14184	----	University of Florida Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 14184-h.htm or 14184-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/4/1/8/14184/14184-h/14184-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/4/1/8/14184/14184-h.zip) Images of the original pages are available through the Florida Board of Education, Division of Colleges and Universities, PALMM Project, 2001. (Preservation and Access for American and British Children's Literature, 1850-1869.) See http://purl.fcla.edu/fcla/dl/UF00001761.jpg or http://purl.fcla.edu/fcla/dl/UF00001761.pdf THE LADDER TO LEARNING by MISS LOVECHILD Marks' Edition Albany Published by R. H. Pease 516 Broadway 1852 [Illustration: The Ladder to Learning, by Miss Lovechild.] [Illustration: A] a _A_ stands for Ape, for Arthur, and Air. [Illustration: B] b _B_ stands for Bullock, for Bird, and for Bear. [Illustration: C] c _C_ stands for Cat, for Charles, and for cry. [Illustration: D] d _D_ stands for Dog, for Daniel, and Dry. [Illustration: E] e _E_ stands for Eagle, for Edward, and Eel. [Illustration: F] f _F_ stands for Fish, for Francis, and Feel. [Illustration: G] g _G_ stands for Goat, for Great, and for Good. [Illustration: H] h _H_ stands for Hog, for Harry, and Hood. [Illustration: J] j _J_ stands for Judge, for Jack, and for Jill. [Illustration: K] k _K_ stands for King, for Kate, and for Kill. [Illustration: L] l _L_ stands for Lion, for Lawyer, and Land. [Illustration: M] m _M_ stands for Magpie, for Martha, and Mend. [Illustration: N] n _N_ stands for Nag, for Nanny, and Notes. [Illustration: O] o _O_ stands for Owl, for Orchard, and Oats. [Illustration: P] p _P_ stands for Peacock, for Prince, and for Pay. [Illustration: Q] q _Q_ stands for Queen, for Quick, and for Quay. [Illustration: R] r _R_ stands for Robbin, for Reason, and Rhyme. [Illustration: S] s _S_ stands for Squirrel, for Sweet, and Sublime. [Illustration: T] t _T_ stands for Top, for Tea, and for Towel. [Illustration: V] v _V_ stands for Vine, for Virtue, and Vowel. [Illustration: W] w _W_ stands for Whale, for Waggon, and Wing. [Illustration: X] x _X_ stands for Xerxes, the great Persian King. [Illustration: Y] y _Y_ stands for Yew Tree, for Youth, and for Yellow. [Illustration: Z] z _Z_ stands for Zany, a foolish Young Fellow. * * * * * R.H. PEASE, ENGRAVER ON WOOD, AND PUBLISHER OF GAMES AND TOY BOOKS * * * * * GAMES. HISTORICAL AMUSEMENT, a Game on the Kings and distiguished individuals of England; the most instructive and entertaining game published. MODERN GAME OF DOMINOS, an amusing and instructive game. CHINESE CHECKERS. CHRISTMAS CIRCLES. A new game of the Distinguished Men of the United States nearly ready; and several other new games will be published soon. ALPHABETS, in a variety of styles, put on strong Cards, and Wood Blocks, to serve as Playthings and means of Instruction. FOR SALE, WHOLESALE AND RETAIL. The greatest possible variety of Fancy Goods, Perfumery, Fancy Stationery, Games, Toys &c, &c. 
16081	----	thanks to K.D. Thornton for cleaning up the illustrations. THE ANTI-SLAVERY ALPHABET. * * * * * "In the morning sow thy seed." * * * * * PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED FOR THE ANTI-SLAVERY FAIR. 1847. Merrihew & Thompson, Printers, 7 Carter's alley. TO OUR LITTLE READERS. Listen, little children, all, Listen to our earnest call: You are very young, 'tis true, But there's much that you can do. Even you can plead with men That they buy not slaves again, And that those they have may be Quickly set at liberty. They may hearken what _you_ say, Though from _us_ they turn away. Sometimes, when from school you walk, You can with your playmates talk, Tell them of the slave child's fate, Motherless and desolate. And you can refuse to take Candy, sweetmeat, pie or cake, Saying "no"--unless 'tis free-- "The slave shall not work for me." Thus, dear little children, each May some useful lesson teach; Thus each one may help to free This fair land from slavery. A A is an Abolitionist-- A man who wants to free The wretched slave--and give to all An equal liberty. B B is a Brother with a skin Of somewhat darker hue, But in our Heavenly Father's sight, He is as dear as you. C C is the Cotton-field, to which This injured brother's driven, When, as the white-man's _slave_, he toils, From early morn till even. D D is the Driver, cold and stern, Who follows, whip in hand, To punish those who dare to rest, Or disobey command. E E is the Eagle, soaring high; An emblem of the free; But while we chain our brother man, _Our_ type he cannot be. F F is the heart-sick Fugitive, The slave who runs away, And travels through the dreary night, But hides himself by day. G G is the Gong, whose rolling sound, Before the morning light, Calls up the little sleeping slave, To labor until night. H H is the Hound his master trained, And called to scent the track Of the unhappy Fugitive, And bring him trembling back. I I is the Infant, from the arms Of its fond mother torn, And, at a public auction, sold With horses, cows, and corn. J J is the Jail, upon whose floor That wretched mother lay, Until her cruel master came, And carried her away. K K is the Kidnapper, who stole That little child and mother-- Shrieking, it clung around her, but He tore them from each other. L L is the Lash, that brutally He swung around its head, Threatening that "if it cried again, He'd whip it till 'twas dead." M M is the Merchant of the north, Who buys what slaves produce-- So they are stolen, whipped and worked, For his, and for our use. N N is the Negro, rambling free In his far distant home, Delighting 'neath the palm trees' shade And cocoa-nut to roam. O O is the Orange tree, that bloomed Beside his cabin door, When white men stole him from his home To see it never more. P P is the Parent, sorrowing, And weeping all alone-- The child he loved to lean upon, His only son, is gone! Q Q is the Quarter, where the slave On coarsest food is fed, And where, with toil and sorrow worn, He seeks his wretched bed. R R is the "Rice-swamp, dank and lone," Where, weary, day by day, He labors till the fever wastes His strength and life away. S S is the Sugar, that the slave Is toiling hard to make, To put into your pie and tea, Your candy, and your cake. T T is the rank Tobacco plant, Raised by slave labor too: A poisonous and nasty thing, For gentlemen to chew. U U is for Upper Canada, Where the poor slave has found Rest after all his wanderings, For it is British ground! V V is the Vessel, in whose dark, Noisome, and stifling hold, Hundreds of Africans are packed, Brought o'er the seas, and sold. W W is the Whipping post, To which the slave is bound, While on his naked back, the lash Makes many a bleeding wound. X X is for Xerxes, famed of yore; A warrior stern was he _He_ fought with swords; let truth and love _Our_ only weapons be. Y Y is for Youth--the time for all Bravely to war with sin; And think not it can ever be Too early to begin. Z Z is a Zealous man, sincere, Faithful, and just, and true; An earnest pleader for the slave-- Will you not be so too? 
22427	----	ONE THOUSAND AND ONE Initial Letters Designed and Illuminated by OWEN JONES DAY & SON LITHOGRAPHERS TO THE QUEEN LONDON, 1864. [Illustration: A a] [Illustration: B b] [Illustration: C c] [Illustration: D d] [Illustration: E e] [Illustration: F f] [Illustration: G g] [Illustration: H h] [Illustration: I i] [Illustration: J j] [Illustration: K k] [Illustration: L l] [Illustration: M m] [Illustration: N n] [Illustration: O o] [Illustration: P p] [Illustration: Q q] [Illustration: R r] [Illustration: S s] [Illustration: T t] [Illustration: U u] [Illustration: V v] [Illustration: W w] [Illustration: X x] [Illustration: Y y] [Illustration: Z z] [Illustration: Numbers] 
23450	----	THE BOOK OF ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, Ancient and Mediæval, FROM THE EIGHTH CENTURY. WITH NUMERALS, INCLUDING Gothic; Church Text, Large and Small; German Arabesque; Initials for Illumination, MONOGRAMS, CROSSES, &c., FOR THE USE OF ARCHITECTURAL AND ENGINEERING DRAUGHTSMEN, MASONS, DECORATIVE PAINTERS, LITHOGRAPHERS, ENGRAVERS, CARVERS, &c. COLLECTED AND ENGRAVED BY F. DELAMOTTE. SIXTEENTH EDITION [Illustration: Capio Lumen] LONDON: CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON, 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT. 1914. PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. As there are no works of Ancient Alphabets of any excellence published in a cheap form, I have been induced, after many years' study and research in my profession as a Draughtsman and Engraver, to offer this collection to the favourable notice of the public, trusting that its very moderate price and general usefulness will be a sufficient apology for the undertaking. The demand for a Fourth Edition within so short a period of the publication of the Third, has convinced me in the most agreeable manner that it has been a work required by the public. To render it still more worthy of their attention, I have here introduced some additions, likely to enhance the interest and increase the value of the pages, as an indication of the esteem in which I have held the encouragement, and the respect I have paid to the suggestions of the purchasers of this book, and the critics by whom it has been so liberally reviewed. INDEX. PAGE 8TH CENTURY. VATICAN 1 8TH CENTURY. BRITISH MUSEUM 2 8TH AND 9TH CENTURIES. ANGLO-SAXON 3 9TH CENTURY. FROM AN ANGLO-SAXON MS. BATTEL ABBEY 4 FROM MS. LIBRARY OF MINERVA, ROME 5 10TH CENTURY. BRITISH MUSEUM 6 11TH CENTURY AND NUMERALS 7 12TH CENTURY. FROM THE MAZARIN BIBLE 8 12TH CENTURY. TWO SMALL. BRITISH MUSEUM 9 12TH CENTURY. BRITISH MUSEUM 10 12TH CENTURY. BODLEIAN LIBRARY 11 13TH CENTURY. HENRY III. WESTMINSTER ABBEY 12 13TH CENTURY. FROM LATIN MS 13 13TH CENTURY. MS 14 14TH CENTURY. DATE ABOUT 1340 15 14TH CENTURY. BRITISH MUSEUM 16 14TH CENTURY. ILLUMINATED MS 17 14TH CENTURY. RICHARD II. 1400. WESTMINSTER ABBEY 18 14TH CENTURY. RICHARD II. 1400. SMALL. WESTMINSTER ABBEY 19 14TH CENTURY. BRITISH MUSEUM 20 14TH CENTURY. FROM MS. MUNICH 21 14TH AND 15TH CENTURIES. TWO SMALL. BRITISH MUSEUM 22 1475. BRITISH MUSEUM 23 1480. BRITISH MUSEUM 24 1490. BRITISH MUSEUM 25 HENRY VII. WESTMINSTER ABBEY 26 15TH AND 16TH CENTURIES. GERMAN 27 15TH AND 16TH CENTURIES. GERMAN. SMALL 28 15TH AND 16TH CENTURIES. ORNAMENTAL RIBBON 29 16TH CENTURY. HENRY VIII. MS 30 16TH CENTURY. FROM ITALIAN MS 31 16TH CENTURY. FROM ALBERT DURER'S PRAYER BOOK. LARGE 32 16TH CENTURY. ALBERT DURER'S PRAYER BOOK 33 16TH CENTURY. VATICAN 34 16TH CENTURY. GOTHIC. MS 35 16TH CENTURY. GOTHIC 36 16TH CENTURY. GOTHIC. MS 37 16TH CENTURY. LARGE, SMALL, AND NUMERALS. FRENCH. MS 38 17TH CENTURY. MS 39 17TH CENTURY. CHURCH TEXT. MS 40 GERMAN ARABESQUE 41 GERMAN ARABESQUE. SMALL 42 METAL ORNAMENTAL 43 INITIALS 44 INITIALS 45 15TH CENTURY 46 INITIALS 47 NUMERALS 48 NUMERALS 49 16TH CENTURY 50 16TH CENTURY 51 16TH CENTURY. FROM WOOD ENGRAVINGS 52 MONOGRAMS, CROSSES, &C. 53 [Illustration: 8th Century. Vatican.] [Illustration: 8th Century. British Museum.] [Illustration: 8th and 9th Centuries. Anglo-Saxon.] [Illustration: 9th Century. From an Anglo-Saxon MS. Battel Abbey.] [Illustration: From MS. Library of Minerva, Rome.] [Illustration: 10th Century. British Museum.] [Illustration: 11th Century, and Numerals.] [Illustration: 12th Century. From the Mazarin Bible.] [Illustration: 12th Century. British Museum.] [Illustration: 12th Century. British Museum.] [Illustration: 12th Century. Bodleian Library.] [Illustration: 13th Century. Henry the Third. Westminster Abbey.] [Illustration: 13th Century. From Latin MS.] [Illustration: 13th Century. MS.] [Illustration: 14th Century. Date about 1340.] [Illustration: 14th Century. British Museum.] [Illustration: 14th Century. Illuminated MS.] [Illustration: 14th Century. Richard the Second. 1400. Westminster Abbey.] [Illustration: 14th Century. Richard the Second. 1400. Small. Westminster Abbey.] [Illustration: 14th Century. British Museum.] [Illustration: 14th Century. From MS. Munich.] [Illustration: 14th and 15th Centuries. Two Small. British Museum.] [Illustration: 1475. British Museum.] [Illustration: 1480. British Museum.] [Illustration: 1490. British Museum.] [Illustration: Henry the Seventh. Westminster Abbey.] [Illustration: 15th and 16th Centuries. German.] [Illustration: 15th and 16th Centuries. German. Small.] [Illustration: 15th and 16th Centuries. Ornamental Riband.] [Illustration: 16th Century. Henry the Eighth. MS.] [Illustration: 16th Century. From Italian MS.] [Illustration: 16th Century. Albert Durer's Prayer Book. Large.] [Illustration: 16th Century. Albert Durer's Prayer Book.] [Illustration: 16th Century. Vatican.] [Illustration: 16th Century. Gothic. MS.] [Illustration: 16th Century. Gothic.] [Illustration: 16th Century. Gothic. MS.] [Illustration: 16th Century. Large, Small, and Numerals. French. MS.] [Illustration: 17th Century. MS.] [Illustration: 17th Century. Church Text. MS.] [Illustration: German Arabesque.] [Illustration: German Arabesque. Small.] [Illustration: Metal Ornamental.] [Illustration: Initials.] [Illustration: Initials.] [Illustration: 15th Century.] [Illustration: Initials.] [Illustration: Numerals.] [Illustration: Numerals.] [Illustration: 16th Century.] [Illustration: 16th Century.] [Illustration: 16th Century. From Wood Engravings.] [Illustration: Monograms, Crosses, &c.] 
24117	----	None 
20590	----	LETTERS & LETTERING A TREATISE WITH 200 EXAMPLES FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN [Illustration] BOSTON BATES & GUILD COMPANY MCMXXI * * * * * _Copyright, 1921, by_ BATES & GUILD COMPANY Printed by PERRY & ELLIOTT CO LYNN BOSTON Printed in the U. S. A. * * * * * NOTE This book is intended for those who have felt the need of a varied collection of alphabets of standard forms, arranged for convenient use. The alphabets illustrated, while primarily intended to exhibit the letter shapes, have in most cases been so arranged as to show also how the letters compose into words, except in those instances where they are intended to be used only as initials. The application of classic and medieval letters to modern usages has been, as far as possible, suggested by showing modern designs in which similar forms are employed. In view of the practical aim of this treatise it has been deemed advisable to include a larger number of illustrative examples rather than to devote space to the historical evolution of the letter forms. To the artists, American and European, who have so kindly furnished him with drawings of their characteristic letters--and without whose cordial assistance this book would hardly have been possible--to the master-printers who have allowed him to show types specially designed for them, and to the publishers who have given him permission to borrow from their books and magazines, the author wishes to express his sincere obligations. F. C. B. * * * * * LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1 AND 2 ALPHABET AFTER SEBASTIAN SERLIO (1473-1554). Reconstructed by Albert R. Ross. 3 WIDTH PROPORTIONS OF MODERN ROMAN CAPITALS. F. C. B. 4 DRAWING FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. For cutting in granite. Letter forms based upon those shown in figures 1 and 2. F. C. B. 5 PHOTOGRAPH OF INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. Cut in granite from drawing shown in figure 4 6 INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. From the Arch of Constantine, Rome. 315 A.D. From a photograph 7 MODEL FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. Used for inscriptions cut in granite on Boston Public Library. McKim, Mead & White, Architects. Photographed from a cast 8 ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. From fragments in marble. National Museum, Naples. Rubbing 9 ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph 10 ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph 11 DETAIL FROM A ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Showing composition. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 12 "RUSTIC" ROMAN CAPITALS. Of pen forms, but cut in stone. Redrawn from a rubbing. From fragment in the National Museum, Naples. F. C. B. 13 ROMAN CAPITALS FROM FRAGMENTS OF INSCRIPTIONS. Showing various characteristic letter forms. Redrawn from rubbings. F. C. B. 14 MODERN ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. Executed in sandstone. From the Harvard Architectural Building, Cambridge, Mass. McKim, Mead & White, Architects 15 LETTERS SHOWN IN ALPHABET 1 AND 2, IN COMPOSITION. By Albert R. Ross 16 and 17 CLASSIC ROMAN CAPITALS. Cut in marble. Redrawn from rubbings made in the Forum, Rome. F. C. B.-21 18 and 19 CLASSIC ROMAN CAPITALS. Late period. Cut in marble. Redrawn from rubbings. F. C. B. 20 PORTION OF ROMAN INSCRIPTION. With supplied letters. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 21 CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION. Incised in marble. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 22 CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION. In stone. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 23 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION. Square-sunk in marble. From a photograph of a mortuary slab 24 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE MEDAL. By Vittore Pisano. 15th Century. From a photograph 25 MODERN FRENCH MEDAL. By Oscar Roty. From a photograph of the original in the Luxembourg, Paris 26 CAPITALS ADAPTED FROM RENAISSANCE MEDALS. F. C. B. 27 SPANISH RENAISSANCE ALPHABET. By Juan de Yciar. From "Arte por la qual se ese[=n]a a escrevir perfectamente." (Saragossa, 1550) 28 RENAISSANCE INLAID MEDALLION. From a floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 29 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. From an inlaid floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. (Compare figure 28.) Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 30 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL. From Raphael's tomb, Pantheon, Rome. From a photograph 31 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INCISED INSCRIPTION. From the Marsuppini Tomb, Santa Croce, Florence, 1455. Rubbing 32 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INCISED INSCRIPTION. From a floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. Early 15th Century. Rubbing 33 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. Redrawn from inscription on the Marsuppini Tomb, Santa Croce, Florence, 1455. (Compare figure 31.) F. C. B. 34 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. Redrawn from rubbings of inscriptions in Santa Croce, Florence. F. C. B. 35 and 36 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By G. A. Tagliente. From 'La vera arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524) 37 and 38 GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Albrecht Dürer. Adapted from 'Underweyssung der messung, mit dem zirckel, [u]n richtscheyt, in Linien, etc.' (Nuremberg, 1525) 39 and 40 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Sebastian Serlio. (1473-1554.) Compare figures 1 and 2 41 GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Urbain Wÿss. From 'Libellus valde doctus ... scribendarum literarum genera complectens.' (Zurich, 1549) 42 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL. Above the door of the Badia, Florence. Redrawn by Claude Fayette Bragdon. From 'Minor Italian Palaces.' (Cutler Manufacturing Company, Rochester, N.Y., 1898) 43 MODERN TITLE IN ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. By Bertram G. Goodhue. (Compare figure 46.) From 'The Quest of Merlin.' (Small, Maynard & Co., Boston, 1891) 44 MODERN TITLE WITH CHARACTERISTICS OF 16TH CENTURY ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Walter Crane. (Compare figure 49.) From 'The Story of Don Quixote.' (John Lane, New York, 1900) 45 TITLE IN EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. By W. Eden Nesfield. From 'Specimens of Medieval Architecture.' (Day & Sons, London, 1862) 46 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. 6TH CENTURY. From 'The Rule of St. Benedict.' Bodleian Library, Oxford 47 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. 7TH CENTURY. From 'The Gospels of St. Cuthbert' 48 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. EARLY 10TH CENTURY. From an Anglo-Saxon Bible 49 EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. 16th Century. From tomb of Henry VII, Westminster Abbey, London 50 and 51 SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B. 52 SPANISH ROMAN PEN DRAWN LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 53 SPANISH ROMAN PEN DRAWN LETTERS. Showing use of above. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 54 SPANISH ITALIC PEN DRAWN LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 55 SPANISH ITALIC PEN DRAWN LETTERS. Showing use of above. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 56 ITALIAN SMALL LETTERS. By J. F. Cresci. From 'Perfetto Scrittore.' (Rome, 1560) 57 ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY LETTERS. Incised in slate. From tombstones 58 MODERN SMALL LETTERS. After C. Hrachowina's 'Initialen Alphabete und Randleisten verschiedener Kunstepochen.' (Vienna, 1883) 59 MODERN SMALL LETTERS. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. Based on Venetian types cut by Nicholas Jenson, 1471-81 60 INSCRIPTION FROM ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY TOMBSTONE. From slate tombstone at Chippenham, England. 1691. F. C. B. 61 ROMAN AND ITALIC TYPE. Designed by William Caslon. From his Specimen Book. (London, 1734) 62 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "MONTAIGNE." Designed by Bruce Rogers for The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass. 63 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "RENNER." Designed by Theo. L. De Vinne for The De Vinne Press, New York 64 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "MERRYMOUNT." Designed by Bertram G. Goodhue for The Merrymount Press, Boston, Mass. 65 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "CHELTENHAM OLD STYLE." Designed by Bertram G. Goodhue for The Cheltenham Press, New York. (Owned by American Type Founders Company and Linotype Company) 66 MODERN GREEK TYPE. Designed by Selwyn Image for The Macmillan Company, London 67 MODERN ROMAN TYPE. Designed by C. R. Ashbee for a Prayerbook for the King of England 68 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by J. M. Olbrich 69 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Gustave Lemmen. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna) 70 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Alois Ludwig 71 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Otto Eckmann 72 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Otto Hupp. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna) 73 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Joseph Plécnik. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna) 74 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Franz Stuck 75 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. Arranged from originals. F. C. B. 76 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Bernhard Pankok 77 MODERN FRENCH POSTER. 'La Libre Esthétique.' By Theo. van Rysselberghe 78 MODERN FRENCH BOOK-COVER. By M. P. Verneuil. From 'L'Animal dans la décoration.' (E. Lévy, Paris) 79 MODERN FRENCH LETTERS. After lettering by M. P. Verneuil 80 MODERN FRENCH POSTER. 'La Revue Blanche.' By P. Bonnard 81 MODERN FRENCH MAGAZINE COVER DESIGN. By George Auriol. From 'L'Image.' (Floury, Paris, 1897) 82 MODERN FRENCH CAPITALS. By Alphons M. Mucha. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerischer Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna) 83 MODERN FRENCH LETTERED PAGE IN "CURSIVE." By George Auriol. From 'Le Premier Livre des Cachets, etc.' (Librairie Centrale des Beaux-Arts, Paris, 1901) 84 MODERN FRENCH LETTERS, "CURSIVE." By George Auriol 85 MODERN FRENCH COVER DESIGN. By Eugène Grasset. From 'Art et Décoration.' (Paris) 86 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerischer Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna) 87 MODERN ENGLISH THEATRICAL POSTER. By Walter Crane 88 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Walter Crane. From 'Alphabets Old and New.' (B. T. Batsford, London, 1899) 89 MODERN ENGLISH LETTERS. By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunsterischer Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna) 90 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Joseph W. Simpson. From 'The Book of Book-plates.' (Williams & Norgate, Edinburgh) 91 MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. By Joseph W. Simpson 92 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By William Nicholson. From 'London Types.' (R. H. Russell, New York, 1898) 93 MODERN ENGLISH MAGAZINE COVER. By Lewis F. Day. From 'The Art Journal.' (H. Virtue & Co., London) 94 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Gordon Craig. From 'The Page' (The Sign of the Rose, Hackbridge, Surrey) 95 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Lewis F. Day. From 'Alphabets Old and New.' (B. T. Batsford, London, 1899) 96 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE PAGE. By Robert Anning Bell. From 'Poems by John Keats.' (George Bell & Sons, London, 1897) 97 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By Edmund H. New. From 'The Natural History of Selborne.' (John Lane, London, 1900) 98 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By Selwyn Image. From 'Representative Painters of the 19th Century.' (Sampson, Low, Marston & Co., London, 1899) 99 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. Anonymous. From an advertisement 100 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Charles Ricketts. From 'Nimphidia and the Muses Elizium.' (The Vale Press, London) 101 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Edwin A. Abbey. From 'Selections from the Poetry of Robert Herrick.' (Harper & Brothers, New York, 1899) 102 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York) 103 MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINE COVER. By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York) 104 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Edward Penfield 105 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. By Edward Penfield 106 MODERN AMERICAN COVER DESIGN. By H. Van Buren Magonigle 107 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By H. Van Buren Magonigle 108 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Bertram G. Goodhue. From 'Masters in Art.' (Boston, 1900) 109 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Will Bradley. From 'The Book List of Dodd, Mead & Co.' (New York, 1899) 110 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS. By Will Bradley. From 'Bradley, His Book.' (The Wayside Press, Springfield, Mass., 1896) 111 MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINE COVER. By Will Bradley. From 'The International Studio.' (New York) 112 MODERN AMERICAN TICKET. By A. J. Iorio 113 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Will Bradley 114 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Maxfield Parrish 115 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Maxfield Parrish. From 'Knickerbocker's History of New York.' (R. H. Russell, New York, 1900) 116 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Addison B. Le Boutillier 117 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Addison B. Le Boutillier 118 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. By Addison B. Le Boutillier 119 MODERN AMERICAN POSTER. By Addison B. Le Boutillier 120 MODERN AMERICAN BOOK-PLATE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon 121 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From 'Literature.' (New York) 122 MODERN AMERICAN LETTER-HEADING. By Claude Fayette Bragdon 123 MODERN AMERICAN ADVERTISEMENT. By H. L. Bridwell. (Strowbridge Lithographic Co., Cincinnati) 124 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By H. L. Bridwell 125 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Frank Hazenplug 126 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS, "HEAVY FACE." By Frank Hazenplug 127 MODERN AMERICAN BOOK-COVER. By Frank Hazenplug. From ''Ickery Ann and other Girls and Boys.' (Herbert S. Stone & Co., Chicago, 1899) 128 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Edward Edwards. From 'Harper's Pictorial History of the War with Spain.' (Harper & Brothers, New York, 1899) 129 MODERN AMERICAN CATALOGUE COVER. By Frank Hazenplug. From the Catalogue of the Chicago Arts and Crafts Society. (Chicago) 130 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Guernsey Moore. From 'The Saturday Evening Post.' (Philadelphia) 131 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Harry Everett Townsend. From 'The Blue Sky.' (Langworthy & Stevens, Chicago, 1901) 132 MODERN AMERICAN HEADING. By Howard Pyle. From 'Harper's Magazine.' (New York) 133 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. Compiled from various sources. F. C. B. 134 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Orson Lowell 135 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B. 136 MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York) 137 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York) 138 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. For rapid use. F. C. B. 139 MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC. For use in lettering architects' plans, etc. By Claude Fayette Bragdon 140 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS, "CURSIVE." For rapid use. By Maxfield Parrish 141 ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. After Lucantonii Giunta. Redrawn from 'Graduale Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae.' (Venice, 1500) 142 ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 16th Century. Redrawn from Italian originals 143 SPANISH ROUND GOTHIC LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 144 GERMAN BLACKLETTER CONSTRUCTION. By Albrecht Dürer. From 'Underweyssung der messung, mit dem zirckel, [=u]n richtscheyt, in Linien, etc.' (Nuremberg, 1525) 145 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. Redrawn from manuscripts 146 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. With rounded angles. Redrawn from manuscripts 147 ITALIAN BLACKLETTER TITLE-PAGE. By Jacopus Philippus Foresti (Bergomensis). From 'De Claris Mulieribus, etc.' (Ferrara, 1497) 148 GERMAN BLACKLETTER PAGE. By Albrecht Dürer. From the Prayerbook designed by him for the Emperor Maximilian. (Nuremberg, 1515) 149 GERMAN MEMORIAL BRASS WITH BLACKLETTER INSCRIPTION. Ascribed to Albrecht Dürer. Cathedral of Meissen, 1510. From 'Fac-similes of Monumental Brasses on the Continent of Europe.' (W. F. Creeney, Norwich, 1884) 150 MODERN AMERICAN CALENDAR COVER IN BLACKLETTER. By Bertram G. Goodhue. From 'Every Day's Date Calendar.' (Fleming, Schiller & Carnrick, New York, 1897) 151 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. By Walter Puttner. From 'Jugend.' (Munich) 152 MODERN GERMAN TITLE IN BLACKLETTER. By Otto Hupp. From 'Münchener Kalendar.' (Munich, 1900) 153 MODERN AMERICAN PAGE IN ENGLISH BLACKLETTER. By Edwin A. Abbey. From 'Scribner's Magazine.' (New York) 154 UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. Redrawn from 12th Century examples. F. C. B. 155 UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. Redrawn from 13th Century examples. F. C. B. 156 UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. Redrawn from 14th Century examples. F. C. B. 157 UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14th Century. After J. Weale. Redrawn from 'Portfolio of Ancient Capital Letters.' (London, 1838-9) 158 ITALIAN UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS, IN THE "PAPAL" HAND. From a Florentine manuscript of 1315. British Museum, London. F. C. B. 159 SPANISH UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Juan de Yciar. Adapted from 'Arte por la qual se ese[=n]a escrevir perfectamente.' (Saragossa, 1550) 160 VENETIAN WALL PANEL, of Marble, Inscribed with Uncial Gothic Letters. 15th Century. From the Church of S. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. Rubbing 161 VENETIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 15th Century. Redrawn from the rubbing shown in figure 160. F. C. B. 162 GERMAN UNCIAL CAPITALS. 1341. Redrawn from a memorial brass in the Cathedral of Lübeck 163 FRENCH AND SPANISH GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14th Century. After W. S. Weatherley 164 and 165 ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. After G. A. Tagliente, in 'La vera arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524) 166 ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. By Giovanni Battista Palatino. From 'Libro nel qual s'insegna a scrivere.' (Rome, 1548) 167, 168 and 169 GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. By P. Frank. Nuremberg, 1601. From Petzendorfer's 'Schriften-Atlas.' (Stuttgart, 1889) 170 ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16th Century. Redrawn from old examples 171 GOTHIC CAPITALS OF ENGLISH FORM. 16th Century. Redrawn from old examples 172 ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th Century. Redrawn from various examples 173 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th Century. Redrawn from various manuscripts 174 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. From manuscripts 175 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. From manuscripts 176 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS, HEAVY FACED 177 ENGLISH GOTHIC "TEXT," INITIALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From manuscripts 178 ENGLISH GOTHIC UNCIALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From Queen Eleanor's tomb. F. C. B. 179 ENGLISH GOTHIC CAPITALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From tomb of Richard II, Westminster Abbey, London. F. C. B. 180 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. From a brass. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 181 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. With Albrecht Dürer's initials. 16th Century. F. C. B. 182 ITALIAN BLACKLETTERS. By G. A. Tagliente. From 'La vera arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524) 183 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century 184 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century 185 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century 186 ENGLISH GOTHIC BLACKLETTERS. Late 15th Century. Redrawn from a brass. F. C. B. 187 ITALIAN INLAID BLACKLETTERS. From a marble slab in Santa Croce, Florence. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 188 and 189 MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS WITH GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Bertram G. Goodhue 190 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Julius Diez 191 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS, FLOURISHED. F. C. B. 192 GERMAN ITALIC. By Gottlieb Münch. From 'Ordnung der Schrift.' (Munich, 1744) 193 SPANISH SCRIPT. By Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid, 1802) 194 SPANISH SCRIPTS. By Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid, 1802) 195 SPANISH SCRIPT. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 196 SPANISH CURSIVE. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 197 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From an advertisement 198 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By George Wharton Edwards. From 'Collier's Weekly.' (New York) 199 FRENCH SCRIPT CAPITALS. 18th Century. F. C. B. 200 GERMAN SCRIPT. 