates--if necessary, polished boards--should be inserted between the end papers, and not too great pressure applied. if the boards have been fastened on with paste and without a back, zinc plates are also used, but between the first and last sheets of the book, so as to press these very smooth and to prevent the plates from sticking to the damp end papers. half or whole cloth, half leather, or, generally speaking, all bindings which are not pasted down open, are laid upon a board, pasting thinly with thin paste first one side, then turning the book and pasting the other, and then pressing. in doing quantities, ten may be done before pressing. cheap work is often pressed by laying the volumes crosswise upon each other and pressing in batches between boards. books with a deep joint where the bands are either laid on the board or laced in are always pasted down open. where cloth or leather jointed, this is done in a similar way to boarding in covers, except that the bands need not be considered here, as they have already been seen to. working the leather well in the joint and firmly pressing back the board after turning in the head lighten this work and improve the appearance of the joint. leather joints are always pasted down open with paste, but must, of course, be left lying longer. the so-called double end papers, that is, without cloth or leather joint, are very effective. only the best and strongest paper can be used for these. the double sheet, folded in the middle, is narrowly pasted at the back and fixed in the joint of the book--not in the fold of the joint but in the joint made by pressing. this prevents the bend coming on the place where the paper has already become weakened by sharp creasing, but near it. the half for the fly leaf is at once pasted down; that to be pasted on the board must first be cut to size. the end paper is cut off at head and tail of the book, the book opened, the end paper laid over the board, and with the dividers is marked out on the paste-down parallel with the edges, somewhat less than the book. at the fold marked by the edge of the board at the joint, nick in with the scissors up to the mark made, slip under this a zinc plate, and on this cut the end paper by the mark up to the nicks. it is understood that the end papers should not be cut off right round the book, otherwise they would become too scant at the fore-edge. a piece of waste paper is now laid under the paste down, thinly coated with glue, the leaf drawn tightly over the board and rubbed down; at the same time a piece of paper is laid over the joint as above. when pasting in the cover, the book is placed square and the joint strongly and briskly rubbed down with finger and thumb of both hands. fig. --treatment of tear-off. a paper having a design must, of course, be laid in the same direction as the book. where paste-down and fly leaf are to be pasted on separately, it must be so arranged that, after the pasting, one leaf forms the counterpart of the other, that is to say, the design must run through and be broken only by the joint. to effect this it is necessary that the paste-down should be first pasted on; when pasting on the fly leaf the work can be made right. silk paste-down and fly leaves are frequently used for extra work, the silk here being stretched over a piece of stout paper and pasted narrowly at the edges. chapter ix. hand finishing. when the books have been bound they are generally ornamented in gold or in some other way. although the more elaborate finishing in gold is not done in the ordinary bindery, but is confined to the art binderies, sufficient instruction will be given here for the simpler finishing on back and side. gold finishing is only learned at the cost of much patience and long, painstaking practice. although the technical schools teach finishing in a comparatively short time--usually in a few months--only the ground-work can thus be acquired, for it takes years of practice to teach all the technicalities and to make an expert finisher, equal to any calls made upon him. it may also be mentioned here that in most technical schools the work is executed with the very best and most suitable tools and, furthermore, the whole interior arrangement of the workshop is as favourable to the work as can be conceived, and thus all conditions for good work prevail. when young workers come from such an institution to work under strange conditions, where they have to struggle along with unfamiliar and perhaps unsuitable and antiquated tools, bad light, and other drawbacks, it is not to be wondered at if they--at the outset, at least--do not answer all expectations. similar inconveniences have less effect upon old and experienced workers, as they have the steadiness and assurance which come to them as the result of long years of work, and they, therefore, never become nervous and fidgety. a cool head and a steady hand are the first essentials in a finisher, and after these the feeling for neatness and exactness. gold tooling has evolved from the blind tooling of the th century, which up to that time had been the only method of decoration for the exterior of books, excepting where gold or jewels were used. the first application of this method was in drawn lines made by running the heated fillet alongside the rule, and even to-day the fillet, although improved in make, still retains its place as a suitable tool for the decoration of leather backs and sides. speaking generally, blind tooling is not sufficiently appreciated by finishers, especially in shops doing much hand tooling; to many it is almost unknown, and they would be at a loss if there were any demand for it, and yet it is eminently suitable for simple finishing with slender resources, to obtain a result at once chaste and striking without excessive ornament, and this without a costly assortment of tools and other special appliances. before proceeding to the details in the work of finishing, a few preliminary observations may be made. blind tooling is the ornamenting of leather with tools without the application of gold. it might also be correctly described as matt tooling. its peculiarity and beauty consist in its rendering the tooling on the leather in a darker tone. blind tooling may be executed upon leathers of any colour, but its full decorative effect is seen only upon light colours, especially upon undyed calf and pig-skin and also upon coloured unpolished calf. to produce the deepest and most uniform tone it is necessary to damp the leather previous to tooling. as it is well that the whole surface to be tooled should retain some moisture it is advisable to damp it evenly with a sponge on beginning the work. the simplest tools are, as already mentioned, the fillets, which may be single, double, or triple, with lines of equal or different thickness. the design is carefully traced with dividers, folder, and rule, and the heated tools run along the rule. before applying the tool, which should be only moderately heated, the line previously marked out should be damped with a suitable brush. the instant the moisture has been absorbed by the leather, the tool should be applied. there should be no hissing, as the tool should be only lukewarm for the first application. the roll must touch the leather at the beginning without any uncertainty and the line made at once and without stopping, as otherwise a darker shade would appear in places. figs. and --simple line designs. each time before using the roll it is passed over a well-greased piece of leather. the impression should appear uniformly brown; if it is lighter at any part, it has not been sufficiently damped; if darker at another place from the beginning, then that part was too damp. success depends before everything else upon uniform damping of the leather and correct heating of the tool. with ordinary cleanliness and care, complete success is assured in this method of finishing. after the surface of the leather has again become dry in all places, the whole design is again gone over, but this time with the roll a little hotter, at the same time rubbing the roll well with the greased cloth. if there had been unevenness in the depth of colour before, it will hardly be possible to remedy it now, for the light places remain so and the dark ones become even darker. where blind filleting is done it is usual to do die tooling at the same time. it is advisable--especially for novices--to apply the die without heat to the damp leather, then to damp specially and apply the die lukewarm as in filleting. tooling with dies is essentially different from filleting in the method of execution. the fillet polishes whilst running on, the die remains on the one place, and yet every part must receive an equally