HANDBOOK of DRESS AND CHILDHOOD SCHOO AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS The University of Chicago Libraries Cres Vita CatSci Exco entia latur GIFT OF Mrs. William B. Serbing - HANDBOOK OOL OF A SOLO OF DRESS AND CHILDHOOD -- A COMPLETE HOME-STUDY COURSE COMPRISING TEXTILES AND CLOTHING BY KATE HEINTZ WATSON FORMERLY TEACHER OF HOUSEHOLD ART, LEWIS INSTITUTE, CHICAGO STUDY OF CHILD LIFE BY MARIAN FOSTER WASHBURNE EDITOR OF MOTHERS MAGAZINE AUTHOR, LECTURER CARE OF CHILDREN BY ALFRED CLEVELAND COTTON, A. M., M. D. PROFESSOR DISEASES OF CHILDREN, RUSH MEDICAL COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO CHICAGO AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS 1915 0 T Т? С A5 COPYRIGHT, 1912-1915 BY HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION SCHOOL SOWO 35571 Textiles and Clothing BY KATE HEINTZ WATSON GRADUATE ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN DOMESTIC ART LEWIS INSTITUTE LECTURER UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO *HOMES CHICAGO AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS 1914 COPYRIGHT 1906, 1907, 1910, 1914, BY HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION Entered at Stationers Hall, London All Rights Reserved CONTENTS 3 14 29 29 37 43 53 59 69 72 78 81 83 85 86 PRIMITIVE METHODS WEAVING FIBERS. COTTON Wool FLAX SILK MODERN METHODS WEAVING WEAVES BLEACHING AND DYEING . PRINTING FINISHING COTTON GOODS LINENS. WOOLENS AND WORSTEDS Sulks NAMES OF FABRICS BIBLIOGRAPHY ON TEXTILES HAND SEWING ORNAMENTAL STITCHES HEMS TuCKS AND SEAMS PLACKETS SEWING ON BANDS FASTENINGS PATCHING DARNING Mitering EMBROIDERY, JOINING LACE MACHINE SEWING 88 90 94 103 107 114 123 I 28 135 138 141 149 155 158 162 iii iv CONTENTS 167 171 172 182 185 194 198 200 201 DRESSMAKING PATTERNS SKIRT MAKING MAKING SHIRT WAISTS FITTED LININGS SLEEVES COLLARS SEAMLESS YOKES PRESSING CONSTRUCTION AND ORNAMENT IN DRESS ORNAMENT OF TEXTILES COLOR CHILDREN'S CLOTHES CARE OF CLOTHING CLEANING REPAIRING BIBLIOGRAPHY ON SEWING AND DRESSMAKING REFERENCES: HISTORY OF COSTUME; ORNAMENT AND DESIGN PROGRAM FOR SUPPLEMENTAL STUDY INDEX 203 212 214 216 219 221 225 229 234 236 241 一 ​ "THE THREAD OF LIFE" Spinning with the Distaff and Spindle. From a Painting. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Origin of Textile Arts PINNING and weaving are among the earliest arts. In the twisting of fibers, hairs, grasses, and sinews by rolling them between the thumb and fingers, paims of the hands, or palms and naked thigh, we have the original of the spinning wheel and the steam-driven cotton spindle; in the roughest plaiting we have the first hint of the finest woven cloth. The need of securing things or otherwise strengthening them then led to binding, fastening, and sewing. The wattle- work hut with its roof of interlaced boughs, the skins sewn by fine needles with entrails or sinews, the matted twigs, grasses, and rushes are all the crude beginnings of an art which tells of the settled life of to-day. Nothing is definitely known of the origin of these arts; all is conjecture. They doubtless had their be- ginning long before mention is made of them in his- tory, but these crafts-spinning and weaving-modi- fied and complicated by inventions and, in modern times transferred largely from man to machine, were distinctively woman's employment. The very primitive type of spinning, where no spindle was used, was to fasten the strands of goats' hair or wool to a stone which was twirled round until Primitive Methods co ITALIAN WOMAN SPINNING FLAX Spindle and Distaff. From Hull House Museum. (In This Series of Pictures the Spinners and Weavers Are in Native Costume. RUSSIAN SPINNING Flax Held on Frame, Leaving Both Hands Free to Manage the Thread and Spindle From Hull House Museum. 6 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Spinning with the the yarn was sufficiently twisted when it was wound upon the stone and the process repeated over and over. The next method of twisting yarn was with the spindle, a straight stick eight to twelve inches long on which the thread was wound after twisting. At first it had a cleft or split in the top in which the thread was fixed; later a hook of bone was added to the upper end. The spindle is yet used by the North American Indians, the Italians, and in the Orient. The bunch of wool or flax fibers is held in the left hand; with the right hand the fibers are drawn out several inches and the end fastened securely in the slit or hook on the top of the spindle. A whirling motion is given to the spindle on the thigh or any convenient part of the body; the spindle is then dropped, twisting the yarn, which is wound on the upper part of the spindle. Another bunch of fibers is drawn out, the spindle is given another twirl, the yarn is wound on the spindle, and so on. A spindle containing a quantity of yarn was found to rotate more easily, steadily and continue longer than an empty one, hence the next improvement was the addition of a whorl at the bottom of the spindle. These whorls are discs of wood, stone, clay, or metal which keep the spindle steady and promote its rota- tion. The process in effect is precisely the same as the spinning done by our grandmothers, only the spin- ning wheel did the twisting and reduced the time required for the operation. Spindle Whorl SPINNING WITH CRUDE WHEEL AND DISTAFF Distaff Thrust Into the Belt. "GOSSIP" IN THE OLDEN TIMES THEN COLONIAL WOOL WHEEL The Large Wheel Revolved by Hand Thus Turning the Spindle and Twisting the Yarn, Which Is Then Wound on the Spindle; Intermittent in Action. COLONIAL FLAX WHEEL Worked by a Foot Treddle; Distaff on the Frame of the Wheel; "Fliers” on the Spindle, Continuous in Action; Capacity Seven Times That of Hand Spindle. DUTCH WHEEL Spinner Sits in Front of the Wheel-Spinning Flax at Hull House. 12 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Distaff Later the distaff was used for holding the bunch of wool, flax, or other fibers. It was a short stick on one end of which was loosely wound the raw material. The other end of the distaff was held in the hand, under the arm or thrust in the girdle of the spinner. 2000 B.C. Birth of Christ 1500 A.D. Time during which the hand spindle was the only form of spindle kaowa. Spinning wheel also kaown. Steam has been applied to spinning. Graphic Diagram Showing Time During which Different Methods of Spinning Has Been Used. Wheel Spinning When held thus, one hand was left free for drawing out the fibers. On the small spinning wheel the distaff was placed in the end of the wheel bench in front of the "fillers" ; this left both hands free to manage the spindle and to draw out the threads of the fibers. The flax spinning wheel, worked by means of a treadle, was invented in the early part of the sixteenth SYRIAN SPINNING Spinner Sits on the Floor, Wheel Turned by a Crank; Spindle Held in Place by Two Mutton Joints Which Contain Enough Oil for Lubrication, At Hull House. 14 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING century and was a great improvement upon the dis- taff and spindle. This it will be seen was a compara- tively modern invention. The rude wheel used by the natives of Japan and India may have been the progenitor of the European wheel, as about this time intercourse between the East and Europe increased. These wheels were used for spinning flax, wool, and afterwards cotton, until Hargreaves' invention super- seded it. WEAVING Someone has said that “weaving is the climax of textile industry.” It is an art practiced by all savage MMA- PUEBLO WOMAN WORKING HEDDLE IN WEAVING A BELT tribes and doubtless was known before the dawn of history. The art is but a development of mat-making and basketry, using threads formed or made by spin- ning in place of coarser filaments. In the beginning of the art the warp threads were stretched between convenient objects on the ground A NAVAJO BELT WEAVER ZUNI WOMAN WEAVING CEREMONIAL BELT WEAVING 17 or from horizontal supports. At first the woof or filling threads were woven back and forth between the warp threads as in darning. An improvement was the device called the “heald” or “heddle,” by means of which alternate warp threads could be drawn away from the others, making an opening through which the filling thread could be passed quickly. One form Tho Hodala PRIMITIVE HEDDLES of the heddle was simply a straight stick having loops of cord or sinew through which certain of the warp threads were run. Another form was a slotted frame having openings or "eyes” in the slats. This was carved from one piece of wood or other material or made from many. Alternate warp threads passed through the eyes and the slots. By raising or lower- ing the heddle frame, an opening was formed through which the filling thread, wound on a rude shuttle, was thrown. The next movement of the heddle frame NAVAJO LOOM One of the Earliest Types of Looms. At Hull House. WEAVING 19 crossed the threads over the filling and made a new opening for the return of the shuttle. At first the filling thread was wound on a stick making a primi- tive bobbin. Later the shuttle to hold the bobbin was devised. SIMPLE COLONIAL LOOM The Reed Before the “reed” was invented, the filling threads were drawn evenly into place by means of a rude comb and driven home by sword-shaped piece of wood or "batten.” The reed accomplished all this at one time. It is probable that the European looms were de- rived from those of India as they seem to be made on the same principle. From crude beginnings, the hand loom of our grandmothers' time developed. A loom 2 A JAPANESE LOOM. A FOUR HARNESS HAND LOOM Weaving Linen in the Mountains of Virginia. (Photograph by C. R. Dodge). scale TYPICAL COLONIAL HAND LOOM Two Harnesses in Use; Weaving Wool at Hull House. WEAVING 23 has been defined as a mechanism which affects the following necessary movements: 1. The lifting of the healds to form an opening, or shed, or race for the shuttle to pass through. Definition of a Loom C W w DIAGRAM OF A HAND LOOM A-Warp Beam; B-Cloth Beam; DD-Lees Rods; H-Harness, 7-Treddle. 2. The throwing of the weft or filling by means of a shuttle. 3: The beating up of the weft left in the shed by the shuttle to the cloth already formed. This thread may be adjusted by means of the batten, needle, comb, or any separate device like the reed. 4 & 5. The winding up or taking up of the cloth as it is woven and the letting off of the warp as the cloth is taken up SWEDISH HAND LOOM Norwegian Woman Weaving Linen at Hull House. WEAVING 25 Colonial Loom No essential changes have been made since our grandmothers made cloth a hundred years ago. The “harnesses” move part of the warp now up, now down, and the shuttle carries the weft from side to side to be driven" home by the reeds to the woven cloth. Our grandmothers did all the work with swift movements D D H DIAGRAM OF THE WORKING PARTS OF A LOOM. S-Suttle for carrying the woof; R-Reed for beating up the woof; H-Frame holding heddles, with pullies (P) making the harness; 7-Treddles for moving the harness. of hands and feet. The modern weaver has her loom harnessed to the electric dynamo and moves her fin- gers only to keep the threads in order. If she wishes to weave a pattern in the cloth, no longer does she pick up threads of warp now here, now there, accord- ing to the designs. It is all worked out for her on the loom. Each thread with almost human intelli- gence settles automatically into its appointed place, and the weaver is only a machine tender. FLY SHUTTLE HAND LOOM The Pulling of the Reed Automatically Throws the Shuttle Back and forth and Works the Harness, Making a Shed at the Proper Time. WEAVING 27 Primitivo Fabrics No textiles of primitive people were ever woven in "pieces” or “bolts” of yards and yards in length to be cut into garments. The cloth was made of the size and shape to serve the particular purpose for which it was designed. The mat, robe, or blanket had tribal outlines and proportions and was made according to the materials and the use of common forms that pre- vailed among the tribes. The designs were always conventional and sometimes monotonous. The decora- tion never interfered with its use. "The first beauty of the savage woman was uniformity which belonged to the texture and shape of the product.” The uni- formity in textile, basketry, or pottery, after acquiring a family trait, was never lost sight of. Their designs were suggested by the natural objects with which they were familiar. PICKING COTTON From Department of Agriculture Bulletin, "The Cotton Plant.” FIBERS Both the animal and vegetable kingdoms furnish the materials for clothing as well as for all the textiles used in the home. The fleece of sheep, the hair of the goat and camel, silk, furs, and skins are the chief animal products. The principal vegetable fibers are cotton, flax, ramie, jute, and hemp. Cotton linen, wool, and silk have heretofore