18th Century forms. Adapted from C. Hrachowina's 'Initialen, Alphabete und Randleisten verschiedener Kunstepochen.' (Vienna, 1883) 201 SPANISH SCRIPT CAPITALS. Early 18th Century. Adapted from a Spanish Writing-book. F. C. B. 202 SPANISH SCRIPT ALPHABETS. Late 17th Century. Adapted from Spanish Writing-books. F. C. B. 203 ENGLISH INCISED SCRIPT. Redrawn from inscriptions in slate and stone in Westminster Abbey, London. F. C. B. 204 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT BOOK TITLE. By Bruce Rogers. From cover design of 'The House of the Seven Gables.' (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1899) 205 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. By Bruce Rogers 206 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT CAPITALS. After lettering by Frank Hazenplug 207 MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC CAPITALS. F. C. B. 208 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York) 209 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York) 210 DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL, from upper left corner 211 DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL, from perpendicular center line END PAPERS. From an embroidered Altar-cloth. 17th Century. Church of St. Mary, Soest, Westphalia, Germany. * * * * * CONTENTS I. ROMAN CAPITALS 1 II. MODERN ROMAN LETTERS 52 III. GOTHIC LETTERS 127 IV. ITALIC AND SCRIPT 182 V. TO THE BEGINNER 199 [1] * * * * * CHAPTER I ROMAN CAPITALS In speaking of the "Roman" letter throughout this chapter its capital form--the form in monumental use among the Romans--will always be implied. The small or "minuscule" letters, which present nomenclature includes under the general title of "Roman" letters, and which will be considered in the following chapter, were of later formation than the capitals; and indeed only attained their definitive and modern form after the invention of printing from movable types. The first point to be observed in regard to the general form of the Roman capital is its characteristic squareness. Although the letter as used to-day varies somewhat in proportions from its classic prototype, its skeleton is still based on the square. Next to this typical squareness of outline, the observer should note that the Roman letter is composed of thick and thin lines. At first sight it may seem that no systematic rules determine which of these lines should be thick and which thin; but closer investigation will discover that the alternate widths of line were evolved quite methodically, and that they exactly fulfil the functions of making the letters both more legible and more decorative. Arbitrary rearrangements of these thick and thin lines, differing from the arrangement of them in the classic examples, have, [2] indeed, been often attempted; but such rearrangements have never resulted in improvement, and, except in eccentric lettering, have fallen into complete disuse. The original thickening and thinning of the lines of the classic Roman capitals was partly due to the imitation in stone inscriptions of the letter forms as they were written on parchment with the pen. The early Latin scribes held their stiff-nibbed reed pens almost directly upright and at right angles to the writing surface, so that a down stroke from left to right and slanted at an angle of about forty-five degrees would bring the nib across the surface broadwise, resulting in the widest line possible to the pen. On the other hand, a stroke drawn at right angles to this, the pen being still held upright, would be made with the thin edge of the nib, and would result in the narrowest possible line. From this method of handling the pen the variations of line width in the standard Roman forms arose; and we may therefore deduce three logical rules, based upon pen use, which will determine the proper distribution of the thick and thin lines: I, Never accent horizontal lines. II, Always accent the sloping down strokes which run from left to right, including the so-called "swash" lines, or flying tails, of Q and R; but never weight those which, contrariwise, slope up from left to right, with a single exception in the case of the letter Z, in which, if rule I be followed, the sloping line (in this case made with a down stroke) will be the only one possible to accent. III, Always accent the directly perpendicular lines, except in the N, where these lines seem originally to have been made with an up stroke of the pen; and the first line of the M, where the perpendiculars originally sloped in towards the top of the letter (see 2). On the round letters [3] the accents should occur at the sides of the circle, as virtually provided in rule III, or on the upper right and lower left quarters (see 1-2), where in pen-drawn letters the accent of the down sloping stroke would naturally occur, as virtually determined in rule II. The "serif"--a cross-stroke or tick--finishes the free ends of all lines used in making a Roman capital. The value of the serif in stone-cut letters seems obvious. To define the end of a free line a sharp cut was made across it with the chisel, and as the chisel was usually wider than the thin line this cut extended beyond it. Serifs were added to the ends of the thick lines either for the sake of uniformity, or may have been suggested by the chisel-marked guide lines themselves. Indeed in late stone-cut Roman work the scratched guide lines along the top and bottom of each line of the inscription are distinctly marked and merge into the serifs, which extend farther than in earlier examples. The serif was adopted in pen letters probably from the same reasons that caused it to be added to the stone-cut letters, namely, that it definitely finished the free lines and enhanced the general squareness and finish of the letter's aspect. [Illustration: 1. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS] [Illustration: 2. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS] [Illustration: 3. WIDTH PROPORTIONS OF MODERN ROMAN CAPITALS. F.C.B.] An excellent model for constructing the Roman capitals in a standard form will be found in the beautiful adaptation by Mr. A. R. Ross, 1 and 2, from an alphabet of capitals drawn by Sebastian Serlio, an Italian architect, engraver and painter of the sixteenth century, who devised some of the most refined variants of the classic Roman letter. Serlio's original forms, which are shown in 39 and 40, were intended for pen or printed use; but in altering Serlio's scheme of proportions it will be observed that Mr. Ross [6] has partially adapted the letter for use in stone, and has further varied it in details, notably in serif treatment. In most modern stone-cut letters, however, the thin strokes would be made even wider than in this example, as in 14. Mr. Ross's adaptation shows excellently how far the classic letters do or do not fill out the theoretical square. Width proportions, which may be found useful in laying out lettering for lines of a given length, are shown in 3 in a more modern style of the Roman capital. In the classic Roman letter the cross-bar is usually in the exact center of the letter height, but in 3 the center line has been used as the bottom of the cross-bar in B, E, H, P, and R, and as the top of the cross-bar in A; and in letters like K, Y and X the "waist lines," as the meeting points of the sloping lines are sometimes called, have been slightly raised to obtain a more pleasant effect. The Roman alphabet, although the one most in use, is unfortunately the most difficult to compose into words artistically, as the spacing between the letters plays a great share in the result. The effect of even color over a whole panel is obtained by keeping as nearly as possible the same area of white between each letter and its neighbor; but the shape of this area will be determined in every case by the letters which happen to be juxtaposed. Individual letters may, however, be widened or condensed to help fill an awkward "hole" in a line of lettering;--the lower lobe of the B may be extended, the center bar of the E pulled out (in which case the F should be made to correspond), the lower slant stroke of the K may be used as a swash tail, and the R may have its tail extended or drawn closely back against the upright line, and so on. Indeed, each and [8] every letter of the alphabet is susceptible to such similar modifications in shape as may make it best suit the space left for it by its neighbors. Observe, for example, the spacing of the word MERITAE in 34, and notice how the tail of the R is lengthened to hold off the I because the T on the other side is perforce held away by its top. In the page of capitals, 124, by Mr. Bridwell, see also how the different spacing of the word FRENCH in the first and second lines is managed. In the advertisement, 123, also by Mr. Bridwell, note how the letters are spaced close or wide in order to produce a definite effect. The whole problem of spacing is, however, one of such subtle interrelation and composition, that it can only be satisfactorily solved by the artistic sense of the designer. Any rules which might be here formulated would prove more often a drawback than a help. Certain optical illusions of some of the Roman letter forms should be briefly mentioned. These illusions are caused by the failure of certain letters to impinge squarely with determining serifs against the demarking top and bottom guide lines. The round letters C, G, O and Q often seem to be shorter and smaller than the other characters in a word unless the outsides of their curves run both above and below the guide lines. For the same reason S should be sometimes slightly increased in height, though in this case the narrowness of the letter makes less increase necessary; and J, on account of its kern, is governed by the same conditions as S, save when letters with distinct serifs come closely against it at the bottom. Theoretically the right side of D would require similar treatment, but actually this is seldom found necessary. The pointed ends of [9] the letters V and W should, for similar optical reasons, be extended slightly below the bottom guide lines, the amount of this extension being determined by the letters on each side of them. In the A, the Roman letterer at first got over the optical difficulty caused by its pointed top by running this letter also higher than its neighbors; but he later solved the problem by shaping its apex as shown in I, thus apparently getting the letter into line with its companions while still obtaining a sufficient width of top to satisfy the eye. Because of its narrowness, I should generally be allowed more proportionate white space on either side of it than the wider letters. Some idea of the proportionate variations required to counteract the optical illusions of the letters above named may be obtained from the practice of type-founders. In making the designs for a fount of type, it has been customary to first draw each letter at a very large size. Taking an arbitrary height of twelve inches as a standard, the points of A and V were made to extend about three-quarters of an inch above or below the guides, the letter O was run over about half an inch at both top and bottom, and the points of the w were made to project about the same distance. In pen lettering, however, it is possible and preferable to adapt each letter more perfectly to its individual surroundings by judgment of the eye than to rely upon any hard and fast rules. Certain variations between the stone-cut forms of the Roman letters and their forms as drawn or printed should be understood before an intelligent adaptation of stone forms to drawn forms, or the opposite, is possible. When drawn or printed a character is seen in black against a [10] white ground with no illusory alterations of its line widths caused by varying shadows. In stone-cut letters, on the other hand, where the shadows rather than the outlines themselves reveal the forms, different limitations govern the problem. The thin lines of a letter to be V-sunk should generally be made slightly thicker in proportion to the wide lines than is the case with the pen-drawn letter, especially as the section is likely to be less deeply and sharply cut nowadays than in the ancient examples, for the workmanship of to-day seems to be less perfect and the materials used more friable. A slight direct sinkage before beginning to cut the V-sunk section is a useful method of [11] partially atoning for modern shallow cutting, as shadows more directly defining the outlines are thus obtained. The student should, however, be warned at the outset that all reproductions or tracings from rubbings of ancient stone-cut letters are apt to be more or less deceptive, as all the accidental variations of the outlines are exaggerated, and where the stone of the original has been chipped or worn away it appears in the reproduction as though the letter had been actually so cut. [Illustration: 4. DRAWING FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN GRANITE. F.C.B] [Illustration: 5. PHOTOGRAPH FROM INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS SHOWN IN 4] [Illustration: 6. INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME] The photograph of a panel of lettering from the upper part of the Arch of Constantine, Rome, shown in 6, well indicates the effect of shadows in defining the classic Roman letters; and the effect of shadows on an incised letter may be clearly observed by comparing 4 and 5, the former showing a drawing for an inscription in which the Serlio-Ross [14] alphabet was used as a basis for the letter forms, and the latter being a photograph of the same inscription, as cut in granite. It will be noted how much narrower the thin lines appear when defined only by shadow than in the drawing. The model used for the lettering on the frieze of the Boston Public Library, 7, which shows some interesting modern forms intended for cutting in granite, should be studied for the effect of the cast shadows; while 14, a redrawing of inscriptions on the Harvard Architectural Building, Cambridge, Mass., exhibits an excellent type of letter with widened thin lines for v-cutting in sandstone. [Illustration: 7. MODEL FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. McKIM, MEAD & WHITE] [Illustration: 8. ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. FROM A RUBBING] The special requirements of the stone-cut forms for either incised or raised inscriptions are, however, quite apart from the subject of this book, and are too various to be taken up in greater detail here. It is important, nevertheless, that the designer should be reminded always to make allowance for the material in which a letter was originally executed. Otherwise, if exactly copied in other materials, he may find the result annoyingly unsatisfactory. [15] [Illustration: 9. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA] [Illustration: 10. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA] The examples of letters taken from Roman and Renaissance Italian monuments, shown in the pages of this chapter, will illustrate the variety of individual letter forms used by the Classic and Renaissance designers. The shape of the same letter will often be found to vary in the same inscription and even in apparently analogous cases. The designers evidently had in mind more than the directly adjacent words, and sometimes even considered [16] the relation of their lettering to objects outside the panel altogether. This is especially true in the work of the Italian Renaissance, which is almost invariably admirable in both composition and arrangement. [Illustration: 11. DETAIL FROM A ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 12. ROMAN CAPITALS OF PEN FORMS CUT IN STONE. F.C.B.] Figures 8 to 22 show examples, drawn from various sources, which exhibit different treatments of the classic Roman letter forms. The differentiation will be found to lie largely in the widths of the letters themselves, and in the treatment of the serifs, angles, and varying widths of line. Figures 11 to 13 and 16 to 22 are redrawn from rubbings [17] of Roman incised inscriptions. Figures 16 and 17 show beautifully proportioned letters cut in marble with unusual care and refinement, considering the large size of the originals. A later Roman form of less refinement but of greater strength and carrying power, and for that reason better adapted to many modern uses, is shown in 18 and 19. In this case the original letters were cut about seven and [27] one-half inches high. The letters in 20 are curiously modern in character. Part of the panel of Roman lettering shown in 21 exhibits the use of a form very like that shown in 18 and 19. Figure 11 shows a detail composed in a quite representative fashion; while on the other hand figure 12 depicts a Roman letter of quite unusual character, and of a form evidently adapted from pen work, in which the shapes are narrow and crowded, while the lines are thickened as though they were of the classical square outline. The bits of old Roman inscriptions shown in 8 to 10 and in 13 are included to exhibit various different forms and treatments of classic capitals. [Illustration: 13. ROMAN CAPITALS FROM INSCRIPTIONS. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 14. MODERN INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN SANDSTONE. ARCHITECTURAL BUILDING, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.] [Illustration: 15. LETTERS SHOWN IN ALPHABET 1-2, IN COMPOSITION. ALBERT R. ROSS] [Illustration: 16. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 17. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 18. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 19. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 20. PORTION OF ROMAN INSCRIPTION WITH SUPPLIED LETTERS. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 21. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE FROM A RUBBING. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 22. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN STONE FROM A RUBBING. F.C.B.] After the fall of Rome and during the Dark Ages the practice of lettering, at least in so far as the Roman form was concerned, was distinctly retrograde. With the advent of the Renaissance, however, the purest classic forms were revived; and indeed the Italian Renaissance seems to have been the golden age of lettering. With the old Roman fragments of the best period constantly before their eyes the Renaissance artists of Italy seem to have grasped the true spirit of classicism; and their work somehow acquired a refinement and delicacy lacking in even the best of the Roman examples. As much of the Italian Renaissance lettering was intended for use on tombs or monuments where it might be seen at close range, and was cut in fine marble, the increased refinement may be due, at least in part, to different conditions. [Illustration: 23. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE.] [Illustration: 24. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE MEDAL. PISANO.] [Illustration: 25. MODERN FRENCH MEDAL. O ROTY.] The panel from Raphael's tomb in the Pantheon, Rome, 30, shows a beautiful and pure form of typical Renaissance letter; and the composition of the panel is as well worthy [28] of careful study as are the letter forms. Figure 34, devised from a tomb in Santa Croce, portrays a letter not only beautiful in itself, but one which, with two minor changes (for the top bar of the T might advantageously be shortened to allow its neighbors to set closer, and the M might be finished at the top with a serif, after the usual fashion), is exactly applicable to the purposes of the modern draughtsman. This type of letter appears to best advantage when used in such panel forms as those shown in the rubbing from the Marsuppini tomb, 31, and in the floor slab from the same church, 32. Two very refined examples, 28 and 29, also from slabs in Santa Croce, Florence, date from about the same period. The latter exhibits the alphabet itself, and the former shows a similar letter form as actually used. The letters in 33, redrawn from rubbings from the Marsuppini tomb, are shown for comparison with the rubbing itself, which is reproduced in smaller size in 31. Taken together, plates 30, 31 and 32 will fairly represent not only the usual fashion of composing Renaissance panels, but capital forms which illustrate some of the most excellent work of this period. [30] A very different and interesting type of letter was used on many of the best medals of the Italian Renaissance (see 24), which has been recently adapted and employed by modern medal designers in France, as exhibited in figure 25. Although absolutely plain, it is, when properly composed, much more effective in the service for which it was intended than a more elaborate and fussy form; and although sometimes adapted with good results to other uses, it is particularly appropriate for casting in metal. Similar forms rendered in pen and ink are shown in 26. [Illustration: 26. CAPITALS ADAPTED FROM RENAISSANCE MEDALS. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 27. SPANISH RENAISSANCE ALPHABET. JUAN De YCIAR, 1550] [Illustration: 28. RENAISSANCE INLAID MEDALLION. FROM A RUBBING. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 29. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SANTA CROCE. F. C. B.] Figures 27, and 35 to 41 show various pen or printed forms of capital letters redrawn from the handiwork of Renaissance masters. The capital letters shown in 27 are unusually beautiful, and their purity of form is well [31] displayed in the outline treatment. Perhaps the best known standard example of a Renaissance pen-drawn letter is that by Tagliente, reproduced in 35 and 36. In spite of their familiarity it has seemed impossible to omit the set of capitals, with variants, by Albrecht Dürer, 37 and 38; for Dürer's letters were taken as a basis by nearly all such Renaissance designers of lettering as Geoffrey Tory, Leonardo da Vinci, etc. It should be observed in the Dürer [32] alphabet that among the variant forms of individual letters shown, one is usually intended for monumental use, while another exhibits pen treatment in the characteristic swelling of the round letters, etc. [Illustration: 30. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL FROM RAPHAEL'S TOMB. PANTHEON ROME.] [Illustration: 31. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION. MARSUPPINI TOMB, FLORENCE.] [Illustration: 32. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION FLOOR SLAB IN SANTA CROCE, FLORENCE.] Serlio's alphabet, 39 and 40, should be compared with Mr. Ross's modification of it, reproduced in 1 and 2. The alphabet shown in 41 is a somewhat expanded form of classic capital, contrasting markedly in various respects with more typical forms. [Illustration: 33. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. MARSUPPINI TOMB. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 34. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS FROM RUBBINGS. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 35. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524] [Illustration: 36. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524] [Illustration: 37. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1525] [Illustration: 38. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1525] [Illustration: 39. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY.] [Illustration: 40. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY.] [Illustration: 41. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. URBAIN W�SS, 16th CENTURY.] [45] A practically unlimited number of other examples might have been included to show various capital forms of Renaissance letters; but the specimens chosen will adequately illustrate all the more distinctive and refined types of the individual letters. [Illustration: 42. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL, FLORENCE. C. F. BRAGDON] Before, during and after the Renaissance movement many local and extraneous influences temporarily modified the forms of the Roman letters. There are, for instance, numerous examples of lettering in which Byzantine and Romanesque traits are strongly apparent, such as the free manipulation of the letter forms in order to make them fit into given lines and spaces. The drawing of the panel over the doorway of the Badia, Florence, 42, notable for the characteristic placing and composition of the letters, will serve as a case in point. This example is further interesting because it shows how the Uncial form of the letter was beginning to react and find a use in stone--a state of affairs which at first glance might seem anomalous, for the Uncial letter was distinctly a pen-drawn form; but it was discovered that its rounder forms made it particularly useful for inscribing stones which were likely to chip or sliver, in carving which it was consequently desirable to avoid too acute angles. The Roman letter underwent various salient modifications [46] at the hands of the scribes of extra-Italian nations. We find very crude variants of the Roman letter, dating hundreds of years after the Roman form had reached its highest development; and, on the other hand, some very beautiful and individual national variants were produced. The continual interchange of manuscripts among the nations on the continent of Europe probably explains the more conventional character and strong general resemblance of most of the early Continental work; but the scribes of insular England, less influenced by contemporary progress and examples, produced forms of greater individuality (see 46, 47, 48). In Ireland, letter forms originally derived from early Roman models were developed through many decades with no ulterior influences, and resulted in some wonderfully distinctive and beautiful variations of the Roman letters, [47] though the beauty of these Irish examples can only be faintly suggested by reproductions limited to black and white, and without the decorations of the originals. [Illustration: 43. MODERN TITLE (compare 46). B. G. GOODHUE] [Illustration: 44. MODERN TITLE (compare 49). WALTER CRANE] [Illustration: 45. TITLE IN EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. W. E. NESFIELD] Figures 43 and 44 illustrate, respectively, modern employments of such strongly characteristic letters as those shown in 46 and 49. From these ancient examples the designers have evolved letters suitable to the character of their work. In 44 Mr. Crane has engrafted upon a form quite personal to himself a characteristic detail of treatment borrowed from the letter shown in 49. Figure 45 shows a similar and modernized employment of a standard form of Uncial capital. [Illustration: 46. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 6th CENTURY] [Illustration: 47. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 7th CENTURY] [Illustration: 48. ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. EARLY 10th CENTURY] [Illustration: 49. EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. 16th CENTURY] [52] * * * * * CHAPTER II MODERN ROMAN LETTERS The small or "minuscule" letter that we now use in all printed books attained its modern and definitive form only after the invention of printing. The first printed books were made to imitate, as closely as possible, the handwritten work of the scribes of the early fifteenth century, and as printing was first done in Germany, the earliest book types were those modeled upon German scripts, somewhat similar to that shown in 141, and their condensed or blackletter variants. The Italian printers, of a more classical taste, found the German types somewhat black and clumsy; for though Gothic characters were also used in Italy, they had become lighter and more refined there. The Italians, therefore, evolved a new form of type letter, based upon the _Italian_ pen letters then in use, which though fundamentally Gothic in form had been refined by amalgamation with an earlier letter known as the "Caroline", from its origin under the direction of Charlemagne. The "Caroline" was in its turn an imitation of the Roman "Half-uncial." The close relationship of the first small type letter forms in Italy with the current writing hand of the best Italian scribes is well indicated by the legend that the "Italic," or sloped small letter, was taken directly from the handwriting of Petrarch. The new Italian types, in which classic capitals were combined with the newly evolved minuscule [53] letters, were called "Roman" from the city of their origin, and sprang into almost immediate popularity, spreading from Italy into England, France and Spain. In Germany, on the other hand, the national blackletter form persisted, and is still in use to-day. The minuscule "Roman" letters thus evolved were developed to their most perfect individual forms by the master-printers of Venice; and it is to the models which they produced that we must revert to-day when we attempt to devise or reproduce an elegant small letter of any conservative form. The modern pen draughtsman should bear in mind, however, that, perfect as such forms of letters may be for the uses of the printer, the limitations of type have necessarily curtailed the freedom and variety of their serif and swash lines, and that therefore, though accepting their basic forms, he need not be cramped by their restrictions, nor imitate the unalterable and sometimes awkwardly inartistic relations of letter to letter for which he finds precedents in the printed page. Indeed, the same general rules for spacing and the same freedom in the treatment of the serifs, kerns and swash lines are quite as applicable to pen-drawn small letters as to the capital forms. The only true path of progress lies in this freedom of treatment; and if the same fertile artists of the Renaissance who have bequeathed to us such beautiful examples of their unfettered use of the capital had used the minuscule also, we should undoubtedly possess small letters of far more graceful and adaptable forms than those which we now have. [Illustration: 50. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 51. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.] In 50 and 51 may be found an attempt to formulate a scheme to assist in the reconstruction of an alphabet of Roman small letters, after somewhat the same fashion as [56] that devised for the Roman capitals by Mr. Ross, in 1 and 2. A small-letter diagram must, for obvious reasons, be less exact and detailed than one for the more defined capital form; but the diagram given will serve to determine sufficiently the main outlines and proportions. In their shapes the letters shown in 50 and 51 adhere fairly closely to the best type forms of the small letter; and the drawing will serve, further, to show the space generally allowed by modern founders between one lower-case letter and another when set into type words. This spacing is based on the m of the fount employed. The open space between all but k, w and y (in which the outlines of the letters themselves hold them further away from their neighbors) and the round letters being the space between the upright strokes of the m; an interval represented in the diagram by a square and a half. The round letters, as has already been said in speaking of the capital forms, should be spaced nearer together; and it will be observed that they are only separated by one square in the diagram. Although suggestive, the rules which govern the spacing of types are not to be blindly followed by the pen letterer. In type, for instance, it would be impossible, for mechanical reasons, to allow the kerns of the f, j and y to project far over the body of the next letter, and in these letters the kerns consequently have either to be restrained or the letters spaced farther apart. In pen lettering, however, the designer is not restrained by such limitations, and his spacing of letters should be governed solely by the effect. The disposition of the accented lines in the small letters follow the same general rules that govern those of the capitals (see page 2); the only deviation being in the case of [57] the g, in which the shading of the bottom seems to have been determined largely by the effect upon the eye. It will be noticed in the diagram that the "ascenders" of the smaller letters rise about three squares to their extreme top points above the body of the letter; that the body of each letter is inclosed in a square that is three units high, and that the "descenders" fall but two squares below the letter body. These proportions are not by any means invariable, however, and indeed there is no fixed rule by which the proportions of ascenders and descenders to the body of the Roman minuscule may be determined. In some forms of the letter both are of the same length, and sometimes that length is the same as the body height of the letter. In general a better result is obtained by making both ascenders and descenders of less than the length of the body, and keeping the descenders shorter than the ascenders in about the proportion of two-fifths to three-fifths. Parallel lines of small letters cannot be spaced closer to each other than the ascenders and descenders will allow; the projections above and below the line are awkward, and interrupt the definite lines of demarkation at the top and bottom of the letter-bodies; the capitals necessarily used in connection with the small letters add to the irregularity of the line--all of which reasons combine to limit the employment of minuscule for formal or monumental uses. On the other hand, the small letter form is excellently adapted for the printed page, where the occasional capitals but tend to break the monotony, while the ascenders and descenders strongly characterize and increase the legibility of the letter forms. [Illustration: 52. SPANISH ROMAN LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577] [Illustration: 53. SPANISH ROMAN LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577] [Illustration: 54. SPANISH ITALIC LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577] [Illustration: 55. SPANISH ITALIC LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577] [Illustration: 56. ITALIAN SMALL LETTERS. J. F. CRESCI, 1560] [Illustration: 57. ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY INCISED LETTERS. FROM TOMBSTONES] [Illustration: 58. MODERN SMALL LETTERS. AFTER HRACHOWINA] [Illustration: 59. MODERN SMALL LETTERS. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON] [64] Figures 52 to 59 show several forms of small letter alphabets; those shown in 52 to 56 being taken from "Writing books" by Spanish and Italian writing masters. These writing masters often chose to show their skill by imitating type forms of letters with the pen, but though similar in the individual forms of the letters the written examples exhibit a freedom and harmony in composition impossible for type to equal, and therefore are immeasurably more interesting to the modern penman. Figure 61 illustrates a type form of minuscule which may be commended for study. Other examples of small letters by modern designers will be found in 105, 110, 118 and 131, where they are used in connection with their capital forms. [Illustration: 60. INSCRIPTION FROM ENGLISH SLATE TOMBSTONES, 1691. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 61. ROMAN AND ITALIC TYPE. FROM THE SPECIMEN BOOK OF WILLIAM CASLON, 1734] The minuscule alphabet by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon, 59, is a carefully worked-out form which in its lines closely follows a type face devised by Jenson, the celebrated Venetian printer who flourished toward the end of the sixteenth century. This example together with those shown in 50, 51 and 56 exhibits some conservative variations of the standard models for minuscule letters; and the same may be said of the modern type faces shown in 62, 63 and 64. The various other examples of the small-letter forms illustrated evidence how original and interesting modifications of conservative shapes may be evolved without appreciable loss of legibility. [Illustration: 62. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "MONTAIGNE". BRUCE ROGERS] [Illustration: 63. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "RENNER". THEO. L. DE VINNE] [Illustration: 64. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "MERRYMOUNT" BY B. G. GOODHUE] [Illustration: 65. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "CHELTENHAM" BY B. G. GOODHUE] Figure 61 shows the capital, small letter and italic forms of a type based on old Venetian models, cut by William Caslon in the early part of the eighteenth century, and ever [69] since known by his name. This face has comparatively recently been revived by modern type-founders; and though this revival has provided us with a text letter far superior to the forms previously in use, the modern imitation falls short of the beauty of Caslon's original, as may be seen by comparing the letters shown in 61, which are reproduced from Caslon's specimen-book, issued by him about the middle of the eighteenth century, with the type used in printing this volume, which is a good modern "Caslon." Figures 62 to 67 show some newly devised type faces, all designed by artists of reputation. Figure 62 illustrates a fount called the "Montaigne" which has been recently completed by Mr. Bruce Rogers for the Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass., and cut under his immediate direction, with especial insistance upon an unmechanical treatment of serifs, etc. As a result the "Montaigne" is, for type, remarkable in its artistic freedom, and its forms are well worthy the study of the designer. Both its capitals and small letters suggest the purity of the Italian Renaissance shapes. The letters space rather farther apart than in most types, and the result makes for legibility. Although several other modern faces of type have been designed on much the same lines, notably one for The Dove's Press in England, the "Montaigne" seems the best of them all, because of its freedom, and its absolute divorce from the overdone, exaggerated, heavy-faced effects of the Morris styles of type. Mr. De Vinne of the De Vinne Press, New York City, has introduced a new type called the "Renner", 63, which was originally cut for some of the Grolier Club's publications. The letters were first photographed from a selected page of Renner's "Quadrigesimale," then [71] carefully studied and redrawn before the punches were cut. Mr. De Vinne has added small capitals and italics to the fount, as well as dotted letters to serve as substitutes for the italic for those who prefer them. The "Renner" type would have been more effective on a larger body; but for commercial usefulness it is generally deemed expedient to employ as small a body as the face of a type will allow. Mr. De Vinne notes, in this connection, that all the important types of the early printers were large, and that a fount designed to-day with regard only to its artistic effectiveness would be cast upon a large body and be of good size. Mr. Bertram G. Goodhue has designed two founts of Roman type, and is now at work on a Blackletter face. His first fount, cut for Mr. D. B. Updike, of the Merrymount Press, Boston, and known as the "Merrymount," is shown in 64. Intended for large pages and rough paper it necessarily shows to disadvantage in the example given, where the blackness and weight of the letters makes them seem clumsy, despite the refinement of their forms. [Illustration: 66. MODERN GREEK TYPE. SELWYN IMAGE] [Illustration: 67. MODERN ROMAN TYPE. C. R. ASHBEE] The "Cheltenham Old Style," 65, is the other Roman face recently designed by the same artist. It was cut for the Cheltenham Press of New York City; and embodies in its present form many ideas suggested by Mr. Ingalls Kimball of that press. Observe especially the excess in length of the ascenders over the descenders, and that the serifs have been reduced to the minimum. Contrary to the usual custom in type cutting, the round letters do not run above or below the guide lines. The capitals compose excellently; but the small letters are too closely spaced and seem too square for the best effect, and weight has been obtained by so thickening the lines that much delicacy and variety has been lost. [72] The "Cheltenham Old Style" is, however, very legible when composed into words, and is effective on the page. Any attempt to get the effect of Blackletter with the Roman form is likely to result clumsily. The celebrated Roman faces designed by William Morris (too familiar to require reproduction here) are, despite their real beauty, over-black on the page, and awkward when examined in detail. While the stimulus Morris's work gave to typography was much needed at that time, the present reaction toward more refined faces is most gratifying. By precept and example Mr. Morris produced a salutary revolt against the too thin and light and mechanical type faces before in use, but he went too far in the opposite direction, and we are now certainly falling back upon a more desirable mean. Mr. Herbert P. Horne is at present designing a new fount of type for the Merrymount Press, Boston, to be [73] known as the "Mont' Allegro," which seems, from the designs so far as at present completed, likely to prove in some respects the most scholarly and severe of modern faces. The Greek type designed for the Macmillan Company of England, by Mr. Selwyn Image, 66, is of sufficient interest to be shown here, despite the fact that it is not strictly germane to our subject. In this face Mr. Image has [74] returned to the more classic Greek form, although the result may at first glance seem illegible to the reader familiar with the more common cursive letters. The type shown in 67 is a new English face designed by Mr. C. R. Ashbee for a prayerbook for the King. Interesting as it is, it seems in many ways too extreme and eccentric to be wholly satisfactory: the very metal of type would seem to postulate a less "tricky" treatment. It is interesting to attempt a discrimination between the various national styles of pen letters which the recently revived interest in the art of lettering is producing; and it is especially worth while to note that the activity seems, even in Germany, to be devoted almost exclusively to the development and variation of the Roman forms. It is noteworthy, too, after so long a period of the dull copying of bad forms, and particularly of bad type forms, that the modern trend is distinctly in the direction of freedom; though this freedom is more marked in French and German [75] than in English or American work. Hand in hand with this increased freedom of treatment has naturally come a clearer disclosure of the mediums employed; and indeed in much of the best modern work the designer has so far lent himself to his tools that the tools themselves have, in great measure, become responsible for the resulting letter forms. [76] Moreover modern designers are showing a welcome attention to minuscule letters, and it even seems possible that before long some small letter forms that shall be distinctively of the pen may be developed, and that the use of type models for minuscule pen letters will no longer be found necessary or commendable. [Illustration: 68. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER J. M. OLBRICH] [Illustration: 69. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. GUSTAVE LEMMEN] [Illustration: 70. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER ALOIS LUDWIG] [Illustration: 71. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER OTTO ECKMANN] Another noticeable tendency in modern lettering seems to be the gradual promotion of small letter forms to the dignity of capitals, (see 79 and 98 for examples) in much the same way as the Uncial letter and its immediate derivatives produced the present small letter. It is surely to be hoped that this movement may not lose vitality before it has had time to enrich us with some new and excellent forms. [Illustration: 72. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. OTTO HUPP] [Illustration: 73. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. JOSEPH PLÉCNIK] [Illustration: 74. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER FRANZ STUCK] [82] [Illustration: 75. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 76. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER BERNHARD PANKOK] [Illustration: 77. MODERN FRENCH POSTER. THEO. VAN RYSSELBERGHE] [Illustration: 78. MODERN FRENCH COVER. M. P. VERNEUIL] The influence of nationality is strongly shown in the modern lettering of all countries; and it is generally as easy to recognize a specimen as the work of a German, French, English, or American artist, respectively, no matter how individual he may be, as it is to tell the difference between the work of two different designers. The modern German seems to have an undeniable freshness of outlook on the Roman alphabet. He treats it with a freedom and variety and a certain disregard of precedent--induced, perhaps, by his schooling in Blackletter--that often produces delightful, though sometimes, be it added, direful results. But if the extreme and bizarre forms be thrown aside the designer may obtain suggestions of great benefit and value from the more restrained examples of German work. Many eminent German draughtsmen, whose work is all too little known in this country, are [84] using letters with the same distinction that has of late years marked their purely decorative work, as the specimens shown in 68 to 76 will evidence. Figures 68 and 75 show forms which are perhaps especially representative of the general modern tendency in German work and many German artists are using letters of very similar general forms to these although, of course, with individual variations. Figures 70 and 73 show two very original and pleasing styles, also markedly German. In spite of the national drift toward the Roman, much modern German lettering still takes the Gothic and Blackletter forms; and the specimen reproduced in 71 shows a curious combination of the Gothic, Uncial and Roman forms pervaded by the German spirit. The beautiful lettering in 72 seems to have been inspired from a stone-cut Uncial. Figure 74 shows an almost strictly Roman letter, and yet is as unmistakably German in handling as any of the other examples shown. [Illustration: 79. MODERN FRENCH LETTERS. AFTER M. P. VERNEUIL] [Illustration: 80. MODERN FRENCH POSTER. P. BONNARD] [Illustration: 81. MODERN FRENCH COVER. GEORGE AURIOL] [Illustration: 82. MODERN FRENCH CAPITALS. ALPHONS M. MUCHA] [86] Among the examples of modern French lettering, those shown in 78 and 79 are perhaps the most typical of the modern school. This style of letter was given its most consistent form by the joint efforts of M. P. Verneuil and some of the pupils of Eugène Grasset, after whose letter it was originally modeled. Grasset freely varies his use of this form in his different designs, as in 85, but founds many of his best specimens upon the earlier French models. [Illustration: 83. MODERN FRENCH LETTERED PAGE. GEORGE AURIOL] [Illustration: 84. MODERN FRENCH LETTERS "CURSIVE". GEORGE AURIOL] [Illustration: 85. MODERN FRENCH COVER DESIGN. EUGÈNE GRASSET] [Illustration: 86. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. WALTER CRANE] [88] M. George Auriol has extended the modern use of drawn letters by publishing a number of small books which he has handwritten throughout, although the form of letter he generally uses for this purpose is purely modern and not at all like the texts of the medieval scribes. M. Auriol's letter is beautifully clear, readable and original; "brushy" in its technique, yet suitable for rapid writing. He calls [91] it a "Cursive" letter, and has recently made designs for its use in type. The page shown in 83 is from the preface to a book of his well-known designs for monograms, and the entire text is written in this cursive form. The individual letters of this "Cursive" may be more easily studied in 84. The cover for "L'Image", 81, shows the same designer's use of a more conventional Roman form. The poster by M. Theo. van Rysselberghe shown in 77 exhibits two interesting forms of French small letters that are worthy of study and suggestive for development. M. Alphons Mucha employs a distinctive letter, especially fitted to his technique, which he uses almost invariably, 82. Much recent French lettering inclines toward a certain formlessness, that, although sometimes admirable when regarded merely from the point of view of harmony with the design, has little value otherwise. A typical specimen of such formless lettering is that shown in the very charming [92] "Revue Blanche" poster, 80. Excellent when considered with the design, the lettering alone makes but an indifferent showing. The Italian designers of letters have not yet evolved any very distinctive national forms. In many ways Italian work resembles the German. It has less originality, but greater subtlety and refinement. [Illustration: 87. MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. WALTER CRANE] [Illustration: 88. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. WALTER CRANE] [Illustration: 89. MODERN ENGLISH LETTERS. WALTER CRANE] [Illustration: 90. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. JOSEPH W. SIMPSON] The strongest personality among modern British letterers is Mr. Walter Crane. Characteristic examples of his work are shown in 86, 87, 88 and 89. Although sometimes apparently careless and too often rough, his lettering has the merit and charm of invariably disclosing the instrument and the material employed. Mr. Crane is especially fond of an Uncial pen form, which he varies with masterful freedom. It may be mentioned in passing that he is perhaps the only designer who has been able to make the wrongly accented Q seem consistent (compare 86), or who has conquered its swash tail when the letter is accented in this unusual way. [93] Mr. Lewis F. Day has become a recognized authority on lettering, both through his writings and his handiwork. His great versatility makes it difficult to select a specimen which may be taken as characteristic of his work; but perhaps the lettering shown in 95 is as representative as any that could be chosen. Among his designs the magazine cover, 93, is an unusually free and effective composition, and its letter forms possess the variety required to satisfy the eye when so much of the whole effect of the design depends upon them. [Illustration: 91. MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. JOSEPH W. SIMPSON] [Illustration: 92. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. WILLIAM NICHOLSON] [Illustration: 93. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. LEWIS F. DAY] [Illustration: 94. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. GORDON CRAIG] The style of lettering ordinarily employed by Mr. Selwyn Image--a style of marked originality and distinction--is well exhibited in the design for a book cover, 98. The name of Mr. Charles Ricketts is intimately associated with the Vale Press. The detail of the title-page reproduced in 100 shows a characteristic bit of his work. Mr. J. W. Simpson, one of the younger British draughtsmen, uses a graceful and interestingly linked Roman form shown in the panel from a title-page, 90. The bizarre [95] letter by the same artist, 91, is fairly representative of a style recently come into vogue among the younger British draughtsmen, which is related to a form of letter brought into fashion by the new English school of designers on wood, among whom may be mentioned Mr. William Nicholson and Mr. Gordon Craig, both of whom have done lettering distinguished by its indication of the medium employed. Figure 92 shows Mr. Nicholson's favorite type of letter [96] fairly, and the style of Mr. Craig's work is suggested by the title for a book cover in 94. The book cover, 97, by Mr. Edmund H. New, shows variants of the Roman capital and minuscule forms, which closely adhere to classic models. Mr. Robert Anning Bell has done much distinctive lettering in intimate association with design. Figure 96 is fairly representative of his style of work. [Illustration: 95. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. LEWIS F. DAY] [Illustration: 96. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. ROBERT ANNING BELL] [Illustration: 97. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. EDMUND H. NEW] [Illustration: 98. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. SELWYN IMAGE] Such other British artists as Messrs. Alfred Parsons, James F. Sullivan, Hugh Thompson, Herbert Railton, Byam Shaw, H. Granville Fell and A. Garth Jones, although much better known for their designs than for their letters, [97] occasionally give us bits of lettering which are both unusual and excellent; but these bits are commonly so subordinated to the designs in which they are used and so involved with them as to be beyond the scope of the present book. [Illustration: 99. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. ANONYMOUS] [Illustration: 100. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. CHARLES RICKETTS] In illustrating the lettering of American artists it has been unfortunately found necessary to omit the work of many well-known designers, either because their usual style of lettering is too similar in fundamental forms to the work of some other draughtsman, or because the letters they commonly employ are not distinctive or individual. [Illustration: 101. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWIN A. ABBEY] [Illustration: 102. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ANONYMOUS] [Illustration: 103. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. EDWARD PENFIELD] Mr. Edwin A. Abbey is a notable example of an artist who has not disdained to expend both time and practice on such a minor art as lettering [100] that he might be able to letter his own designs, as the beautiful page, shown in 153 in the succeeding chapter, will sufficiently prove. The lettering of the title-page for Herrick's poems, 101, by the same draughtsman, is likewise excellent, being both original and appropriate. The letters in both these examples are modeled after old work, and both display an unusually keen grasp of the limitations and possibilities of the forms employed, especially in the former, 153, where the use of capitals to form words is particularly noteworthy, while in general composition and spacing the spirit of the letter used (compare 179) has been perfectly preserved. [Illustration: 104. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. EDWARD PENFIELD] [Illustration: 105. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. EDWARD PENFIELD] [Illustration: 106. MODERN AMERICAN COVER DESIGN. H. VAN B. MAGONIGLE] [Illustration: 107. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. H. VAN B. MAGONIGLE] Mr. Edward Penfield's work first attracted attention through the series of posters which he designed for 'Harper's Magazine' with unfailing fertility of invention for several years. During this time he evolved a style of letter which exactly fitted the character of his work. The cover design shown in 103 displays his characteristic letter in actual use; while the two interesting pages of large and small letter alphabets by him, 104 and 105, show the latest and best development of these letter forms. The heading [102] shown in 102 exhibits a slightly different letter, evidently based upon that used by Mr. Penfield. The capitals by Mr. H. Van B. Magonigle, shown in 107, are derived from classic Roman forms but treated with a modern freedom that makes them unusually attractive. They appear, however, to better advantage in actual use in conjunction with a design, 106, than when shown in the necessarily restricted form of an alphabetical page panel. [Illustration: 108. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. B. G. GOODHUE] Mr. Bertram G. Goodhue, whose designs for type have already been mentioned, is a [104] most facile and careful letterer. Although his name is more intimately associated with Blackletter (examples of his work in that style are shown in the following chapter), he has devised some very interesting variations of the Roman forms, such as that used in 108, as an example. [Illustration: 109. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. WILL BRADLEY] Mr. Will Bradley uses a very individual style of the Roman capital, often marked by a peculiar exaggeration in the width of the round letters, contrasted with narrow tall forms in such letters as E, F and L. Mr. Bradley has become more free and unconventional in his later work, but his specimens have always been noteworthy for beauty of line and spacing; see 111. Figure 109 shows his employment of a brush-made variant of the Roman form; [107] and 110 shows both capitals and small letters drawn in his earlier and less distinctive style. [Illustration: 110. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS. WILL BRADLEY (1896)] [Illustration: 111. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. WILL BRADLEY] [Illustration: 112. MODERN AMERICAN TICKET. A. J. IORIO] The ticket, 112, designed by Mr. A. J. Iorio, suggests what our theatre tickets might be made. In spacing and general arrangement of the letters and the freedom of treatment, Mr. Iorio's work may be compared with much of the [110] work of Mr. Bradley. Figure 113 shows a modern Roman capital form modeled upon the work of Mr. Bradley. [Illustration: 113. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. AFTER WILL BRADLEY] [Illustration: 114. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. MAXFIELD PARRISH] [Illustration: 115. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. MAXFIELD PARRISH] [Illustration: 116. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER] Mr. Maxfield Parrish commonly employs a widely spaced letter, fashioned closely after the old German models, beautiful in its forms, and displaying the individuality of the artist in its composition. The form and use of Mr. Parrish's usual letter is well shown in 114; and the title from a book cover design, 115, shows yet another example of the letter in service. The lettering of Mr. A. B. Le Boutillier is always notable for spacing and composition. Figures 117 and 118 exhibit excellent capital and small-letter forms (which, by the way, were drawn at the same size as the reproductions); and [111] the two other specimens of Mr. Le Boutillier's work, 116 and 119, which are reproduced to show his letters in use, will be found exemplars for spacing, composition, balance of weight and color, and, in the latter drawing, for harmony between the lettering and the treatment of the design. [Illustration: 117. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER] [Illustration: 118. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER] [Illustration: 119. MODERN AMERICAN POSTER. A. B. LE BOUTTILLIER] [Illustration: 120. AMERICAN BOOK-PLATE. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON] The form of letter preferred by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon is represented by the page of small letters, 59, which, as we have already said, are closely modeled on the type alphabet designed by Jenson. In Mr. Bragdon's version they represent an excellently useful and conservative style of small letter. They are shown in use, with harmonious capitals and italics, in the 'Literature' cover design, 121. In the small book-plate, reproduced in 120, Mr. [112] Bragdon has used a very graceful variant, especially noteworthy for its freedom of serif treatment; and in the letter-heading, 122, he has employed an attractive capital of still different character. [Illustration: 121. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. C. F. BRAGDON] [Illustration: 122. MODERN AMERICAN LETTER-HEAD. C. F. BRAGDON] Mr. H. L. Bridwell has originated the singularly excellent letter shown in 124, which is founded upon some of the modern French architectural forms. He uses it with great freedom and variety in spacing according to the effect that he desires to produce. In one instance he will jam the letters together in an oddly crowded line, while in another we find them spread far apart, but always with excellent results as regards the design as a whole. Something of this variation of spacing is shown in 123. In the numerous theatrical posters which Mr. Bridwell has designed--and which too seldom bear his signature--he employs a great variety of lettering. Sometimes, of course, the freedom of his work is restricted by the conservatism of clients; but often the letter forms here illustrated add to the style and distinction of his designs. [Illustration: 123. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. H. L. BRIDWELL] [Illustration: 124. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. H. L. BRIDWELL] [Illustration: 125. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. FRANK HAZENPLUG] [Illustration: 126. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. FRANK HAZENPLUG] [116] [Illustration: 127. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. FRANK HAZENPLUG] Mr. Frank Hazenplug, the author of much clever decorative lettering, has evolved a very black and striking style of capital that still retains grace. Figures 125 and 126 show two sets of Mr. Hazenplug's capitals. A book cover on which he has used small letters in an original way is reproduced in 127. Figure 129 shows the employment of a heavy-faced letter similar to that exhibited in alphabet 126, but suggestive in its serif treatment of Mr. Penfield's letter. [Illustration: 128. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWARD EDWARDS] Mr. Edward Edwards employs a letter, 128, which, though rather conventional in its lines, is noteworthy for its treatment of serifs and its spacing. Mr. Guernsey Moore's letters shown in 130 are naturally better both in intrinsic form, spacing and composition than the widely used "Post Old Style" types which were based upon them. The large and small letters displayed in 133 show a form that, at the present writing, seems to be in considerable favor. It is, however, too extreme, and its peculiarities are too exaggerated to allow it to become a permanent style. But like the extravagant German forms [117] already referred to, it has also apparent advantages; and a few of its characteristics are not unlikely to survive in some more conservative adaptation. [Illustration: 129. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. FRANK HAZENPLUG] [Illustration: 130. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. GUERNSEY MOORE] [Illustration: 131. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. HARRY E. TOWNSEND] The letter by Mr. Harry Everett Townsend shown in 131 is most distinctive in effect--a more refined form of the rapidly drawn character shown in 138. Mr. Howard Pyle often gives us charming bits of lettering in connection with his illustrations. The heading, 132, shows a characteristic line. Most of Mr. Pyle's lettering is "Colonial" or Georgian in style, though the initials he uses with it are generally rendered in the fashions of the early German woodcuts, somewhat similar to Holbein's initials for the "Dance of Death." [Illustration: 132. MODERN AMERICAN HEADING. HOWARD PYLE] One of the most original of American letterers is Mr. Orson Lowell. Usually closely conjoined with design, his lettering does not show to its full value when reproduced apart from its surroundings, for much of its charm depends [118] upon its harmony in line and color with the accompanying drawing Mr. Lowell has taken the same basic forms as those used by Mr. Penfield, and has played with them until he has developed a series of most ingenious and fanciful letters. The examples reproduced in 136 and 137 but inadequately show a few of the many forms that Mr. Lowell employs with remarkable fertility of invention and delightfully decorative effect of line. The small letters, 135, shown opposite his capitals, 134, are not by Mr. Lowell, nor are they in any way equal to his own small letters, of which regrettably few appear in his published work; but they may serve to exhibit a similar method of treating a much more conventional form of minuscule than Mr. [122] Lowell would himself use for the same purpose. Despite its unconventionally, however, an examination of Mr. Lowell's work will show that each letter has been developed to fit the space between its neighbors and to balance and relieve their forms; and that, fanciful as some of the shapes may appear, they have invariably been knowingly worked out, and always appear harmonious and fit. [Illustration: 133. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 134. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. AFTER ORSON LOWELL] [Illustration: 135. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 136. MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. ORSON LOWELL] The pages of letters shown in 138, 139 and 140 are intended to suggest forms which, while suitable for rapid use, yet possess some individuality and character. The so-called "Cursive" letter by Mr. Maxfield Parrish, 140, is particularly effective for such informal use--in fact, its very charm lies in its informality--and is quite as distinctively "pen-ny" as any of Mr. Crane's work of the same kind. A glance over the field of modern examples will disclose, first, a general tendency to break away from the older type models in pen-drawn forms; second, a growing partiality for the small letter, and third, a sporadic disposition to use capital and minuscule forms interchangeably. The first [123] trend may be noticed by comparing the letter shown in 132, which is closely modeled after type, with that shown in 136, in which an opposite method is followed, and the letters are so treated in handling form and color as to best harmonize with the design itself. The possibilities latent in the small letter are indicated by such interesting uses as those shown in figures 77, 89, 98, 101, 111, 112, 121, 127, 130 and 131. American designers seem to be especially interested in the development of the small letter. Of the intermingling of the capital and small letter shapes examples may be found in figures 71, 75, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83, 84, 98, 127 and 134. In these examples it will be noted that the minuscules seem to be more easily transformed into capitals than do the capitals into minuscules; only a few of the latter appearing to lend themselves harmoniously to the small letter guise. [Illustration: 137. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ORSON LOWELL] [Illustration: 138. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS, FOR RAPID USE. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 139. MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC, FOR PLANS, ETC. C. F. BRAGDON] [Illustration: 140. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. MAXFIELD PARRISH] Such tendencies as these, if allowed to develop slowly and naturally, are certain to evolve new forms--a process of modification which it should be fully as instructive and entertaining to observe as any of the historical changes that have already become incorporated into our present letter shapes. [127] * * * * * CHAPTER III GOTHIC LETTERS The name "Gothic" applies rather to the spirit than to the exact letter forms of the style. The same spirit of freedom and restlessness characterises the architecture of the period wherein this style of letter was developed; and Gothic letters are in many ways akin to the fundamental forms of Gothic architecture. Their effect is often tiring and confusing to the eye because of the constant recurrence of very similar forms with different letter meanings; yet this very similarity is the main cause of the pleasing aspect of a page of Gothic lettering. Unlike the Roman letters, which attained a complete and final development, Gothic letters never reached authoritative and definitive forms, any more than did Gothic architecture. Every individual Gothic letter has several quasi-authoritative shapes, and all of these variants may be accepted, as long as they display an intelligent conception of the spirit of the style as a whole. Because of this lack of finality, however, it is impossible to analyze each of the letter forms as we were able to do with the Roman alphabet in Chapter I; yet this very variability and variety constitute at once the peculiar beauty of Gothic and the great difficulty of so drawing it as to preserve its distinctive character. Any letter of Gothic form is usually called either "Gothic" or "Blackletter" indiscriminately, but this use is inexact [128] and confusing. The term "Blackletter" should, strictly, be applied only to letters in which the amount of black in the line overbalances the white; and the proper application of the title should be determined rather by this balance or weight of the letter than by its form. [Illustration: 141. ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 1500] The original Gothic letter was a gradual outgrowth from the round Roman Uncial. Its early forms retained all the roundness of its Uncial parent; but as the advantages of a condensed form of letter for the saving of space became manifest, (parchment was expensive and bulky) and the [131] beauty of the resulting blacker page was noticed, the round Gothic forms were written closer and narrower, the ascenders and descenders were shortened, with marked loss of legibilty, that the lines of lettering might be brought closer together, until a form was evolved in which the black overbalanced the white--the Blackletter which still survives in the common German text of to-day. Thus, though a Gothic letter may not be a Blackletter, a Blackletter is _always_ Gothic, because it is constructed upon Gothic lines. On the other hand, a Roman Blackletter would be an obvious impossibility. The very essential and fundamental quality of a Roman letter lies in the squareness or circularity of its skeleton form. For clearness and convenience, then, the following discrimination between the terms Gothic and Blackletter will be adopted in this treatise: When a letter is Gothic but not a Blackletter it will be called "Round Gothic"; when it is primarily a Blackletter it will be termed "Blackletter," the latter name being restricted to such compressed, narrow or angular forms as the small letters shown in 144, 147 and 148. The name "Round Gothic" will be applied only to the earlier forms, such as those shown in 141 and 142. Such a distinction has not, I believe, hitherto been attempted; but the confusion which otherwise results makes the discrimination seem advisable. The three pages of examples, figures 141, 142 and 143, exhibit the characteristic forms and standard variations of the Round Gothic. In lieu of any detailed analysis of these letter shapes, it may perhaps be sufficient to say that they were wholly and exactly determined by the position of the quill, which was held rigidly upright, after the fashion [132] already described in speaking of Roman lettering; and that the letters were always formed with a round swinging motion of hand and arm, as their forms and accented lines clearly evidence; for the medieval scribes used the Round Gothic as an easy and legible handwritten form, and linked many of the letters. [Illustration: 142. ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 16th CENTURY] [Illustration: 143. SPANISH ROUND GOTHIC LETTERS. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577] [Illustration: 144. GERMAN BLACKLETTER CONSTRUCTION. ALBRECHT DÜRER] Figures 158, 170, 172 and 173 show some capitals adapted for use with these Round Gothic letters; but the beginner should be extremely wary of attempting to use any Gothic capitals alone to form words, as their outlines are not suited for inter-juxtaposition. Occasionally they may thus be used, and used effectively, as is shown, for instance, in the beautiful page of lettering by Mr. Edwin A. Abbey, 153; but so successful a solution is rare, and implies an intimate knowledge of the historic examples and use of Gothic lettering. The late Gothic or Blackletter is condensed and narrowed in the extreme. No circles are employed in the construction of the small letters, which have angular and generally acute corners. As in all pen-drawn letters, the broad lines are made on the down right-sloping strokes, and the narrow lines are at right angles to these. Blackletter shapes, like those of the Round Gothic, cannot, as has been said, be defined by any set of general rules; the intrinsic quality of all Gothic letters almost demands a certain freedom of treatment that would transgress any laws that could be formulated. Indeed the individual forms should always be subservient to the effect of the line or page. Observe in almost every example shown how the form of the same letter constantly varies in some minor detail. The drawing by Albrecht Dürer, reproduced in 144, will, [134] however, serve to show the construction of an excellent Blackletter, which may fairly be considered as typical. [Illustration: 145. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS] [Illustration: 146. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS WITH ROUNDED ANGLES] The first essential of a good Blackletter line or page is that it shall be of a uniform color. Unlike the Roman, the Blackletter form does not permit that one word be wider spaced than others in the same panel. The amount of white left between the several letters should be as nearly as possible the same throughout, approximately the same as the space between the perpendicular strokes of the minuscule letters themselves. Usually, the less the white space the better will be the general effect of the page, for its beauty depends much upon a general blackness of aspect;--and let it be noted in passing that, for this reason, it is doubly difficult to judge of the final effect of a Blackletter page from any outlined pencil sketch. Even in the cases of those capital letters that extend both above and below the guide lines it will be found possible to so adjust the spaces [135] and blacks as not to interrupt the general uniformity of color, and it is sometimes advisable to fill awkward blanks by flourishes; although flourishing, even in Blackletter, is an amusement that should be indulged in cautiously. As a general rule the more solidly black a panel of Blackletter is the better (a principle too often disregarded in the modern use of the form); though on the other hand, the less legible the individual letters will become. The designer should therefore endeavor to steer a middle course, making his panel as black as he can without rendering the individual letters illegible. No style permits more of liberty in the treatment of its separate letter forms than the Blackletter. The same letter may require a different outline at the beginning of a word than in the middle or at the end. The ascenders and descenders may be drawn so short as hardly to transcend the guide lines of the minuscules, or may grow into [136] flourishes up and down, to the right or to the left, to fill awkward blanks. Indeed so variable are these forms that in ancient examples it is often difficult to recognize an individual letter apart from its context. The two pages drawn by Mr. Goodhue, 188 and 189, deserve careful study as examples of modern use of the Blackletter. It will be observed that almost as many variants of each letter are employed as the number used would permit, thus giving the panel variety and preventing any appearance of monotony or rigidity. Notice the freedom and variety of the swash lines in the capitals, and yet that each version is quite as graceful, logical and original as any of its variants. The examples of old lettering reproduced in figures 147, 148 and 149, together with the drawings by Mr. Goodhue, will indicate the proper spacing of Blackletter; but in most of the pages here devoted to illustrating the individual forms the letters have been spaced too wide for their proper effect that each separate shape might be shown distinctly. The style appears at its best in compositions which fill a panel of more or less geometrical form, as, for example, the beautiful title-page reproduced in 147. Could anything be more delightful to the eye than its rich blackness, energetic lines, and refreshing virility? In this design surely we have a specimen that, from the proportion and balance of its blacks, is more effective than anything which could have been accomplished by the use of the more rigid Roman letter; but despite its many beauties it suffers from the inherent weakness of the individual letter forms,--it is more effective than readable! [Illustration: 147. ITALIAN BLACKLETTER TITLE-PAGE. JACOPUS FORESTI, 1497] [Illustration: 148. GERMAN BLACKLETTER PAGE. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1515] [Illustration: 149. GERMAN MEMORIAL BRASS. MEISSEN, 1510] [Illustration: 150. MODERN AMERICAN COVER IN BLACKLETTER. B. G. GOODHUE] Another excellent example of the old use of Blackletter is the page from the prayerbook of the Emperor Maximilian, [138] shown in 148, in which observe again the variety of the individual letter forms. Figure 149 shows the use of a Blackletter on an admirable monumental brass, which is reputed to have been designed by Albrecht Dürer. A similar Blackletter form, also from a brass, is shown at larger scale in 186. [139] Any of the minuscule forms of Blackletter which have been illustrated may be used with the Gothic capitals of figures 164-5, 166, 177, 179, 185, 188-9; or with such Uncial capitals as are illustrated in 155 to 162; care being taken, of course, that these capitals are made to agree in style and weight with the small letters chosen. Although Uncial capitals are historically more closely allied with the Round Gothic, we have abundant precedent for their use with the minuscule Blackletter in many of the best medieval specimens. When the Gothic Uncial capitals were cut in stone and marble there was naturally a corresponding change in character, as is shown in the Italian examples illustrated in 160 [140] and 161. These examples, which are reproduced from rubbings, exhibit the characteristic stone cut forms very clearly. A Gothic Uncial alphabet redrawn from a German brass is illustrated in 162. The group of specimens from 154 to 159 exhibit the chronological growth of the Uncial capitals, which were used, as has been said, with the various small Blackletter forms, though they were also used alone to form words, as is shown in 160. The historical progression in these Uncial examples is most interesting; and, allowing for the variations of national temperament, traces itself connectedly enough. Figures 154 to 159 are pen forms, while 160 to 163 are from stone or metal-cut letters. Figures 164 to 166 show alphabets of Gothic pen-drawn capitals that will serve as a basis for such adaptations as are shown in the modern examples 152 and 153. Figures 167 to 169 show a more elaborate but an excellent and typical variety of this form of capital, which is one of the most beautiful and distinctive of Gothic letters. Shorn of its fussy small lines the main skeleton is eminently virile; and, though extremely difficult to draw, it cannot be surpassed for certain limited uses. Figures 170 to 173 exhibit a group of Gothic capitals more or less allied in character and all pen letters. Figures 174 to 176 show forms similar to those of the previous group, but adapted for use in various materials. [Illustration: 151. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTER. WALTER PUTTNER] [Illustration: 152. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTER. OTTO HUPP] [Illustration: 153. MODERN BLACKLETTER. EDWIN A. ABBEY] Figures 177 to 179 show some English Gothic letters, the last being that employed so effectively in the pen-drawn page by Mr. Abbey, 153. Figures 180 to 184 illustrate various forms of Blackletter: 180 is from a German brass, 182 illustrates an Italian pen form, and 183 and 184 show [141] Blackletters drawn by Albrecht Dürer, the latter being the simplest and strongest variant in this style. It is the same letter that is employed to show Blackletter construction in diagram 144. Figure 185 shows the well-known and unusually beautiful initials designed by Dürer. Figure 186 is a Blackletter from an English brass, although the letter forms in this example, as well as those of many other English brasses, may perhaps have been derived from Flanders, as many of the finest early Continental brasses were imported from the Netherlands. The Italian forms of Gothic Blackletters are generally too fussy and finikin to be of practical value for modern use, though they often possess suggestive value. The letters shown in 182 are fairly typical of the characteristic Blackletter minuscules of Italy. Figure 187 exhibits an example of beautiful lettering in the Italian style, redrawn from a rubbing of an inlaid floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. The omission of capitals in long, confined lines is typical of many Blackletter inscriptions, as may be seen in 149, as well as in the plate just mentioned. In view of the number of fine specimens of Blackletter which have been handed down to us, it has been deemed [142] unnecessary to reproduce many examples of its employment by modern draughtsmen. The pages by Mr. Goodhue, 188-9, have already been referred to; and figure 150 shows a very consistent and representative use of similar letter forms by the same designer. Figures 190 and 191 illustrate two modern varieties of Blackletter, one very simple and the other very ornate. The small cuts, 151 and 152, show excellent modern Blackletters; the first, of unusually narrow form, being by Herr Walter Puttner, and the second, with its flourished initials, by Herr Otto Hupp. [Illustration: 154. UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. 12TH CENTURY. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 155. UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. 13TH CENTURY. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 156. UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 157. UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 158. ITALIAN UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 159. SPANISH UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. JUAN DE YCIAR, 1550] [Illustration: 160. VENETIAN WALL PANEL, 15TH CENTURY. FROM RUBBING] [Illustration: 161. VENETIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 15TH CENTURY. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 162. GERMAN UNCIAL CAPITALS, FROM A BRASS. 14TH CENTURY] [Illustration: 163. FRENCH AND SPANISH UNCIAL CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY] [Illustration: 164. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16TH CENTURY] [Illustration: 165. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16TH CENTURY] [Illustration: 166. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. GIOV. PALATINO, 16TH CENTURY] [Illustration: 167. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601] [Illustration: 168. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601] [Illustration: 169. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601] [Illustration: 170. ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16TH CENTURY] [Illustration: 171. ENGLISH GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16TH CENTURY] [Illustration: 172. ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th CENTURY] [Illustration: 173. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th CENTURY] [Illustration: 174. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS] [Illustration: 175. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS] [Illustration: 176. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS] [Illustration: 177. ENGLISH GOTHIC TEXT LETTERS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS] [Illustration: 178. ENGLISH GOTHIC LETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 179. ENGLISH GOTHIC LETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 180. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS FROM A BRASS. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 181. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. 16th CENTURY. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 182. ITALIAN BLACKLETTERS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16th CENTURY] [Illustration: 183. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 16th CENTURY] [Illustration: 184. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 16th CENTURY] [Illustration: 185. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 16th CENTURY] [Illustration: 186. ENGLISH GOTHIC BLACKLETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 187. ITALIAN INLAID BLACKLETTERS. FROM A RUBBING. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 188. MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS. B. G. GOODHUE] [Illustration: 189. MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS. B. G. GOODHUE] [Illustration: 190. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. AFTER JULIUS DIEZ] [Illustration: 191. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS, FLOURISHED. F. C. B.] [182] * * * * * CHAPTER IV ITALIC AND SCRIPT The regrettable modern neglect of those free and very interesting forms of the Roman letter, Italic and Script, seem to authorize consideration of them in a separate chapter, even at the risk of appearing to give them undue importance. [Illustration: 192. GERMAN ITALIC. GOTTLIEB MUNCH, 1744] The first Italic type letter was derived, it is said, from the handwriting of Petrarch, and several admirable examples of the style, variously treated, have come down to us. As far as construction goes Italic is, theoretically, only the exact Roman form sloped, and with such changes as are necessitated by the sloping of the letters. Practically, however, it will be found that certain alterations in the outlines of the Roman letters must be made after giving them a slope in order to adapt them to their new requirements of inter-juxtaposition; and, by a reflex action, when words in Italic capitals are used in the same panel with upright Roman letters, certain variations must be made in the latter, such as accenting the Roman O in the same fashion as the Italic _O_ is accented, an altered treatment of serifs, and other changes in detail. The Script form of letter was developed out of the running or writing hand, and still retains a cursive tendency in the linking together of its letters; although in some forms it so closely approximates to Italic as to be almost [183] indistinguishable from it. Script lettering came into its greatest vogue during the Georgian period in England and at the same time in France; and was extensively employed, usually in conjunction with the upright Roman, in carved panels of stone or wood, and in engraving. The Script forms are well worthy of the attention of modern designers since they offer unusual opportunities for freedom and individuality of treatment; and because of this vitality and adaptility to modern uses the present chapter will be devoted largely to the illustration of Script examples. The old Spanish and Italian writing-books (referred to in a previous chapter), which in a measure took the place filled so much less artistically to-day by our modern school copybooks, contain many specimens of beautiful Script, both capitals and small letters. Figures 193 to 196 show pages from such books published in Spain. [Illustration: 193. SPANISH SCRIPT. TORQUATO TORIO, 1802] [Illustration: 194. SPANISH SCRIPTS. TORQUATO TORIO, 1802] [Illustration: 195. SPANISH SCRIPT. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577] [Illustration: 196. SPANISH CURSIVE. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577] [188] A simple type of Spanish capital Script letter is shown in 201, while a corresponding small letter, redrawn from a Spanish source, is illustrated in 202. It should be noted in the latter figure that the three lower lines are further removed from the ordinary writing hand and are more interesting than the letters in the three upper lines. [Illustration: 197. MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON] [Illustration: 198. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. GEORGE WHARTON EDWARDS] The French artists and engravers were, as has been said, among the first to appreciate the qualities of Script, and used it in many of their engraved title-pages, especially during the reigns of Louis xv. and xvi. Figure 199 shows a set of French Script capitals of the time of Louis XV., highly flourished but more formal than those shown in 201. A form of Script very nearly allied to the Italic was frequently used for the lettering on headstones and wall tombs in the churches and churchyards of England. Figure 203, in which the lettering is taken from a tomb in Westminster Abbey, illustrates this style of Script. A set of Script small letters with some unusual characteristics, adapted by Hrachowina from the German Renaissance form shown in outline in 192, is exhibited as a solid letter in figure 200. [Illustration: 199. FRENCH SCRIPT CAPITALS. 18th CENTURY. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 200. GERMAN SCRIPT AFTER HRACHOWINA. 18th CENTURY.] [Illustration: 201. SPANISH SCRIPT CAPITALS. EARLY 18th CENTURY. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 202. SPANISH SCRIPT ALPHABETS. LATE 17th CENTURY. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 203. ENGLISH INCISED SCRIPT. FROM INSCRIPTIONS. F. C. B.] [194] [Illustration: 204. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. BRUCE ROGERS] [Illustration: 205. MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. BRUCE ROGERS] [Illustration: 206. MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. AFTER FRANK HAZENPLUG] [Illustration: 207. MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC CAPITALS. F. C. B.] Among modern American designers, Mr. Bruce Rogers has admirably succeeded in catching the French and Georgian spirit in his treatment of the Script characters; yet, nevertheless, his lettering in this style is still modern in feeling. In the title from a book cover, 204, Mr. Rogers has allowed himself just the proper amount of interlacement and flourishing--both of which require the restraint of a subtle taste or the result may prove to be over-elaborate. The page of lettering by the same designer, shown in 205, is a successful solution of a difficult problem, and, together with the book cover, will serve to exhibit the possibilities of this style of Script. Mr. George Wharton Edwards is another modern designer who has a penchant for the Script form. He uses one distinctive and personal style of it in which the larger letters are formed by two black lines separated by a narrow white space, as exhibited in 198. The lines from an advertisement, 197, by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon, in which Script, Italic and Roman letters are combined, are of especial interest from the easy manner in which the three different styles have been adapted to each other and made to harmonize in one small panel, [198] while still preserving an appropriate Georgian aspect. The interlacement and flourishing, too, are handled with commendable restraint. Few modern artists have so successfully treated Italic capitals with Script freedom as Mr. Will Bradley. Sometimes employing forms of Italic capitals and small letters little removed from type, he will again give us an example of his handiwork in which Italic is used with examplary freedom, as is shown in the specimen from a book catalogue, 109. The modern trick of wide spacing often lends itself aptly to the swing and freedom of the swashed and flourished lines of Script, as may be seen in figure 207. An excellent modern Script letter, adapted from a design by Mr. Frank Hazenplug, is shown in 206. Its heavy face and originality of form make it a useful and pleasing variant. [Illustration: 208. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ANONYMOUS] [Illustration: 209. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWARD PENFIELD] The magazine heading, by an anonymous designer, 208, and the line from the pen of Mr. Edward Penfield, 209, suggest still other useful varieties of the Script form. [199] * * * * * CHAPTER V TO THE BEGINNER The beginner in any art or craft is likely to have an undue respect for the mere instruments of his trade. He will eventually learn that tools play a much less important part in his work than he at first thinks; but, as it is unlikely that any sudden change in human nature will occur, it seems as well to devote here some consideration to the tools which the student will always believe to be an important part of his equipment. He will ultimately ascertain for himself what is best adapted to his own individual needs. Though every draughtsman will recommend a pen that he has discovered to be especially suitable for his own use, few will be found to agree. Perhaps it is safe to say, however, that the best all-round pen for lettering is the Gillot No. 303. It is not too sharp, and when broken in is flexible and easy. The crowquill pen will be found of little use. It is an advantage to have at hand a large coarse pen of little flexibility and smooth point for drawing heavy lines of even width. In using water-color in place of ink such a pen will be found more satisfactory than the Gillot 303, as the thinness of the fluid causes the line to spread whenever pressure is applied to a limber and finely pointed pen, with the result that the line is not only broadened, but when dry shows darker than was intended, as more color is deposited than in a narrow line. When a [200] narrow line of even width and sharpness is desired it is best to use a new pen; an older pen will, on the other hand, allow of more ease in swelling and broadening the line under pressure. A thin dry line may be obtained by turning the pen over and drawing with the back of the nib, although if the pen so used be worn it is apt to have a "burr" over the point that may prevent its working satisfactorily in this way. A new hard pen is likely to be the cause of a "niggling" line; a too limber one of a careless or undesirably broad line. On rare occasions, and for obtaining certain effects, a stub pen may be found of value, but it cannot be recommended to the beginner, as it is very difficult to find one that has sufficient flexibility of nib. Quill pens are undoubtedly useful in drawing a few types of letters (see some of the designs by Mr. Walter Crane shown in previous pages, for examples) but, not to allude to the difficulty of properly pointing a quill, which seems to be a well-nigh lost art nowadays, the instrument possesses so many annoying peculiarities that it is as well to avoid its use until a satisfactory command over the more dependable steel pens has been obtained. A pencil is, of course, a necessity in laying out the first scheme for lettering. The softer the pencil the more felicitous will the composition seem; but the beginner should guard against being too easily pleased with the effect thus obtained, as it is often due to the deceptive indefiniteness of line and pleasant gray tone. When inked-in, in uncompromising black against the white paper, the draughtsman is apt to find that his sketch has developed many an imperfection, both in composition and in individual letter shapes, that the vague pencil lines did not reveal. [201] As to paper, Bristol-board has the best smooth surface for lettering. The English board is in some ways better than the American, but has the disadvantage of being made in smaller sheets. The difficulty with any smooth board is that erasures, even of pencil lines, are likely to spoil its surface. The rough "Strathmore" American board has a very grateful surface upon which the pen may be used with almost as much freedom as the pencil. All rough surfaces, however, while tending to promote interesting lines, are not suited for careful lettering, and the classic and Italian forms especially require to be drawn upon the smoothest possible surface. The American "Strathmore" board may also be obtained in smooth finish; and, indeed, is less injured by erasures than most Bristol-boards. The prepared India or carbon inks such as "Higgin's" or "Carter's" are best for the beginner; although all prepared inks have a tendency to get muddy if allowed to stand open, and the so-called "waterproof" inks are easily smudged. In devising a panel of lettering, such as a title-page for example, the draughtsman's first step would naturally be to sketch out the whole design at a very small size, say an inch and a half high, in pencil. This small sketch should determine, first, the general balance of the page; second, the inter-relations and spacings of the various lines and words and their relative importance and sizes. From this thumb-nail sketch the design should be drawn out at full size in pencil, and much more carefully. In this redrawing the separate letter shapes and their harmonious relations to each other should be determined, and such deviations made from the smaller sketch as seem to benefit the effect. [202] Some draughtsmen sketch out each line of lettering separately on thin paper, and then, after blackening the back of this sheet, lay each line over the place where it is needed in the design, tracing the outlines of the letters with a hard point, and thus transferring them to the design beneath. In this way a page of lettering may be studied out line by line, and accurately placed or centered; but the process is tedious, and there is always danger of losing sight of the effect as a whole. In outlining letters which are ultimately intended to be solidly blacked-in, the beginner should guard against making his outlines too wide, especially as regards the thin lines, for the eye in judging an outline sketch follows the insides of the bounding lines rather than the outsides which will really be the _out_lines of the blacked-in letter, so that when finished the letter is likely to look heavier and more clumsy than in the sketch. When the entire pencil scheme seems satisfactory in every detail, and each line has been exactly determined, the whole should be carefully inked-in. In inking-in letters the swing of the arm should be as free and unobstructed as possible. For the best result it is absolutely necessary to work at a wide board on a solid table of convenient height and angle. It is impossible to letter well in a cramped or unsteady position. One thing cannot be too strongly urged upon the beginner. Never use a T-square, triangle or ruling pen in inking-in lettering. It will be found ultimately much easier to train hand and eye to make a straight and true line free-hand than to attempt to satisfactorily combine a ruled and free-hand line. The free-hand method is, be it acknowledged, both more lengthy and [203] difficult at first, but when the draughtsman does finally gain a mastery over his line he has achieved something which he will find of the greatest value. In a drawing to be reproduced by mechanical processes, the proportions of the design are, of course, unalterably determined by the required panel or page; but the _size_ of the _drawing_ may be such as best suits the inclination and convenience of the draughtsman. If the drawing is to be reduced in size (and that is the usual method, because, in general, it is easier to draw large rather than small), the draughtsman must first decide on the amount of reduction to which his style of rendering and the subject itself are best adapted, remembering, however, that a drawing is sure to suffer from excessive reduction, not only in general effect but in interest, for the quality of the line is sure in a measure to disappear. A reduction of height or width by one-third is the usual amount; but many of our modern designers obtain their best effects by making their drawings but a trifle larger than the required reproduction. Some even make their drawings of the same size; others only from a twelfth to a sixth larger. As a rule, the less the reduction the less the departure from the effect of the original, and the more certainly satisfactory the result, although more careful drawing and greater exactness of line are necessary. [Illustration: 210. DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL] To keep the outlines of a panel in the same proportion while enlarging its area for the purpose of making a drawing for reproduction, lay out the required _finished_ size of the panel near the upper left hand corner of the paper, and draw a diagonal line through the upper left hand and lower right hand corner of this panel, extending it beyond the panel [204] boundaries. From any given point along this diagonal, lines drawn parallel to the side and top lines of the original panel, and extended till they intersect the extended left side line and top line of the original panel, will give an outline of the same proportions as the required panel. By taking various points on the diagonal, panels of any height or width but still of the proper proportions may be obtained (see diagram 210). Diagram 211 illustrates a variation of the previous method of enlarging the proportions of a panel, in which, by the use of two diagonals, both perpendicular and horizontal center lines are retained. When it is necessary to lay out a border of a predetermined width within the required panel, the foregoing method can only be used to determine the _outside_ lines of such a border, and it becomes necessary to make the drawing some numerical proportion, say, one-half as large again, or twice as large as the finished panel. The width of the border will then be of the same proportionate width. The beginner will find it always wise to base his lettering on penciled top and bottom guide lines, and occasionally to add "waist" guide lines, as in 193. Indeed, it is rare that even accomplished letterers dispense with these simple aids. These guide lines should invariably be laid-in with the [205] T-square and triangle. After drawing the horizontal guides, it is often advisable to run a few perpendicular lines up and down the paper, which will serve to guard against the very common likelihood of the letters acquiring a tilt. In drawing Italic, Script, and all sloping letters numerous sloping guide lines are especially necessary; see 193. Perpendicular guide lines will be found of marked assistance, also in drawing Gothic small letters, which, as they do not come against the top and bottom guide lines squarely, but at an angle, are often deceptive. [Illustration: 211. DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL] If it is desirable to make two lines of lettering of the same length, although they contain an unequal number of letters, this may be effected--provided, of course, that the number of letters does not vary too greatly--by broadening or narrowing the letters that occur in one line but not in the other, and by varying the spacings about the I's and the open letters. Note, for example, the spacing of the upper lines in the poster by Mr. Crane, 87. It is by no means essential to draw the same letter always exactly alike even in the same line; in fact, variation is generally demanded by the different surroundings and neighboring letters. So long as the general character of the letter remains unchanged in its distinctive features, such as weight, [206] treatment of serifs, angles, height of waist and cross lines, etc., its width and outlines may be varied and arranged to help out the spacing without interfering, to any noticeable extent, with the uniform appearance of the line. In Roman lettering emphasis may be obtained for any special word by spacing its letters farther apart. This has something of the same emphasizing effect as the use of Italic, without so greatly breaking the harmony of the line. Much of the lettering of the Italian Renaissance shows a very subtle appreciation of this use, and in some of the most beautiful inscriptions the important words are often so differentiated, while others are emphasized by slightly larger characters. As a general rule, and within certain limits, the wider a letter the more legible it is likely to be. Blackness and boldness of stem alone will not make a letter readable. Width, boldness of hair lines and serifs, and a proper amount of surrounding white space are more essential. The Roman letter is more legible than the Blackletter mainly because it is black against a roomy white ground; while Blackletter, on the contrary, is really defined by small interrupted areas of whites upon a black ground. A common limitation of many draughtsmen is that they become accomplished in the rendering of but one style of letter, and find themselves obliged to use it on all occasions, whether it be suited to the work in hand or not, because they can command no other. In the case of certain designers, of course, the individuality of their work is strong enough to bind both lettering and design so closely together that they can never seem at dissonance; but, speaking generally, the adherance to the use of but [207] one type of letter can be but narrowing. The beginner is urged, therefore, to practice the use of many styles, even at the expense of gaining an immediate mastery over no one form. He will find himself amply repaid in the end by the increase in freedom and variety. While the student should possess enough knowledge of the historic styles and examples of lettering to prevent him from using incongruous or anachronous forms in the same design, historic accuracy need not prevent him from engrafting the characteristics of dissimilar styles upon one another, provided that the results prove harmonious and appropriate. Finally, the draughtsman's first aim should be to make his lettering readable: after this has been accomplished he should strive to give it beauty. Art in lettering is only to be attained by solving the problem of legibility in the way most pleasing to the eye. Good lettering should appeal both to the eye and to the mind. Only when it combines legibility with beauty can it be excellent. * * * * * INDEX A., 6, 9. Abbey, Edwin A., 97, 132, 140. Accenting, of Blackletters, 132; of Roman Capitals, 2; of Minuscules, 56; of Round Gothic, 132; of Italic and Script, 182. American Lettering, Modern Roman, 53, 64, 75, 82, 97; Classic Roman, 3, 14; Gothic, 132, 136, 140, 142; Italic, 194, 198; Script, 194, 198. Anglo-Saxon Letters, 46, 47; modern use of, 46. Ascenders, height above body, 57; in "Cheltenham Old Style" type, 71; in Gothic, 131; in Blackletters, 135. Ashbee, C. R., 74. Auriol, George, 88. B., 6. Badia, Florence, lettering from, 45. Bell, Robert Anning, 96. Blacked-in letters, 202. Blackletters, 127, 131, 132, 140, 141, 142; accents of, 132; ascenders and descenders of, 135; capitals for use with, 134, 136, 139; a condensed form of Gothic, 128; construction of, 132, 141; definition of, 128, 131; effect of page of, 132; with Roman letters, 72; even color of, 134; flourishes, 135; individual letter forms, 132, 136; illegibility of, 135, 136, 206; a part-Roman form, 84; a narrow form, 132; old examples of, 136; in panel forms, 136; used solidly, 134, 135; spacing of, 134, 136; variety of, 82, 132, 135, 136. Bonnard, Pierre, 91, 92. Border, to lay out a, 204. Boston Public Library, 14. Bragdon, Claude Fayette, 64, 111, 194. Brasses, Blackletters from, 138, 140. Bridwell, H. L., 8, 112. Bristol-board, 201. Byzantine influence on Italian lettering, 45. C., 8. Capitals, used with Roman minuscules, 57; with Round Gothic, 132; with Blackletters, 136, 139; (see also under Blackletter, Roman, Gothic, Italic, Modern Roman Capitals, Script, Round Gothic, Uncial). "Caroline" Text, 52. Caslon, William, 64; his type, 69. Centering lines of lettering, 202. Charlemagne, 52. "Cheltenham Old Style" type, 71. Cheltenham Press, The, 71. Chisel-cut guide lines, 3. Classic Capitals, see Roman Capitals. Classic forms of letters, to draw, 3, 6, 201; composition of, 6; Italian Renaissance, 15, 27, 30. "Colonial" lettering, 117. Constantine, Arch of, lettering from, 11. Construction, of Blackletters, 132; of Roman Capitals, 3, 6; of Roman Minuscules, 53, 56. Craig, Gordon, 95, 96. Crane, Walter, 47, 92, 200, 205. Cross-bar in Roman Capitals, 6. "Cursive" Letters, 91, 122. Cursive tendency in Script lettering, 182. D., 8. 