good impression. in order to secure a good impression from a die it is necessary to apply it promptly, and press without hesitating as to where to begin. to ensure all parts of the tool being well impressed, its surface is slightly curved lengthwise, and according to this curve the die must be rocked to and fro whilst impressing. if too much time is wasted before the die is applied the impression will turn out lighter. by allowing the heated die to remain long on the surface of the leather, the latter loses its moisture at that place and the die could not produce any further deepening of the colour. such places must be again damped and tooled until a uniform tone is attained. care must be taken that this repetition does not produce "doubling," that is, a blurred appearance of the design, and also that it does not lead to indistinctness of outline. blind tooling upon light leathers is to-day called upon to satisfy the needs of the less wealthy just as it was years ago, for in such a style of decoration the utmost durability and moderate cost are combined, and its very simplicity enhances its beauty. fig. --half-calf extra tooled in blind. fig. --leather binding with simple design in blind. now for the hand finishing. it is first of all necessary that we should be able to letter straight, at first upon a board. for the tooling of long straight lines, dotted lines, or other style of lines upon the sides, rolls are required, upon the circumference of which the design is engraved, whilst for tooling upon the back the so-called fillets are generally used, which likewise are used only for lines or patterns. besides, certain kinds of ornaments are here printed with dies--the rows of letters with the type-holder in which these are set. all these tools are heated over a flame--best over gas--to the temperature suited to the material operated upon. to make the gold adhere, the material to be tooled is sized or "glaired" with one part vinegar to three parts white of egg well whisked or beaten and filtered, as is done in blocking. other materials for sizing will be dealt with later. fig. --simple gold tooling on sides. lines are made along the sides and at corners of the boards, especially on paper-covered boards; this is called "running a line up" or "filleting." the line to be gilded is clearly marked with a sharp folder, picked out with glair, and the gold, which is taken up on the roll, is printed in. fig. --tooled cover. the gold leaf is cut on the cushion into narrow strips about cm. wide, and the warm (each time wiped clean) and slightly greased roll is lightly passed over it so that the strip of gold adheres to the circumference of the roll, and then rolled off with a firm and even pressure on to the place intended. this is now gone over with a wool rag (or gold rag), and only the printed line is left; the surplus gold remains in the rag. fig. --specimen of tooling done in the düsseldorf technical school. near the finishing stove should stand--as also for blind tooling--a shallow saucer containing water and also a common brush similar to those sold with bottles of gum. a drop of water is thrown from this brush on to the hot tool in order to test its heat. cloth is printed with fairly hot tools; they should hiss a little when tested. goat-skin requires a heat almost sufficient to produce hissing, whilst hissing would indicate too hot a tool for use on morocco, and all sheep-skins will bear only moderate heat. if the roll was too hot, the gold would have no brilliance, and if too cold, would appear broken. calf requires the same heat as cloth, but quick working, especially on first applying the tool. the roll has a long handle which rests against the shoulder whilst held in the right hand. when getting into position for an impression the thumb-nail of the left hand is used as a guide and support. fig. --leather binding by oswald kob, bozen. a line around a cover is marked out correctly with dividers and folder, picked out with size, and printed in gold in the same way. the rolls have a notch, which is for starting and ending at the corners; these must always be joined exactly. rolls for two or more lines must print the corners perfectly diagonal, and for this purpose such rolls are cut so as to print a true diagonal corner; one corner being made for the beginning and the other for the end. of course it is impossible to print long lines with only one revolution of the roll. the roll is run along the line from starting point until near the end, lifted off, and again placed on the spot just quitted, a little behind the starting point of the roll, so that this part does not show. this is repeated as often as the length of the line necessitates. in order to secure good corners, the roll is lifted just before reaching the corner and a corner tool is used for the corner itself. at no point should one be able to see where the roll was set on or taken off, and the result should be a straight, even line, showing no trace of inequality. fig. --cover with laurel motive done in the düsseldorf technical school. for single lines, the gold is generally taken up on the previously heated roll; but in using wider rolls it is better to lay the gold on with the tip and press it well down with surgical cotton wool. places where the gold did not stick or which look gritty must be sized afresh and once more tooled. the beginner generally finds that the gold does not stick at the point where he begins, a sure sign that he hesitated too long on commencing. it has already been said that white of egg is used for making the gold adhere, and there are, indeed, very few materials requiring any other treatment, yet we know of a number of cases where white of egg alone is insufficient to fulfil this purpose--not, indeed, because it is unsuitable, but because the quality of the leather is such that the white of egg would be absorbed too quickly (calf, tanned sheep) or that it would take badly and unequally. just as certain kinds of leather are difficult to treat, so also are old, long-stocked skins. if the finisher knows that such a piece of leather lies before him, he ought to rub it down on the raw side with best olive oil; it will thus receive a substitute for the lost natural fatty matter and become more supple. this oiling, of course, is only practicable with dark leathers, as light leathers nearly always become darker. a skin so treated should be rolled up and laid aside for a few days. at any rate, such a defective leather is improved by a previous washing with size, no matter whether it be made from vellum, gelatine, or glue. it must not, however, be made from the commonest kinds of glue, as these make the leather dull. vellum cuttings, or gelatine, are soaked overnight in water sufficient to cover, and next day dissolved in a sort of glue-pot. this sizing must be used very thin and should not be quite cold. in using ordinary glue, two drops of medium strength to about three table-spoonfuls of warm water will suffice. many finishers prefer thin paste water as a size, with which they coat the whole surface; personally, however, i would only recommend it for unpolished calf--but here there is a real necessity for it. in this case it is liberally laid on in large sweeps with a sponge--not new, and free from grit--and then well rubbed into the pores of the leather with the ball of the hand. the surplus is quickly washed off with clean water. large surfaces left plain are also washed with gum tragacanth, because this sizing leaves no lines behind. about grammes of tragacanth to / litre water are soaked in a vessel, and after swelling it is well stirred. this solution is also laid on with a sponge, but is not rubbed in, neither is it subsequently washed off. these two methods of sizing will be found sufficient to meet all cases. there are certain materials that do not allow the use of a liquid sizing, particularly silk and velvet. the latter is no longer finished by hand, and even blocking velvet is now considered bad style. for gold tooling on such materials gilding powder is used; it is to be had either white or yellow, but for hand tooling the white only is required. although no exact rules can be given for determining the temperature of the tools used upon the various materials, yet we must try to give a general rule for each kind. we will use the following terms to distinguish the different degrees of heat: lukewarm, _i.e._, not the slightest hissing when tested; medium, _i.e._, just on the border of hissing; hot, slightly hissing. in the following group the method of sizing is repeated, and a scheme for the approximately exact temperature of the tools is given. cloth, goat-skin, and marbled leather (without previous sizing, white of egg): medium