formed the foundation of all textiles and are the principal fibers used for clothing materials. Ramie or China grass and pineapple fibers are sometimes used as adulterants in the manufacture of silk. When woven alone, they give soft silky textiles of great strength and beauty. Chief Fibers COTTON Cotton is now our chief vegetable fiber, the yearly crop being over six billion pounds, of which the United States raises three-fourths. Texas is the World's Crop. United States. Texas. PRODUCTION OF COTTON largest producer, followed by Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. The remainder of the world supply comes chiefly from India, Egypt, Russia, and Brazil. The Hindoos were the first ancient people to make exten- sive use of the cotton fiber. Not until the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1794 did the cotton begin to reach its present importance. Only 29 30 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Native Homo Sea Island Cotton four or five pounds of the fiber could be separated by hand from the seed by a week's labor. The modern saw gins turn out over five thousand pounds daily. Cotton is the white downy covering of the seed of several species of cotton plant. It is a native of many parts of the world, being found by Columbus growing in the West Indies and on the main land, by Cortez in Mexico, and Pizarro in Perii. The value of cotton depends upon the strength, and evenness of the fiber. In ordinary cotton the individual fiber is about an inch in length. The sea island cot- ton grown chiefly on the islands off the coast of Georgia, Carolina, and COTTON FIBER ATTACHED TO SEED Florida is the most valu- able variety, having a fine fiber, one and one-lialf to two inches in length. Some of the Egyptian cotton be- longs to this species. Sea island cotton is used chiefly for fine laces, thread and knit goods and for the finest lawns and musiins. The short fiber or upland cotton is the most common and useful variety. It is grown in Georgia, North and South Carolina and Alabama. Texas cotton is similar to upland, but sometimes is harsh with shorter fiber. Gulf cotton occupies a position between upland and sea island cotton. The Brazilian and Peruvian cotton yields a long staple and is sometimes used to adulterate silk and Upland Cotton UPLAND COTTON PLANT WITH FULLY DEVELOPED BOLES From Bulletin No. 31, Georgia Experiment Station. COTTON BOLE FULLY DEVEL- OPED From Year Book of the Department of Agriculture, 1903. BOLE OPENED, COTTON READY FOR PICKING Year Book of 1903. 34 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Nankin Cotton other fibers. Some varieties of this cotton are harsh and wooly and are prized for use in mixing with wool, The Nankin cotton grown in China and India and in the southwestern part of Louisiana is characterized by its yellow color. It is used in weaving cloth of various kinds in the "fireside industries” which have. become popular in the United States and England. کے لیے درکار B ap B Spinning Qualities COTTON FIBERS A A Unripe Fibers; B B-Half-ripe Fibers; C C-Ripe Fibers. Very fine yarn can be spun from cotton because of the spiral character of the fibers. This twist of the fibers is peculiar to cotton, being present in no other animal or vegetable fiber. On account of this twist, cotton cloths are much more elastic in character than those woven from linen, the fibers of which are stiff and straight. After the removal of the seed, no other fiber is so free from impurities—5 per cent is the loss sustained COTTON 35 by cleaning and bleaching. In its natural condition, cotton will not dye readily because of a waxy sub- stance on the surface of the fibers. This must be removed by washing. Cotton should be picked only when it is fully ripe Picking when the pods are fully burst and the fibers expanded. Ginning The unripe fiber is glassy, does not attain its full and COTTON BALES strength and resists the dye. After picking, the cotton is sent to the ginning factory to have the seed removed. It is then pressed into bales by hydraulic presses, five hundred pounds being the standard bale in the United States. Purified bleached cotton is nearly pure cellulose. It resists the action of alkalis well, but is harmed by hot, strong acids, or if acid is allowed to dry on the fabric. It is not harmed by high temperature, and so may be ironed with a hot iron. Physical Character. istic3 3 2 5 6 4 WOOL FIBER AND SUBSTITUTES 1, South American Wool; 2, Noil from the Same; 3, Tangled Waste, 4, Waste Combed Out; 5, Lap Waste; 6, Shoddy. WOOL 37 WOOL Character of Fiber Wool is the most important animal fiber. Strictly speaking the name applies only to the hairy covering of sheep, but the hair of certain goats and of camels is generally classified under the same terms. The wool fiber is distinguished by its scale-like surface which gives it its felting and spinning properties. Hair MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE OF WO FIBERS as distinguished from wool has little or no scaly struc- ture being in general a smooth filament with no felting properties and spinning only with great difficulty. Fur is the undergrowth found on most fur-bearing animals and has in a modified way the scaly structure and felt- ing properties of wool. The great value of wool as a fiber lies in the fact that it is strong, elastic, soft, very susceptible to dye stuffs and being woven, furnishes a great number of Value for Clothing 38 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Quality of Wool air spaces, rendering clothing made from it very warm and light. Climatę, breed, and food influence the quality of the wool. Where the pasturage is barren and rocky, the wool is apt to be coarse. Varieties of Sheep MERINO RAMS The Variety of Sheep Giving the Finest Wool. There are supposed to be about thirty distinct varie- ties of sheep, nearly half of which are natives of Asia, one-third of Africa, and only four coming from Eu- rope, and two from America. Wool is divided into two general classes—long and short staple, according WOOL 39 to the average length of fiber. The long fiber wool is commonly carded, combed and spun into worsted yarn. The short fiber is usually carded and spun into woolen yarn. The short fiber obtained in combing long staple wool is called "noil." It is used for woolens.. Alpaca, Vicuna and Llama wools are obtained from animals which are native to the mountains of Peru Goat Woola ANGORA GOATS and Chile. The Angora goat, originally from Asia Minor, furnishes the mohair of commerce. This fiber does not resemble the hairs of common goats in any respect. It is a very beautiful fiber of silky luster, which constitutes its chief value. 40 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Fur The fur of beavers and rabbits can be and is used. in manufacture, either spun into yarn or made into felt. The fibers of both animals enter largely into the manufacture of felt hats. The fleece of sheep after being sheared is divided into different parts or sorted, according to to the qual- Sorting Wool a b с d WOOL FIBERS a-Medium Wool; 6—Camel's Hair; c-Diseased Fiber; d-Merino Wool; Mohair. Scouring Wool ity of the wool, the best wool coming from the sides of the animal. As it comes from the sheep, the wool contains many substances besides the wool fiber which must be re- moved before dyeing or spinning. This cleansing is called scouring. Before scouring, the wool is usually dusted by machines to remove all loose dirt. The scouring must be done by the mildest means possible in order to preserve the natural fluffiness and bril- liancy of the fiber. The chief impurity is the wool WOOL 41 grease or "yolk” which is secreted by the skin glands to lubricate the fiber and prevent it from matting. In the scouring of wool, soap is the principal agent. Soft soap made from caustic potash is generally used Scouring Agents HEAD 3 3 31 2 2 TAIL ONE METHOD OF WOOL SORTING 1-The Best Grade; 2-Lowest Grade;3—Fair; 4-Medium Grade. as it is less harmful than ordinary hard soda soap. Potassium carbonate—"pearl ash"-is often used in connection with the soap. If the water for scouring is hard, it is softened with pearl ash. The temperature 42 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING of wash water is never allowed to go above 120° F. The scoured wool weighs from a little over a half to one-third or less of the weight of the fleece. Wool has the remarkable property of absorbing up to-30 per cent or more of its weight of water and yet not feel perceptibly damp to the touch. This is called Hydroscopic Moisturo WOOL SORTING "hydroscopic moisture." To this property wool owes its superiority as a textile for underclothing. The thoroughly cleansed fiber is made up chiefly of the chemical substance keratin, being similar in com- position to horn and feathers. In burning it gives off a characteristic disagreeable odor. It is a substance. very weakly acid in its nature, for which reason it combines readily with many dyes. Wool resists the action of acids very well, but is much harmed by the alkalis, being dissolved completely by a warm solution of caustic soda. High temperature harms wool. FLAX 43 FLAX Next to wool and cotton, flax is used most largely in our textile manufactures. The linen fiber consists of the bast cells of certain spe- cies of flax grown in Eu- rope, Africa, and the Uni- ted States. All bast fibers are obtained near the out- er surface of the plant stems. The pith and woody tissues are of no value. The flax plant is an annual and to ob- tain the best fibers it must be gathered before it is fully ripe. To obtain seed from which the best quality of lin- seed oil can be made it is usually necessary to sacrifice the quality of the fibers to some extent. FLAX Unlike cotton, fax is contaminated by impurities from which it must be freed before it can be woven into cloth. The first process to which the freshly pulled flax is submitted is that of “rippling" or the removal of the seed capsules. Retting, next in order, is the most important operation. This is done to remove the substances which bind the bast fibers to each other and to remove the fiber from the central Treatment of Flax A FIELD OF FLAX IN MINNESOTA The Flax Must Be Pulled Up by the Roots to Give Fibers with Tapered Ends. (Photograph of C. R. Dodge). FLAX 45 woody portion of the stem. This consists of steeping the stalks in water. (1) Cold water retting, either running or stagnant water. (2) Dew retting. (3) Warm water retting. Retting MWA MW RETTING TANK A-Inlet; B-Undisturbed Water; C—Bundles of Flax. -- Cold water retting in running water is practiced in Belgium. Retting in stagnant water is the method usually employed in Ireland and Russia. The retting in stagnant water is more rapidly done, but there is danger of over-retting on account of the organic mat- ter retained in the water which favors fermentation. In this case the fiber is weakened. In dew retting, the flax is spread on the field and exposed to the action of the weather for several weeks 1 1 RETTING FLAX IN THE RIVER LYS, BELGIUM From the Government Bulletin, "Flax for Seed and Fiber." FLAX 47 a n d without any previous steeping. This method of retting is practiced in Germany and Russia. Warm water retting and chemical retting have met with limited success. When the ret- ting is complete, the flax is set up in sheaves to dry. The next operations con- sist of "break- ing,” "scutch- ing,” “hackling” and are now done by machinery. FIBERS OF FLAX Breaking removes the woody center from the retted and dried flax by being passed through a series of fluted rollers. The particles of woody matter adher- ing to the fibers are detached by scutching. Hackling or combing still further separates the fibers into their finest filaments—“line" and "tow." The "flax line" is the long and valuable fiber; the tow, the short coarse tangled fiber which is spun and used for weaving coarse linen. When freed from all impurities the chief physical characteristics of flax are its snowy whiteness, silky luster and great tenacity. The individual fibers may Hackling Character- istics of Linen B D. FLAX A, Unthrashed Straw; B, Retted; C, Cleaned or Scutched; D, Hackled or Dressed. (Photograph of C. R. Dodge). HACKLING FLAX BY HAND The "Tow” Is Seen at the Left and a Bunch of “Flax line' on the Bench. (Photograph of C. R. Dodge, Special Agent U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 50 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Ramie be from ten to twelve inches in length; they are much greater in diameter than cotton. It is less pliant and elastic than cotton and bleaches and dyes less readily. Linen cloth is a better conductor of heat than cotton and clothing made from it is cooler. When pure, it is, like cotton, nearly pure cellulose. Besides the linen, there is a great number of bast fibers fit for textile purposes, some superior, some in- ferior. India alone has over three