'Dance of Death,' Holbein's, 117. Day, Lewis F., 93. Descenders, (see Ascenders). De Vinne, Theo. L., 69. Dove's Press, The, 69. Drawing of letters, 201, 202, 205; for reproduction, 203, 204. Dürer, Albrecht, 31, 132, 138, 141. E., 6, 104. Early Gothic, (see Round Gothic). Early Printing, 52, 64, 71. Edwards, Edward B., 116. Edwards, George Wharton, 194. Emphasis in lettering, placing of, 206 (see also Accenting). English Brasses derived from Flanders, 141. English Gothic, 140, 141. English lettering, modern, 75, 82, 92. English, Letters, 47; Script, 188, (see also Anglo-Saxon). Engraved Title-pages, French, 188. Enlarging Drawings, 203, 204. F., 6, 104. f., 56. Fell, H. Granville, 96. Flanders, Brasses from, 141. Flourishing, of Blackletters, 135; of Script, 194, 198. Free-hand lines, 202. French, modern lettering, 74, 82, 86; Script, 188, 194. Freedom, in lettering, 53, 74, 82, 92, 102, 118, 122, 201; in Blackletters, 136; in Gothic, 127; in Italic, 198; in kerns, serifs and swash-lines, etc., 53; in Roman letters, 82; in Script, 183. G., 8. g., 57. Georgian English lettering, 117, 183, 194, 198. German lettering, modern, 74, 82, 84, 92; early, 110, 117; Script, 52, 188; types, 52. Goodhue, Bertram Grosvenor, 71, 102, 136, 142. Gothic Capitals, for use with Blackletters, 139; pen drawn, 140; not to be used to form words, 132. Gothic, English, (see English Gothic). Gothic lettering, 127, 131, 134, 205; cut in stone, 140; (see also Blackletters and Uncial). Granite, letters cut in, 11, 14, (see also Stone-cut, V-sunk and Incised). Grasset, Eugène, 86. Greek type, 73. Grolier Club, 69. Guide-lines, 3, 204. H., 6. "Half-Uncial," 52. Harvard Architectural Building, lettering on, 14. Hazenplug, Frank, 116, 198. Historic styles of lettering, knowledge of, 207. Holbein's 'Dance of Death' initials, 117. Horne, Herbert P., 72. Hrachowina, C., 188. Hupp, Otto, 142. I., 8, 9; space around, 205. Illegibility of Blackletters, 135, 136. Image, Selwyn, 73, 93. Incised letters in stone, Gothic, 139, 140; Classic Roman, 9, 14, 45; (see also Granite, Inlaid, Marble, Sandstone, V-sunk and Stone-cut). Ink, 201. Inking-in lettering, 200, 202. Inlaid lettering, Gothic, 141. Interlacement of Script letters, 194. Inter-relation of letters, 6, 135, 201. Iorio, Adrian J., 107. Irish letters, (see Anglo-Saxon). Italian, Blackletters, 139, 141; modern lettering, 92; Renaissance (see Renaissance); Roman small letters, 64; types, 52; writing-books, 64, 183; letters, drawing of, 201. Italic, 52, 182, 188, 194, 198; capitals, 182, 198; drawing of, 205; emphasis of, 206. J., 8. j., 56. Jenson, Nicholas, 64. Jones, A. Garth, 96. K., 6. k., 56. Kerns, 53, 56. Kimball, H. Ingalls, 71. L., 104. Late Gothic, (see Blackletter). Laying out, lettering, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205; a border, 204. Le Boutillier, Addison B., 110. Legibility of lettering, 206, 207; of Round Gothic, 132. Letters, outlines of, 202, 206; widths of, 206; to lay out, 205; execution of in various materials, 14; (see also Brasses, Inlaid, Marble, Granite, Pen and Printed forms, Sandstone, Type). Lines, heavy, 199; narrow, 199; thin, 200; in water-color, 200; freehand, 202, 203; ruled, 202. Linking, of Blackletters, 136; of Round Gothic, 132; of Roman Capitals, 45; of Script, 182. Lowell, Orson, 117. M., 2, 28. m., 56. Marble, letters cut in, 17, 27, (see also Incised, Inlaid). Marsuppini tomb, Florence, 28. Magonigle, H. Van Buren, 102. McKim, Mead & White, architects, 14. Medals, lettering on, 30. Merrymount Press, The, 71, 72. "Merrymount" type, 71. Minuscule, 1; modern Roman, 52, 53, 56, 57, 64; monumental uses, 57; composition of, 64; growing use of, 76, 122; spacing of, 57; (see also, Roman, Gothic, Italic, Script). Modern lettering, (see under countries, American, English, French, German, Italian). Modern Roman Capitals, 6; (see Chapter II). Modern type, (see Type). "Montaigne" type, 69. "Mont' Allegro" type, 73. Moore, Guernsey, 116. Morris, William, 72; types of, 69. Mucha, Alphons M., 91. N., 2. Netherlands, brasses from, 141. New, Edmund H., 96. Nicholson, William, 95. O., 8, 182. o., 182 Optical Illusions in Roman Capitals, 8. Outline letters, 202. P., 6. Pantheon, Rome, Raphael's tomb, 27. Papers, drawing, 201. Parchment, 128. Parrish, Maxfield, 110, 122. Parsons, Alfred, 96. Pens, 199, 201; crowquill, 199; reed, 2; ruling, 202; stub, 200; quill, 200. Pen drawn forms of letters, 9, 27, 30, 31, 45, 56, 64, 74, 76, 122, 140, 182, 199, 202. Pencils, 200, 201. Penfield, Edward, 100, 116, 118, 198. Petrarch, 52; handwriting of, 182. Pisano, Vittore, 30. "Post Old Style" type, 116. Presses, (see Merrymount, Vale, Riverside, Cheltenham, Dove's, and De Vinne). Printed forms of Roman letters, 9, 30, 52, 53, 56, 64, 69, 122. Printers, German, 52; Italian, 52, 64; American, 69; English, 64, 69, 72, 73; Venetian, 53, 64. Proportions of a design, 203. Puttner, Walter, 142. Pyle, Howard, 117. Q., 2, 8, 92. "Quadrigesimale," 69. Quill pens, 200; method of holding, 2, 131. R., 2, 6, 8. Railton, Herbert, 96. Raphael's tomb, lettering from, 27. Reduction of drawings, 203, 204. Renaissance, letters, 15, 27, 30; artists of the, 53; lettering of the Italian, 206; medals, 30; purity of letter shapes, 69. Renner, 69. Renner type, 69. Reproduction of drawings, 203. Ricketts, Charles, 93. Riverside Press, The, 69. Rogers, Bruce, 69, 194. Roman Capitals, 1, 27; (see also Modern Roman); thick and thin lines of, 1, 6; model for, 3; rules for, 2; squareness of, 1, 6, 131; peculiarities of, 6, 8. Roman letters, 127, 136; with Italic, 182; combined with Script and Italic, 194; cross bars of, 6; definition of, 1; legibility of, 206; waist lines of, 6; width proportions of, 6. Roman minuscules, (see Minuscule). Roman forms, Gothic Spirit in, 84; Uncial, 128. Romanesque influence on Italian lettering, 45. Ross, Albert R., 3, 11, 32, 56. Roty, O., 30. Round Gothic, analysis of, 131; definition of, 131; capitals to use with, 132, 139. Round letters, capitals, 2, 3; Minuscules, 56, 71; stone-cut, 3, 9. Rubbings, from inscriptions, 11, 16. Ruling pen, 202. S., 8. Sandstone, letters cut in, 14. Santa Croce, Florence, lettering from, 28, 141. Script, 182, 183, 188, 194, 198; capitals, 188; cursive tendency in, 182; developed from writing hands, 182; drawing of, 205; French, 188; German, 188; on English headstones and wall tombs, 188; Spanish, 188; used in engravings, 188; used with upright Roman, 182, 183. Serifs, 8, 16; definition of, 3; in Minuscule letters, 53, 69, 71; in Italic letters, 182; treatment of, 206. Serlio, Sebastian, 3, 11, 32. Shadows in V-sunk letters, 10, 11, 14. Shaw, Byam, 96. Simpson, Joseph W., 93. Small letters, (see Minuscule, also Modern Roman, Gothic, Script and Italic). Spacing, of Classic Roman letters, 6, 8; of Blackletters, 128, 134, 136; of Minuscules, 53, 56, 57; of type, 56; of "Montaigne" type, 69; of "Cheltenham" type, 71; of letters and words, 201, 205; emphasis obtained by, 206. Spanish, Script, 188; Roman letters, 64; writing-books, 64, 183. Stone-cut letters, Roman, 3, 9, 14; (see also Incised, V-sunk, Granite, Marble, Sandstone). Sullivan, James F., 96. Swash lines, 2, 53, 136. T., 8, 28. Tagliente, G. A., 31. Thompson, Hugh, 96. Tory, Geoffrey, 31. Townsend, Harry Everett, 117. Transferring of lettering, 202. Type, 9, 52, 64, 74. Type-founders, 9, 56, 64. Type models for pen lettering, use of, 74, 76, 122. Uncial letters, 45, 76, 84, 92, 128; Gothic, 139; meta forms of, 140; pen forms of, 140; stone-cut, 140; stone and marble, 139. Updike, D. Berkeley, 71. V., 9. Vale Press, The, 93. Van Rysselberghe, Theo., 91. Venetian printers, 53, 64. Verneuil, M. P., 86. Vinci, Leonardo da, 31. V-sunk Roman lettering, 9, 10, 14; (see also Incised). W., 9. w., 56. Waist lines, 6, 204; of Roman letters, 6, 204, 206. Westminster Abbey, England, 188. Width proportions, of Roman Capital letters, 6. Writing-books, 64, 183. Writing hand, 188; of Petrarch, 182; Script developed from, 182. X., 6. Y., 6. y., 56. Z., 2. * * * * * BATES & GUILD COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS PEN DRAWING By CHARLES D. MAGINNIS An illustrated treatise, with many examples of the work of all the more eminent modern pen draughtsmen. A practical text-book, which aims to put the student in the most direct way of attaining successful proficiency in the art of drawing. "The book is very useful; all the features are good."--JOHN P. KUHL, Carlstadt, N. J. "I have learned a great deal in a short time from Mr. Maginnis's treatise."--H. E. HUNT, Ambridge, Pa. "I have found it a great help in pen drawing, and consider it a most instructive book."--WM. E. MEVINS, Buffalo, N. Y. "Would recommend it to any one wishing to do pen drawing or to a student wishing to take up the work as I did."--E. E. CHRISTOPHER, St. Louis, Mo. "I find it a most delightful little book, valuable for the student, as also for those desirous of gaining some insight into this art."--CHAS. J. FELLGER, Philadelphia, Pa. "The illustrations are excellent, and the instructions clear and to the point. It is a guide to the beginner and material help to the experienced. I am very pleased with it."--A. E. BUCKLER, Niagara Falls, N. Y. "'Pen Drawing' has benefited me a great deal, as it would anybody who made a proper use of it. Its many illustrations, together with their descriptive text, make the book what I think it was intended for, a good teacher."--H. W. BONNAH, Port Huron, Mich. "I think it a most excellent little book, well worth careful reading by any artist or draughtsman. Everything seems to me clearly stated and all points aptly illustrated with good examples. I do not see how it could be much better for the price."--S. GIFFORD SLOCUM, Architect, New York City PRICE, POSTAGE PREPAID, $1.50 144 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON, MASS. * * * * * BATES & GUILD COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS DETAILS OF Building Construction By CLARENCE A. MARTIN A collection or 33 plates, 10 × 12½ inches, giving over 300 separate details covering all the ordinary methods of building, and in many cases showing alternative methods. The plates are models of detail drawing, and the text is in the form of notes lettered on the drawings. "I think it a valuable book to have near one in the draughting-room."--C. A. MCGREEN, Columbus, O. "I have studied all the details and I have found them very profitable to me."--ERNEST H. DOWNING, New York City "This book and 'Kidder's' are two that I could hardly get along without."--LOREN O. KIRK, Minneapolis, Minn. "The best book of its kind on the market. It is concise, practical, saves time and gives new ideas."--S. R. QUICK, Fort Collins, Col. "It saves me considerable time, is twice worth the price I paid for it, and also gives me endless number of new ideas."--JOHN SCHIER, Milwaukee, Wis. "Has saved me time, labor and trouble. A good book for ready reference in the draughting-room."--A. C. STORCH, Pittsburg, Pa. "The work has proven to be very useful to me, and I do not hesitate to recommend it highly, especially to students."--W. R. TROWBRIDGE, Altoona, Pa. "During the last few years I have purchased from you at least 25 or 30 copies. My customers are well pleased with it."--THOMAS HENRY, Book Dealer, Toronto, Ont. "The most practical work on the subject there is, or at least that I have seen. I have never regretted the money I paid for it, and the book is always near at hand."--H. A. GOODSPEED, Providence, R. I. PRICE, POSTAGE PREPAID, $2.50 144 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON, MASS. * * * * * BATES & GUILD COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS ARCHITECTURAL SHADES & SHADOWS By HENRY McGOODWIN The purpose and usefulness of this book is twofold: it is intended, first, as a practical reference hand-book for the architect's office--a "dictionary," as it were, of all the shades and shadows of those architectural forms and details which are used in rendering drawings; and second, as a clear and accurate course of study in the methods of determining shadows, for use in schools, offices, and ateliers. As a text-book for draughtsmen it is the clearest and most thorough work that has ever been written on the subject. The study is approached from the standpoint and in the language of the architect rather than of the geometrician; and great pains have been taken to demonstrate every problem in the simplest terms and by the simplest methods. The book measures 9½ × 12½ inches, and is substantially bound in cloth. PRICE, EXPRESS PAID, $4.00 144 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON, MASS. * * * * * [Illustration] 
23483	----	AMUSING ALPHABET. DAME WONDER'S Series McLoughlin Bro's 30 Beekman DAME WONDER'S PICTURE ALPHABET. DAME WONDER'S PICTURE A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y AMUSING Z ALPHABET [Illustration] A stands for an Archer, B for his Bow; C the Crow that he shot at;--and D for his Dog. [Illustration] E stands for an Ensign, F for a Flag, and a Fort: G stands for a Goat;--and H for a Horse. [Illustration] I stands for an Italian, J for a Jug, and for Jane: K stands for a Kite:--and L for a Lobster. [Illustration] M stands for Mary, N for the Numbers she wrote; O stands for an Owl:--and P for a pretty Parrot. [Illustration] Q stands for a Queen, R for the Rose in her hand: S for the Sword of State, T the Throne, and the Table. [Illustration] U stands for Uncle, V for Violin, W for Windmill, and X for number ten Y stands for a Yacht, (or Yot,)--and Z for a Zebra. McLOUGHLIN BROTHERS, Manufacturers of Toy Books, Games, &c., &c., 30 BEEKMAN STREET, N. Y. +----------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | | | | Aunt Mary's Series.--Mam. Toys. | NEW EDITION | | | | | Aunt Effie's Rhymes. | LITTLE BOYS' AND GIRLS' LIBRARY. | | Mother Goose's Rhymes. | | | Child's First Book--The best | Good Little Boys' Book. | | A B C Book made. | Good Little Girls' Book. | | Little Sailor Boy. | Spring Flowers. | | The Prince and the Outlaw. | A Gift to Young Friends. | | Sad Fate of Poor Robin. | The Happy Change. | | Little Red Riding Hood. | Three Baskets. | | Jack and the Bean Stalk. | Short Tales in Short Words. | | Aladin and his Wonderful Lamp. | Brother and Sister. | | Ali Baba, or the Forty Thieves. | The Countries of Europe. | | Beauty and the Beast. | Book of Fables. | | Little Frog's Lecture and | Unckle Bunckle Stories. | | Other Tales. | One Hundred Stories and Fables. | | | | | 12 cts. each.--Same Series, | | | plain, with Colored Cover. | | | | | +----------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | | | | Aunt Oddamadodd's Series. | Pleasure Books for Children. | | | | | Little Miss Consequence. | The Charmed Fawn. | | True Story of the Spoilt Frock. | Story of Hans in Luck. | | Naughty Boys. | The Three Bears. | | Naughty Girls. | The Ugly Little Duck. | | Little Heads and Little Hearts. | Rip Van Winkle. | | Funny Physic and Funny Pictures. | Goody Two Shoes. | | Comic Crumbs to Feed Little Ones.| Old Dame and Her Silver Sixpence.| | Comical Pictures and | Wedding of Cock Robin. | | Serious Stories. | House that Jack Built. | | Funny Pictures, Food, | Life and Death of Jenny Wren. | | and Fingers. | Little Man and Little Maid. | | One, Two, Buckle my Shoe. | The Fox and the Geese. | | Silver Sixpence. | | | Foolish Boys and Girls. | | | | | +----------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | | | | Aunt Fanny's Fairy Tales. | AUNT MAVOR'S SERIES. | | | | | Fair One with Golden Locks. | Old King Cole. | | The White Cat. | The Tailor and the Carrion Crow. | | Princess Rosetta. | Simple Simon. | | The Yellow Dwarf. | Tom, Tom, The Piper's Son. | | Blue Bird. | Little Bo-peep. | | Riddle Book. | Sing a Song of Sixpence. | | Puss in Boots. | Mother Goose and Her Son Jack. | | Gulliver's Travels. | The Frog He Would A Wooing Go. | | Jack, The Giant Killer. | Little Woman and the Pedlar. | | Reineke, the Fox. | Robin Redbreast and Jenny Wren. | | Blue Beard. | Picture Alphabet. | | Mother Goose. | | | | | +----------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | | | | MAMMA LOVECHILD'S SERIES. | Miss Merryheart's Series. | | | | | Three Tiny Pigs. | Little Goody Two Shoes. | | Three Little Kittens. | Little Red Riding Hood. | | Cock Robin. | Robinson Crusoe. | | Mother Hubbard. | Robin Hood. | | New Nursery Rhymes. | Blue Beard. | | Cocky Locky and Henny Penny. | Jack, The Giant Killer. | | | | +----------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | | | | SIX STORIES--By Mrs. Elliot. | AUNT BUSY BEE'S SERIES. | | | | | Beauty But Skin Deep. | Puss in Boots. | | The Little Mimic. | Gulliver's Travels. | | The Lost Chicken. | Fair One with Golden Hair. | | The Greedy Child Cured. | Jack, the Giant Killer. | | The Contrast, or How to be Happy.| Reineke, the Fox. | | The Bird's Nest. | History of Blue Beard. | | | | +----------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | | | | 12mo. COL'D TOY BOOKS--24 Kinds. | UNCKLE FRANK'S SERIES. | | | | +----------------------------------+----------------------------------+ Stereotyped by Vincent Dill, 24 Beekman Street, N. Y. 
23619	----	THE ROYAL PICTURE ALPHABET OF HUMOUR AND DROLL MORAL TALES OR WORDS & THEIR MEANINGS ILLUSTRATED [Illustration] LONDON: WARD AND LOCK, 158, FLEET STREET. [Illustration: LAUGH and LEARN] [Illustration: The Royal Picture Alphabet.] POETICAL PREFACE TO THE ROYAL PICTURE ALPHABET. TO PRECEPTORS. With learning may laughter be found, "'Tis good to be merry and wise;" To gaily get over the ground, As higher and higher we rise. Some children their letters may learn, While others will surely do more, As the subjects suggestively turn To matters not thought of before. Descriptions and pictures combined Are here made attractive and clear; So suited that children may find From error the truth to appear. [Illustration] A a. +-----------------------+ | ABLUTION, | |_The Act of Cleansing_.| +-----------------------+ The little sweep has washed his face, But not as we advise: For black as soot he's made the soap, And rubbed it in his eyes. [Illustration] B b. +-------------------+ |BARTER, _Exchange_.| +-------------------+ Here's Master Mack presenting fruit, Of which he makes display; He knows he'll soon have Lucy's rope, And with it skip away. [Illustration] C c. +----------------------------+ |CATASTROPHE, _a Final Event_| | (_generally unhappy_). | +----------------------------+ "Oh here's a sad catastrophe!" Was Mrs. Blossom's cry-- Then--"Water! water! bring to me-- Or all my fish will die." [Illustration] D d. +-------------------+ | DELIGHTFUL, | |_easant, Charming_.| +-------------------+ These boys are bathing in the stream When they should be at school: The master's coming round to see Who disregards his rule. [Illustration] E e. +----------------------------+ | ECCENTRICITY, | |_Irregularity, Strangeness_.| +----------------------------+ We often see things seeming strange; But scarce so strange as this:-- Here everything is mis-applied, Here every change amiss. [Illustration] F f. +---------------------------------+ | FRAUD, | |_Deceit, Trick, Artifice, Cheat_.| +---------------------------------+ Here is Pat Murphy, fast asleep. And there is Neddy Bray: The thief a watchful eye doth keep Until he gets away. [Illustration] G g. +------------------------+ | GENIUS, | |_Mental Power, Faculty_.| +------------------------+ A little boy with little slate May sometimes make more clear The little thoughts that he would state Than can by words appear. [Illustration] H h. +----------------+ | HORROR, | |_Terror, Dread_.| +----------------+ This little harmless speckled frog Seems Lady Townsend's dread: I fear she'll run away and cry, And hide her silly head. [Illustration] I i. J j. +----------------------------+ | ICHABOD AT THE JAM. | | | |ICHABOD, _a Christian Name_.| |JAM, _a Conserve of Fruits_.| +----------------------------+ Enough is good, excess is bad: Yet Ichabod you see, Will with the jam his stomach cram, Until they disagree. [Illustration] K k. +-------------------------+ | KNOWING, | |_Conscious, Intelligent_.| +-------------------------+ Tho' horses know both beans and corn, And snuff them in the wind; They also all know Jemmy Small, And what he holds behind. [Illustration] L l. +-----------------------------+ | LUCKY, | |_Fortunate, Happy by Chance_.| +-----------------------------+ We must admire, in Lovebook's case. The prompt decision made: As he could not have gained the wood If time had been delayed. [Illustration] M m. +-----------------------+ | MIMIC, | |_Imitative, Burlesque_.| +-----------------------+ The Gentleman, who struts so fine, Unconscious seems to be Of Imitation by the boy Who has the street-door key. [Illustration] N n. +-----------------------------+ | NEGLIGENCE, | |_Heedlessness, Carelessness_.| +-----------------------------+ The character Tom Slowboy bears Would much against him tell-- For any work that's wanted done, Or even play done well. [Illustration] O o. +----------------------------+ | OBSTINACY, | |_Stubbornness, Waywardness_.| +----------------------------+ The obstinacy of the pig Is nature--as you see: But boys and girls who have a mind Should never stubborn be. [Illustration] P p. +-------------------------------+ | PETS, | |_Favourites, Spoilt Fondlings_.| +-------------------------------+ Some people say that Aunty Gray To animals is kind; We think, instead, they are over fed, And kept too much confined. [Illustration] Q q. +------------------------+ | QUANDARY, | |_A Doubt, a Difficulty_.| +------------------------+ Dame Partlet's in difficulty And looks around with doubt: Let's hope, as she some way got in, She may some way get out. [Illustration] R r. +-------------------------+ | RIVALRY, | |_Competition, Emulation_.| +-------------------------+ In every competition prize This should be kept in view-- Whoever wins should be the one Who does deserve it, too. [Illustration] S s. +---------------------------+ | SLUGGARD, | |_An Inactive, Lazy Fellow_.| +---------------------------+ To lie so many hours in bed You surely must be ill-- And need some physic, Master Ned, As birch, or draught, or pill! [Illustration] T t. +--------------------------+ | TOPSY-TURVY, | |_Upside Down, Bottom Top_.| +--------------------------+ Here's Topsy-Turvy, upside down, The ceiling seems the base: Reverse the ground and 'twill be found The things are out of place. [Illustration] U u. V v. +----------------------------------+ | UNCOMMON VEGETATION. | | | |UNCOMMON, _Rare, not Frequent_. | |VEGETATION, _the Power of Growth_.| +----------------------------------+ Th' uncommon vegetation, here, With art has much to do: The trees are nature, but the fruit Uncommon and untrue. [Illustration] W w. +---------------------------+ | WONDER, | |_Admiration, Astonishment_.| +---------------------------+ The wise may live and wonder still, However much they know, But simple Giles has wonder found Within the penny show. [Illustration] X x. +----------------------------------------+ |NO ENGLISH WORD BEGINS WITH THIS LETTER.| | XANTIPPE, | | _A Greek Matron, Wife of Socrates_. | +----------------------------------------+ Here's Socrates and Xantippe-- Philosopher and wife-- For gentleness renowned was he; She, better known for strife. [Illustration] Y y. +--------------------+ | YEARN, | |_To Grieve, to Vex_.| +--------------------+ Miss Cross has tried to reach the grapes, She's tried and tried again-- And now she's vexed to think that all Her efforts are in vain. [Illustration] Z z. +----------------------------+ | ZANY, | |_A Buffoon, a Merry Andrew_.| +----------------------------+ Here's Zany reading in a book-- With heels above his head-- And, judging by his laughing look, Finds fun in what he's read. MORAL TALES. ABLUTION.--Poor little fellow, you are certainly making comical faces: I fear the soap has got into your eyes, and that you will make that towel very black indeed. All boys, when they wash themselves, should take care to rinse off the soap and dirt before using the towel. To make the poor little sweep quite clean would take much washing. I should like to see the soap and water a little cleaner. Many of us have nice wash-stands and baths of marble, but this poor little fellow must make the best of what he can get. See how cleverly he has put a brick under the broken leg of the stool to prop it. I like to see boys clever and ingenious. BARTER.--Miss Lucy Hart was a nice girl, but rather thoughtless, little regarding any time but the present--new things in her eyes being the prettiest and the best;--thus, she would cast away old toys for new ones, as if she were not likely to want them again. See, Master George Mc Gregor is bartering for her skipping-rope; offering some fruit in exchange for it. The fruit he has picked off the tree without permission. I know Lucy's mamma will be vexed; for not only will the fruit soon be gone, and the skip-rope wanted again, but it was a present from Papa. The plaything cost far more than a little fruit, which will be quickly eaten, and possibly make Lucy unwell after so much as she has had to-day. CATASTROPHE.--Poor dear lady! has the cat tried to help himself to a gold fish, and overturned the handsome glass vase? Naughty Tom! greedy puss! I am sure kind Mrs. Blossom always feeds you well; and I think you know that you have done wrong, or you would not run so fast over the rails into Admiral Seaworth's garden, where he keeps his large dog Neptune, who may bark and send you back in a fright. Poor fish, see how they gasp!--run and fetch some water, or they will die. Men drown in water, but fish cannot live out of it. It is the nature of cats to catch mice and birds--so that we should keep our little favourites out of their reach. DELIGHTFUL.--These boys, I fear, are bathing without their parents' consent, which is very wrong, indeed. It is very pleasant in the water on a fine day; but little boys should not go there, as it might be deep, and they might become cramped in their limbs, and be drowned when no one was near, as many naughty boys have been before now. It is proper that boys should learn to swim, when with Papa or some kind friend, but not as these boys have. I feel just sure they have played the truant--as I see the village school-master, with his little dog, coming over the rustic bridge to catch them. I think that the letter D might, in this case, stand for Disobedient as well as Delightful. ECCENTRICITY.--What have we here?--a very odd, comical picture, indeed! What a strange fellow, to put his hat upon the fire, and a saucepan on his head. I do declare he has his trowsers and waistcoat on wrong side before. See, he has taken the poker for a walking-stick, put a greasy candle in the book, and the eggs upon the floor. Why a small baby-boy would not do this: the poor fellow must be out of his right mind. You may laugh at this odd picture for it is very ridiculous, and will hurt no one; but good children should never make sport of those who are deformed in mind or body, for it is not a fault but a misfortune to be so. FRAUD.--Patrick Murphy--commonly called, for shortness, Pat--was a very stupid little man; he reared pigs, and had he been sober, would have by this time saved a little property; but, no, Pat liked beer and strong drink: so that upon market-days he was far less sensible than his own jackass--which did know its way home--and for a long time took back foolish tipsy Pat safely; until one day, the roads being very bad, the cart came to a stop, and Neddy could pull no further. A rogue passing, seeing Pat asleep, unloosed the donkey from the cart, leaving Pat to awake, and much wonder what could have become of Neddy Bray, the donkey. It was very wrong of the man to take Pat's donkey, although Pat was a drunken fellow. GENIUS.--Bravo! my little Artist. I dare say if you try again you will improve upon your first attempt. All people should learn to draw, that they may be able to describe a form in a very few lines, making things intelligible at sight which could not be described in any other way. A little knowledge of drawing will lead to a love of pictures and delight in the beautiful works of nature. Giotto, a great painter, who lived many hundred years ago, was but a poor shepherd-boy, who amused himself by drawing portraits of his sheep as he tended them on the hills; from rude attempts he rose to be a great artist, whose works are treasured by kings and princes. I dare say you may some day see some of the works of Giotto, the great Italian painter. HORROR.--This drawing represents little Lady Selina Jemima Townsend as she appeared when afraid. Afraid--of what? Why, a poor tiny reptile, a harmless frog, that had jumped into her hat full of daisies, with a croak, as much as to say--"How do you do? Good morning, Lady Townsend; I am glad to see you down in the country." But what do you think she did? Why, the little lady scampered away as fast as she could to her governess, in whose dress she hid her face, crying,--saying she had seen "a nasty horrid thing." For this her governess reproved her, saying, "God created nothing in vain." Frogs are harmless and beautiful when in the water, through which they can swim and dive with wonderful ease. ICHABOD AT THE JAM.--Ichabod is an odd name, but such is the name of the little boy in the picture. He was much pampered by his parents, and never knew when he had had enough. Ichabod would cry for things to eat, then cry again because he could eat no more, and after all cry, because eating made him feel sick and ill: but that was not all; Ichabod was, I am ashamed to say, a thief. He stole the jam when his mother thought he was asleep in bed. See, Betty the maid has heard a noise, and caught the rogue in the act. To-morrow and for many days Ichabod will be ill in bed, and have to take much nasty physic. I wish he had _mis_-taken the mustard for honey, and burnt his naughty, fibbing tongue. KNOWING.--Ah! ah! Jemmy Small. I fear the steeds are too knowing for you to-day. They appear conscious: they would like the beans and corn you have in the sieve, but do not like the halter you are hiding behind your back. More than one has kicked up his heels, as much as to say--"Catch me if you can!" You seem to think, as you bite the straw in your mouth, that they may give you a pretty run. I know Bob, the pony, will not be soon caught. Horses and other animals like play much better than work, but good boys and girls ought to love both, and not require sweetmeats to induce them to do their duty--for they have intellects of a high order, and may become clever men and women. LUCKY.--Master Lovebook was indeed lucky in his escape from the Bull--and I will tell you how it happened: In going to school, this young gentleman had to go round by the wood and across the meadows, when one day he observed a savage bull making towards him; alarmed, he did not run crying anywhere, but considered one moment, and made back the shortest way to the wood, with all speed for the posts, just as the savage animal was going to toss him high in the air. Master Lovebook was unfortunate in meeting the bull, but fortunate in having the posts between him and the infuriated animal. In danger, brave little boys never cry, but think what is the best to be done. MIMIC.--To be vain of anything is not right, and to be proud of fine clothes very silly indeed. The young gentleman in the picture, I think, is vain. See, he is smoking a cigar, and if we may judge by the expression of his face, we may presume that he does not fully enjoy it. As he struts along the rude boys ridicule him. See the boy behind mimicking his airs and graces--using the handle of the door-key for an eye-glass. I fear that lad's mirth will soon be changed into sorrow--for the jug must be broken against the post, and the beer spilled--so that in turn he will be laughed at. We cannot help smiling at the little coxcomb, although at the same time we pity him. NEGLIGENCE.--Here is Tommy Slowboy, the lowest boy in the day-school, too idle to learn or even play. See how vacantly he stands gaping at the men clearing the snow from the house-tops, with his hand in his pocket because he has lost his glove, having placed the hot shoulder of mutton down in the cold snow. No wonder the first dog passing helps itself to the joint. Tom will not only be chid, but have to go without his dinner. Yet, what cares Tom for scolding or anything else, he who is so neglectful of duty? Mind that you strive to learn early, that you may become wise and happy hereafter. Look at the picture of Tommy Slowboy, and avoid apathy and indolence. OBSTINACY.--Obstinacy is a sad thing. See the naughty Pig in the picture, how he pulls in the opposite direction. Master Pig will be obliged to go into the sty, and very likely get the whip for his pains; like a wayward child that gets chid for disobedience. I hope there are very few disobedient young ladies and gentlemen, like the perverse pig. The pig is a stupid animal: but I have heard of a learned pig that could tell his letters, pointing to them with his snout; but most swine are dirty in their ways, and not at all particular--little caring so long as they can eat, grunt, and sleep. The pig will often lie in the dirtiest corner of his house, and stand in its trough of food. PETS.--Here is a portrait of Aunt Gray feeding her Pets, or rather stuffing the poor monkey. Some people say Miss Gray is kind to animals, but I do not think so, for she keeps her pets prisoners--feeding them too much, and all for her own pleasure, until they become like spoilt children, peevish, and always wanting sweet things. Kind children love animals, and delight to see them free. In the Zoological Gardens animals are not pets; they have there plenty of room, and are nicely kept for our instruction. See, poor Jacko, the monkey, has grown too fat to leap, as in his native woods he used, from bough to bough. The poor gold fish have hardly room to turn in their glass prison: how they would enjoy a swim in the garden pond! QUANDARY.--Poor Dame Partlet having got into the back yard cannot get out again. She is in a Quandary, for she fears the dogs will bite her--though their chains are not long enough. Keeper, the mastiff, is a noble fellow, and would not hurt women or children; neither would Nero, the bull-dog; he would rather face a lion or a wild ox: whilst Snap, the terrier, barks and snarls in the company of his brave companions. Little boys and girls should not touch strange dogs, for they sometimes snap at those who are not familiar to them. To take food from dogs is not prudent, for they growl, bite, and are ill-tempered, like a little fellow would be if deprived of his dinner, after he had tasted the first morsel. RIVALRY.--To compete for good is famous--such as little boys rivalling one another in a race up the Ladder of Learning--that is exercise of the mind. Here we have a picture of country boys exercising their strength--climbing up a pole covered with grease, for a prize of food for the body. The boy that wins the leg of mutton will be the hero of the fair, and be carried round the place on the shoulders of the men. See how they strive and tear to win the prize. I should not wonder if they all slipped down together, notwithstanding the encouraging cheers of the crowd. See how the man on the housetop swings his hat in the air, and the people applaud. A few inches higher, and the prize is won. SLUGGARD.