heat. sheep-skin and lamb-skin (glue size, white of egg): medium heat. calf (white of egg): hot. morocco goat (without sizing, white of egg): medium heat. morocco, levant morocco, crushed morocco (glue size--painted in, white of egg): lukewarm. pig-skin, russia, seal (without sizing, white of egg): lukewarm. mention has already been made of a wash of paste water for matt calf. as a rule, the whole surface is washed with this preparation, as it is thereby rendered less liable to finger marks. in the very best shops there is still another method. the leather is washed down with tragacanth and the previously impressed design picked out with white of egg and quickly tooled with tools medium to hot. vellum requires a special treatment. on the day before it is to be finished in gold it is washed with alum solution and, for gold tooling, sized with undiluted white of egg and tooled lukewarm. when tooling is done with powder it is dusted on by means of a powder-box, over which is stretched some thin material, and tooled lukewarm. the great convenience in the use of powder induces many binders to adopt it for leather and cloth also. this practice is objectionable, and the conscientious finisher will always avoid it. it may be excused when a name has to be printed on a prayer-book or similar article in a hurry, or when an article is already varnished, as powder in such a case is very convenient and satisfactory, but under any other conditions it is a sign of incompetence. tooling upon powder on leather looks very gritty and unsightly after having undergone many changes of temperature, as the latter greatly affects this material. its brightness vanishes entirely--a thing that never happens when white of egg has been used. it must still be observed that tooling with lukewarm tools must be done slowly, and with hot tools quickly. nearly all inexperienced finishers use too hot tools. fig. --leather binding with fern motive done in the düsseldorf technical school. so far, we have dealt with the preparation for finishing and tooling with a roll. besides this tool there are fillets, gouges, and dies, all nearly the same, being dies, and only differing in shape. nearly all beginners are unreasonably afraid to use the gouge. any one able to use the roll properly will have little difficulty with the gouges. a genuine technical difficulty does arise when only a small portion of a curve may be worked (which frequently happens) on account of its having to be joined to another. moreover, the joining of one curve to another must not be seen. every single gouge of the complete set (it should contain at least pieces) forms the quarter of a circle. the gouges are chosen according to the design, so that the tools placed thereon cover the outlined design exactly, and the tool numbers are noted on the designs so that they may be quickly and surely picked up when required for use. the tyro is apt to select sizes too large and to print the curve sloping instead of perpendicular; this must be guarded against. double gouges are not easily used in the same way, as the joinings cannot be concealed; they may be used for making first outlines, which must be finished with single curves. fig. --simple gold tooling on squares. faulty places must be done over and over again until the whole is perfect and brilliant and all the gold adhering. fillets are nothing more than long narrow dies of either simple or ornamental lines. it is the practice of the old school to widen the impression of narrow fillets by continuous rocking of the hand to right and left, as they are fond of doing when lettering with a type-holder. this practice is fundamentally wrong. work finished in this way will never show the quiet and uniform brilliance in the gold to be seen in work where the movement was only in the direction of the dies and fillets. besides tooling the front sides, the inside edges or squares are generally ornamented in extra work. a simple but very effective decoration for the edge consists of a line close to the edge of the board and also one close to the end paper and a connecting line at the corner; such an edge is previously polished with a burnisher. to do this the leather is slightly damped, the tool moderately heated--not hissing--and then polished with long even strokes. fig. --design in gold for squares. tools by f. clement, leipzig. figs. and --two designs in gold for squares. with the help of rolls and dies, even richer decoration may be produced, and really artistic ornament designed and executed on the inside as well as on the outside cover. such work, however, does not come within the limits of this treatise. we must be satisfied with giving a few illustrations of the less elaborate designs. rolls are very often used in finishing the edges, so as to fill up at once the whole width of the space, and about this we must say a few words. rolls with a pattern have, as is known, no notch, and therefore may be used for a run on of any length without a break. for smaller margins and cheap work the rolls are frequently run over each other. this saves time but it does not produce a nice effect, as the design is blurred at the point of crossing. it is better to lay the gold leaf on one side and to remove it exactly at the corner and then tool; the side next to it is now treated in exactly the same way, giving special attention to the removal of the leaf at the corner. the design is thus made to join together at the corners without crossing, because the roll will only leave its impression as far as the gold goes. for extra work, however, a die suiting the roll in width and design should be chosen, and leaving as much of the corners as the die will cover free from gold, the remainder of the surface is covered with the leaf and tooled. with a little skill, the roll can be taken up exactly where the gold leaf ceases. the edge is then cleaned with the gold rag and fresh gold laid on for the corner die and then tooled. by this method the design at the corner is correctly finished. figs. , , and --three simple backs. t, d, b = title; n, t = sub title. gold tooling on the back is more difficult on account of its convexity. for this work the volume is placed in a little wooden press which finds a place upon the bench, or in a special contrivance which can be screwed to the bench. fig. --type-holder with centre position. to ensure good results in tooling the back, it is necessary that the work to be done should be accurately marked out beforehand. the bands are measured out by means of the dividers if they do not already show as raised bands. with a pointed folder draw this traced design accurately upon a strip of cardboard. blind lines are made upon cloth before the latter has become quite dry; in other cases tool the first impression hot and vigorously, pick out the impression with white of egg, and then tool with lukewarm fillets. in making lines, the fillets may be drawn to and fro, whereby a great brilliancy will be produced. gold lines or ornamental fillets are picked out with white of egg and then tooled in gold. for simple lines the gold is taken up from the cushion; for ornamental fillets the gold is carried to the back. lettering the back is an art in itself as regards the arrangement of the lines, but besides this it requires considerable practical experience. the letters are composed and screwed up in the type-holder for printing. the type-holder, with the letters, must never be placed over the heating stove, for in germany letters made of lead are still most generally used, and these would melt very quickly if placed over the stove. moreover, the letters should be screwed up just tight enough to prevent their falling out. the heat expands them and they are then locked quite firmly enough in the type-holder. in arranging the letters the following general rules should be observed:-- .--always use types from the same fount in a title. .--for books printed in gothic (black letter) type use gothic letters; for books printed in latin types use the same for lettering. .--all lines in a title should be set either in lower case only or in caps. only. .--gothic and latin in a title are inconceivable. .--except for abbreviations, points are no longer used in the titles of books, not even at the end; neither is a comma placed after the author's name. .--nowadays, a short line is always made under the author's name. figs. , , , and --four backs tooled in the düsseldorf technical school. as regards the length of line and choice of types, the following should be observed: .--the most important word (catch-words) should be made prominent by larger type or spacing. fig. --group of backs tooled in carlsruhe technical school. figs. and --two richly decorated insides done in the düsseldorf technical school. .