hundred plants that are fiber yielding. One-third of these furnish useful fibers for cordage and fabrics. The next in importance to linen is ramie or rhea, and China grass. China grass comes from a different plant but is about the same as ramie. The staple is longer and finer than linen. The great strength of yarn made from it is due to length of the staple. The variety and great value of the ramie fibers has long been recognized, but difficulties attending the separation and degumming of the fibers have pre- vented its employment in the manufactures to any great extent. The native Chinese split and scrape the plant stems, steeping them in water. The common retting process used for flax is not effective on account of the large amount of gummy matter, and although easy to bleach it is difficult to dye in full bright shades without injuring the luster of the fibers. Jute and hemp belong to the lower order of bast fibers. The fiber is large and is unfit for any but the Jute and Hemp JUTE GROWING IN LOUISIANA From Çulture of Hemp and Jute, Report of U. S. Department of Agriculture, DRYING HEMP IN KENTUCKY From “Culture of Hemp and Jute. 9 SILK 53 Olona coarsest kind of fabrics. Jute. is mainly cultivated in Bengal. The fiber is separated from the plant by retting, beating, etc. Olona, the textile fiber of Hawaii, is found to have promising qualities. This plant resembles ramie and belongs to the nettle family also, but it is without the troublesome resin of the ramie. The fiber is fine, light, strong, and durable. The Philippines are rich in fiber producing plants. The manila hemp is the most prominent, of which coarse cloth is woven, besides the valuable cordage. The sisal hemp, pineapple, yucca, and a number of fiber plants growing in the southern part of the United States are worthy of note. These fiber industries are conducted in a rude way, the fiber being cleaned by hand, except the pineapple. SILK The silk fiber is the most perfect as well as the most beautiful of all fibers. It is nearly faultless, fine and continuous, often measuring from 1000 to 4000 feet long, without a scale, joint, or a blemish, though not of the same diameter or fineness throughout its entire length, as it becomes finer as the interior of the cocoon is approached. Silk differs from all other vegetable or animal fibers by being devoid of all cellular structure. Southern Europe leads in the silk worm culture- Where Produced Italy, southern France, and Turkey, with China and India. Several species of moths, natives of India, China, and Japan, produce the wild silk. The most 54 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Silk Worm important of the "wild silks" are the Tussah. Silk plush and the coarser varieties of buff colored fabrics are made of this silk. While manufacturers do not favor the wild silk, the coarse uneven weave and soft- ness make it a favorite with artists and it is being used for interior decoration as well as for clothing. The silk of commerce begins with an egg no bigger than a mustard seed, out of which comes a diminutive caterpillar, which is kept in a frame and fed upon mulberry leaves. When the caterpillars are full grown, they climb upon twigs placed for them and begin to spin or make the cocoon. The silk comes from two little orifices in the head in the form of a glutinous gum which hardens into a fine elastic fiber. With a motion of the head somewhat like the figure eight, the silk worm throws this thread around the body from head to tail until at last it is entirely enveloped. The body grows smaller and the thread grows finer until at last it has spun out most of the substance of the body and the task is done. If left to itself, when the time came, the moth would eat its way out of the cocoon and ruin the fiber. A few of the best cocoons are saved for a new supply of caterpillars; the remainder are baked at a low heat which destroys the worm but preserves the silk. This now becomes the cocoon of commerce. Next the cocoons go to the reelers who wind the filaments into the silk yarn that makes the raw ma- Reeling Silk SILK 55 Telecom terial of our mills. The cocoons are thrown into warm water mixed with soap in order to dissolve the gum. The outer or coarser covering is brushed off down to SILK:-CATERPILLAR, COCOON, CHRYSALIS, MOTH the real silk and the end of the thread found. Four or five cocoons are wound together, the sticky fibers clinging to each other as they pass through the various guides and are wound as a single thread on the reels. 56 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Organize and Tram The silk is dried and tied into hanks or skeins. As the thread unwinds from the cocoon, it becomes smaller, so other threads must be added. At the mill the raw silk goes to the “throwster” who twists the silk threads ready for the loom. These threads are of two kinds—“organize” or warp and "tram" or filling. The warp runs the long way of woven fabric or parallel with the selvage and it must be strong, elastic, and not easily parted by rubbing. To prepare the warp, two threads of raw silk are slightly twisted. Twist is always put into yarn of any kind to increase its strength. These threads are united and twisted together and this makes a strong thread capable of withstanding any reasonable strain in the loom and it will not roughen. For the woof or tram which is carried across the woven cloth on the shuttle, the thread should be as loose and fluffy as possible. Several threads are put together, subjected to only a very slight twist-just enough to hold the threads together so they will lie evenly in the finished fabric. After the yarn leaves the spinners it is again run off on reels to be taken to the dye house. First the yarn is boiled off in soapy water to remove the remaining gum. Now the silk takes on its luster. Before it was dull like cotton. The silk is now finer and harder and is known as “souple." The silk fiber has a remarkable property of absorb- ing certain metallic salts, still retaining much of its Boiling Off Loading Silk SILK 57 luster. This process is known as “loading" or "weight- ing,” and gives increased body and weight to the silk. Silk without weighting is known as "pure dye,” of which there is little made, as such goods take too much silk. SUPPORT BASIN REELING SILK For the weighting of white or light colored silk goods, tin crystals (stanous chloride) are used and for dark shades and black, iron salts and tannin. By this means the original weight of the fiber may be increased three or four hundred per cent. This result is not attained, however, except through the weakening of the fiber. 58 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Action of Common Salt Artificial Silk Character. istics of si Common salt has a very curious action on weighted silk. It slowly weakens the fiber. A silk dress may be ruined by being splashed with salt water at the sea- shore. Most often holes appear after a dress comes back from the cleaners; these he may not be to blame for, as salt is abundant in nearly all the bodily secre- tions,—tears, perspiration, urine. Artificial silk is made by dissolving cellulose ob- tained from cotton. It is lacking in strength and water spoils all kinds manufactured at present. Silk, like wool, has the property of absorbing con- siderable moisture without becoming perceptibly damp. Like wool and all the animal fibers, it is harmed by alkalis. The important physical properties of silk are its beautiful luster, strength, elasticity and the readi- ness with which it takes dyes. Silk combines well with other fibers, animal and vegetable. A comparison of the relative value of textile fibers may be seen from the following approximate prices : Cotton—$.07 to $.14 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching 5 per cent. Flax-$.12 to $.30 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching about 20 per cent. Wool—$.15 to $.30 per pound; loss in scouring 20 to 60 per cent. Raw Silk-$7.00 to $10.00 per pound; loss in “boiling off” about 30 per cent which is made up and much more by "loading." Value of Raw Fibers MODERN METHODS All the complex processes and machinery of the textile industry are but developments of the old-time methods of the home. Brief outlines only will be given here for the processes are most intricate in detail. SPINNING Picking and Carding The spinning of cotton yarn (thread) is typical of all the fibers. The stages may be divided into- 1. Opening and picking. 2. Carding. 3. Combing 4. Drawing 5. Spinning The picking and carding have for their object the removal of all foreign substances with as little damage to the fiber as possible. The foreign substances in cotton are sand, dirt, pieces of leaves, seed, husk, etc., which have become mixed with the fiber during the process of growing, ginning and transportation. The cotton bales are opened and thrown into the automatic feeder which carries up a layer of cotton on a spiked apron from which it is removed by a rapidly revolving "doffer" underneath which is a screen which catches some of the dirt. It is next fed between rolls in front of a rapidly revolving blunt-edged knife which throws out more of the dirt through a screen. There is a suction of air through the screen which helps remove the foreign substances. The cotton passes Cleaning 59 60 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Carding through several of such machines, being formed into a soft web or "lap” which is wound into a roll. The carding machine further cleans the fibers and lays them in a general parallel position. From this machine the web is formed into "sliver," a loose rope M MWILI 10:00 COTTON OPENER AND PICKER The cotton from the bale is thrown into A, carried by the spiked aprons Band ç, evened by E, removed from the apron by F (some of the dirt falls through the screen into box C) is beaten by the revolving “knife,” NP, more dirt being removed through screen N, then goes through the flue Cto the next machine. Combing of cotton fiber about two iriches in diameter. This is received in circular cans. The combing is omitted for short fiber cotton, but is used in worsted spinning and with long staple cotton to remove the short fibers. Cotton to be used for SPINNING 61 making yarn suitable for hosiery, underwear, sewing thread, lace, and for very fine cotton fabrics is carded. In drawing, from six to sixteen "slivers" are run together and the fibers drawn out in several stages until the soft rope is about an eighth of an inch in diameter, called "roving." This tends to get rid of any unevenness and makes the fibers all parallel. From this machine the roving is wound on a bobbin ready for the spinning frame. CYLINDER SO DIA OVER WIRE REVOLUTIONS PER MIN. 165. .DOFTER 24 DIAOVER WIRE Spinning COTTON CARD The roll of webbing A is beaten and transferred to the cylinder HH, carded by the spiked belt E, removed by the “doffer” and formed into a "sliver" which runs into the can M. The spinning frame may have a hundred spindles or more, each one of which is drawing out its supply of “roving” to the required size of yarn and giving it the twist necessary to bind the fibers together. The yarn to be used for the warp is given a harder twist so that it may be strong enough to stand the strain in weaving. The yarn for filling is usually left soft. DEE WORKS AUNTON COTTON COMB, USED FOR LONG STAPLE RECEIVING THE "SLIVER" AT THE BACK OF THE DRAW. ING FRAME, DRAWING FRAME Drawing the Roving Finer. *1941:41. LLL A FLY SPINNING FRAME The Spools of Roving Above Are Being Drawn Out, Given the Twist by the Fliers, and Wound on Bobbins Below. 