--Heavy-headed, sleepy Ned, awake, arise! You lazy fellow! Look at the clock! Eight hours' rest is enough for any little boy--and here you have taken nearly fourteen. All Sluggards should get their slates, and calculate how much time they waste every year--weeks that can never be regained. If you only lie in bed two hours later than you should every day, you lose more than one day in a week, or sixty-four days in the course of the year: which, at the end of seventy years, would be awful indeed! Twelve whole years lost! Lazy, idle people, never seem to have time for anything: industrious ones, time for anything and everything. I hope when little Ned sees his portrait he will be shocked with his appearance, and reform his ways. TOPSY-TURVY.--Well, of all the funny pictures in this droll book I think this the drollest--a big letter T resting on its top on the ceiling, like in an overturned doll's house, or a view taken by an artist standing upon his head. Turn it over, and see how comical it looks--everything appears to have lost its gravity. _Gravity_ means the power that holds us to the earth (as Papa's loadstone attracts the needle): if it were not for gravity, we could not move about. Some day you shall read in that nice book called the "Evenings at Home," about gravity, and why an apple falls to the ground. A great philosopher, Sir Isaac Newton, discovered why, as he lay under a tree. At a future time you will learn about gravity and many other things. UNCOMMON VEGETATION.--Uncle Periwinkle was very kind; he loved nature and his nephews dearly. He wore green spectacles, a dressing-gown all covered with leaves, and a large straw hat; in fact he was very fond of gardening, and reared all kinds of odd plants--this his nephews knew, and determined to play a joke upon him--not a cruel, heartless joke, that would hurt or destroy anything: no! they were too kind for that. They only carefully tied the carpenter's planes upon the plane-tree, as if it were fruit--and some little boxes of all colours upon the box-tree, like blossom; so that when the old gentleman beheld it, he exclaimed--"Uncommon Vegetation!" upon which John and Walter came laughing out of the greenhouse to receive a bunch of fine grapes for their pleasant joke. WONDER.--So, Master Ploughboy Giles, you are spending your penny and your holiday at the fair. You seem not a little astonished at what you have seen in that peep-show. Surely you cannot imagine that they are real; it is the magnifying power of the glasses that makes the pictures appear so large. The pyramids of Egypt are the largest stone buildings in the world, and the oldest; the Behemoth, a huge animal that existed thousands of years ago (but I do not think it had wings like a butterfly, as in the showman's picture); Daniel Lambert was an enormously fat man, who died a long time back. All these things must be in miniature if they are to be seen in that small box, very little larger than a dog's house. XANTIPPE.--The comical event pictured here occurred more than two thousand years ago: Xantippe, the wife of the great and good philosopher Socrates, continually tormented him with her ill-humour--using him very cruelly--one day emptying a vessel of dirty water over her celebrated husband, whom she ought to have loved: he only remarked, that "after thunder there generally falls rain." Socrates lived in the refined city of Athens; he was one of the most eminent philosophers of Greece; he was very plain in person, as you perceive by the picture: but a man may be great and good, yet ugly, as Socrates was. The philosopher had enemies who sought his destruction; he was killed with poison. After his death his accusers were despised, as you will read in ancient history some day. YEARN.--What have we here? Little Miss Cross vexed, just because she cannot get at the grapes. I am sure I should not like to have my portrait drawn with such a sullen face. She has been trying to take fruit without her aunt's permission, that very likely is unripe and improper for her. The walk in a delightful garden ought not to make her long to eat all the fruit she sets eyes upon, or wish to pick the sweet flowers, that last much longer upon the plants than when plucked. I perceive that the peevish young lady in the picture has been picking the flowers. See, they are strewn upon the seat beside her, under those dirty feet that have trodden down the beds of mould. I am afraid Miss Cross cannot be a joyous, happy child, because disobedient. ZANY.--Finis is the Latin word for finish, and here it is the last droll picture--a Zany laughing at his portrait in this comical book, which he seems vastly to enjoy. What a droll fellow, to read with his head where his heels should be, like the clown in the pantomime. Look at his staff, the cock and bells, with which he dances, making a jingling noise. A Zany is not an idiot, but often a funny clever fellow, paid to make people laugh. We all like a good laugh sometimes. Many years ago kings used to keep jesters to amuse the company; King Henry the Eighth had a clever jester, called Will Somers, whose portrait was painted by a great artist named Holbein, which is now in the palace at Hampton Court, and may be seen by those who love pictures. ILLUSTRATED POPULAR EDUCATIONAL WORKS, PUBLISHED BY WARD AND LOCK, 158, FLEET STREET, LONDON. Messrs. WARD and LOCK have much pleasure in announcing that they have just purchased the Copyrights of many of the Valuable ILLUSTRATED EDUCATIONAL WORKS lately published from the office of the _Illustrated London News_. The New Editions of these Popular Books have been most carefully revised, and in their present state arrive as near perfection as possible. It is the intention of the present proprietors of these Educational Books to continue the Series, and they have already made arrangements to this effect. The object of the Publishers is to supply a Series of Illustrated Volumes, adapted both for Schools and Private Study, which shall be accurate and complete text-books, _and at a price within the reach of every one_. The old system of instruction, by which the names of things only were presented to the mind of the pupil, has been long admitted to have been imperfect and unsuccessful. With the young it is necessary to speak to the Eye, as well as to the Mind--to give a picture of an object as well as a description; and the adoption of such a plan of tuition is not only far more effective than that which is confined to words, but is at the same time much less irksome to the teacher, and more pleasant to the pupil. A greater interest is excited, and the representation of the object remains clear and distinct in the mind of the child long after the verbal description has passed away. --> For Particulars of the "Illustrated Popular Educational Works," see Catalogue. * * * * * JUST READY, THE ILLUSTRATED WEBSTER SPELLING BOOK. Demy 8vo, embellished with upwards of 250 SPLENDID ENGRAVINGS By GILBERT, HARVEY, DALZIEL, and other eminent artists. 128 pp., new and accented type, upon the principle of "Webster's Dictionary of the English Language." Cloth, gilt lettered, price 1s.; coloured, 2s. *.* The "ILLUSTRATED WEBSTER SPELLING BOOK" has been most carefully compiled by an Eminent English Scholar, who is daily engaged in the tuition of youth, and, therefore, knows exactly what is really useful in a Spelling Book. The Reading Lessons are arranged upon a new progressive principle, exceedingly simple, and well adapted for the purpose. The Accented Type has been adopted, so as to ensure correct pronunciation. The old system of mis-spelling words is dangerous in the extreme, and, therefore, very justly, has now fallen into disuse. In a word, the "ILLUSTRATED WEBSTER SPELLING BOOK," whether considered in respect to its Typography, Binding, or Beauty of its Illustrations, must take the highest position as a School-Book, entirely setting aside the old-fashioned, and, in most instances, unintelligible--so called--helps to learning. 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It is almost unnecessary to state, that only an enormous sale can reimburse the Publishers in issuing an edition at so low a price as =1s. 6d.=; still, Messrs. WARD and LOCK feel assured that their good intentions will be appreciated by an extensive and continually increasing sale. "WEBSTER" is now the only reliable authority on the English Language, and it is only right that every Englishman, however humble his sphere, should be able to purchase the best English Dictionary. Whilst the Cheaper Edition, at =1s. 6d.=, is well adapted for National and British Schools, the Half-Crown Edition, on superior paper, and bound in cloth, gilt lettered, will be always in demand for Schools of a higher grade. * * * * * Third Edition, Revised. THE ILLUSTRATED DRAWING BOOK. Comprising a complete Introduction to Drawing and Perspective; with Instructions for Etching on Copper or Steel, &c. &c. By ROBERT SCOTT BURN. Illustrated with above 300 Subjects for Study in every branch of Art. Demy 8vo, cloth, 2s. *.* This extremely popular and useful "Drawing Book" has been thoroughly revised by the Author, and many new Illustrations are added, thus rendering the =Third Edition= the most perfect Handbook of Drawing for Schools and Students. "This is one of those cheap and useful publications lately issued by WARD and LOCK. It is what it professes to be--an elementary book, in which the rules laid down are simple and few, and the drawings to be copied and studied are easily delineated and illustrative or first principles."--_Globe._ "We could point to a work selling for twelve shillings not half so complete, nor containing half the number of illustrations. Perhaps of all the books for which the public are indebted to Messrs. WARD and LOCK this one will be found most extensively and practically useful. 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As a handbook for the instruction of youth, it would be difficult to surpass it."--_Derby Mercury._ * * * * * Second Edition, Revised by the Author. THE STEAM ENGINE: ITS HISTORY AND MECHANISM. Being Descriptions and Illustrations of the Stationary, Locomotive, and Marine Engine. By ROBERT SCOTT BURN. Demy 8vo, 200 pp., cloth, 3s. *.* A most perfect compendium of everything appertaining to the Steam Engine. Mr. BURN treats his subjects in a thoroughly practical and popular manner, so that he who runs may read, and also understand. "Mr. BURN's History of the Steam Engine treats an interesting subject in an admirably intelligible manner, and is illustrated by some excellent Diagrams. This is a book for the general reader, and deserves a wide circulation."--_Leader._ * * * * * Third Edition, Revised. THE ILLUSTRATED PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. Edited by ROBERT SCOTT BURN, Editor of the "Illustrated Drawing Book." Demy 8vo, cloth, 2s. "Suited to the youthful mind, and calculated to assist Instructors, filled as it is with really good Diagrams and Drawings elucidatory of the text."--_Globe._ * * * * * LONDON: WARD AND LOCK, 158, FLEET STREET AND ALL BOOKSELLERS. 
30243	----	ABC OF FOX HUNTING consisting of 26 coloured illustrations. BY THE LATE SIR JOHN DEAN PAUL BART LONDON J. MITCHELL ROYAL LIBRARY, BOND STREET. [Illustration: A. was Andrews my man, who was A.1. his art in.] [Illustration: B. my Buckskins & Boots, ready for me to start in.] [Illustration: C. The Cover-Hack, giving my Lord's drag the go by.] [Illustration: D. The Slap up Dog-Cart, which the driver you know by.] [Illustration: E. was the Earth-stopper, early and willing.] [Illustration: F. were the Fox-hounds, so far famed for killing.] [Illustration: G. was the Gorse-Cover, certain for foxes.] [Illustration: H. were the Hunters, just fresh from their boxes.] [Illustration: I. was the Inn-keeper, filling snobs' glasses.] [Illustration: J. was the jumping lot taking the grasses.] [Illustration: K. was the Keeper, all foxes the foe of.] [Illustration: L. were the Little Boys, bound for the "throw off".] [Illustration: M. was the Master, who gave the "View Holloa!"] [Illustration: N. was the Nobody, craning to follow.] [Illustration: O. was the Old Whipper-in, lifting tail hounds.] [Illustration: P. was the Parson, ne'er known yet to fail hounds.] [Illustration: Q. was the queer place, which puzzled the craners.] [Illustration: R. was the Racing-pace, pumping complainers.] [Illustration: S. was the Stile and ditch, we jumped in clover.] [Illustration: T. was the tumble, which turned my Lord over.] [Illustration: U. was the Upland, where we viewed the Fox in.] [Illustration: V. was the very last field--just five frocks in.] [Illustration: W. worry him, whoo whoop, can't Joe shout it.] [Illustration: X. X.X. Who can go home without it?] [Illustration: Y. were the Yeomen--each yarning his story.] [Illustration: Z. was the Zany, all alone in his glory.] Transcriber's Note Punctuation has been standardized. 
39398	----	A SYSTEM OF EASY LETTERING. BY J. HOWARD CROMWELL, PH.B., Fourth Thousand. [Illustration] SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 12 CORTLANDT STREET, NEW YORK. 1897. COPYRIGHT, 1887, BY WM. CHAMBERLAIN. PREFACE. The formality of a preface may seem scarcely necessary for the supplementing of a system as simple and comprehensible as the one herewith presented. We have but to divide any surface we may wish to letter into squares (or parallelograms as the case may be), in pencil lines; form the required letters, in ink or paint, and according to the style chosen; erase the pencil lines, and the lettering is complete. J. H. C. [Illustration: 1] [Illustration: 2] [Illustration: 3] [Illustration: 4] [Illustration: 5] [Illustration: 6] [Illustration: 7] [Illustration: 8] [Illustration: 9] [Illustration: 10] [Illustration: 11] [Illustration: 12] [Illustration: 13] [Illustration: 14] [Illustration: 15] [Illustration: 16] [Illustration: 17] [Illustration: 18] [Illustration: 19] [Illustration: 20] [Illustration: 21] [Illustration: 22] [Illustration: 23] [Illustration: 24] [Illustration: 25] [Illustration: 26] * * * * * The ORNAMENTAL PENMAN'S ENGRAVERS · SIGN · WRITERS AND STONECUTTERS POCKET BOOK OF ALPHABETS INCLUDING CHURCH TEXT, EGYPTIAN, EGYPTIAN PERSPECTIVE, FRENCH, FRENCH ANTIQUE, FRENCH RENAISSANCE, GERMAN TEXT, _ITALIC_, _ITALIAN SHADED_, _ITALIAN HAIRLINE_, Monograms, Old English, Old Roman, Open Roman, Open Stone, Ornamental, ROMAN, LATIN, RUSTIC, TUSCAN, &c. SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, _Publishers_, 12 CORTLANDT STREET, NEW YORK. THE BEST AND CHEAPEST IN THE MARKET. ALGEBRA SELF-TAUGHT. BY W. 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A thoroughly reliable work of 200 pages, 12mo, cloth, $2.50. =Logarithms.=--Tables of logarithms of the natural numbers from 1 to 108,000 with constants. By CHARLES BABBAGE, M.A. 220 pages, 8vo, cloth, $3.00. =Logarithms.=--A. B. C. Five figure logarithms for general use. By C. J. WOODWARD, B.Sc. 143 pages, complete thumb index 12mo, limp leather, $1.60. _Books mailed post-paid to any address on receipt of price_ [Illustration: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING] NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. DEVOTED TO =Art, Architecture, Archaeology, Engineering and Decoration.= PUBLISHED ONCE A WEEK. Subscription, $4.00 per year. Foreign Subscription, $6.00. Sample Copy Free. 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Printed on one side, in blue ink, all the lines being of equal thickness. Size of sheet, 8 × 10 inches. In lots of 100 sheets, price, 75c. THE HANDY SKETCHING PAD. Made from this paper, with useful tables. Size 8 × 10 inches. Price, 25c. each. Per dozen pads, $2.50. THE HANDY SKETCHING BOOK. Made from this paper but printed on both sides. Size of book 5 × 8 inches, stiff board covers. Price, 25c each; per dozen books, $2.50. =Or Books and Pads Assorted, per dozen, $2.50.= Scale EIGHT to ONE Inch. A large sheet with heavy inch lines and half inch lines, printed in orange ink. Size of sheet, 17 × 22 inches. Per quire (24 sheets), 75c. Scale TEN to ONE Inch. Size 17 × 22 inches, printed in blue ink, with heavy inch lines and half inch lines. Per quire (24 sheets), 75c. =The Electrician's Sketching Book.= Made from this paper. Scale 10 to 1 inch. Size of book 5 × 8 inches, with stiff board covers. Price, 25c. each; per dozen, $2.50. ANY QUANTITY MAILED TO ANY PART OF THE WORLD ON RECEIPT OF PRICE. _Pads of any size and thickness, in quantities, made to order._ This paper is _not ruled_. Try it and you will find it GOOD, ACCURATE AND CHEAP. =SPON & CHAMBERLAIN,= =12 CORTLANDT STREET, NEW YORK.= =TRY THIS PAPER FOR EASY LETTERING.= THIRD THOUSAND. =New Edition (Oblong 8 × 11 inches), boards 32 pages text, 44 illustrations, and 9 full-page plates=, Price $1.00 LETTERING FOR DRAFTSMEN ENGINEERS AND STUDENTS. _A Practical System of Freehand Lettering for Working Drawings_ BY CHARLES W. REINHARDT, _Chief Draftsman for "Engineering News."_ What this work actually intends to show is a "Practical System of Freehand Lettering for Working Drawings"--one that by the method outlined, is easily acquired and rapidly executed. The mode of procedure given for every letter can easily be followed and always be remembered, and by avoiding the common errors, as pointed out in parenthesis alongside each correctly formed letter, the student will very soon be able to form satisfactory letters for himself.--_Preface_. TESTIMONIALS. "It is the first book on Lettering I have ever seen that is good for anything, practically speaking. I shall advocate its adoption in this college at the earliest opportunity."--_Prof. Walter Flint, Maine State College._ "It comes nearer to may ideal of a satisfactory treatment of this subject than anything I have ever seen."--_Professor E H. Lockwood, Yale University._ "My opinion of it is good, generally, and that it fills a long felt want. It teaches what I have been trying to teach for some time--commercial work."--_Prof. W.B. Hampson, University of Nebraska._ "It is just what my knowledge of the author's work on _Engineering News_ would lead me to expect--a practical system. 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37103	----	[ Transcriber's Note: Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible, including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation. No changes have been made to the printed text. ] OF THE JUST SHAPING OF LETTERS BY ALBRECHT DÜRER TRANSLATED BY R. T. NICHOL FROM THE LATIN TEXT OF THE EDITION OF MDXXXV OF THE JUST SHAPING OF LETTERS FROM THE APPLIED GEOMETRY OF ALBRECHT DÜRER BOOK JJJ DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC. NEW YORK ALBRECHT DÜRER TO WILIBALD PIRCKHEIMER HIS PATRON AND VERY GOOD FRIEND GREETING: [Illustration] In our Germany, most excellent Wilibald, are to be found at the present day many young men of a happy talent for the Art Pictorial, who without any artistic training whatever, but taught only by their daily exercise of it, have run riot like an unpruned tree, so that unhesitatingly and without compunction they turn out their works, purely according to their own judgment. But when great and ingenious artists behold their so inept performances, not undeservedly do they ridicule the blindness of such men; since sane judgment abhors nothing so much as a picture perpetrated with no technical knowledge, although with plenty of care and diligence. Now the sole reason why painters of this sort are not aware of their own error is that they have not learnt Geometry, without which no one can either be or become an absolute artist; but the blame for this should be laid upon their masters, who themselves are ignorant of this art. Since this is in very truth the foundation of the whole graphic art, it seems to me a good thing to set down for studious beginners a few rudiments, in which I might, as it were, furnish them with a handle for using the compass and the rule, and thence, by seeing Truth itself before their eyes, they might become not only zealous of the arts, but even arrive at a great and true understanding of them. Now, although in our own time, and amongst ourselves, the Art Pictorial is in ill repute with some, as being held to minister incitement to idolatry, yet a Christian man is no more enticed to superstition by pictures or images, than is an honest man girt with a sword to highway robbery. Certes he would be a witless creature who would willingly adore either pictures or images of wood or stone. On the contrary, a picture is the rather edifying and agreeable to Christian religion and duty, if only it be fairly, artificially, and correctly painted. In what honour and dignity this art was anciently held amongst the Greeks and Romans, the old authors sufficiently testify; though afterwards all but lost, while it lay hid for more than a thousand years. It has now at length, only within the last two hundred years, by some Italians been brought again to light. For it is the easiest thing in the world for the Arts to be lost and perish; but only with difficulty, and after long time & pains are they resuscitated. Wherefore I hope that no wise man will defame this laborious task of mine, since with good intent & in behoof of all who love the Liberal Arts have I undertaken it: nor for painters alone, but for goldsmiths too, & for sculptors, and stonecutters, and woodcarvers, and for all, in short, who use compass, and rule, and measuring line--that it may serve to their utility. Nor is anyone compelled whether or no to spend gainful hours on these exercises of mine; although I am not ignorant that whoever is well exercised in them will thence acquire not only the principles of his own art, but by daily practice, an exactitude of judgment, with which he will proceed to higher investigations & discover many more things than I have here pointed out. But since, illustrious Sir, it is clearer than light that you are yourself, so to speak, an asylum of all the noble Arts, it has been my pleasure, out of a singular love I bear towards you, to dedicate to you this book; not because I desire to appear therein as rendering you any great service, but because thereby you may understand how engaged my mind is to you; and since by my work I can confer on you but little favour, at least by the exhibition of a ready mind I may repay the benefits you shower upon me. Farewell. [Illustration] OF THE JUST SHAPING OF LETTERS FROM THE APPLIED GEOMETRY OF ALBRECHT DÜRER BOOK III. Now, since architects, painters & others at times are wont to set an inscription on lofty walls, it will make for the merit of the work that they form the letters correctly. Accordingly I am minded here to treat briefly of this. And first I will give rules for a Latin Alphabet, and then for one of our common Text: since it is of these two sorts of letters we customarily make use in such work; and first, for the Roman letters: Draw for each a square of uniform size, in which the letter is to be contained. But when you draw in it the heavier limb of the letter, make this of the width of a tenth part of the square, and the lighter a third as wide as the heavier: and follow this rule for all letters of the Alphabet. First, make an A after this fashion: Indicate the angles of the square by the letters a. b. c. d. (and so do for all the rest of the letters): then divide the square by two lines bisecting one another at right angles--the vertical e. f. the horizontal g. h.: then, in the lower line, take two points, i. and k., distant respectively one-tenth of the space c. d. from the points c. and d.: then, from the point i. draw upwards to the top of the square the lighter limb; & thence downwards the heavier limb, so that the outer edges of both may touch, respectively, the points i. and k.: then let a triangle be left between the limbs, and a point e. be fixed at top in the middle of the letter, and next join both limbs beneath the horizontal line, and let this limb be a third as broad as the heavier limb. Now let the arc of a circle, applied to the top of the outside edge of the heavier limb, project beyond the square. Then cut off the top of the letter with a serpentine or curving line, so that the concavity decline towards the lighter limb, and prolong acutely either limb of the letter at the bottom to either side, so as to meet the angles of the square at c. and d.: this you shall make with the arc of a circle, whose semi-diameter is one-seventh of the side of the square; but the two lower curves, mutually opposite, permit to extend so that each is a third of the heavier limb, and this you shall obtain by the arc of a circle whose diameter is equal to the breadth of the heavier limb. Moreover, this same letter A you may cut off at top with the side of the square, and then produce to a fine point in either direction, as you did the feet below, yet so that the longer production shall be to the fore-side (namely, the left); but in this case it will be necessary to draw in the limb k. a little closer. Likewise the same A you may draw in yet another manner--that is, pointed at top. In that case let the limbs slope towards one another yet more closely; then lower the transverse a little and double its width. You may also cut off the limb at top bluntly, or sharpen it on the fore-side. You ought to make yourself familiar with these three forms, or whichever of them pleases you best. And note likewise that in exactly the same fashion in which this letter is acutely prolonged at top & bottom, are the other letters to be so prolonged which are drawn with oblique lines, as V, X, Y, although a few changes may be necessary, as you shall hear below. I have here subjoined an engraving of this letter. [Illustration: A] OF THE LETTER B. And now you shall draw B in its square thus: First divide the square horizontally by the line e. f.; then bisect the lines a. e. and b. f. by the line g. h. Next, you must first set properly the broad vertical limb of the letter, distant its own breadth from the side a. c. of the square a. b. c. d. Then erect the line i. k. on the inner side of the limb already drawn, and distant from it one-tenth of a side of the square, and let it cut the line g. h. in the point l. Next, draw strips narrower and horizontal (to be produced hereafter into the convex limbs) from the vertical band to meet the vertical line i. k.--namely, at top, below the line a. b.; next, above the line e. f.; and at bottom, above the line c. d. Now set a leg of the compass on the point l. and describe a semicircle to the right of the transverse strips, so that the extremities of the circumference, in the vertical line i. k., below the side a. b., and above the line e. f. may coincide with those short transverse lines. Then bisect the narrow transverse strip which is above the line e. f. in the line i. k. by the point m.; and indicate the breadth of the letter, to the right of the semicircle, by the point n. in the line g. h.; and afterwards draw from the point m. above the line e. f. in the direction of f. a short horizontal line as great as need be: then describe a semicircle which shall include this line, and the point n., and, at the top, the side a. b.; and through n. let pass a vertical line. These all combine to form, below, the concave of the curved limb, and above, its convex. Next, produce the transverse strip above c. d., in the direction of d., as far as required, and mark this q. Then bisect the line m. q. by the line o. p., cutting the line n. in the point r.; and next describe a semicircle touching the horizontal line e. f., the point r., and the position q. Then indicate the breadth of this limb of the letter by the point s. to the right of the point r. in the line o. p. and describe a semicircle, touching the line m., the point s., and the side of the square c. d. There will then remain in the letter three right angles to be eliminated: the interior and lower one may be shaped into a curve by a circle whose semi-diameter is two-thirds of the breadth of the broad limb of the letter, and the exterior ones you shall fine to a point by circular lines whose semi-diameter is equal to the breadth of that limb. Another method. Or you may make your B in this fashion: Let the side a. c. of the square be divided into nine equal parts, and cut off the four superior parts by the horizontal line e. f. Then erect your vertical limb as described above; and the superior curved limb you shall make between a. b. and e. f.; the inferior between e. f. and c. d. Now divide a. b. into nine equal parts, and cut off four parts towards b. in the point g.; then divide c. d. into five equal parts, and the last, towards d. mark off in the point h. and join g. and h. by the line g. h. which should touch on their exterior edges the superior and inferior limbs of the letter. Now these limbs must be drawn of a particular form; and the compass, in drawing the circular lines, must be moved up and down their diagonals: and these two diagonals you shall determine in this wise. Divide a. e. into four parts; the lowest, above e., call i. e.; the lowest of the five remaining, above c., call c. k. Then join the points i. and b. and k. and f. respectively, by the lines i. b. and k. f. Upon these lines move and turn your compass, & in this way you shall describe both curved limbs: and they must both be broader towards the top than towards the bottom, as follows naturally with the stroke of a pen, and, moreover, while approximately round, they are not to be circular; therefore you will have to move your compass at need along the diagonals, and withal to assist it also with the hand, as I have done in the picture on the following page. [Illustration: B] OF THE LETTER C. Next you shall make the letter C in its own square thus: Bisect the square a. b. c. d. by the horizontal line e. f. and in it let i. be the middle point. From this point as the centre, & i. f. or i. e. as the radius, describe a circle touching interiorly all four sides of the square. Now move the leg of the compass, but without varying its span, to a point k. a little to the right of i. in the line e. f., letting the space i. k. denote the greatest breadth of the letter you desire; & from the centre k. describe another circle which shall cut twice the line b. d., and whose circumference to the left will mark the required breadth of the letter. Next, draw the vertical line g. h., parallel to b. d., distant from b. a tenth part of the line a. b. This will cut off for you at top and bottom the letter C as the ancients were accustomed to use it. But I would have you cut off the lower limb in the middle point between g. h. and b. d.: then make the limbs somewhat finer and rounder on the inside towards top and bottom from the point where the circles intersect; and for its greater perfection round out the letter, above and below, to touch the sides of the square a. b. and c. d. Next, low down, where the letter with one foot crosses the line g. h., there, under the circular line make the form a little more incurved, yet so that with the tip of its end it shall again touch the circular line. Similarly, but higher up, make the foot more hollow on the inside than the circle left it: and thus two circular lines will give you very nearly the whole form of the letter. Another method. Or, secondly, you may make the letter C thus: Draw in the square a diagonal c. b.; set the leg of your compass on its middle point i. and with the other leg describe the exterior circle as before, terminating it above at the diagonal c. b.; but below, make your circle pass a little beyond the former sweep. Then set the leg of your compass, but without changing its gauge, as far above i. in the diagonal as the letter's greatest width, and describe your inner circle; and, as though made with a pen, let the descending stroke be heavier than the ascending. The rest you may elaborate with your hand; & let the trimming of the ends of the letter, above, slope upwards, & below, downwards, exactly as I have here drawn the shapes. [Illustration: C] THE LETTER D. The letter D you shall make thus: Divide its square by the perpendicular or vertical line g. h. and by the horizontal line e. f. into four small squares, and call their point of intersection i.: then draw the broader limb of the letter from the side a. b. downwards, to meet the side c. d. and at the distance of its own width from a. c.; and produce the limb at top and bottom to a sharp point at the angles a. and c. as was shown above in B; using the same method in all straight limbs in the remaining letters. Next you are to produce from this limb two narrower tracts horizontally, and from these are to be described the circular arcs of the letter between the line a. b. at top and the line c. d. at bottom, and extending as far as the perpendicular g. h.; next, with your compass join g. f. h. Then, in the line e. f. lay off a portion equal in breadth to the widest limb of the letter, at the point k.; next, set one foot of your compass on k. and let the other cut the said line e. f. in l.; let this be the immovable leg of your compass, and with the other, beginning from k., describe internally, to the narrower transverse limbs, an arc which shall touch both, completing your acute angle above, but rounding out the lower one by a circular arc of the same diameter as the one by which you sharpened your exterior subtending angle. Another method. You may make the round limb of the same D in another fashion; namely, as a pen naturally would, broader above than below. For this, draw the diagonal c. b. and describe your exterior arc as before; but to describe the interior, in the line c. b. take a point m. lower down than i. and distant from it the width of the broader limb, and without altering your compass describe an interior line; but where the limb must needs be narrower, there you are to accommodate it with your hand, both below and above, as in the following cut. [Illustration: D] THE LETTER E. The letter E you shall form in its square thus: Draw a transverse line e. f. bisecting a. b. and c. d. in e. and f.; then draw the great vertical limb of the letter, to the left, as you did for D. Next draw also an upper transverse limb of narrower dimensions, parallel to a. b. and in length six-tenths minus one-third of one-tenth of the length of a. b.; and the end of this bend downwards one-tenth of the length of a. b. and use this as the diameter of the circle with which you round out the inner angle of this extremity: then draw your narrow middle limb parallel to the median line e. f. and above it, so that it may be shorter than the upper limb by one-tenth of the length of a. b., but at its terminus double as wide; & you are to round it out (in either direction) by the arc of a circle whose diameter is one-sixth the length of e. f. Now construct your lowest limb upon the line c. d., so that at its ultimate angle it may exceed in length the upper limb by one-tenth of c. d.; the cusp, however, you are to prolong beyond this part by two-thirds of one-tenth part, and erect above it to one-sixth of the length of c. d., and round out the same by a circle whose semi-diameter is also a sixth of c. d. In like manner the final angle of the letter you shall round out by an arc of the same circle by which you rounded out the middle transverse limb: the other angles you are to leave acute, as in the following cut. [Illustration: E] THE LETTER F. The letter F you are to form in the same manner as E; except that you shall omit the lower limb altogether, and, in its place, round out the letter on both sides below, as you did E on one side only, as I have shown you below. [Illustration: F] THE LETTER G. Likewise the letter G you are to make as you did C, before described; this, however, excepted: that in front (that is, to the left) of the line g. h. is to be erected the broad limb of the letter, upwards from the curve to the line e. f., and above it is to be rounded to a point, on either side, as before was said; but below, both angles are to remain. Or, you