--the oftener a short conjunction or article (for, the, and, or, &c.) is placed between the lines, the more effective will the title be; such words must be set in smaller type. .--two lines of equal length should not come together; long and short alternating as much as possible. .--the author's name is set in type a little smaller than the principal catch-word. figs. , , , and --four richly tooled backs. .--the lettering is most effective when the type is selected and arranged so that it rises in size towards the middle line and then decreases. .--unnecessary length tends to indistinctness; the best title tells what the book is in very few words, and should be easily read at a little distance. fig. --rich half-calf extra binding. it is impossible to mark out the whole of the title with the dividers unless a specimen copy is at hand from which the spaces can be measured. the best guide is the eye. the distance between the lines should be equal; a plain line is reckoned as a line of type and must not be placed at half the distance between the lines. if a line with letters having long upstrokes (literature, hostile, latter, &c.) follows one without long downstrokes (never, miner, memoir, &c.) the lines must come a little closer than when a line having long downstrokes (poppy, ganges, &c.) comes over one having long upstrokes. in this respect the binder is in a more difficult position than the printer, as the latter need give no attention to this, his title never being so cramped into little space. the effectiveness of a leather back can be considerably heightened by evenly smoothing and polishing the title panel with a burnisher. such a back with the title panel enclosed within a square with only a fine double line at the head and tail and also a fine line close to the head is perhaps the best that an ordinary bookbindery can produce. it is essential, however, that every detail should be faultlessly executed, especially the title. tooling a square is frequently done. the beginner should always use the roll for this, although tool makers produce line pieces for the work. it is easier to print straight with the roll than with the line pieces, which require skill to use. special attention should be given to joinings at corners, so that neither gaps nor overlapping are seen. for the rest we have given a number of different designs of backs (pp. , , ) as well as a few richly tooled half-calf bindings, and also two specimens of highly ornamented insides (p. ). figs. and --tooling on heads. the head and tail and edges are often decorated in higher class work. of course the style of finishing is very limited on account of the smallness of the surface. fillets and rolls are generally used for this work, being worked on the cap as seen in the illustrations, and always directed towards a central point. the gold for the head and tail and edges is cut to size on the cushion, the edges slightly greased, and the gold taken up by the book itself. the accompanying illustrations give suggestions for the gilding of edges. figs. , , and --tooling on the edges of the boards. fig. --motive executed in the düsseldorf technical school. lining is done on almost all books. for this the "jigger" is used. it is heated so that it hisses slightly, and with one quick and sure movement is drawn along the straight edge. the line is drawn away from the worker, that is, contrary to the way one would draw a line with a lead pencil. lines are drawn along paper, past back and corners, often also right round the edge, over leather or cloth and cover; the closer to the edge the more effective the line. many of the more costly books take a case to protect them from injury. for trade purposes this is simply cut from plain boards and remains uncovered. fig. --case to protect book. fig. --cut-out case. the parts _a_ overlap and are either pasted together or wired with the machine. fig. --book cover. fig. --cover in case form. similar cases of thinner boards--but covered--are made for hymn and prayer books. they are always pasted, covered with a dark pressed paper; and the edge at the centre is cut with a gouge as seen in the adjoining illustration (fig. ). hymn and prayer books may at times have a cover; this would be cut from stout paper, generally calf-leather paper, the colour of the case covering (see fig. ). covers made in case form entail more work (fig. ). the centre piece has a joint at each side; this part is, therefore, covered with cloth, which extends over the parts _b_ and _c_, all the rest being covered with dark pressed paper. chapter x account books. account books are nowadays almost always made by wholesale firms, but there are still, now and then, considerable orders given to medium and small firms for special work; yet it is just in these small shops that antiquated methods of work are still followed to a certain extent, to deal fully with which would require a volume in itself. to-day, the methods generally followed are based upon the principle that the spring back, reaching a finger's width over the side, must work strongest on the book itself, and that such a one opens best. upon this principle is based the untanned leather spring back, which, being a patent, has become a somewhat expensive style. it is cheaper to make up the backs with wrappers, for which machines are also to be had; but, nevertheless, the principle is the same, and both answer the same purpose, although the former is lighter and more durable; it cannot be denied, however, that after long use the cover works loose. for account books, only the best and strongest paper--ruled or printed--is used, always according to sample. of course, the work of ruling can hardly be considered as coming within the scope of this book. the paper is folded together in sections of three to five sheets, according to the thickness and quality of the paper. for heavy books a strip of jaconet is folded in the middle of the inner sheet of each section before sewing, and, in any case, this should be done with every first and last three sheets. the end paper makes a section in itself, which, like all others, is taken up in the sewing--it has previously been attached to the third section by means of strips of jaconet. in the end paper a coloured fly leaf and linen joint are pasted. figs. and --end papers for account books. the following is a practical way of making the end paper:-- .--take a strip of linen (not cloth) three fingers wide, and glue on narrowly two sheets of plain paper or paper of another colour, and fold in the middle. .--one sheet of a double sheet of white paper is coated with thin glue, and the hinged leaf no. is pasted to it. .--the end section is pasted in behind the first sheet of the first section, the white sheet is pasted upon the second sheet of the ruled paper; around the whole section a strip of jaconet is sewn, or a.--a piece of jaconet cm. wide is so hinged to the white double sheet of this section that half of it remains free; in this fold the second section is sewn. better-class work intended to serve for years of office use is again being sewn with thread on tapes; the cheaper work is machine wire-stitched. in hand sewing, double bands--a wide, strong linen tape--are used, end to end, of course, and with strong thread. the bands are also stretched upon the sewing frame; for folio, at least six are used, and for quarto not less than four. it has already been said that the sections are sewn throughout, and, further, that the end section is likewise similarly sewn with them through the linen joint--in high class work with coloured cordonnet silk. all sheets, without exception, are kettle-stitched at the end. large books are not usually glued up the whole of the back, but only at head and tail, with perhaps a little in the middle; they are only completely glued up after having been rounded in the press, as this makes them retain their shape longer. if it is decided to do any marbling, the fore-edge is marbled immediately after trimming it. rounding is more pronounced in this than in ordinary work, otherwise the spring back would have no effect with such bulk, and the book would easily go out of shape. the account book is also pressed, but not in the same way as printed books, as the former has its groove pressed quite out. after careful adjustment between boards, they are squared to the edge of the first and last sheet, the whole lifted into the press, and the back glued with very hot glue. the bands are generally left outside the boards, as they would leave marks too pronounced on the book if pressed inside. after the book has thoroughly dried in the press, it is cut at top and bottom, marbled, or some other suitable treatment given