2 MULE DRAWING AND SPINNING FRAME Always used for wool. Part of the machine moves away from the frame, thus drawing out the thread, which is then twisted. NEGA MODERN RING SPINNING FRAME FOR COTTON. SIXTY-EIGHT SPINDLES Gives the Largest Production. A PLAIN POWER LOOM WEAVING LINEN WEAVING 69 Modern Loom The yarn for warp is now usually given a coating or “sizing” of starch and gums so that the thread may not become unwound and break during weaving. The process of spinning is much the same for flax and for wool, although somewhat differently con- structed machines must be used. Flax is usually spun wet. WEAVING The modern power driven loom is a wonderful piece of machinery. The principle of its operation is essen- tially the same as the hand loom, but it is almost per- fectly automatic in its action, a man or woman being able to tend from ten to fifteen looms weaving plain cotton goods. The yarn coming from the spinning frame is some- times dyed before weaving. The warp is formed by winding as many threads as the width of the fabric is to contain on a slowly revolving drum, called a "beam,” in the same relative position in which they are to ap- pear in the finished cloth. From its position on the beam at the back of the loom, each thread is brought through its particular loop or eye with the heddle, then passes through its own slot in the reed, and down to the roller or "cloth beam” that is to take up the woven cloth. This is called "drawing in the warp.” If there is a piece of cloth coming from the loom, the work is very simple, for the ends of the new warp are tied to the ends remaining from the warp that has been woven out. Warping 70 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING. The Harness The shuttle with its bobbin, containing the yarn of the filling, is much the same as is used in the hand looms, except for form and size, which varies accord- ing to the requirements and size of the warp being used. At first only one shuttle was used, but in 1760 Robert Kay invented a mechanism by which several shuttles containing different grades or colors of yarn might be used. Each throw of the shuttle across the width of the goods is called a "pick.” In making a cloth with plain weave, that is, with every thread interlacing with every other, as in darn- ing, only two harnesses are required, but the modern loom may have up to about twenty-four harnesses so that an infinite variety of weaves may be obtained. Various cams and levers move the harness frame and so raise or lower the threads required for the design. The Jacquard loom is arranged on a different prin- ciple. In this loom, all kinds of fancy weaves may be obtained as in table linen, tapestries and carpets. Each warp thread is supplied with a separate hook and by means of perforated card the desired threads are raised or depressed at each throw of the shuttle. The cards are worked out by the designer. A set of a thousand or more cards may be required to produce the desired design. Jacquard looms are sometimes to be seen at fairs and expositions weaving handkerchiefs with some picture design. Jacquard Loom JACQUARD HAND LOOM Weaving Ingrain Carpet at Hull House. WEAVES The great variety of weaves found in the textiles of to-day are modifications of a few fundamental weaves invented in the earliest times. The chief fundamental weaves are: (1) Plain weave. (2) Twills, (3) Sateen. To which may be added the derivatives, (4) Rib weave. (5) Basket weave. These do not include the many fancy weaves, too RA PUUHUNSUB SUUBUVE DIAGRAM OF FANCY KNIT GOODS numerous to classify, and the open work weaves, made in the Leno loom, in which some of the threads are crossed. Knit goods are made by the interlooping of a single thread, by hand or on circular knitting ma- 72 WEAVES 73 chines and lace by an analogous process, using several systems of threads. Felt is made up of matted fibers of fur and wool and has no thread structure, Plain Twill IN Cassimere Twill Saleen WEAVE DIAGRAMS The plain weave is the most common, nearly all light weight goods being thus woven. In plain weav- ing, each thread of both warp and filling passes alter- nately over and under the threads at right angles. This makes a comparatively open cloth, requiring the Plain Weavo 74 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING smallest amount of yarn for the surface covered. This weave is used in nearly all cotton goods, as in muslins, sheetings, calicoes, ginghams, and thin woolen goods. Even in the plain weave variety is obtained by having a b d SECTIONS OF WEAVES 2-Plain weave; 6—Prunella twill; C—Cassimere twill; d–Swans- down twill. some of the threads larger than others, either in warp or filling or both, thus producing stripes and checked effects. After the plain weave the twill is the most common, being much used for dress goods, suitings, etc., as well as some of the thicker cottons. In this weave the intersections of the threads produce characteristic lines diagonally across the fabric, most often at an angle of 45°. The twill may be hardly visible or very Twills WEAVES 75 pronounced. The simplest twills are the so-called "doeskin” and “prunella.” In the doeskin the filling threads pass over one and under two of the warp threads and in the prunella twill over two and under one. The most common twill is the cassimere twill in which both the warp and filling run over two and under two of the threads at right angles. Rib W Z. Double Cloth UIT Basket DIAGRAM OF RIB AND BASKET WEAVE AND DOUBLE CLOTH Uneven Twills A twill made by running both warp and filling under one and over three threads is called a swansdown twill and the reverse is known as the crow weave. In these the diagonal twilled effect is much more marked. Various twills are often combined with each other and with plain weave, making a great variety of texture. Numerous uneven twills are made, two over and three under, etc., etc. 76 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Sateen Weave In the sateen weave, nearly all of either the warp or the filling threads are on the surface, the object being to produce a smooth surface fabric like sateen. With TEXTILE DESIGN A-On cross-section paper; B-Graphic diagram. this weave it is possible to use a cotton warp and silk filling, having most of the silk appear on the surface of the fabric. The rib and basket weaves are derivatives of the plain weave, two or more threads replacing the single Rib and Basket Weaves WEAVES 77 Double Cloth strand. In the rib weave, either the warp or the fill- ing threads run double or more, thus making a corded effect. In the basket weave, both warp and filling are run double or treble, giving a coarse texture. This weave is sometimes called the panama weave. In the thicker fabrics like men's suitings and over- coatings, there may be a double series of warp threads, only one series appearing on the face of the goods, and in the still thicker fabrics, there may be a double set of both warp and filling threads, making double cloth, the two sides of which may be entirely different in color and design. In weaving plush, velvet and velveteen, loops are made in the filling or warp threads which are after- wards cut, producing the pile. Volnot BLEACHING, DYEING, PRINTING, FINISHING Madder Bleach When the cloth comes from the loom it is by no means ready for the market. Nearly all kinds are washed and pressed and in some classes of goods the finishing process is very elaborate. BLEACHING AND DYEING The fiber may be dyed in a loose or unspun state, as is customary with wool; after it has been spun and is in the form of yarn, as in the case of silk and linen; and when it has been woven to form cloth, as is most commonly the case with cotton. The bleaching of cotton involves a number of steps, the most thorough process being called the “madder bleach," in which the cloth is (1) wet out, (2) boiled with lime water, (3) rinsed, (4) treated with acid, (5) rinsed, (6) boiled with soap and alkali, (7) rinsed, (8) treated with bleaching powder solution, (9) rinsed, (10) treated with acid, (11) finally rinsed again. All this is done by machines and hundreds of yards go through the process at a time. The product is a pure white cloth suitable for dyeing light shades and for white goods. When cloth is to be dyed a dark shade the treatment is less elaborate. If the cloth is to be printed for calicoes, before bleaching it is singed by passing through gas flames or over a red hot plate and then sheared in a shearing machine constructed somewhat on the principle of the Singeing and Bhearing 78 DYEING 79 Mordant Colors lawn mower, the cloth being run close to the rapidly revolving knives. Although cotton is usually dyed in the piece, it may be dyed in the form of yarn, as for ginghams, and sometimes before being woven, in the loose state. Cotton is more difficult to dye than wool or silk. Although there are now what are called “direct” cotton colors, the usual process is to first treat the cotton goods with a "mordant"-various salts of aluminum, chromium, iron, tin and copper, fixing these on the fiber by means of tannin or alkali. The mordanted cloth is then entered into the dye bath and boiled for an hour or longer, until the desired shade is obtained or the dye bath exhausted. The salts of aluminum are used as mordants for the lighter shades, the salts of chromium for the medium shades, and iron for the dark shades. In general, chromium mordants give the fastest dyes. The discovery of the so-called aniline dyes has greatly increased the variety of colors available. Al- though some of the first aniline dyes to be made were not fast to washing or to light and they thus received a bad reputation, they are now to be obtained which compare favorably in fastness with the natural dye stuffs such as cochineal, madder, etc., provided suf- ficient time and care are given to dyeing. The chief trouble is that in the endeavor to furnish cheap goods, processes are hurried and results are unsatisfactory. Aniline Dyes 80 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Home Dyeing Home dyeing is practically confined to the use of direct aniline colors. These are put up in small quan- tities and sold in many places. Directions for their use are given on the packages. The chief precautions are to have the goods perfectly clean and thoroughly wet before entering into the dye bath (this is by no means as easy as one might think), and to keep the goods in motion while dyeing so as to prevent un- evenness of shade. Wool and silk dyes cannot be used for cotton and linen, nor the reverse. Of course cloth already colored cannot be dyed a lighter shade of the same color and the original shade must be very light to enable one to change the color, say from red to blue, etc. The original color always modifies that of the dye somewhat and it is best to experiment first with a small portion of the dye and cloth. Rather dark shades are apt to be most successful. Indigo for blue, madder for Turkey red, logwood with fustic for black, cutch or gambia for browns on cotton are about all the natural dyestuffs which are used to any extent commercially at the present time. The artificial product alizerin, the active principle of madder, has about superseded the natural dyestuff, and artificial indigo is gaining on the natural product. Linen is bleached and dyed in much the same man- ner as cotton. This weakens linen more than cotton and the finest table linens are whitened by grass bleaching or a combination of grass and chemical bleach. Woolen and silk may be dyed directly with a great variety of dyes without the addition of a mordant, Natural Dyestuffs Dyeing Woolen and Silk PRINTING 81 although they are often mordanted. Both must be well washed or scoured before dyeing. When white or delicate shades on woolen or silk are desired they are bleached. The bleaching is usually done with sul- phurous acid gas, the cloth or yarn being exposed in a damp condition to the fumes of burning sulplur. Were it not for the expense, hydrogen peroxide would be the ideal bleaching agent for the animal fibers. PRINTING Block and Machino Printing A great variety of colored designs are produced on the loom by using different cciored warp and filling yarns and different weaves, but in all these the designs are easily made only in somewhat rectangular patterns. Print goods have doubtless evolved from the deco- ration of fabrics with the brush. Block printing was first used, the design being engraved in relief on blocks of wood. These are dipped in the colored paste, spread thinly, and applied to successive portions of the cloth by hand. These blocks are now replaced in the printing machine by engraved copper rolls, the design being such that it is repeated once or a number of times in each revolution of the cylinder. There is a printing roll for each color of the design. Sometimes both the background and the design are printed on the cloth, but the more common process is for the design only to be printed on the cloth which may be dyed afterwards. In the paste of the printed design there 82 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Fixing the Print is some chemical which prevents the portions printed · from taking the dye, consequently these remain white or a different color. This is called the “resist’ process. Another process is to first dye the cloth and then print on some chemical which, when the calico is steamed, discharges the color. This is called the "discharge" process. Sometimes this weakens the goods in the places where the color has been discharged. The color paste used for printing contains both the dye and the mordant. After the calico has been printed it is steamed to develop and fix the color, washed, sometimes very slightly bleached, to clear the whites, and usually given a sizing of starch or gum, and then pressed and dried by passing over slowly revolving, steam-heated drums. In general print goods are not so fast to washing and to light as those that have been dyed in the regu- lar way, although the better grades are reasonably fast. Prints are sometimes made in imitation of the more costly gingham or other goods in which the color design is made in the weaving. It is easy to detect the imitation as the design