shall form G in the following fashion in the said square, divided as before: Draw the diagonal c. b. and set your compass with one leg on the point i. and with the other describe an arc from e. to the middle point c. d. and mark this point l.; in like manner also, describe an arc upwards to the line a. b. so as to meet the perpendicular line g. h. & mark that point z. Then, in the line g. h., take a point m. so that the part m. h. shall be one-tenth of the line g. h.; then, with a sweep of your hand join l. & m. with the curved line l. m. Next, you are to draw from z. a line upwards, as broad as the standard of the letter, but oblique and in direction midway between your circular line & the perpendicular g. h. and from the extremity of this line you must draw a curved line to meet a. b. at the point where your circular line touches it. Next, cut off from the bottom of g. h. a part one-third of its length, & indicate this by the point n., & to this height, from the level of m. upwards, produce the broad limb of the letter, and let its extremities above be finished in either direction, of the same size. After this set the leg of your compass on the diagonal c. b. the breadth of the standard of the letter above i. & at the distance e. i. describe an arc, which above shall touch the exterior boundary a. b. but below shall stop short above l.; & from this point you must with your hand draw a line to the vertical limb at the height of m. And the same you shall do above in drawing the narrower limb of the letter, as seen in the following diagram. [Illustration: G] THE LETTER H. The letter H is to be formed of two broad, great, & vertical limbs of the height of the square, in such fashion that their extremities, being produced exteriorly, shall touch the four angles of the square, a. c. and b. d. respectively. Now in what fashion the projections of the broader limbs of letters are to be rounded out at top and bottom and on either side, you have been instructed; for in any letter you please, any broad and vertical limb is to be depicted at top and bottom thrice as broad as at its middle: provided always it is not joined to a narrower limb. So when this has been accomplished, then draw your narrower transverse limb upon the line e. f. as is shown below. [Illustration: H] THE LETTER I. The letter I you are to make of a single broad vertical tract in the midst of its square, touching the latter top and bottom; and of this, at both ends, and on either side, you are to round out the productions or projections as below is shown. [Illustration: I] THE LETTER K. Now for K: You are to make the first tract vertical, in the same manner as you formerly did for H; then draw another narrower limb from the broader and erect one, so that it may, at its lower end, impinge obliquely on the transverse line e. f. and above may ascend to the right till it meet the line a. b., taking care to make it parallel to the diagonal c. b.; and this, at the top, you are to produce in both directions so that each production may represent a tenth part of the line a. b. The hitherward projection you are to round out with a circle of which the diameter must not exceed the breadth of the lesser limb; but of the other arc, by means of which you round out the farther projection, you shall make the diameter double as great as the diameter of the arcs by which you have customarily hollowed out the preceding extensions of the broad and vertical limbs. Next, from the narrow limb so constructed draw in a downward direction another broad limb, so that it too may be parallel to a diagonal of the square; & of this the beginning is to be taken from the acute angle which the narrower limb makes with the broad vertical limb, and let it be drawn with its projection to the angle d., yet in this fashion: take two points this side of d. after this manner, so that the first point may be distant from d. the tenth part of the line c. d. & the second as far again from the first; then let the said tract be drawn within the space which is between the two points, but in blind and invisible lines. Afterwards you shall add the extension, which you shall make this way: take before f. in the line e. f., a point g. no farther distant from f. than the breadth of the narrower limb; on this point set one leg of your compass, & let the other be extended to the angle d., from which let it be guided back along the broad but invisible blind limb: thence will result the lower convexity of the tail you seek; but its upper concavity look for in this way: divide f. d. in its middle point h.; on this set one leg of your compass, and with the other describe an arc passing through d. to meet the broad limb. Or you may make K in this manner: First, let your broader vertical limb, and your upper narrow one remain as they have been described, except that the interior angle which the narrower limb forms with a. b. shall remain acute, but the exterior one shall be rounded out, as has been said. Then let there be drawn the lower broad limb, obliquely from the angle which is included between e. f. and the vertical limb, and let it descend to meet the side c. d. so that between d. and the limb the width of the limb be left vacant; and the hither angle is to be left, but the farther, towards d., shall be rounded out a little, as shown below. [Illustration: K] THE LETTER L. As for the letter L, you shall make it by a combination of parts of two of the preceding letters: namely, you shall make the first vertical broad limb, as you did a while back in I; and to this join a foot as you did at the bottom of E, when you made it. Such is L depicted below. [Illustration: L] THE LETTER M. The letter M you shall form in two ways within its square. In the first, draw the narrower limb of the letter vertical, to the right of a. c., distant from a. one-tenth of the distance a. b.: draw the other, & broader limb, on the near side of b. d., also a tenth part of the whole distant from b. & in such fashion that both limbs touch the square at top and bottom; then, between the two, bisect the line c. d. in the point e. and draw a broad limb from the inner angle of the narrow limb, downwards to the point e., & next a narrow one upwards from e. to the inner angle of the broader vertical limb; and the inner angles at top you must not round out, but leave acute; the exterior angles, however, at the top, and both exterior and interior at bottom of both vertical limbs, you are to adorn with the customary projections, as you have done in the preceding letters. You are to know, too, that when these letters are drawn with a pen, they are to be described with a single stroke. But for your guidance is this letter, in the manner in which I have instructed you, depicted below. Another method. Another way is thus: Divide the side a. b. of the square into six equal parts & mark off the two extreme parts, one at either end, by the points f. and g.; then draw the inner and broader limb, with its point at e. as above; and to this, in an upward direction, a narrower one, so that between f. g. be left a vacant space, and so more readily the letter slope forward. Then you are to draw the two lateral and vertical limbs--the near and slender, and the farther broad one--at the top, indeed, as in the first sketch, but at the bottom produce them to the two angles c. and d. and finally add projecting cusps, as you were instructed in the first M; but the projection below will pass beyond the square at the points c. and d. Or you shall make M at top with acute angles, in which case the lateral limbs will slope the more; or shear them off obtusely, and in this fashion (whichever pleases you best) make them as you see them depicted in the following diagrams. [Illustration: M] THE LETTER N. Likewise the letter N you shall make in its square thus: First you are to draw two standards vertical and slender, so that at top & bottom they may touch the square, & that being produced, the nigh one at the bottom, and the farther at the top, they may touch the angles at c. and b. Now join these two by a broad oblique limb, running from the angle a. to the point e., by which is denoted the remote side of the farther limb, where you shall allow the acute angle to remain; but at the top, this limb, produced beyond the angle a., you are to round out to a fifth part of the length of a. b. This prolongation should incurve below, a fifteenth part of the distance a. b. projected on two arcs, the upper one the greater, the lower the less. For the lesser arc, therefore, you shall take as diameter of its circle, a line the fifth part of the distance a. b. and its centre is to be taken outside the square, so that the foot of the compass may touch the tip of the extension and the angle a.; then extend a little the feet of the compass, and shift its centre until the arc touch both the tip of the part produced, & the broad oblique limb, in the middle point between the side a. c. & the nearer of the two slender vertical limbs. Or you may make the letter N in such fashion that its upper nigh extension shall remain within the square; or you may make from it an acute angle as shown overleaf. [Illustration: N] THE LETTER O. Now O you shall make this way in its square. Set in the square the diameter c. b. and bisect it in the point e., so that e. may form a middle point between the two points f. and g. which are to be your two centres; and from each let a circle be described touching two sides of the square; & where the circles cut one another, there with your hand you must shape the slender outline of the letter to a juster proportion, as below is shown. [Illustration: O] THE LETTER P. P you shall make in its square in this wise. Divide the square a. b. c. d. by the median horizontal line e. f.; then divide a. e. & b. f. equally by the line g. h. Next draw, first the broad vertical limb for this letter P, as you did a short while ago for K, and afterwards erect the line i. k. the distance of its own breadth to the right of your vertical limb; (here you must ever observe that in a lettered square we speak of the angle a. as the "hither" angle, that is, to the left; & the angle b. as the "farther" angle, that is, to the right). Then where the line i. k. cuts g. h. call the point l., and next draw two slender horizontal limbs, the upper below a. b., the lower above e. f., from the broad vertical limb as far as the line i. k. Set one leg of the compass on the point l., extending the other to the lower side of the lower horizontal limb near k.; then describe an arc through the line g. h. as far as the other slender horizontal limb of this same P, & where it cuts the line g. h. set the point m. Next, on the far side of m. measure the width of the large limb of the letter, along the line g. h. to the point n. and let your compass be stretched so that with one foot it may touch the line a. b. and with the other the point n.; then set one foot of the compass on n. & the other on the line g. h. to the right, in the point o., in which this foot is to be left standing immovable, and with the other is to be described an arc, passing through the point n. and touching the lines a. b. and e. f. Or you may form the loop of this letter in the following manner. Set a leg of the compass under the transverse g. h. in the line i. k., in a place median between the line e. f. & the lower part of the upper transverse of the slender limb, in the point p. and describe an arc as before, passing through m. so that the loop will be acute at the bottom, and its tip will end in the middle space between the line i. k. and the broad vertical limb of the letter. Or make this same P with a circular sweep, by shifting the compass upon the diameter, so that that sweep may be broader at the top (as though made with a pen) as will be shown in the diagram on the following page. [Illustration: P] THE LETTER Q. Make your Q in its square in the self-same manner as was prescribed for O; but add to it its tail thus: Draw a diameter of the square, the line a. d., about which, starting from the curved outline, begin to draw a long tail, producing it through the angle d. in such fashion that d. may be in the middle of the thickest part of the tail; but where the tail begins let it be a little narrower than in the angle d., where it should attain its real thickness. Then let it be drawn out, beyond the angle d. to the length of the entire diameter, and in a downward direction, yet so that it curves while it slopes, & that its tip shall not fall lower than a third of the side below the lowest side of the square, and shall tend, as it nears the point, to grow sharper little by little, and at length end in a very fine point indeed. Or you shall give Q a shorter tail in this fashion, to wit: set your compasses to the length of the side c. d. and draw a tail from the bulge of the same letter, describing through the point d. its inner arc of the same length as c. d., taking care that the tail bend upwards until it again reach c. d. produced, in the point h.; then shift your compasses, & with the other leg again describe from the bulge of the letter an arc below d. & continue it until again it reach h., but in such fashion that the tail shall find its greatest thickness at the start, as in the following figure is doubly depicted. [Illustration: Q] THE LETTER R. Moreover R you must make in its square just as was directed for P; but then erect a right line q. r. through the middle point of the square, & let it cut the exterior arc of the rounded limb in s., from which point, downwards towards the angle d., let there be drawn a broad tract, almost equal to that which you made above for the letter K., but this is to be somewhat bent in, and so shaped by your hand that its tip, well formed, may arrive directly on the angle d. Or make R in such fashion that its rounded sweep, as though made with a pen, shall be above broader, & narrower below. To accomplish this, you must shift your compasses on the diameter q. e. & not allow the rounded limb to touch the vertical one, as was described in P. Besides, the oblique limb is to be deduced from the rounded one with a little more of a curve; just as I have drawn overleaf. [Illustration: R] THE LETTER S. Next, the letter S you shall make as follows in its square, a. b. c. d. First draw the horizontal line e. f. and the median & vertical one g. h. and let them bisect one another in the point m. Then choose the main thickness of the letter, and set it in the line g. h. so that the point m. may divide it, having one-third of the thickness below it; next, set the lesser thickness, at the top beneath g., indicating it by the point i., and at bottom, above h. in the point k.; and the thickness of the letter indicate above by n. and below by l. Next, set a leg of your compasses on the line g. h. in the mid-point between i. and n., and with the other describe a circle passing through i. and n.; in like manner, upon the line g. h. set your compasses upon the mid-point of g. l. and describe a circle passing through g. & l. Then once more set your compass on the same line g. h. in the mid-point of n. h. and describe a circle through n. & h.; and lastly, in the mid-point of l. k. you must set one leg, & with the other is a circle to be described through these same points l. & k.; afterwards cut off by vertical section the upper portion of this letter, so that the part thus cut off may contain in its extremity the maximum thickness of the letter and a third part besides, & also that its tip may project downwards so far as to stand midway between the centre of the circle i. n. and the side b. d.; in other words, let the tip be distant on the right, from the circle i. n. the first third of the interval between the greater and lesser circles. Next cut the lower limb of the letter to the left, by a vertical line through the mid-point between the two circles, & in such fashion that the part so cut off may be a fourth part wider & higher than the upper, and that its tip may rise to the height of the centre of the circle n. h. Another method. Yet another way may you make the letter S. In the square a. b. c. d. bisect the horizontal line e. f. in the point m.; then set one leg of your compass upon the mid-point between g. and m. & with the other describe a segment of a circle in the direction of a. e. passing through the points m. and g.; next, set your compass upon the mid-point between m. and h. and describe a segment of a circle through m. and h. in the direction of f. d. The two arcs will touch above, in front, and below, in the rear, the exterior curvatures of this same letter S. Next, draw through m. the diameter c. b. and at its middle indicate the maximum thickness of the letter by the two points p. and q. from which let there be drawn two right lines, one up, & one down, to those two arcs; & next, from the two points p. & q. draw two curved parallels to the same arcs, regulating the distance between them, their elevation & depression from the centres of the same circles. Next, indicate below g. and above h. the minimum thickness of the letter; and from these points you will with your hand fashion the inner shape of the letter, both above and below, & produce the limb of S, above towards b. Cut it off so that its lower tip may touch the segment, & that the part cut off upwards may contain a tenth part of a. b. and that the segment may still exceed the part cut off. Then construct a vertical line r. s. to the right of e. c. and distant from it a fifth part of c. d.; let it cut the diagonal c. b. in t. and to the angle just formed produce the extremity of the letter, making the part so cut off a third broader than the upper portion. Lastly, you will have to produce the tip ever so little beyond t.; as I have briefly indicated. [Illustration: S] THE LETTER T. Set the broad limb of T in the midst of its square erect, produced & drawn to a point on either side below, just as you did before in the letter I; then take two points e. and f., distant respectively one-tenth of the whole space from a. and b., and let the transverse limb of the letter be drawn below e. f. and of an equal length with it; but the projecting extremities of this line are to be cut obliquely, and the tips of these projections shall so far extend above the line a. b. to the right as below they depend to the left. The oblique lines of these projections are to be each a fifth part of the length of a. b.; & the angles of these projections you shall round out by means of circles of diverse radius--namely, for the lesser angle you are to use a diameter only two-thirds of the width of the broader limb; but for the greater angle you shall take a diameter equal to the side of a square contained between the broad and vertical limb and the intercepted portion of the line a. b. Another method. Or you make T thus in its square: Take your point e. as before, to the right of a., and cut your transverse limb diagonally, as before, yet so that the projection be dimidiated to the right, and at top the angle remain as it falls; and so at the other extremity, only the point f. must be moved as near again to b., the cutting line to be a little more erect, & the projection formed a trifle broader than at the hither end; otherwise shall everything remain as before; as I have delineated for you on the opposite page. [Illustration: T] THE LETTER V. V you shall thus make in its square: Bisect c. d. in the point e.; then set the point f. one-tenth of the whole line a. b. beyond a., and in like fashion g. to the hither side of b. Then draw the broad limb of your letter downwards from f. to e. and sharpen it; & thence draw upwards your slender limb to g.; and at the top produce it in either direction, as you did before at the bottom of A; just as you see it shown below. [Illustration: V] THE LETTER X. X you shall form thus: Draw two vertical lines e. f. and g. h. distant respectively one-tenth part of the line a. b. from the sides a. c. and b. d. Then draw the two limbs intersecting one another in the form of a cross--the broad one so that at top, & with its hither side it shall touch e., & at the bottom, and with its farther side h.; but the narrow limb so that at top, and with its farther side it may touch g., & at bottom, with its hither side f. Then add its projections, touching, at top and bottom, the four angles a. b. c. d., & choose a semi-diameter of the larger circle of the length of a fifth part of a. b.; & with that you shall round out the four greater angles; but for the lesser circle you shall take a diameter as long as two-thirds the width of the broader limb. Or you may vary X thus: Let everything be left as before except the narrower limb, which at top you shall make more erect by one-half the breadth of the wider limb; and so the upper part of the letter shall be less and narrower than the lower, and shall have a different aspect, as is shown below. [Illustration: X] THE LETTER Y. Y you shall achieve in the midst of its square, as far as its lower half is concerned, after the instructions before given for I; but its upper part you shall divide so that its hither limb shall contain two-thirds, and its farther one-third of the broad standard; and let them slope to either side so that produced they may touch the two angles a. and b.; and the greater circles, by which you are to round out their obtuse or greater angles, make of a diameter as great as a containing side of the square enclosed between the standard and the sides of the great square, as in T was shown; but the diameters of the circles which you apply to the lesser angles, make double the width of the broad standard, as below. [Illustration: Y] THE LETTER Z. Z you shall make thus: Set upon either side, both beneath & beyond the angle a., two points e. & f., each at a distance of the tenth part of a. b.; so also, set two other points g. and h. both before and above the angle d. and with right lines join e. f. and g. h.; then draw your narrower transverse limb, beneath a. b. backwards as far as the angle b.; from thence draw your broad limb diagonally to c.; and then again a narrower one from c. to g.; and with your hand round out the two tips e. and h. Or make Z thus: Divide the square a. b. c. d. by the vertical line e. f. and in this reduced space construct the letter as before; but so that the two transverse limbs be cut short, above on the nigh side, and below on the far, by the vertical lines a. c. and e. f. respectively as below. [Illustration: Z] So likewise, in other fashion, can we make all the letters already drawn, on a scale of ninths, just as we have now drawn them on a scale of tenths; in just the same manner, according to the due proportion of each, in its own square, a. b. c. d., dividing them into nine, as just now into ten parts; & that this may be the better understood, I have chosen to append here letters of such fashion. Also these letters are to be made five parts high when written small & rapidly, by hand. In such writing the versals are made of the same proportion and form, but one-third larger than the ordinary letters of the writing. [Illustration: A A A A B B B B C C C C D D D D] [Illustration: E E F F G G G H H I I K K K L L] [Illustration: M M M M N N N N O O P P P P] [Illustration: Q Q Q R R R S S S T T T V V] [Illustration: X X X Y Y Z Z Z] DIRECTIONS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE TEXT OR QUADRATE LETTERS The letters which are usually called "text," or quadrate, it was formerly customary so to write, although they are now imitated by the new art, as presently I shall show below. Although the alphabet begins with the writing of A, yet shall I (not needlessly) in the first place undertake to draw an I; because almost all the other letters are formed after this letter, although always something has to be added to it or taken away. First make your I of equal squares, of which three are properly set one over the other; and the top of the top one, and the bottom of the bottom one, divide in two points, that is to say, into three equal parts: then set a square equal to the others in an oblique manner, so that its diagonal be vertical, and its angle on the first point of the top square. In this way, this oblique square shall extend with its angles more to the left than the right. Then produce upwards on either side, after the width of the superposed squares, right lines to meet the sides of the oblique set square. Next do below precisely as you did above, except that you must set the angle of the oblique square on the second point, that is, the one farthest to the right in the bottom of the lowest square; and let fall your lines on either side upon the transposed square: so will I be perfect; only above it draw with a fine pen a tiny in-crescent. So shall you make N from two standards of this same I, set so that their angles at top and bottom touch; and in this manner the space between the two shall be narrower than the breadth of either: also, you shall no longer put little crescents above them; you must make of the same length all the short letters throughout the alphabet. In like manner make M of three standards, just as you made N of two. R make as I, except only that at top you must set an equal square diagonally, to the right, so that angle touch angle. R you may make also in this fashion: below leave its foot as before, but above add two diagonal squares, which shall touch each other with their angles in the middle point of the vertical limb, and then produce upwards both sides of the latter to meet the diagonal square. V is made in three ways. First let it be made simply, as N; only that in the farther limb, you shall omit at the top the diagonal square; and instead shall draw an oblique line, so that it may make two angles in this limb (produced) of which the farther shall be of the same height as that of the topmost angle of the diagonal square, & the higher angle of the same height as the angle nearest to it in the said square. The second V, which we use at the beginning of a sentence, make thus: Draw the first limb as before for I; only, at the bottom, push the diagonal square a little further to the right, so that its hither angle does not project beyond the side of the vertical limb, but falls in the line of its descent. Then set the second limb to the right of this, and cut it off below by an oblique line, drawn from the lowest angle upwards to the right, as far as the middle point of the lowest of the three superposed squares. Next make W (i. e., double V) just as you made V-simplex; only you shall set before it the standard limb of I. B make as the second V-simplex; but in the first upright omit the diagonal square at the top, and set upon the three original squares three others similar, but the seventh one you shall cut off diagonally from its lower hither angle. Likewise when your B so made is turned upside down, then it will be a Q. X you shall construct from I. Append from top angle to the right a diagonally set square, as you did before in R; and at the bottom draw an acute tail to the left from the diagonal, and at the middle of the vertical limb describe a transverse, in such way that the former is cut before and aft by the latter's diagonal; let the hither and lower angle be terminated as far in front of the upright as would measure one-half of the cutting diagonal, which at top shall just touch the upright; but to the right let the transverse at top project to a point just below the angle of the oblique square; from thence downwards let it be cut off by an oblique line parallel to the anterior diagonal. C you shall construct from I after this fashion: Remove the top diagonal square, & let lines be produced on either side to the proper height of the letter, and cut off the hither angle by a diagonal; then draw at top a broad transverse, projecting beyond the vertical to the right the width of the latter, and cut this off by a diagonal in such a way that it project below only half as far as above. The vertical standard of E you shall make as for C; but from above let there descend to the right a broad limb from the diagonal bisecting the right angles of one square, and one-third again as long as broad; and let there be drawn from its lower angle a small diagonal line to the vertical limb. T shall be made like C, except that at top something is added to its diagonal, so that its tip converges to a fine point, and the like to the left on the hither side of the broad standard, just as at the top: and because of this is T at top more elegant than C, and has not the same incurved appearance. L you are to make below like I; only six squares are to be set on end; then cut off the hither side of the seventh by a diagonal, and so the apex of the letter shall remain to the right. The letter S you shall make as L; except that at top to the right must be drawn a broad limb of the length of the diagonal, which afterwards you are to cut off by a line parallel to the diagonal. F you shall make as S, just adding to it a transverse limb at the height of the shorter letters and double as long as broad, so that the point on the hither side & below shall project as far as half the limb's breadth, so that the two diagonal abscissions may be equidistant from one another. The near limb of the letter H make like L, and to it join by its top, in the proper place, the farther made like I; but below, for the diagonal square, substitute a fourth square in line with the others, and the fifth and lowest cut off on the far side by its diagonal. Of K make the near limb like L; and to the right of it append a diagonal square, from the lowest angle of which let a line be obliquely produced to meet the said vertical limb; and next from this line let a broad limb be obliquely drawn, and this, at the bottom, you are to cut off by a diagonal, in such fashion that the space below, between the two tips shall not be more than the diagonal of a single square. D in its lower half make like B; but at top let the anterior limb ascend upwards to the maximum height of the letters, and then cut off the hither angle by its diagonal; next superpose to the same height half a square upon the other three squares of the farther limb, & once more do here as you did below, and let this broken limb rest on the angle of the near limb, and let it extend beyond it as far as the end of the upright near limb; and so will it all but contain three conjunct squares; for when it meets the near vertical limb, that fraction is to be cut off at right angles. O you are to make below as D, and also the same at the top as the bottom, only, as it were, turning it upside down. The anterior limb of P make like L inverted; but the posterior like the standard of I: at bottom, however, you are not to add an oblique square, but amputate the limb diagonally, & draw at the bottom a broad transverse limb, which likewise is to be cut off diagonally, so that the lower point shall project to the left, a distance of half the breadth of the limb. Likewise A in the lower half you are to make like N; but of its anterior vertical limb, you are to cut off the hither angle of the middle square by its diagonal; of the posterior, however, allow three squares to remain superposed, and incline the top part (the fourth square) rather to the left, so that if at this side is joined to it the half of a square, then it shall attain the height of the letter; and cut off the square obliquely, yet so that the lower point shall project farther than the upper; then describe to the left a circle, sweeping downwards, so that its contents shall embrace the farthest limit of the anterior limb. Z is made in threefold fashion. First set a diagonal square which shall touch the height of the letter; then add another like it, on the right, joining their sides, & let these form a quadrangle sloping downwards on the right: next set a diagonal square in straight line under the top square, and distant from the lower one the length of its diameter: then draw a diagonal line between the near angles of these two squares, or make a rounded limb to reach the lower square; but from the said lowest square of all you shall draw downwards and to the right, by the aid of divers circles, a round extension, whose bottom shall mark the length of the letter; and let its tip, sharp and tenuous, verge to the left. Or construct Z of three oblique limbs, one above the other, & to connect them draw the diagonal, which shall slope upwards to the right. Another Z you may make in this way: Let three diagonal squares be set atop of one another; and let the lowest have a rounded extension, as in the first Z. The first limb of G make below like I, and add at the bottom another diagonal square, joining the two by their angles; but at top produce the farther tip of this limb upwards to the height of the letter, & from this point draw a diagonal downward to the left, as far as the hither angle of the first right square of the three set one on other. Next draw the farther vertical standard entire, of the same length as the hither standard, and at the bottom draw a diagonal from the angle of the lowest oblique square to touch the tip of the angle of the farther limb, & on the inner side produce downwards the side of the limb, to meet the tip of the said diagonal; to this also, by one line, join the lowest of the hither squares. Now draw at top a transverse limb of the customary breadth, from the back of the nearer vertical limb, passing through the farther one, and reaching as far beyond this as its breadth; & this limb, finally, you shall cut off by an oblique line parallel to that of the near limb. Y you shall make as N, only at bottom must be omitted the farther diagonal square, & in its place is to be set a right square under the other three superposed squares; then split the fifth square by a diagonal, so that the tip shall be in front; from which let there be produced a diagonal line, equal in length to a single side of the square. Curved, or short S, you shall make on this wise. At the middle height of the letter, let there be set, close to one another, their angles touching, two oblique squares; from the near square draw a broad vertical limb to the height of the letter; and in the same fashion, from the farther square let one fall downwards--just as you constructed I top & bottom. Next cut off both these limbs, one at top and one at bottom, by diagonals, in such fashion that the sharp tips of both may be on the side near the middle. Then let there be drawn two broad limbs--namely, from the upper, to the right, and downwards; and in like manner, from the lower, upwards, and to the left; of the breadth of the limb, above and below, but let them be produced no further than the breadth of the distance between the limbs: then draw a diagonal downwards, from right to left, which shall cut off both oblique limbs. To it also you must produce the sides of the squares set in the midst. So, accordingly, have I set them down--in skeleton in rotation, and in proper order in black. This (as I said above) is the antique form of the letters; but in these days there is used a more elegant text, and a diagonal square is substituted in the middle place for a right square, so that the lines of the letters are not so much curved; and there are made certain limbs adjoined and cleft; and there are set one on another three squares & a half; and spaces are left between two limbs as great as their width. Letters of this sort also have I set forth on the third page following; as also capital letters, which are called "versals," because they are customarily set at the beginning of a verse; and these ought to be made one-third higher than the remaining shorter letters in writing. [Illustration: i n m r r u v w b q x c e t l s f h k d o p a z z z g y s] [Illustration: a b c d e f g h i k l m n o p q r r s s t u v w x y z z z] [Illustration: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P R S T V X Y Z Q * a b c d e f g h i k l m n o p q r s s t u v w x y z] Here ends this little Book. 