to the edges, and then pasted up. the "clothing up" of the account book is done either with soft leather and paste or with mole-skin specially prepared for the purpose; in the former case the bands are omitted, that is, only the parts between the bands are pasted. in pasting up with mole-skin, only the back may be glued--never the covering material. the covering material has a loose overlap of cm. at each side. account books take a stronger headband than other books; it must reach on to the board, which it binds to the book. for this purpose the board must first have been affixed. in the first place, a thin but very strong board is laid--about - / mm. from the joint--upon the first sheet, which has been completely coated with glue; the bands are pasted out upon this board, as also are the leather or beaver clothing overlaps. it is obvious that this thin board is not stout enough for this heavy book, therefore a second heavier board--or, if necessary, even a third--is pasted to it; but as the back now goes over on to the board, the heavier board must be set back sufficiently to prevent it from pushing into the back when opening the book. as the pasting together of these boards makes them very thick, and such thick boards not being easily cut, they are generally cut the required size beforehand. before pasting the thicker board upon the first board, the back is prepared. fig. --boards cut out at head. first of all, the headband. it is carried on to each board cm. deep, and the boards must therefore be cut out the same distance up to the edge; at _a_ the board is bevelled off on the inside. now cut a piece of coloured chamois leather--dark red or green-- cm. wide and as long as the distance from one notch across the back to the other. the back at _b_ is now glued, the strip of leather laid on so that it projects - / cm. beyond the edge, and the ends at each side brought equally to the bevelled part _a_. at both sides these are pushed in under the thin board and well pasted down, whilst the piece projecting over the edge is glued and turned backwards; but in order to strengthen the piece on the back of the book, a piece of card as long as the width of the back is laid in. the back is selected either from ready-made undressed leather backs of suitable length and width, or is made on the machine. the practice of pasting the backs at the edges only does not seem satisfactory, because on the one hand it does not give sufficient spring, and on the other the single sections easily work loose. for pasted backs, stout wrappers are taken, and the strips are cut so that each one slightly overlaps in width the one preceding. the glued and fitted strips are either pressed hot in the rounding press or put through a rolling machine built for the same purpose. the finished backs should be allowed to dry for a short time. where there is no machine suitable for this work, the backs must be pasted into each other, beginning at the outside, and well rubbed down upon a board made with grooves of various dimensions. the older method of pasting the backing upon the book itself is still followed, although it does not produce the firm arch nor give such a good shape as the former method. when it must be done, the following is the way to proceed: the size is taken by laying a piece of paper across the back (taking in / cm. of the board on each side), and with the dividers this measure is marked out on a strip of wrapping paper, which must be the exact length of the board, but wide enough to project about a hand's width over each board. so that this should not have an unsightly appearance in the book, it is bevelled along each side. fig. --suggestion for account book back. _k_--pared edge; _t_--part to be pasted. according to the measurement marked by the dividers at top and bottom, a rule is laid from _a_ to _a_, and along this a sharp line is drawn with the folder, and the lappets projecting underneath the rule are bent upwards. at this line thus marked, the wrapper is folded over and creased with the folder. a second parallel line is made in the same way, about to mm. farther out, from _b_ to _b_. the back thus prepared is rounded in the middle part; a strip the size _a_ to _a_ might still be pasted in the centre. to fasten this to the book, both strips are glued with strong glue from _b_ to the edge, the back brought into position, glued, and pressed down. from this it will be seen that the back stretched across the book is not glued on from _a_ to _b_. a few more pieces of wrapping paper are still glued on to this first back to increase the strength of the arch; each one is measured separately after the one preceding it has been glued into its place, always measuring from _a_ to _a_. fig. --suggestion for account book back. such backs do not adhere quite firmly, and it is advisable to insert another narrower glued strip, opening the book in the middle, of course, to do this. after inserting the back, the book is closed, and the back will now lie close and tight to the book. it is trimmed at top and bottom with a sharp knife and finished off with a rasp if necessary. the heavy boards are hinged on to this back. they are cut to fit, and, beginning at the fold _b_, are placed so that the edge of the board stands a little away from the joint. fig. --boarded account book. where it is possible to glue up hot, the back should be made in advance. it is, however, essential that the spring back should be slightly over-rounded, that is to say, that its ends should first be pressed out so that they can be pushed on to the back; only thus can it be really effective, and must, moreover, be shaped to three-quarters of a circle. an apparatus recently put on the market for glueing without heat, solely by wrapping up in drilling, is little better than a toy, which saves neither time nor material. the inventor can hardly be in the trade--certainly not a practical worker. the prepared backs are fastened to the books as follows: cut a strip of stout linen so that it projects a little at each end and to cm. at each side; glue the inside of the rounded back evenly, and then fasten in the linen strip so that it projects equally at ends and sides. at head and tail the ends are brought over on the outside, and the back thus made is forced on the book. before doing so, a line should be drawn on the thin boards about - / to cm. from the joint, glue up to this line; the strip with the back would be drawn up at both sides and then pressed down. to make these backs lie closer, a strip of packing may similarly be inserted. so then the same work is done here with the glued-up backs as in the old style with the packed spring backs; here the back is just hinged on cloth, there it is made from a piece of wrapper. the thick board is set on in the same way as in the other style of work, set off from the glued back about to - / cm. to fill up this space, lay in each groove a piece of cord of suitable thickness which has been well pasted, rubbing in the paste quite smooth, and, after drying, paste over with stout paper. very thick books have a rather clumsy appearance with their many superimposed boards; this is improved by bevelling on all four sides the upper thick board. to protect the book, leather bands are pasted on the back, also something to add strength is generally put on at head and tail, which is then covered with specially strong leather. for covering, linen, mole-skin; for heavy and extra work, pig-skin and cow-hide are used. leather is, of course, always pared down, thoroughly coated with paste, well stretched over, and well rubbed down in all hollows at the joints, bands, &c.