of printed fabrics does not penetrate to the back of the cloth. Sometimes the warps are printed before the cloth is woven, thus giving very pretty indefinite designs, especially in silk. Warp Printing FINISHING 83 FINISHING Burling and Mending Fulling The finishing of woolen and worsted goods has much to do with their appearance. No cloth comes from the loom in a perfect condition, therefore inspection is the first process. Loose threads and knots are carefully cut off by the “burler” and imperfections in the weav- ing rectified by the "menders.” The goods may now be singed and sheared. Woolens, and sometimes worsteds, are next “fulled” or felted by being run round and round in a machine while moistened with soap. The friction of the cloth on itself produces some heat which, with the mois- ture and soap, causes the goods to shrink in length and width while increasing in thickness. During this proc- ess, "flocks" are often added, especially for smooth finished woolen goods. These flocks are fine fibers of wool obtained from the shearing machine or made by cutting up old woolen cloth. They are felted with the fibers of the goods and add weight and firmness. After the fulling, the goods is washed to remove the soap, dyed, if desired, and often “speck dyed” with a special dye which colors the bits of burs, remaining in the cloth, but not the wool. The next process is the "gigging” which raises the nap. The cloth is run close to rapidly revolving "teazels” and also may be run through a napping machine. It may be sheared again and then steamed and pressed. This is but a brief outline; there are generally more processes. Woolen cloth coming from the loom may be so Flocks Raising the Nap 84 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING treated in the finishing room as to produce fabrics entirely different in appearance. One of the chief ob- jects of the finishing is to give to the cloth as fine an appearance as possible to attract the buyer. Much of the fine finish disappears through wear, especially with inferior goods made from poor materials. The wear- ing quality of the goods is primarily dependent upon the strength and quality of the fibers of which it is made, so that the yarn of the filling and the warp should be examined when selecting materials. In gen- eral, hard twisted yarn wiii give the better wearing cloth. FABRICS The present day shops offer such a great variety of fabrics that only a few of the most important can be mentioned here. COTTON GOODS Cotton is cool and heavy, is a non-conductor of heat, crushes easily, but like all vegetable fibers it may be laundered without injury to the fibers. Cotton does not take the darker dyes as well as animal fibers and for this reason it does not combine satisfactorily with wool. As an adulterant it wears shabby and loses its brightness. It is only when cotton does not pretend to be anything else that it is our most useful and dur- able, textile. The readiness with which cotton takes the lighter dyes and improved methods of ginning, spinning, and weaving have made cotton goods supe- rior to any other for summer use. Muslin, calico, and gingham must always head the list of cotton goods. Muslin is coarse and fine, bleached, unbleached, and half bleached, twilled or plain weave. Under the head of muslin brought to a high degree of perfection in weave and finish will be found dimity, mull, Indian lawn, organdie, Swiss, and Madras, and a host of others equally beautiful. Mad- ras muslin has a thin, transparent ground with a heav- ily raised pattern woven of a soft, thick thread unlike the ground work. Waste is used for the pattern. Or- gandie muslin is soft, opaque, white, or colored, with Maslin 85 86 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING raised dots of pattern and plain weave. Dimity has a fine cord running with the selva ge. Gingham is a smooth, close cotton usually woven in checks or stripes. The yarn is dyed before being woven, making the cloth alike on both sides, and the weave is either plain or twilled. Ginghams are also woven of silk and cotton mixed or of silk and ramie. Cretonne, chintz, dress linings, crape, velveteen, and iace are made of cotton. Flannelette, which is woven to imitate flannel, is soft and light and is preferred by many who find woolen irritating. It does not shrink as woolen does and is made in beautiful, soft colors and the best grades do not fade. For nightdresses, underwear, and sheets, during cold weather this inexpensive fabric is unequaled. Among the heavier cotton fabrics may be mentioned denim and ticking which are now printed in beautiful designs and colors and used for interior decoration as well as for clothing and bedding. The great variety of fibers, the many different ways of preparing each for manufacture, the differences in the preparatory processes in spinning, weaving, or in any of the later processes of finishing produce the varied appearance of the finished product in cotton as in other fabrics. LINENS Linen is one of the oldest textiles; it was used by the early Egyptians for the priests' garments and for LINENS 87 Tablo Linen the wrappings of mummies. Many housekeepers think that there is no material for sheets and pillow cases comparable to linen, but it is not an ideal dressing for beds, for in spite of its heavier body, it wrinkles and musses much more readily than good cotton. For table service, however, for the toilet, and for minor ornamental purposes linen has no equal. Its smooth- ness of texture, its brilliancy which laundering in- creases, its wearing qualities, its exquisite freshness, make it the one fabric fit for the table. Table linen is woven plain and figured, checked and diapered. In the figured or damask cloth the patterns stand out distinctly. This is due to the play of light and shade on the horizontal and vertical lines. In some lights the pattern is scarcely noticeable. When buy- ing a cloth, let it be between the observer and the light, for in this position the pattern will show to the best advantage. There is a certain amount of shade on all horizontal lines or of shadow cast by them, while the vertical lines are illuminated, thus although the warp and woof threads are of the same color, the pattern seems to stand out from the background. Linen should not be adulterated. It should be for use and not for show, for use brightens and whitens it. Linen adulterated with cotton becomes fuzzy through wear because of the much shorter cotton fibers. The tendency can often be seen by rolling the goods between the thumb and fingers. 88 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Crash of different widths and quality furnishes tea towels, “huck,” damask and other weaves come in vari- ous widths and may be purchased by the yard. Russia crash is best for kitchen towels. WOOLENS AND WORSTEDS Standard Goods The many grades of wool with the great variety of weaves and finish make an almost infinite variety of woolen and worsted fabrics. New goods are con- stantly being put upon the market, or old goods with new names. Standard goods, such as serges, cashmere, Henrietta cloth, and covert cloth, are always to be found in the shops. These are all twilled goods. The serges are woven of combed wool and are harsh, tough, springy, worsted fabrics of me- dium and heavy weight, with a distinct twill, rather smooth surface, and plainer back. There are also loosely woven serges. Cashmere and Henrietta cloth have a fine, irregular twill—the finest made. They are woven with silk, wool, and cotton warp, but the latter gives an inferior textile. Tweeds and homespuns are names given to coarse cloth of which the wool is spun by hand and woven on hand looms. These goods vary according to the lo- cality in which they are made. The wool is mixed without regard to color, the yarn being spun and twisted in the most primitive manner, giving the cloth an uneven, unfinished appearance. These are among the best wearing cloths on the market and are espe- Tweeds WOOLENS AND WORSTEDS 89 Harris Tweede cially suitable for suits that will receive hard wear. Scotland and Ireland are famous for their tweeds and homespuns and what are known as the "cottage indus- tries" have been recently revived in those countries as the products of their hand looms have become de- servedly popular abroad. The "Harris Tweeds," made on the Island of Lewis and Harris, north of Scotland, are in the old style by the "crofters." After weaving the goods are “waulked”—milled or felted—with the bare feet, ac- companied by singing the waulking song and beating time with the feet. The dyeing is done in pots in the old-fashioned way and until recently the dyestuffs were obtained from mosses, lichens, heather, broom, and other plants. Now, however, some of the best aniline dyes are being used. A peculiar characteristic of the Harris tweed is the peat smoke smell caused by the fabı ic being woven in the crofters' cottages, where there is always a strong odor of peat “reek” from the peat which is burned for fuel. The ordinary so-called Harris tweeds sold in this country are made on the southern border of Scotland, in factories, and are but imitations of the real Harris tweeds. The light colored tweeds—natural color of wool- come from the island of St. Kilda. This island stands out in mid ocean, barren and wild, devoid of plants or shrubs of any kind for making dyes. The crofters content themselves without dyestuffs. The industry 90 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING is maintained by nobility to help the islanders and the fabrics are fashionable and high priced. The foregoing represent the worsteds. Among the heavy woolens are covert cloth, a twilled fabric of hard finish and great durability, melton, doeskin, broadcloth and cassimeres. The light weight woolen goods are represented by crepe cloth, with crinkled, rough surface, nun's veiling, flannel, which is woven in many ways and given various names, wool canvas, and poplins. The list might be extended, but these fabrics are always to be found in the shops of good color and are the best of the all wool fabrics for wear. Mohair is a material made from the hair of the angora goat, woven with silk, wool, worsted, or cotton warp. It is a dust-shedding material, does not shrink, and bears hard wear well. Alpaca, on account of its Alpaca softness, elasticity, and exemption from shaggy defects, combines admirably with cotton in the manufacture of fine goods, which attains almost the glossy brightness of silk. The yarn is used for weaving alpaca linings and light coatings for warm climates. Mohair SILKS Many silks can be washed without injury to the fi- bers, but they cannot be boiled without destroying the luster. Silks may be had in various widths and end- less variety of weaves. Many are reversible. Silks are adulterated with cotton and ramie fibers. The chemicals used in "loading” or “dynamiting” to give the weight lost by cleaning or removing the gum Loading Bilk SILKS 91 Wash Silks from the raw silk give to the cheaper grades the stiff, harsh feeling and cause the splitting and cracking of the silk, hence the quality of the fiber should be con- sidered when selecting a silk, not the weight. Taffeta is often heavily loaded. Foulard and surah are twilled silks. Corded silks are woven with a cord running from selvage to selv- age. To this class belong the grosgrains, Ottoman, faille Francaise—a silk resembling grosgrain, but softer and brighter. Irish poplins and bengalines have wool for the filling instead of silk. Great improvement has been made in the manufac- ture of wash silks. They are fine in color and have a glossy surface. Pongee is a beautiful, durable silk in different shades of natural color. It is woven in dif- ferent widths. This silk is especially valuable for un- derwear. The first cost is greater, but it outwears muslin or linen. It is also used for children's gar- ments and for outside wraps. For many purposes, no better textile can be found. Crepe de Chine is an incomparable textile possess- ing as much softness as strength. It is always supple, never creases, launders well, and comes in the most beautiful soft shades as well as in black and dark colors. Satin is distinguished by its glossy, lustrous surface, obtained in the weaving. Piled fabrics are rich, thick materials made of silk, wool, mohair, and cotton, comprising the velvets, vel- veteens, plushes, corduroys, and wilton and velvet car- Piled Fabrics 92 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Velvet pets. The soft, raised pile is first woven in loops- Brussels carpet is a good example—and the loops are cut. The back of the goods is plain. Velvet has always and justly been regarded as the most beautiful of textiles. No matter how fashions change in regard to other materials, velvet never loses its vogue. For robes and cloaks, for mantles and jack- ets, for hats and bonnets, for trimming and decoration, velvet