39626	----	[Illustration] AN ALPHABET OF HISTORY _The Words by Wilbur D. Nesbit_ _The Pictures by Ellsworth Young_ Who frets about the mystery Enshrouding all of history On reading this will, maybe, see We've made it plain as A, B, C. _Paul Elder and Company Publishers,_ _San Francisco_ ACKNOWLEDGMENT In their original form, the contents of this book appeared in the _Chicago Sunday Tribune_, which newspaper is hereby thanked for the privilege of reproducing this Alphabet Copyright, 1905 by Paul Elder and Company San Francisco The Tomoye Press San Francisco ALEXANDER THE GREAT [Illustration] Alexander the Great was a victim of fate, And he sighed there was naught to delight him When he brandished his sword and defiantly roared And could not get a country to fight him. All the armies he'd chased, all the lands laid to waste, And he clamored for further diversions; And our history speaks of his grip on the Greeks And his hammerlock hold on the Persians. Though the Gordian knot, cut in two, in a spot In his palace was labeled a relic, Though Bucephalus, stuffed, gave him fame, he was huffed-- He was grouchy and grumpy, was Aleck. And the cause of his woe, he would have you to know, Was the fact that he never was able To conduct a big scrap that a versatile chap Of a war correspondent would cable. 'Stead of being quite glad, he would grow very sad When he told of the fellows who'd fought him, As he thought of the lack of the clicking kodak In the hands of a man to "snapshot" him. We are told that he wept, and in dolefulness crept Through his palace--the reason is hinted: There were not at that time magazines for a dime, And his articles could not be printed. Though it may seem unkind, ere his life we've outlined, We must say in some ways he was hateful; And in truth, we have heard he went back on his word, And was not Alexander the Grateful. BRUTUS [Illustration] Back in the time of Rome sublime, There lived great Julius Cæsar Who wore the crown with haughty frown And was a frosty geezer. Three times, they say, upon the way Called Lupercal, they fetched it For him to wear, but then and there He said they should have stretched it. And we are told that Jule was cold And frigid as Alaska, Ambitious, too,--that would not do For Cassius and Casca. They told their friends: "It all depends On having things to suit us. We think that Jule is much too cool; Let us conspire with Brutus." They furthermore let out this roar: "Shall Cæsar further scoff us? Next week, they say, he'll have his way About the Rome postoffice." With dirk and sword in togas stored-- You know those times they wore 'em-- They made a muss of Ju-li-us One morning in the Forum. With "Et tu, Brute?" J. C. grew mute. (Some claim it's "Et tu, Bru-te"; We mention it both whole and split As is our bounden duty.) Mark Antony arose, and he Talked some,--we shall not quote it; We've understood 'twas not as good As when Bill Shakespeare wrote it. Then Brutus skipped lest he be nipped-- And since his dissolution He's been accused and much abused In schools of elocution. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS [Illustration] When Christopher Columbus stood the egg upon its end, He solved a weighty problem that no one could comprehend-- Perhaps it was the puzzle whose solution clearly showed The psychologic motives of the hen that crossed the road. Perhaps cold storage minstrels never might have heard of this If it hadn't been for Chris. Columbus packed his little grip and got upon the train And went to see that noble man, King Ferdinand of Spain. Result: He found America--oh, do not idly nod, For if it hadn't been for this we couldn't go abroad! Just think of all the travel and the voyages we'd miss If it hadn't been for Chris. Columbus found America and won a lot of fame-- Nobody ever thought to ask him how he knew its name; Nobody ever booked him for some lectures to declare In eloquent assertions how he knew the land was there. Today we might be savages, unknowing modern bliss, If it hadn't been for Chris. He landed near Havana, and he said: "It seems to me That sometime in the future little Cuby shall be free." His vision was prophetic--far adown the future's track He saw the dauntless Hobson and the sinking Merrimac. We might have still been tyros in the ethics of the kiss If it hadn't been for Chris. Today there are big cities and big buildings named for him, And yet he was so poor that once he thought he'd have to swim To find this wondrous country, for he was so badly broke; But Isabella nobly put her watch and ring in soak. Who knows but Isabella never might have thought of this If it hadn't been for Chris? DIOGENES [Illustration] Diogenes lived in a tub His fellows analyzing; These words were carved upon his club: "First Class Philosophizing." If any question came his way Involving people's morals, The things that he felt moved to say Were sure to start some quarrels. In fact, his tub became a booth In which he dealt in wholesale truth. This world was but a fleeting show-- He knew a lot about it; When he was told a thing was so He then began to doubt it. He seldom left his narrow home-- Not even on a Sunday; The only time that he would roam Abroad was on a Monday. He had to roam then, anyway, For that, you know, is washing day. Society, with all its sham, Gave him a paroxysm; He always spoke in epigram And thought in aphorism. One day he took his lantern down And polished it and lit it-- But first he frowned a peevish frown And growled: "The wick don't fit it." And then, with pessimistic scan, He sought to find an honest man. Diogenes has long been dead; His search was not well heeded, For no historian has said If ever he succeeded. But there's this thought for you and me: It would not be quite pleasant If on that quest the sage should be With his fierce light, at present. For, if he were, one may but think How much that light would make him blink. EURIPIDES [Illustration] Euripides, of ancient Greece, Excelled in things dramatic; He could sit down and write a piece Mild tempered or emphatic; The dramatists of modern days-- No matter how much they write-- Can never equal Rippy's ways, For he was quite a playwright. When Rippy took his pen in hand The scenes would flow like magic; Though humor came at his command His penchant was the tragic; He often wrote a little speech That was extremely pleasant-- His jests were lasting--all and each Are still used at the present. Euripides was serious-- He thought he had a mission. He said, "By writing thus and thus I'll elevate the Grecian." However, though he oft produced His works in manner spurty, He never wrote a thing to boost The vogue of ten, twent', thirty. In fact, his works could have been played In goodly style with no girls-- He never used the soubrette maid Or based his play on show girls; And, this for old Euripides: In none of all his dramas Did he observe the modern pleas For chorus in pajamas. Euripides was Athens' Fitch Or her Augustus Thomas-- It's really hard to say just which, But he was full of promise. It's time that Rippy had his due And got his share of glory, For royalties he never knew And no press agent's story. FRANKLIN [Illustration] Fame twined a wreath on Franklin's brow A-many years ago-- And yet, how many people now The reason for it know? Was it because he wisely wrote Poor Richard's Almanac (One of the few, we pause to note, Which testimonials lack)? Was Franklin's fame the sure result Of his philosophy? (No mental cure or psychic cult Or Great Uplift had he.) Was it because for years and years He was a diplomat? Why, no. What person ever hears About such things as that? Then what did wise Ben Franklin do That he should merit fame? That each edition of "Who's Who" In bold type puts his name? He flew his kite; he had the key His front door to unlock-- Like countless other men, then he Acquired a sudden shock. The trolley cars and dynamos And incandescent light And buzzing fan which coolness blows All date from Franklin's kite. But, what an oversight of Fame! Ben Franklin's wife--'twas she, That thoughtful, gentle, kindly dame, Who let him have the key. GALILEI GALILEO [Illustration] Galilei Galileo was an early man of science; He was happy when inventing, or discussing an appliance; Pendulums, he found by study, were precise in every wobble-- Showing how old Father Time went in his never-ending hobble. Galilei Galileo the thermometer invented And informed the gaping public what its figures represented. "O you foolish Galileo," cried the public, "you shall rue it! Why get up a thing to tell us we are hot? We always knew it." Galilei Galileo took a tube and got some lenses And discovered things that made him rather disbelieve his senses; He would point his telescope up to the sky and then he'd scan it, Then go in to breakfast smiling, for he'd found another planet. Galilei Galileo viewed the luminary solar (That's the sun) and found it spotted on the belt and regions polar; But he didn't figure out that when the sun was thickly freckled Then the world with lights and fusses was continually speckled. Galilei Galileo wrote a thing and then denounced it-- But we often read his name and wonder how the man pronounced it. Maybe when he tried to he was all at sixes and at sevens, Which is why he turned his studies to the dim and distant heavens. Galilei Galileo! What a musical cognomen! Possibly some bright librettist will find in this name an omen That presages fortune for him, and the stage will pay what we owe To that honest old star gazer, Galilei Galileo. HIPPOCRATES [Illustration] Hippocrates was father to an awful lot of bother, for 'tis claimed that as to medicine he was the pioneer, That but for him the surgeon or the latter-day chirurgeon might never have been tinkering the human running gear. Hippocrates' diploma never threw him into coma in his efforts to decipher what its classic diction said, For when he was seeking practice--long ago--the simple fact is that the Latin tongue was common and was very far from dead. He often growled, "Dad gum it!" when he felt the glossy summit of his head, which was as bald as any shiny billiard ball-- But old Hip had to endure it, for he knew he couldn't cure it, and that once his hair was falling, why, he had to let it fall. He was written up by Plato (who was quite a hot potato when it came to mental effort, for you know he reasoned well); Plato praised his diagnosis, called him healing's patient Moses, and though facts were hard to gather, found a goodly lot to tell. Hippocrates had knowledge, though he didn't go to college; he could speak of all diseases that he knew, in Latin terms (Still, 'twas only second nature to affect that nomenclature), but he never even thought of, much less heard of, any germs. Streptococcus or bacillus such as get in us and kill us to Hippocrates were always undiscovered and unknown, And the grim appendicitis which today is sure to fright us, was by Dr. Hip considered but a stomach-achic groan. Were he living at this moment, would the world be in a foment? Would physicians of the present take him out to see the town? From New Jersey clear to Joppa not a one would call him "Papa," and his theories and treatments would be greeted with a frown. We must say that he was clever, and that in one way, however, he resembled all the others who are treating human ills-- He was constantly complaining that in spite of all his training he could never cure his patients of the trait of dodging bills. IAGO [Illustration] Iago as a villain was a master of his craft, And yet he did not work at all as modern villains do; No one can rise and say that bold Iago hoarsely laughed When some one demonstrated that his stories were untrue. He did not swagger on the stage in evening clothes, and mutter, Nor bite his finger nails in baffled anger now and then; He never turned and left the stage with nothing else to utter Except: "Aha! Proud beauty! I shall not be foiled again!" Iago did not hover near the old deserted mill To hurl the daring hero in the waters of the race; He never frowned and ground his teeth and burned the hidden will Or kidnapped any children just to complicate the case. Iago was not like the villains that we have at present; He didn't even try to scowl or to look like the part. Iago as a villain was continually pleasant, And never gave the notion that he had a stony heart. Othello was his victim--and Iago's work was good, But still Iago doesn't seem to get the proper praise; Othello, as the hero--as all proper heroes should-- Stood calmly in the spotlight and corralled the wreathing bays. Since then there is no villain of the art of good Iago-- At least we haven't seen an actor who approached him yet; The villains we have noticed from Galveston to Chicago Have hissed through black mustaches and have smoked the cigaret. JONSON [Illustration] O rare Ben Jonson, you who wrote "To Celia," Presager of that later note, "Bedelia," To you, rare Ben, our hat we raise For all your poems and your plays. You knew, forsooth, if Shakespeare's work Was taken, Like copies by a scrawling clerk, From Bacon; You would have known of that flimflam Without a hidden cryptogram. O rare Ben Jonson, with your pen You labored, And with brave lords and gentlemen You neighbored-- You never turned out feeble farce In sentences that would not parse. To managers you ne'er were made To grovel, And, Ben, you never called a spade A shovel-- Where you wrote sentences risqué We now have costumes very gay. O rare Ben Jonson, when you asked That lady To drink, her name you never masked As "Sadie," Nor did you call her "Creole Belle" Or half the song names we might tell. "Drink to me only with thine eyes!" Your sighing Showed you no steins of any size Were buying. But from the way the stanzas run, You, rare Ben Jonson, were well done. KIDD [Illustration] Oh, William Kidd was a pirate bold, Yo ho, my lads, yo ho! He sailed the seas in search of gold, Yo ho, my lads, yo ho! He sailed on both sides of the line, The skull and bones he made his sign; Where he found wealth, he said: "That's mine!" Three centuries ago. Oh, William Kidd was a pirate bad, Three centuries ago, A very dark repute he had-- Yo ho, my lads, yo ho! He'd board a ship and take its hoard, Then: "Walk the plank!" he fiercely roared, "The ship is all that I can board," Yo ho, my lads, yo ho! Oh, William Kidd was a pirate great, Yo ho, my lads, yo ho! He said: "I'll rob you while you wait"-- Three centuries ago. He had a long, low, rakish craft With Long Toms both before and aft, And wickedly and loud he laughed, Yo ho, my lads, yo ho! Oh, William Kidd was a pirate big, Yo ho, my lads, yo ho! He feared no frigate, bark or brig, Yo ho, my lads, yo ho! And while his grim flag flapped and tossed Above the ship that Bill Kidd bossed, His victims knew just how they lost, Three centuries ago. Oh, William Kidd was a pirate then, Three centuries ago. If he should come to life again-- Yo ho, my lads, yo ho! The chances are that he would just Go out and organize a trust-- He knew the way to raise the dust Three centuries ago. LUCULLUS [Illustration] Lucullus was a fighter for a portion of his life; He won the bay and laurel by his prowess in the strife. He came back home a hero (and no doubt, just as today, They named a cocktail for him ere they looked the other way). But when Lucullus noticed he was losing grips on fame, He struck a happy notion to perpetuate his name. He took to giving dinners in a palace he had built-- 'Tis said that lots was eaten and a sea of wine was spilt; That guests might order anything in dishes old or new And get the very rarest, and a second order, too! Quick lunches or course dinners--anything a man could wish In the line of drinks or dainties; yet he was no _nouveau riche_. Lucullus won great battles, victories that he might boast, Yet today we recollect him merely as a lavish host. It is said that once he ordered quite the richest feast prepared But no guests came to enjoy it, and the busy chef was scared. "Is nobody here for dinner?" asked the flustered, pestered chef. "I am dining with Lucullus!" roared Lucullus. "Are you deaf?" But we think that one great reason for his never-dying fame, For the pure, unfading luster of his dinner-eating name, Is that though Lucullus feasted at a very great expense And sat down to simple breakfasts where the health foods were immense, He was gracious to his fellows, was considerate of each, And he never put his chestnuts in an after-dinner speech. METHUSELAH [Illustration] Methuselah lived long ago-- He was the Old Inhabitant Those times, but never had a show; His opportunities were scant. Although he lived nine centuries And three-score years and nine beside, The times he saw were not like these, A chance to spread he was denied. He could not seek the corner store And lunch on crackers, cheese and prunes, And there display his helpful lore Through mornings and through afternoons; He could not talk about the days When folks first saw the telegraph Or telephone; how their amaze Made better posted people laugh. He could not take the stranger out To some tall building, then say: "Here, An' for a good ways hereabout, I used to shoot the bear and deer." Skyscrapers were an unknown thing, Excepting Babel, in his land, And Babel only served to bring Speech that he could not understand. (Perhaps this Babel item is Anachronistic; as to that We'll say one pleasant thing was his: He never had to rent a flat.) Another joy in his career Was this: nobody ever told Methuselah the stated year When he should be considered old. At thirty-five he was not barred From working if he wanted to; He did not need a union card His daily labors to pursue; And when his hair was snowy white And age his manly form had bent, Nobody called him young and bright And ran him for vice-president. NEWTON [Illustration] Now, Newton in the orchard felt an apple strike his head. "'Tis gravity! 'Tis gravity!" excitedly he said. Had you or I been sitting there a-thinking of this earth, As Newton was, and wondering about its size and girth, And just when we were figuring a long and heavy sum, The apple hit us on the mind and made our bald spot numb! We say, had you or I been there, as Newton was that day, Would there have been much gravity in what we had to say? This shows how great it is to have a scientific mind-- An intellect that reaches out to see what it may find. Perchance an ordinary man in such a circumstance Would have got up and rubbed his head and done a little dance, And muttered things that gentle folks should scarcely ever state, And not concede the apple simply had to gravitate. Again we say, if Newton's place was held by you or I, Instead of gravity we might have thought of apple pie. You see (again we make the point that scientific minds Discover facts which any brain that's common never finds), You see, when Newton felt the jolt, his science did not stop-- He simply meditated on "What made the apple drop?" And while in cogitation deep beneath the tree he lay, He mused: "It's odd that apples never drop the other way." Once more: If you or I had been beneath the apple tree, We might have howled: "Who was it threw that apple and hit me?" To finish this, however, with becoming gravity, We'll state that Newton lingered there beneath the apple tree; With logarithmic tables he discovered that the speed At which the apple fell was based on whence it fell--indeed, Had it dropped from the moon, we'll say, it would have grown so hot That it would have been melted up before to earth it got. Again, and finally, had you or I held Newton's seat, We should, like he did, take the apple up and start to eat. OMAR [Illustration] Old Omar, in a Tent he had to live, Yet gave to Verse such Time as he could give; Whereat the Critics rose and Hurled at Him: "The Stuff you write is only Tentative." Yet Khayyam never worried over that-- He kept his Troubles underneath his Hat Except such Times as when he worked them up Into an Apt and Pleasing Rubaiyat. Fitzgerald, the Translator, took his Pen And made a flowing Version; yes, and then To show that he could keep it up a While, Translated all the Rubaiyat again. Now, is there any Home that Don't reveal O. Khayyam's volume resting by "Lucille," Bound in Limp Leather, with each Edge uncut, To show the Literary Sense we feel? And is there any town from York to Butte Wherein some Maiden fair don't Elocute Through Khayyam's easy-speaking poetry, With Musical Accomp'niment to suit? Aye, verily! And where the Parodist Who does not seek through all upon his List And come back at the last to Khayyam's work Each time to find New Chances he has missed? A Good Cigar, a ready Fountain Pen Or a Typewriter one can use, and then A book of Omar whence to draw the Thought-- Oh, Parodies one will turn out again! Some black initial letters here and there, Perchance he also had E. Hubbard Hair-- But anyhow old Khayyam set a Task To fill all his Successors with despair! PEPYS [Illustration] Perchance when he was working on The diary that bears his name In those far days, now dead and gone, He never dreamed about his fame. Yet now, from time to time, it is Heard from 'most everybody's lips-- That magic, mellow name of his, The soft and pleasing name of Pepys. Again, when reading what he wrote, We live anew that ancient time (The book is one we often quote-- The cheap editions are a dime); We mark his course through dingy streets And climb with him the palace steps; In fancy all of those one meets Remark: "Why, there goes Mr. Pepys!" He always had a seeing eye And hearing ear, and what he saw And what he heard he fain would try To set down, but evade the law And that is why in cipher dark The tale originally creeps-- 'Twas thus, also, he made his mark, This man of truth and trouble, Pepys. Throughout his life he had his griefs And also had a little fun-- He kept his eye upon his chiefs And tells the things they might have done If they had not done what they did. Ah, if each person now should keep his Own diary and raise the lid As did this honest Samuel Pepys! And so, you see, he made a name Whereon the critics sometimes pounce; It hardly ever sounds the same, It is so easy to pronounce. But still, there is an hour or so Of pleasure for the man who dips Into his book and comes to know Good Samuel Pepys, Peps or Pips. QUINTILIAN [Illustration] Quintilian, years and years ago, Was It on oratory; Demosthenes and Cicero He studied con amore; He ran an elocution school And taught the Roman lispers The reason and the rote and rule For requesting father, dear father, to come home with me now, in most pathetic whispers. 'Twas he who showed that thus and thus One should appear when stating The last remarks of Spartacus On ceasing gladiating. (Perchance the word we just have used Escaped your dictionary. We mean when Spartacus refused To be butchered to make a Roman holiday exceedingly exciting and otherwise gladsome and merry.) Quintilian's book on How to Speak Is classic at this moment; It tells the speaker when to shriek And when his rage to foment. The boy who on commencement day Cites Patrick Henry's speeches Must do so in Quintilian's way When a single order of liberty, with a supplemental second choice of death, he beseeches. The actor who would thrill the crowd (A blood and marrow freezer) By handing out in accents proud "Mark Antony on Cæsar," Must heed the rules set down by Quint., And so must he who rises To heights of glowing fame by dint Of the justly famous to be or not to be, center of the stage, two spotlights sizzling, when he as Hamlet soliloquizes. Quintilian, we are fain to say, Was It on oratory, And even in this later day Receives his share of glory, Except when elocutionists Our peace and comfort mangle, By showing how fair Bessie's wrists Were strained and bruised while swinging around in the belfry the time she said the curfew should not jangle. RALEIGH [Illustration] Sir Walter Raleigh was a man Of excellent deportment; He could advise a King or Khan What going into court meant; When Spenser wrote his Faerie Queene Sir Walter Raleigh said it Betrayed a wit both sharp and clean (We wonder if he read it). Good Queen Elizabeth one day Was out (perhaps for shopping), And Raleigh chanced along the way Where she in wrath was stopping. "How can I get across that mud?" She asked; and in the muddle Sir Walter showed his gentle blood-- His cloak soon bridged the puddle. A smile replaced the good queen's frown, She paused there for a minute To set more straight the royal crown (It had no hat pin in it). And then she murmured low to Walt.: "Sir, you shall see my tailor." He answered: "If I'm worth my salt, Good queen, make me a sailor!" And so good Queen Elizabeth Gave him a high position-- He drew his pay like drawing breath And led an expedition That sailed across the raging seas For gold and slaves and cocoa, And battled with the biting breeze Along the Orinoco. Alas! It may have been the cloak That was in mire imbedded, Or possibly some words he spoke That made him be beheaded. But let us learn this lesson here From poor Sir Walter Raleigh: The favor of the great, 'tis queer, Oft has a grim finale. SHAKSPEARE [Illustration] Shakspeare, as all of us have read, Once asked: "What's in a name?" An alias for the rose, he said, Would make it smell the same. But Shakspeare was so frivolous-- Excuse us if we say That it has always seemed to us His work was mostly play. As "Shaxpere," "Shakspere," "Shaikspeare," too, His signature is found; His autographs are much too few To be passed all around. This shows the cumulative worth Of honest, solid fame; The bidders come from all the earth To buy his misspelled name. He dramatized the thrilling scene Where Cæsar met his end, Where Casca, hungry, lank and lean, And Brutus, Cæsar's friend, Stabbed swiftly with their daggers bright When Julius came in reach-- Then Antony, thrilled at the sight, Arose and made a speech. No chorus girls were in his shows; In them no "social queens" Were given princely wage to pose And dignify the scenes. But there be those who say there are Odd facts that can't be passed: For instance, oft we see a star With ciphers in the cast-- And this leads many to declare That Bacon wrote the shows; A cryptic secret hidden there They say they will disclose. It may be that each drama hoards A Bacon cryptogram, For often, proud upon the boards There struts and strides a ham. TELL [Illustration] The tale of Tell is simply told; He would not heed the tyrant, But, big and brave and bluffly bold He spurned the cold aspirant-- He simply came out plain and flat And his own rights defended; He would not bow to Gessler's hat Upon the pole suspended. Then Gessler came upon the scene And ordered Tell to knuckle; Tell fixed him with his glances keen And gave a scornful chuckle. Then Gessler frowned and knit his brows (A most portentous omen); "Risk your boy's life or make those bows!" (We've lost the boy's cognomen.) Tell smiled, and got his trusty bow, Likewise his trusty arrow (Now, William Tell, as you should know, Could wing the fleeting sparrow Or he could truly shoot the chutes)-- So Gessler said: "Now grapple With this one fact--for you the boots Unless you cleave the apple." Did Tell succeed? In your school books The tale is very well told, And Gessler looked some haughty looks When he heard what Bill Tell told. "What did you hide this arrow for?" Asked Gessler of the wizard. "I meant to split that apple, or I'd have to harm your gizzard!" That's all, except it shall endure As acted by Salvini. (But was it?) And the overture Composed by one Rossini Shall prove that Tell is not a myth Concocted to deceive us. We've seen the bow he did it with; We hope you will believe us. ULYSSES [Illustration] Unusually popular with mythologic misses, And rather wont to wander when he should have stayed at home, We find is why our hero, the redoubtable Ulysses, Went rambling into trouble when he thought that he would roam. Penelope, good lady, left behind in their apartment, Had trouble in her efforts to get cash to pay the rent-- Telemachus, their scion, knew not then what being smart meant; He should have helped his mamma, but he never earned a cent. Ulysses, in the meantime, found the land of the Cyclopes, And came within an ace of being made into a stew. He drugged old Polyphemus, then skedaddled with: "I hope 'e's Laid up with indigestion," and went onward with his crew. From there he ambled farther till he reached the realm of Circé; We translate rather freely from the Odyssean log: "She proved to be a lady with no tenderness or mercy, Each comrade of Ulysses, for her sport, was made a hog." He got away, however, and he steered his trusty ship so That it would take him quickly where more trouble might be found-- He grounded on the island of the nymph they called Calypso, And dallied in her presence till eight years had rolled around. Homesickness must have struck him not so many years thereafter; He sighed: "I think the time has come for me to pull my freight." The listeners had trouble when they tried to hold their laughter At thinking of how long it was before he knew 'twas late. Penelope, fond woman, had been wooed by many suitors; To each and every one of them she firmly whispered "No." Ulysses, on appearing, changed the suitors into scooters-- He strode into the parlor and said: "Take your hats and go!" Old Homer tells us fully how Penelope received him, And how, to give her pleasure, all these stories he would weave: He also tells us solemnly Penelope believed him! (That portion of the Odyssey we never can believe.) VILLON [Illustration] Villon--bard of the early times, Familiarly called Francois-- 'Twas he who juggled so with rhymes That we regard him now with awe; His Pegasus knew "Gee" from "Haw". He drove with all a jockey's art And ran each race without a flaw-- Villon gave these ballades their start. Must he flee to some safer climes? Did hunger at his vitals gnaw? Or was he jailed for varied crimes? In that he inspiration saw And, pen held in a grimy paw Would let his flashing fancy dart Ofttimes in measures rather raw-- Villon gave these ballades their start. His purse was ever bare of dimes; He often felt the grip of law; Yet he, the jolliest of mimes, Who slept most nights upon the straw And wakened to the raucous caw Of ravens, never shirked his part; He never stopped at fate to jaw-- Villon gave these ballades their start. L'ENVOI Princess, the moral's here to draw: When poets go into the mart The editors say coldly: "Pshaw! Villon gave these ballades their start." WATT [Illustration] When Watt was but a little boy-- His papa's pride, his mama's joy-- He sat beside the kitchen fire The bubbling teapot to admire; And as he watched the hissing steam He straightway then began to dream Of what the vapor hot could do If how to use it he but knew. Eventually he devised A neat invention which surprised The people of that early day-- He made an engine, anyway. This poor contrivance he improved Until by it great loads were moved And horses were displaced by rails, While sidewheels took the place of sails. Observe, my child, how one small thing A wondrous lot of change will bring: Because wise little Jimmy Watt Could turn to some account his thought, Today the trains go whizzing through The land, and o'er the ocean blue The mighty ships scoot night and day From here to countries far away. Great thanks are due to this James Watt, Also to his mama's teapot, By porters who on every trip Hold up the tourist for a tip, And also by that mighty mass Of folks who travel on a pass, And by the ones who rake in rocks Through squeezes that they work in stocks. But that it would like punning seem We'd say Watt has the world's esteem (But since we've said it that way now We'll let the pun go, anyhow). But, somehow, when we chanced to stop Beside some busy boiler shop, We cannot say that peace was brought To all of us by Jimmy Watt. XANTIPPE [Illustration] Xantippe was the lady who was wed to Socrates-- And their life was not a grand, sweet song; 'Twas a study--just a study--done in all the minor keys With the gloomy measures turned on strong. When old Socrates was busy at the office, she would wait Till he ambled in at 3 a.m. And she met him in the moonlight 'twixt the doorway and the gate-- Then the neighbors heard a lot from them. But Socrates--he didn't mind when she pulled out his hair, When she would box his ears for him he didn't seem to care-- In a manner bland and wise He would then philosophize On the Whyness of the Whichness of the Neither Here Nor There. Xantippe did the cooking, and (we have to tell the truth)-- Indigestion quickly seized on him, And in one of her biscuits on a time he broke a tooth, Yet he smiled across at wifey grim. When she tried her hand at pastry was the only time he spoke, And of course he had to make a break-- 'Twas perhaps the first appearance of the ever-lasting joke On the pies that mother used to make. Poor Socrates! He never even ducked his head or dodged But merely rubbed the spot whereon the flying platter lodged, Then he murmured: "Xanty, dear, You have made a problem clear"-- Then he went to get the swelling on his cranium massaged. Xantippe wouldn't let him smoke at all about the place, And she wouldn't let him take a drink. He never learned the value of a two-spot or an ace-- For 'most all that he could do was think. Thus you see that though Xantippe has been fiercely criticized, Yet she really made her husband's fame, For 'twas while she bossed him sorely that the great man analyzed All the subjects that have made his name. Xantippe made him famous; but for her the man had been Forgotten like the others of the time that he lived in. "Oh, my darling, such a help!" He most gratefully would yelp When she gave him an impression with a busy rolling-pin. YVETOT [Illustration] There was a king of Yvetot, And easy was his head, Serene his rest--naught would suggest The words so often said, That crowned heads are not peaceful; He never wore a frown-- He laughed away the night and day. With gayly tilted crown. The jester of his palace Was never forced to work, He never had to make things glad With oily smile and smirk. This jolly king of Yvetot Had no need of his fool-- He made his own jests from the throne And pleasure was his rule. He never had a quarrel With any other king; "Why should we fight?" he asked. "Delight Is such an easy thing." He told no one his troubles-- In truth, he reigned so well No one could know, in fair Yvetot, Of troubles fit to tell. The little realm of Yvetot-- A wee spot on the map-- Has made a name secure in fame Because of this rare chap Who put his crown on sidewise And lolled upon his throne With scepter set so that it met His active funny bone. He was to war a stranger; His kingdom had no debt; Each of his laws possessed a clause That barred out care and fret-- 'Tis told that when expiring He wasted his last breath In one long laugh in life's behalf, And thus went to his death. There was a king of Yvetot-- There are such kings today; They never sigh for things gone by But laugh along the way. So, crown yourself with laughter, Put pleasure on the throne, And you'll possess in happiness An Yvetot of your own. ZENOBIA [Illustration] Zenobia was empress of the people of Palmyra; She tried to boss the army when she should have stayed at home. Aurelian, the soldier, led a sort of a hegira Of armies up to fight her--they came all the way from Rome. Full soon he was pursuing them, with spears and daggers "shooing" them, At last he sent them to defeat and caught the doughty queen. He captured her regretfully, he said, but she said fretfully That she considered him a spiteful thing, and very, very "mean." He led her back a captive with her hands in jeweled fetters, Though she cast on Aurelian a look of proud disdain; Her manacles were carved and chased and decked by jewel setters, And to securely hold her he had made a golden chain. There is a lot of mystery connected with all history-- Zenobia, they tell us, didn't want to go to jail, But, think of such a fate as that! Why, such a jeweled weight as that Was better than to pawn your clothes and be released on bail! Zenobia was taken to the royal Roman palace And there the charming prisoner, we read, was quite the rage-- Had she lived in this time of ours (we say this without malice), She might have made a lasting hit by going on the stage. Aurelian was nice to her--he hinted more than twice to her That he was getting pretty tired of kinging it alone. You see, she might have captured him--already she enraptured him-- And had that handcuff jewelry to wear upon the throne. But, no! Zenobia was like 'most any other lady-- They've been the same since mother Eve; they have the same way still: No matter if it's Princess May, or Susie, Sal or Sadie, No lady will consent to be convinced against her will. At last they told her civilly, "You'll have to live in Tivoli" (Which may or may not be the way to speak that city's name). She answered very prettily: "I'll love to live in Italy"-- And there she stayed until she was an old, forgotten dame.