--side panels are also let in--and turned in. where the back disappears under the thick board, the turn-in is cut in almost up to the edge at _b_ with sharp scissors; if it were cut right to the edge it would be visible, which must be avoided. for turning-in at the head, it is obvious that the book must lie open as in the illustration. fig. --to show where turn-in is to be cut. the corners of account books must always be rounded. metal corners on account books are clumsy, damage the writing desks and other books coming into contact with them, and even when using the best mill-boards it is impossible to fix them so firmly that they will not work loose in the course of time. in their stead, leather corners and guards may be fixed, which are frequently tastefully finished in blind or gold. fig. --hand numbering machine. all books for office use are either folioed or paged, _i.e._, either each page or each sheet gets a consecutive number in order to facilitate reference from the index. this may be done either by the hand numbering machine or by the larger machine worked with a treadle. in both cases the figures succeed each other automatically whilst printing. it is always advisable to do this work before binding, as it is then easier and, besides, there is less chance of the fresh ink smudging when each single sheet of the sections is pushed up. the manipulation of this apparatus is so simple that further explanation seems superfluous. where bound books have to be paged, small pieces of blotting-paper must be laid between the sheets to prevent smudging. the manufacture of guard books for bills, letters, &c., comes into the same department as the making of account books. guards are cut cm. wide and folded in sixes along the middle, and sewn with strong thread, end to end, upon a strip of linen stretched upon a piece of wrapper to which bands have been pasted to further strengthen. the sections are sewn together at intervals of about cm., so as to allow room for the papers that are to be pasted in. the stiff back with the sewn-on guards is now pasted into a cover, which is made with a back measurement as seen in the illustration. an insertion for the back is not cut for this purpose, but the two boards are hinged together with a strip of stiff paper somewhat wider than the back. the book is then provided with a linen or mole-skin back and corners, covered with paper, and, after the guarded back has been pasted in, is lined with paper. if it is intended to gum the guards, the gumming should be attended to before the sewing. the guards are fanned up slightly and brushed with gum-dextrine, to which a little sugar and a few drops of glycerine have been added, so that when dry the gum should not be too brittle. fig. --suggestion for back of guard book. for all such work a thumb index is generally required; each page takes one or more letters, or a specification is given, according to which the binder counts off the number of pages required for each letter--x and y being here excluded. nowadays, the indices are cut with index shears, which not only regulates the depth of the index but also avoids the acute angles which are so easily torn in. commence cutting from the back, that is, with the z; this, being the last letter, is not cut out. then count off w, cut with the shears, and cut off what remains below to the bottom edge with a sharp knife, to do which a narrow thin board is slipped underneath. the further you proceed towards a, the longer is the strip which has to be cut out with the knife. when the excisions for the whole alphabet have been made, the letters are pasted on. these are sold ready printed, and nowadays are almost always in one piece for back and front. the printed sheet with the alphabet is glued or gummed on the back, and, after drying, the alphabet is creased lengthwise and either cut so or punched out with a suitable tool. the single letters are damped and stuck in position. one might also insert a strip of zinc after the cutting in of the letters and cut the length at once. cheaper kinds of account books for temporary use are often made with fixed backs; the packing is simply omitted, but the head and tail are pasted a little to make the turn-over hold better. no matter whether the cover be of leather or cloth, paste must be used, as this ensures the back adhering strongly to the book. such a method of binding can be recommended for music. portfolios for drawings, &c., are often required; the boards are hinged together with paper as previously described for guard books, the inside of the back lined with cloth, and the outside covered with leather or cloth. the turn-in is pasted over the lined back. fig. --pattern for dust flaps. (leinwand = linen hinge.) if books are to be made so that they can be fastened, slits must either be made with a chisel, through which the tape ends are drawn from the outside to the inside and there pasted down, or else small round eyelet holes are made, and then proceed as before. dust-proof flaps are hinged on to three sides of a thin board with strips of linen in the following style, and lined and covered separately. the body itself is likewise made of thin board. (see fig. .) the whole arrangement is pasted on to the back board of the portfolio. chapter xi. school books and mounting. the school book, perhaps the most despised branch of work in the bindery, has unjustly come to be treated as a sort of step-child by bookbinder and bookseller. although everything has been cut down as finely as possible as regards paper and printing, yet the cost of binding must also be cut down, and a profit on the whole is still looked for. thus it is that school books can only be produced by machinery. folding, sewing, board cutting, trimming, and lettering are all done exclusively by machinery. all finishing work, pressing, headbanding, decorating the paper covers, have fallen off. the cover is always made in advance and the book fixed into it. a good goat-skin is seldom used for the back, almost always split sheep-skin, thereby also saving paring, or the so-called split horse-hide. these latter are put on the market in various colours and grains and are well suited for the work. a third-rate marbled paper is used for covering, as prices are not given for better kinds. a stout smooth paper is strongly recommended for end papers. frequently, in the smaller towns, there are still produced bible histories, catechisms, and the like in half-leather bindings, tanned sheep-skin, the sale of which is likely to be large and assured for many years. the whole skin must be damped and well stretched previous to cutting out, in order that it may be cut into backs to the best advantage. the backs are laid on top of each other and pressed out in the wooden press between two old boards to remove all superfluous moisture. the edges are then pared with a sharp knife, the backs pasted, laying every two with pasted sides together to prevent their drying, and the books fixed in the leather backs. for this purpose the books are set in boards previously cut to size. in this case the books take tight backs; the joints are well rubbed down with the folder. thinner volumes in cloth have likewise tight backs. the cloth for the backs is cut into strips of handy length as wide as the length of the backs must be, is glued and cut a suitable width with a knife upon the cutting board, measuring with the eye. recently, the so-called "taking off," as practised in fancy goods work, has been adopted for the sake of its cleaner and neater results in pasting and glueing covers. a large zinc plate is coated with glue, neither too thick nor too thin, the cover is laid face downwards and taken up, so that it is evenly coated all over with the glue or paste. the work requires some practice, but it is very quick and, above all, is neat and clean. the boards are laid upon these strips by a worker (allowing for the thickness of the back), turned in at top and bottom by a second worker, and the books at once fixed in. the backs, still damp, fit very well to the books, the joints are well rubbed in; covering and pasting on are done afterwards. where hand sewing must be done, the end papers should be first attached to each first and last section, double in front, single at the end. sewing should never be upon two bands only but on three at least, better upon four, so that the two middle ones can be changed each time. in order to expedite the scraping of the bands, the threads are untwisted before pulling out from each other, the loose end need not exceed - / cm., as a long band holds no better than a short one, care being taken that it is always firmly pasted down. the drawn-out volumes are placed in batches on top of each other, all bands lying outwards. the projecting ends are well brushed with a hard brush, which renders them easy to scrape down. if it is intended to paste down the bands, the whole of the ends might now be pasted, the books lifted off one by one, and the bands pasted over on to the end paper. it is better to leave the ends free and to paste down when glueing up. they then become more thoroughly saturated with the paste and are pressed at once, and thus join the boards so much better. it may be mentioned that school books with tight backs are more lasting than with hollow backs, no matter whether leather or cloth be used. mounted articles, _i.e._, placards, maps, drawings, &c., to be mounted on boards or linen, are frequently sent to the ordinary bindery. things to be mounted on boards must be mounted whole, those that are to be rolled up or folded are mounted on linen. placards are generally printed on very stout paper, and these should be well damped upon the back with sponge and water before pasting, and only when the paper is perfectly limp and stretched should the pasting be done, otherwise creases