has been popular for a greater period than the life of any living mortal, but never before has it been so cheap, so varied and so beautiful as it is now. One can in the passing throng of pedestrians on any crowded street see the use and abuse of this noble material. There is scarcely an article of dress into whose composition it does not enter and it is worn upon all occasions. Many things have brought about this result. The tendency of fashion is towards the decorative and picturesque and in these qualities vel- vet excels all other fabrics. Silk waste and thread are cheaper than ever before so that velvet costs much less than formerly. The men behind the looms have evolved more designs and novelties in the making of velvet than has ever been known and colors beautiful in themselves are seemingly enhanced when applied to velvet. All that has been said in favor of velvet applies equally as well to the best velveteen, in fact it is a textile of even greater value and beauty than velvet The best grades are not cheap, but they wear better Velveteen FABRICS 93 Widths of Fabrics than silk velvet, are fine and silky, excellent in color and sheen, launder well, and do not press-mark as does silk velvet. Velveteen takes the dye so beautifully and finishes so well that it has taken rank with our best standard fabrics. It is made entirely of cotton. It varies in width but is always wider than velvet. A knowledge of the various widths of textiles is im- portant in buying. Transparent fabrics are usually wider than heavier goods made of the same fiber. Muslin is wider than calico or ordinary print, and thin silk fabrics such as mull and chiffon are wider than velvet. In wool dress goods various distinct widths are known as single-thirty and thirty-six inches-double fold (forty-five and fifty-four inches), etc. Silk, vel- vet, and velveteen are single width. The velvet ranges from eighteen to twenty-four inches in width and vel- veteen twenty-seven. Bodice linings vary from thirty- five to thirty-eight inches; skirt linings come in both single and double fold. Household linen including bedding varies in width from one yard to two and one-fourth and two and one- half yards for sheeting and from thirty-eight to fifty- four inches for pillow case muslin. Table linen is woven in both square and circular cloths of various sizes, and napkins vary in width from the small sizes to a yard square. No fixed widths can be given for any textile as width often changes with the weave. 94 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING NAMES OF FABRICS Textiles usually take their names from the country, city, port, or province from whence they originated; from the names of the makers; and methods of weav- ing, dyeing, ornamentation, etc. The fixing of locali- ties, methods, etc., is oftentimes guesswork. The tex- tiles of to-day bearing the same name as those of the iniddle ages have nothing in common. Buckram was originally made in and called from Bokkara. In the middle ages it was costly, fine, and beautiful, used for church vestments, veils for covering lecterns, cathe- dral flags, and in the 16th century for the lining of vel- vet gowns. The coarse, heavy, plain-woven linen or cotton material known as buckram today is used for stiffening, etc. Fustian, a kind of corduroy or velveteen, was orig- inally woven at Fustat on the Nile. The warp was stout linen, the woof of cotton so twilled and cut that it gave a low thick pile. Chaucer's knight in the four- teenth century wore fustian. In the fifteenth century Naples was famous for the weaving of fustians. A cloth made in France at a town called Mustre- villiers was known as “mustyrd devells." China is supposed to be the first country to weave patterned silks. India, Persia, Syria, and Byzantine Greece followed. Those were known as "diaspron" cr diaper, a name given them at Constantinople. In the twelfth century, the city of Damascus, long famed Fustian Damask FABRICS 95 Muslin for her beautiful textiles, outstripped all other places for beauty of design and gave the Damascen or da- mask, so we have in modern times all fabrics whether of silk, cotton, wool, or linen, curiously woven and designed, known as damask, and diaper, which means pattern, is almost forgotten, or only a part of the elab- orate design on damask. Bandekin, a costly cloth, took its name from Bagdad. Dorneck an inferior damask woven of silk, wool, linen, thread and gold, was made in Flanders at the city of Dorneck. From the Asiatic city Mosul came the muslin used then as it is now throughout the world. So skilled were its weavers that the threads were of hair-like fineness. This was known as the invisible muslin, the weaving of which has become a lost art. To this beau- tiful cloth were given many fanciful and poetic names. It was woven with strips of gold and silver. Calico derives its name from the city of Calicut in India. The city is scarcely known to-day; it was the first Indian city visited by Europeans. In the thirteenth century Arras was famous for its areste or tapestry, “the noblest of the weaving arts”; in it there is nothing mechanical. Mechanical weaving repeats the pattern on the cloth within comparatively narrow limits and the number of colors is in most cases limited to four or five. Silks and cottons are distinguished through their colors and shades. Tarsus was a purple silk. Other cities gave their name to various shades, according as Calico 96 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING they were dyed at Antioch, Alexandria, or at Naples. Watered or moire silk takes its name from the finish. From "canabis," the Latin name for hemp or flax, we have the word “canvas” to mean any texture woven of hempen thread. To this list of fabrics might be added many others of cotton, linen, wool, and silk with new names, closely resembling the old materials, having greater or less merit. The following lists of fabrics and terms may be help- ful for reference: Art linen-With round, hard twisted threads. “Albert cloth”—Named for England's prince, is a reversible all-wool material each side of different colors and so finished that no lining is required. It is used chiefly for overcoats and better known as “golf cloth,” “plaid back," etc. Armure-A cloth woven in miniature imitation of feudal metal armor plates, heraldic devices, diamonds, birdseye, and seeded effects. Astrakhan-A woolen or silk material with a long and closely curled pile in imitation of the fur from which it is named. Backed-cloth worsteds or other fabrics which are woven with an extra layer of warp or other filling underneath the face, usually for increased weight and bulk. Batiste—The French word for lawn, fine white cotton or linen fabric. Sometimes printed. Batting or padding, cotton or wool prepared in sheets for quilting or interlining. Beaver-Similar to Kersey, but with a longer nap, soft, thick nap inside. Bedford cord-A closely woven woolen or cotton cloth having a raised corded surface similar to pique, used for women's suits. Bonde-A loosely woven fabric with a curly, hairy surface, usually made with a jersey or stockinet body. FABRICS 97 Bourette-An effect of weaving produced by fancy yarns showing in lumps at intervals over the face of the cloth; used for women's and children's suits. Beverteen-A heavy cotton cloth used for men's hunting garments. Broadcloth-A fine woolen cloth with a glossy finished surface, the better grades being woven with a twilled back. It takes its name from its width. It is used for men's and women's wear. Buckram-A coarse, heavy, plain-woven linen or cotton ma- terial used for stiffening. Buckskin-A stout doe skin with a more defined twill. Butternut—The coarse brown twilled homespun cloth woven of wool prior to the Civil War-colored brown with dye from the butternut or walnut tree; used for men's wear and for decorative purposes. Cambric-Fine white linen, also made in cotton in imitation. Camel's hair-A beautiful, soft, silky fabric, usually woven like cheviot of hair of camel and goat. Canvas-A linen, cotton, silk, or wool cloth of different weaves and widths, used for many purposés-clothing, as a background for embroidery, hangings, spreads, etc. Canton fannel-A stout, twilled cotton cloth with a nap on one or both sides, used for clothing and decorative pur- poses. Cassimere-A general term for all-wool fabrics woven either plain or twilled, coarse or fine, of woolen yarn. The pat- tern is always woven plain and distinct and the cloth is never napped. Castor Beaver-A heavy, milled, face-finished, all-wool cloth lighter in weight than ordinary beaver. Chinchilla—A thick, heavy, double woven fabric with a long napped surface curled up into little tufs in imitation of chinchilla fur; used for coats. Clan Tartan—The plaids of the various highland clans of Scotland. Clay-A name given to serges, worsteds, and diagonals woven after a process of J. & P. Clay of Haddersfield, Eng- land. Coating-Those woolen and worsted fabrics most especially adapted to men's dress and overcoats. 98 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING re- Corduroy–A thick cotton pile material, corded or ribbed on the surface; used for men's, women's, and children's wear. Corkscrew-worsted goods-So-called from its fancied semblance to the twists of the corkscrew. Cotton worsted-All cotton or part cotton worsted-wove cloth. Cottonade—Stout cotton cloth in imitation of woolen or worsted cloth; used for men's trousers. Covert-A twill-woven cloth sometimes with full face, some- times sheared to imitate whipcord. Crape cloth—A stout worsted fabric with surface in imitation of silk crape, used for dress coats. Crash—A strong, coarse linen cloth of different widths, used for towels, suits, table linen, hangings, bed spreads; in fact, there is no end to the uses to which this textile can be adapted. Cravenette-Cloths treated and finished before weaving by an improved process which renders them rainproof. Á secret process owned by the Cravenette Company and by Priestly & Company of England and the United States. Crepe-A light weight silk, silk and wool, or all wool or cot- ton cloth of irregular weave. Diagonal-A worsted cloth with prominent diagonal ridges. Doeskin-A compact twilled woolen, soft and pliable. Drap D’Alma-A fine, close, flat-ribbed, twilled fabric of wool or silk and wool, finished on but one side. Drap D'Ete—A fine, light worsted fabric woven in longitudi- nal cords. Drilling—General term for various twilled cotton stuffs used for lining, men's wear, and general purposes. Empress cloth-A heavy dress goods with napped or corded surface, named for the Empress Eugenia; sometimes called Electrol cloth or Beretz. Etamine-A light woolen cloth similar to batiste and nun's cloth, used for women's and children's wear. Faille Francaise-A soft, lustrous silk of wider cord than grosgrain, but narrower than ottoman. Farmer satin-A lining of cotton chain or warp and wool filling, finished with high lustre, also called Italian cloth. Flannel-A soft, light weight woolen fabric of which the yarn is but lightly twisted, plain weave or twilled; used for clothing, etc. FABRICS 99 Flannelette-A half cotton or all cotton flannel-like fabric. Frieze-A thick, shaggy, heavy nap woolen overcoat cloth. Gingham was first manufactured in Gonghamp in France and was known as Madras gingham. Seersucker gingham was originally a thin linen fabric made in the East Indies. Zephyr gingham is a soft fine variety of Scotch and French ginghams, are superior qualities, heavier in weight. Fur Beaver-A long napped cloth imitation fur. Grass cloth-A fine, smooth, linen woven in checks of blue and white, red and white, etc., used for dish towels; also a thin dress material of ramie and cotton, etc. Grenadine-A thick silk gauze, either plain with a solid design or pattern upon it or combined in stripes with other weaves, as satin, moire, etc. Grosgrain-A close-woven, finely ribbed or corded silk with but little lustre. Haircloth-A cloth woven of horse hair, from which it takes its name, for weft with cotton or linen warp; used for facings, linings, furniture cover, etc. Holland-A stout, plain-woven, unbleached, linen cloth used for linings, window shades, etc. Homespun-A cloth woven on hand looms or made in imita- tion of such cloth for both men's and women's wear. Hop-sacking—A plain woven canvas dress fabric of wool. Huchaback-A corruption of huckster-back, meaning orig- inally pedler's ware-Toweling made of all linen, linen and cotton, cotton and wool, either by the yard or as separate towels; the part wool huck always separate towels. Irish linen-Full bleached, fine, plain woven linen used for shirts, collars, cuffs, etc., of different widths. Jersey cloth-Woolen stockinette. Kaikai–A thin Japanese silk. Kersey-A heavy, closely woven cloth with a smooth face and glossy finish. Kerseymere-A fine, twilled, woolen cloth of peculiar tex- ture, one thread of warp and two of woof being always above. Khaki-A light, yellow-brown colored cotton cloth used for army service in hot countries. Ladies' cloth-A fine, wide, wool flannel, slightly napped, similar to broadcloth. 100 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Lusterine-A thin, twilled, cotton lining finished with high lustre in imitation of silk. Marseilles—A sort of figured pique, used for women's and children's clothes and for men's coats. Matelasse-A silk and wool or all wool brocade, usually for coats. Melton-A stout woolen cloth, 'fulled, sheared, and finished without a nap; like Kersey, but without a gloss. Merino-A thin woolen fabric made of the fine wool of the marion sheep, generally used for women's and children's wear, vestings, and underclothing. Mohair-A shiny fabric of great durability, made from the wool of the Angora goat; used for both men's and women's clothing. Moire—The water effect produced on silk, moreen, and like fabrics. The finest watered silks are known as Moire Antique. Moreen is a woolen or mixed fabric to which the same process has been applied. Moleskin—A medium heayy twilled cotton cloth, napped in- side; used for men's wear and ornamental purposes. Muslin-A cotton fabric of various classes and names; bleached and unbleached, half bleached, cambric, book mus- lin, long cloth, mull, organdie, lawns, etc.; used for all purposes. Nankeen-A peculiar fabric of a pale dull yellow or orange color, woven out of the fibrous tissue which lies between the outer and sap-wood of a tree or shrub that grows in the East Indies and especially in China. The name is de- rived from the city of Nankin. An imitation is made out of cotton, colored with Annato. The genuine nankeen is never more than eighteen or twenty inches wide and is used for light summer clothing. Overcoating-Fabrics woven especially for overcoats-covert, kersey, melton, beaver, frieze, vicuna, whipcord, cheviot, chinchilla, etc., made of both wool and worsted. Pique-A heavy cotton cloth having a surface that is corded or having a raised lozenge pattern; used for women's and children's suits, men's vests, etc. Prunella-Lasting cloth. Sateen-A close twilled cotton fabric, soft and glossy, used for lining. 102 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Cord–The general term is applied to any fabric in which the lines run in the same direction as the selvage. Count-In spinning, the number given to any thread or yarn, except silk, to indicate its relative fineness, based on the number of yards required to weigh one pound. Felt-A cloth of wool, hair, fur, etc., not woven, but felted together; used for hats, slippers, boot tops, etc. Flock-Finely divided woolen waste used in finishing cheap woolens. Kemps—Fibers of hair like structure that sometimes come in wool, always in goat hair. They do not take the dye. Mercerized-A term applied to cotton fabrics of which the yarn is chemically treated with a strong solution of caustic soda, giving the appearance of silk, more or less permanent; named after Mercer, discoverer of the process. Mill ends-Trade term referring to short lengths, seconds, damaged pieces, etc., of cloth, embroideries, etc., that ac- cumulate in mills and shops and are usually sold at a nominal price. Narrow cloth—Trade term for fabrics less than 29 inches wide. Wider cloths are called broad cloths. Oil-boiled-Trade term for colors so treated to insure per- manence. Oiled silk-The plain silk boiled in oil. Silk boiled in oil and dried, becoming translucent and waterproof; used as a perspiration guard. Pepper-and-salt-A black and white or grayish mixture, ef- fected in weaving. Rubber cloth—Usually cotton sheeting or drilling with a coating of rubber on one side; used as protective cloth for various purposes. Shepherd check-Tiny checks, usually black and white. Twilled-Woven in such a manner as to produce lines or ribs diagonally or across the surface of the fabric. Woolens-Name of fabrics of carded wool, usually soft woven. Worsteds–Fabrics made of combed wool, usually hard woven. The combing is the process of arranging the fibers of wool, mohair, cotton, linen, into a parallel con- dition, preparatory to spinning into a smooth, even and regular yarn. The perfected application of the combing principle. BIBLIOGRAPHY ON TEXTILES Historical and Art Arts and Crafts' Essays Morris, Crane, et al. Colonial Days in Old New England Alice Morse Earle. The Primitive Family Starcke. Man Before Metals Joly. Origin of Inventions Mason. Woman's Share in Primitive Culture Mason. Textiles—The Lesser Arts William Morris. Industrial Evolution of the United States Carroll D. Wright. $1.00 Postage .10 1.25 Postage ,12 1.25 Postage .12 1.75 Postage .14 1.50 Postage .16 1.75 Postage .16 1.00 Postage .10 1.25 Postage .16 Technical Books Through a special arrangement with the American School of Correspondence we are able to lend or sell to our students some of their textile books, which are technical though simple. Price 50 cents per part, postage 4C. Textile Chemistry and Dyeing. 4 Parts. Part I. Textile Fibers. Part II. Bleaching. Part III. Mordants and Natural Dyes. Part IV. Artificial Dyestuffs. Cotton Fiber. Cotton Spinning. 5 Parts. Weaving. 3 Parts. 103 104 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Textile Design. 5 Parts. Woolen and Worsted Spinning. 4 Parts. Woolen and Worsted Finishing. 4 Parts. Textile Fibers $3.50 Mathews. Postage .16 Textile Fabrics .90 Rock. Postage .08 Dyeing of Textile Fabrics 1.75 Hummell. Postage Bleaching and Calico Printing 4.00 Duerr. Postage .14 Note.-Books may be ordered through the School or may be borrowed by members for one week. Send postage with request. .12 U. S. Government Publication Free of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.: Flax for Seed and Fiber, Farmers' Bulletin No. 27. Cotton Seed and Its Products, Farmers' Bulletin No. 36. Raising Sheep, Farmers' Bulletin No. 96. The Angora Goat, Farmers' Bulletin No. 137. Silk Worm Culture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 165. Essential Steps in Securing an Early Crop of Cotton, Farmers' Bulletin No. 217. The Cotton Seed Industry, Reprint No. 239. · The Hemp Industry in U. S., Reprint No. 254. Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection, Reprint No. 279. The Growing of Long-Staple Upland Cotton, Reprin! No. 314. Principal Commercial Plant Fibers, Reprint No. 321. BIBLIOGRAPHY ON TEXTILES 105 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Send coin or money order,-stamps not accepted: Sheep and Wool, Report No. 66, Office of the Secretary. Price 5c. The Cotton Plant: Its History, Botany, Chemistry, Ene- mies, and Uses. Bulletin No. 33. Office of Experi- ment Stations. Price 6oc. Cotton Culture in Egypt. Bulletin No. 42. Price 5c. OFFICE OF FIBER INVESTIGATIONS. Uncultivated Bast Fibers. Report No. 6. Price 1oc. Cultivation of Ramie. eport No. 7. Price foc. Culture of Hemp and Jute. Report No. 8. Price loc. Fax Culture for Seed and Fiber. Report No. 10. Price LOC. TEST QUESTIONS The following questions constitute the "written reci. tation” which the regular menībers of the A. S. H. E. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. They are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING PART I Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. Leave space between the answers for the notes of the instructor. Answer every question fully. Read the lesson paper a number of times before attempting to answer the questions. I. Give a brief outline of the craft of spinning, primitive and modern. 2. Outline the same for weaving. 3. Describe the hand loom. 4. Describe the cotton fiber. What kinds are there? 5. Who invented the cotton gin and how did this in- vention affect the cotton industry? 6. Give the chief characteristics of wool. Name the wool and fur bearing animals. How does wool differ from hair? 7. Trace briefly the prepartion of wool from the fleece to the finished product. 8. Describe flax and outline the method for the preparation of the fibers. What is the name of the manufactured product of flax? 9. Name some other bast fibers and their products ? 10. How do the textile fibers compare in the raw state in condition and price? II. Give a brief description of silk from the egg to the woven cloth. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 12. (a) What is the chief constituent of the vege- table fibers? (b) How does their affinity for dyestuffs compare with wool and silk? (c) How do the alkalies affect wool? 13. Describe the principal weaves and give examples of each. 14. (a) How are cotton and flax bleached? (b) What is a mordant? (c) How should mate- rial be prepared for dyeing ? (d) State what you know about old time methods of dyeing. 15. How are print goods made? Name some print- ed fabrics. 16. Define woolens and worsteds. 17. Describe the finishing of woolen and worsted cloths. 18. What is noil; shoddy; felt; flocks? 19. With what dress goods have you had experience, and with what results ? 20. What factors determine the use of fabrics ? 21. Of what value is the study of textiles ? What have you gained by the study of this lesson? Note. After completing the test sign your full name. Textiles and Clothing Part II gg B 60 D La 8 EMBROIDERED INITIALS W and L-Sewed on initials; B-Satin stitch in wreath of feather stitches; C-Outline and seed work; D-Chain and French knots; H- Cross stitch; L-Chain; H-At the right, and the cross stitch H are made over canvas and the canvas threads drawn. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING PART II Kinds of Sewing HAND SEWING Good sewing, good pressing, well finished ends and corners, lightness of touch which holds the work without apparently touching it, thus giving to the fin- ished garment a fresh look-all these are important considerations. The sewing done on wool, silk, and dresses of all kinds differs from that on underwear and white work. Muslin underwear requires frequent washing and iron- ing, hence the first essential is durability; close, small stitches, all raw edges carefully turned and stitched securely. Seams that are to come close to the body should lie perfectly flat. A round seam would wear out sooner by coming into frequent contact with the washboard and iron, besides irritating the skin. In dressmaking, unless the stitching is used for orna- mental purposes, it should never show on the outside. Periods of beautiful and dignified costume have been periods of fine needlework-one art leading to and helping on the production of the other. Stitches may be divided into plain and ornamental. The plain stitches are the (1) basting, (2) running, (3) the running and back stitch, (4) half back stitch, (5) back stitch, (6) overhand or whipping stitch, (7) overcast, (8) hemming, and (9) blind or slip stitch. Plain Stitches 107 108 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Ornamental Stitches The ornamental stitches most frequently used are (1) outline, (2) chain, (3) cat or herringbone, (4) blanket or loop, (5) feather, coral or briar, (6) hem- stitching, (7) French knots, (8) button hole, and (9) cross stitch. Excepting the cross stitch, these are all variations of the plain and button hole stitches. The plain stitches may be used for ornamental pur- poses. The basting stitch is known as Queen Anne darned work. The back stitch, known as "seed work,' is used in embroidering letters and monograms. The overhand stitch is used as an ornamental stitch for joining selvages and in hemming. The chain stitch, besides being ornamental, makes one of the best darning stitches, reproducing the stitch in knitting. The cat stitch is also useful in binding down open seams for flannel hems, patching, etc. (1) Basting proper is used only in the preparation of work to hold the stuff and lining, or any two or more parts of the work together while it is being stitched, none being left in the finished garment. It is also used as a guide for sewing, feather stitching, etc. The slanting basting stitch or “tacking" is used in dressmaking for holding linings. The needle is pointed towards the worker. Even basting is used for holding several thicknesses of cloth and if the garment is to be fitted, the stitches should be placed rather close. Un- even basting is used for hems and seams to be machine stitched. Several short stitches with one long one are Basting Tucking STITCHES AND THEIR USES 109 used to baste crape and wiry fabrics, for this method holds them better than stitches of equal length. All basting should be fastened at start with a knot or knot and back stitch and finished with two or three back stitches. The length of thread may be broken or Fastening the Thread a b :- C d BASTING STITCHES a-Even; 6-Uneven;. c-For wiry fabrics; d-Tacking; e-Over- casting; f-Double or tailor overcasting. cut from the spool, but should always be cut from the work. Breaking weakens the fastening and biting off soils delicate work with the moisture