are sure to be caused by the stretching of the paper after mounting. a piece of packing paper the size of the placard to be mounted must also be pasted upon the back of the mounting board to prevent the board from "drawing." only when the mounting is completed may the mount be cut to size and, if necessary, bound. illustration: binding corner. this binding is done by marking with the dividers a border about - / cm. wide along the trimmed edge and laying a pasted strip of coloured paper and, turning it over, drawing it on to the back with a piece of clean waste paper, and well rubbing down. at the corners the strip is cut obliquely, as in the case of a book, nipped, and turned in. this is done at the first two sides lying opposite to each other. at the other side the strip is laid not quite up to the ends and cut with the shears slightly obliquely, so that the finished corner appears as in the accompanying illustration. of course, when such work is done in large quantities, another method is followed. for this the board would be cut to size, back and front-- cm. narrower and shorter--likewise, and the boards bound beforehand. the strips are not turned in at the corners of the first two sides, but the whole side is rubbed down and the ends cut flush. the strips for the other two sides are cut to size, at the same time cutting off the corners obliquely at both sides, then pasted and drawn over the edges. when mounting on large surfaces, one person alone is not able to do the work--there must be some one to render assistance. such large pieces are always rubbed down under a piece of stout paper. as the hand cannot pass over the whole surface evenly and easily, a large piece of waste paper rolled into a ball and held firmly in the hand is used for rubbing down. fig. --eyeleting machine. the finished placard is placed between boards to dry. for hanging them, either eyelets with rings as sold are used or two holes, about cm. apart, are punched with the eyelet pliers in the middle of the top edge and eyelets clamped in with the punch pliers. for doing large quantities it is advisable to procure a machine, the small eyeleting machine, which pierces and clamps the eyelet at the same time. mounting plates, plans, drawings, or maps on cloth is done in the following way: paper can only be properly mounted upon a very tightly stretched linen or cotton material; linen being generally used in england. where such work is frequently to be done, so-called drawing boards ought to be at hand. these are wooden boards, best when made to fit into each other so that they can be enlarged to suit the work in hand. figs. to --showing stages of pinning down for stretching. the board must, of course, be perfectly clean on the stretching side, otherwise the back of the mounted article would be soiled. if necessary, the surface may be covered with waste paper before stretching. the material should be left about cm. larger all round for convenience of stretching and working. the stretching is best done with drawing pins, which may be used again and again for the same work. the method of stretching is as follows: woven fabrics stretch less in direction of the warp than the woof, therefore stretching is begun in the former direction. the material is fixed with pins at two corners of one side, stretching it firmly at the same time. the material will be drawn outwards a little on the stretched side (fig. ). to counteract this, a pin is fixed in the middle of the opposite side, after having pulled the material over so that the side _a_ forms a straight line. the whole side _a_ is then pinned down, the pins not being more than cm. apart (fig. ). now draw out the pin on the _b_ side and pin down the whole side, firmly stretching the material all the while, beginning at the middle and working towards the sides (fig. ). the third side is pinned down by first fixing a pin in the centre, then in the centre of the halves to right and left, then proceeding with the smaller divisions in the same fashion. the material is pulled far enough to form a straight line (fig. ). the last side is well stretched and pinned down as just described. in this way a surface not only entirely free from wrinkles and creases is produced, but the texture of the material will run straight. in mounting upon cloth, special care must be taken that the paper is perfectly limp and flexible; but this must not be due to its having been too thickly coated with paste. large wall maps made up of many pieces must be very carefully damped and must be allowed to lie damp a long time. attention must be given to the colours, which are apt to run, and also to the proper fitting of the various pieces, as these have often been stretched in various ways in the lithographic press, or through irregular drying have taken unequal sizes. damping and pasting must be repeated to help to remedy this until the whole fits together perfectly. maps to be folded must be cut into sections of suitable size. in order that they may fold together well, the various pieces are set slightly apart, the horizontal lines slightly less ( - / mm.), the longitudinal somewhat more, where there are many parts up to mm. perfect fitting is here essential, and to insure this it is advisable to mark out the divisions with the folder and rule. this is not necessary for small maps, the eye will then be sufficient guide. thorough rubbing down is absolutely necessary to make every part adhere. when perfectly dry, the material is taken from the stretcher, the edges accurately trimmed, and the map folded upon the cross lines into one long strip, and then this strip is folded over in zigzag fashion to the given size. the appearance of such a map is greatly improved by sharply pressing awhile, for which a zinc plate should be inserted between each fold. such maps are often placed in a small light case of cardboard covered with cloth, or a light cover is made, into which the map is so pasted at the back board that it lies ready for use when opened. paintings, drawings in colour, or wash drawings cause exceptional difficulties, as the moisture of the pasting medium tends to dissolve or make the colours run. in such cases smaller sheets are placed between sheets of damp blotting paper, and it is stuck upon the pasted underside. when the object permits it, it is glued on without previous damping. large tracings present the greatest difficulties as the paper stretches very much and, on account of its delicacy, is not easily manipulated and is liable to crease. such work requires several hands. it is necessary to have clear paste, quite free from knots, which has been thinned to the consistency of thick pea-soup. when at all practicable, the tracing itself is pasted twice, the first pasting will make the paper stretch and the second ensures a proper coating of paste. two persons lift the tracing and turn it over (for very large pieces four persons are required); the sheet is laid down at one corner, the other three being held up, and the whole gently lowered little by little. one person rubs it down slowly, proceeding from the first corner and carefully avoiding creases and bubbles. with such big jobs it is often impossible to avoid tears near where it is held by the fingers of the workers unless timely precautions against this are taken. the simplest way is to paste strips of paper and to stick these on the four corners of the pasted side of the tracing and to take hold of these. these strips are removed as the rubbing down progresses, making sure, however, that there is still enough paste left on these places. tracings are always mounted upon white paper, even though it has afterwards to be cut or mounted on cloth. maps that have to be prepared for hanging on walls are always provided with a roller at top and bottom; these may be stained and varnished or covered with coloured paper. the mounted maps are glued and tacked to the half-round rollers. where all round rollers are used they should be ordered in halves. the edges of the map are glued between and the two halves then nailed together. rings are screwed into the top roller for hanging, and also a few tapes to tie up the rolled map if required. plates and maps, as also placards, are also varnished. varnishing is nowadays always done with spirit varnish, which is convenient for working. all papers cannot be simply varnished and done with--the nature of the paper must be taken into consideration. all sized and chromo papers may be varnished without preparation. many note-papers, especially unsized and copperplate papers, must first be sized, which prevents the resinous parts from penetrating and thus avoids grease spots. the best of all means is glue or gelatine; the former turns the paper somewhat yellow. a thin solution is made, which is laid on warm with a large sponge in long quick strokes. where colour or ink is to be dealt with, no parts should be touched twice or the colours will be effaced. a second coating, however, may be given after the first has dried. the spirit varnish to be used--called map or photo varnish--is still too thick as sold. it is thinned with % spirit of wine to the required consistency until it runs easily from the brush. wide varnish brushes with lead fastenings are used. two coats of thin varnish are better than one coat of thick. conclusion. our work is now finished. the author has endeavoured to deal only with what comes within the sphere of practical bookbinding. at the present time there is a sharp dividing line drawn between what we may call the practical and artistic bookbinding. to whatever height of perfection the latter may still reach, it only begins where the practical bookbinder has completed his work faultless in every detail. a bad binding does not become a work of art when it has had its exterior artistically decorated, it rather calls forth condemnation on its bad forwarding and wasted skill in finishing. yet in spite of the separation of the practical from the artistic in binding, it could hardly be possible--where the two are so closely connected--that the latter should not now and then be touched upon. should the intention of issuing a book on artistic binding in form similar to this be carried out, it would also be necessary to refer occasionally to the practical side of binding. to-day we look in vain in the ordinary bindery for the many little extra jobs which, formerly, were the largest portion of the work in artistic binding. all the little jewel cases, card cases, cigar cases, &c., which made the winter months of the binder--as late as the sixties and seventies--the busiest and most profitable months of the year, have vanished from our workshops, as also have the mounting, &c., of embroideries and women's work. as a result, the number of those able to execute these minor works of the art binder has grown smaller. this branch of work, which at one time seemed inseparable from our trade, has partly become a separate industry in itself and has partly been drawn into other special trades where the work can be done better and cheaper by other means. therefore the lettering of portable articles--spectacle cases, cigar cases, purses, pocket-books--is no longer done; such things--where they are not made to stock--are made by the leather worker, this also having passed away from the binder. this continual loss of work originally ours--not marked by decades now but by still shorter intervals--should make all bookbinders reflect. the question no longer is "how to prevent it?" but the more far-reaching one: "how to face the fact?" the only possible way is for every master bookbinder--having regard to prevailing conditions--to immediately put all his skill and energy into some special branch of the trade. with this good counsel we would like to send forth this little book. at the present time there are few small towns indeed where one day cloth cases have to be turned out, to-morrow half a dozen books to be bound in half-calf extra, next day fancy boxes, and then, perhaps, a few fine velvet-covered cases. should there really be found such conditions still existing, no workman would be found--owing to our modern system of training--able and willing to work under such conditions. those possessing the essentials in an art craftsman--infinite pains, neatness and exactness--are sure to make rapid progress. what is still required--an eye for colour and good taste--are easily acquired, for much of the bookbinder's work is based on experience and example. he who sees much, especially new things, will soon be able to reproduce the things seen, and will, moreover, soon learn to distinguish between good and bad. about taste, so-called, it is not worth while arguing, as taste is mostly dictated by fashion and is often fashionable folly. the thoughtful craftsman, however, should be quite clear as to the principles determining what is to be permitted and what rejected in his own work; for the rest he may follow the lead of fashion--he must, in fact, if his work lies much in that way. our conclusion may, therefore, be summed up in these words:-- let the most painstaking neatness and thoroughness be the masters of each one. no man can do everything; he who can do something well, does most. the end. index. page. account books, alum wash for marbling, aluminium, armenian bole, , back, tooling on, backs, lining up, backs for account books, backing, backing machine, , bands, treatment of, , beating, bindery, arrangement of, blind tooling, blocking, blocking press, , blood serum, preparation of, blood serum for blocking, boards, boards for account books, board cutting, board-cutting machine, boarding, boarding account books, bole, bole for edges, book-mark, bouquet marbling, bronze, bronze, blocking in, brushes for glue, paste, &c., burnishing gilt edges, calf, " preparation for blocking, " treatment in finishing, carrageen moss for marbling, case to protect book, case work, , celluloid, clasps, cloth joints, cloth, treatment in finishing, clothing-up account books, collating, colour blocking, coloured edges, comb marbling, cord for sewing, cords, distribution of, corner punching machine, corners, , counting off, covering, cowhide, crushed morocco, dextrine, doublure, drawings, mounting, dust-proof flaps, edges, colouring, " finishing, " marbling, edges of boards, tooling, end papers, , , " for account books, " pasting down, end-to-end sewing, eyeleting, eyeleting machine, eye marbling, fillet, use of, finishing, finisher's tools, folding, forwarding, french marbling, gathering, , gelatine, gelatine size for blocking, gilder's tip, gilding edges, " powder, " powder for blocking, glair, glair for blocking, " finishing, " gilt edges, glue, glue-brush, glue-pot, glueing-up, glueing-up account books, gold, " cushion, " knife, " leaf, laying on, , " substitute for, gouge, use of, grey boards, guards, guards for plates and maps, guard-books, guillotine, gum, gum tragacanth, " for marbling, head and tail, " tooling, " turning in, headband, , headbands for account books, heat applied in blocking, " of tools in finishing, , holländering, hollow backs, imitation raised bands, index cutting, &c., inset, insides, tooling, isinglass, jigger, use of, joint, kettle stitch, knocking-up, kremser marbling, laying on gold leaf, leather used in binding, , " paring, " preparation for finishing, " boards, , lettering, " in blocking, levant morocco, linen joints, lining for case work, machine sewing, maps, mounting, " pasting in, " rollers for, marble papers, marbled edges, , metal corners, " fastenings, metric system, vi. middles, millboards, morocco, " treatment for finishing, mounting, numbering machine, overcasting, overcast end papers, oxgall for marbling, paring leather, paste, paste-edge, pasting, " boards, " down, peacock marbling, pig-skin, treatment for finishing, plates, folding, " pasting in, plough, portfolios, presses, pressing, pulling to pieces, quires, books in, re-binding, register in folding, relief blocking, repairing, roll, use of, , rolling, " machine, , rounding, " machine, , russia leather, treatment for finishing, sawing-in, " machine, school books, scraping edges for gilding, , seal skin, treatment for finishing, sewing, , " for account books, " cord, " frame, " machine, " tapes, " thread, sheep skin, treatment for finishing, sides, signatures, silk end papers, size for " blocking, " old leather, " for various materials, spring back, sprinkled edges, squares, " tooling, straw-boards, , tape, sewing, thread, sewing, tools, tracings, mounting, trichinal marbling, trimming, turkish marbling, turning-in, , " on account books, two-sheets-on sewing, tying up, varnish, varnishing maps, &c., vellum, treatment for finishing, velvet, white of egg, _see_ glair. wire sewing and stapling, , wire sewing and stapling machines, , , wooden boards, engraving for illustration. historical and practical notes. by joseph kirkbride. crown vo. pp. plates. illustrations. . price s. d.; abroad s. strictly net. * * * * * glue and glue-testing. by samuel rideal, d.sc. lond. illustrations. pages. demy vo. . price s. d.; india and british colonies, s.; other countries, s. strictly net. * * * * * sealing-waxes, wafers, and other adhesives for the household, office, workshop, and factory. by h. c. standage. crown vo. pages. . price s.; india and british colonies, s. d.; other countries, s. strictly net. * * * * * through all booksellers, or post free of scott, greenwood & co., ludgate hill, london, e.c.