from the breath, to say nothing of the injury to the teeth. Basting for large work should usually be done with the goods ly- ing flat on the sewing table. IIO TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Drawing Basting Threads For ordinary work, basting threads should be cut every few inches and drawn out. In velvet, every al- ternate stitch should be cut and drawn out on the right side with the pile of the goods. In the basting for vel- vet where the slanting stitch is used, only one end of the stitch touches the line of the seam—the rest is on the outside of the seam. Silk thread should be used POSITION OF THE HANDS IN RUNNING Running Stitch to baste velvet and gauze; fine thread should be used for basting delicate work. (2) Running is closely related to basting. It is not used for any seams that have to bear great strain, but for joining seams in this material, gathering, tucking, making cords, etc. The stitches are usually of equal length on both sides. Take one stitch in the seam and hold the goods between the thumb and first finger of each hand, as shown in the illustration, with the back of the thimble on the eye of the needle. Then, with as free wrist motion as possible, run or shake the needle through the material. The motion of the hand should come from the elbow joint. STITCHES AND THEIR USES I11 Gathoring Gathering, gauging, casing, etc., are used for draw- ing up the fullness of skirts, ruffles, flounces, etc., into a given space. The running stitch is used for these. For gathering, the cloth is held in the same manner as for running. The needle, ordinarily, need not be taken out of the work, the stitches being pushed back over the eye as they are made; but for running long skirt seams in delicate material which would crinkle at the line of sewing and roughen the seam, the needle should be drawn through and the line of sewing smoothed on the thread at each needleful of stitches. Never use a double thread for gathering, as it is apt to knot, but put in two lines of gathering threads- one a full one-eighth of an inch below the other-and slip the stitches along the needle as described above. This method is a saving of time in the end. When the gathering threads are in, remove the needle, place a pin vertically close to the last stitch, and wind the thread around it a few times in the form of a figure eight. Use a coarse needle for stroking. Hold the work between the thumb and fingers of the left hand with the thumb on the gathering threads. To place the gathers, put the point of the needle under the lower gathering thread and press the plait or gather under the thumb, drawing the needle down, or simply press- ing on the needle. Care must be taken not to scratch or tear the material. Continue entirely across the gathers, putting the needle under each stitch and hold- ing the plait firmly between the thumb and finger: turn Stroking 112 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Gauging Running and Back Stitch the material and stroke the upper edge of the gathers. The gauging stitch is usually longer on the face than on the back, draws the material up into distinct plaits, making it easy to dispose of the fullness neatly, regu- larly and securely by overhanding the top edge of each plait to the bottom edge of the band. The right side of the skirt and the right side of the belt are placed against each other and each gather oversewed to the belt. The space into which the material is to be gath- ered determines the length of the long stitch. The succeeding rows of stitches should be directly under those of the first. (3) The running and back stitch is made by taking a few running stitches, drawing out the needle and making a back stitch over the last running stitch to strengthen the seam. Care must be taken not to hold the side next the worker too full and not to miss the under material, but to take the stitches even on both sides. (4) The half-back stitch is made by taking one stitch and placing the needle half way back, then bring- ing it out twice the length of the stitch and placing the needle half way back each time from where the last stitch ended. The appearance on the right side will be of regular space as in the running stitch. (5) The back stitch is made by placing the needle back to the last stitch, bringing it out once the length of the last stitch, then placing the needle back into the Half Back Stitch Back Stitch STITCHES AND THEIR USES 113 last stitch, and so on, making the stitches follow each other with no space between. This is used in places that are to bear great strain as in sewing in sleeves. (6) Overhanding, oversewing, whipping, top sew- ing are one and the same—small stitches taken over Whipping Stitch b u PLAIN STITCHES a-Running; 6–Running and back; c-Half back; d-Back stitch. edges, to join folded edges or selvages, for sewing bands on gathers, sewing lace and insertion, and for sewing carpet strips together. The pieces for an over- hand seam should be pinned carefully, placing the pins at right angles to the edge. The folded edges or sel- vages are placed together, the right side of the goods 114 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Position in Overhanding being in. Do not use a knot to begin sewing, but leave the knot end of the thread and sew it in with the first stitches, carrying the thread on top of the seam. To finish off the seam, overhand back over the last few stitches. In sewing this seam, the goods should be held be- tween the thumb and first finger of the left hand par- allel with the chest, not over the end of finger. Point the needle towards the left shoulder, thus giving a slanting stitch. Care should be taken not to pucker or draw the seam. When the seam is finished, it should be opened and pressed flat. (7) Overcasting is a slanting stitch used to keep raw edges from ravelling. This stitch, like oversew- ing, may be worked from right to left or from left to right. The hem stitch and blind or slip stitch will be con- sidered under hems. Overcasting Outlino Stitch ORNAMENTAL STITCHES Never use a knot in any embroidery, but start by running a few stitches along the line which is to be covered. (1) The outline stitch is the simplest of all embroid- ery stitches. Take a long stitch on the surface, with the needle pointing towards the chest in the line to be covered, and a short back stitch on the under side of the material. The effect of the under or wrong side of the material is exactly that of an ordinary back stitch. The beauty of this stitch depends upon its کو شروع 9 ORNAMENTAL STITCHES a–Outline; b-Chain ; C—Cat; c'—Catch; d–Single Feather; e-Double Feather; f-Tripple Feather; g-Modified Feather; h-Double Feather with Knots; i-French Knots and Outline; j-Herrine Bone; k-Fancy Feather; 1-Catch Stitch with French Knots. 116 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Chain Stitch regularity and in always keeping the thread on the same side of the needle. (2) The chain stitch when perfectly done should look like the stitch made by a single-thread machine. This stitch is made by taking the thread toward the worker, and before the needle is drawn out of the cloth the thread is held by the thumb under the point of the needle, as in a buttonhole, making a loop. The needle is inserted in the last loop for the next stitch. The chain stitch is used in modern embroidery as an outline and for darning, but in old embroidery, the outline and chain stitches were used for filling as well. They are found in Persian, Indian, and Italian Renais- sance work. Like the feather stitch, the chain stitch is worked towards the worker. (3) The cat stitch or herringbone stitch is an alter- nate slanting back stitch, the needle being placed first to the right and then to the left. This stitch must be worked evenly to be effective. It is used to finish flan- nel seams and hems, fasten down linings, opened seams, and canvas facings and featherbone, in milli- nery—in fact, this stitch is one of the most useful in sewing. The catch stitch is a variation of the cat stitch. Instead of pointing the needle towards the chest, the stitch is taken parallel with the chest. It is used for about the same purposes as the cat stitch. As with the outline stitch, the cat stitch is worked from the worker. (4) Blanket or loop stitch, used to ornament the edge of blankets, etc., and for finishing the edge of Cat Stitch Loop Stitch bo 78 KO HEM STITCHING 2-Position of Needle; a'-Finished Hem Stitch; 6–Ladder Stitch; Example of Drawn Work Finished with Loop and Cat Stitches, 118 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING er. Feather Stitch stockinet or web material, is worked from left to right, the edge of the material being held towards the work- Start with three or four running stitches along the edge so the line of stitching will cover them. In- sert the needle the desired width from the edge, draw it towards you down over the thread, being careful not to draw the thread too tightly over the edge of the flannel. Fasten the thread by taking running stitches under the last blanket stitch on the wrong side. (5) Single, double, and triple feather or coral stitches may be made very ornamental and are used in all kinds of sewing and on all materials. They are al- ways made towards the worker, the stitches being taken alternately to the right and left of the line of the design. The thread should always be carried un- der the needle as in a buttonhole stitch. The design may be varied by taking the stitches diagonally or straight, by making them close or separated, etc. (6) Hemstitching is used for ornament in making hems and tucks. The first step in hemstitching is the drawing of threads. Rubbing the cloth along the line of threads to be drawn will make the drawing easier if the cloth is sized. After the threads are drawn, the hem is turned and basted even with the lowest edge of the drawn space. Insert the needle into the edge of the hem and material, taking up a cluster of threads bring the thread under the needle to form a button- hole stitch or make a simple stitch in the edge of the fold. The number of threads drawn and the number in a cluster must be determined by the coarseness or fine- Hom Stitch ORNAMENTAL STITCHES 119 ness of the material, the greater number being drawn and taken in fine material. There are several methods of hemstitching, but the results are about the same. French Knots EMBROIDERY STITCHES Eyelet Embroidery. Embroidery Button Hole, Flat Satin Stitch. (7) French knots are used in connection with other stitches for borders enclosed in outline and chain stitches, in initials, centers of flowers, and as a filling- in stitch. The simplest method is of taking a small back stitch, bringing the thread from the eye of the needle under the point from right to left and drawing I 20 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Embroidery Buttonhole Cross Stitch the needle perpendicularly from the cloth. Place the needle back of the knot and bring the point out in the place where the next knot is to be made. The size of the thread will determine the size of the knot. (8) The embroidery buttonhole stitch has many pos- sibilities and many variations. It is worked from left to right instead of from right to left as in a buttonhole. The thread from the work is carried under the point of the needle from left to right, just the reverse of the buttonhole. This stitch is used on flannel and in eni- broidery of all kinds ; it may be padded or worked flat and the stitches may be taken a distance apart or near together. (9) The cross stitch is worked on linen, scrini, can- vas, or any open-meshed material. If done on a flat, smooth surface, it will be necessary to work over can- vas, afterwards drawing out the canvas threads. The canvas should be well basted on the material, the warp threads of the canvas lying perfectly straight on a line with the warp threads of the material on which the pattern is worked. The stitches should always run the same way. If the first ground stitches are made from left to right, from bottom towards the top, the cross stitches should be made from right to left from the top towards the bottom. All the ground stitches run one way and the cross stitches in the opposite way. This stitch is used for marking table linen, under- wear, and embroidery designs. When marking linen and unlined work, make the under side very neat by running the thread under the stitches already made, ORNAMENTAL STITCHES I21 Batin Stitch instead of taking a long stitch when beginning in an- other part of the letter or design. (10) The satin stitch is an over and over stitch and is used on materials of all kinds for marking linen, etc. The padding is the first step and should be done in long even stitches placed closely and over one another in the center. The size and proportions of the figure or letters determine the size of the thread. Fine thread gives the best results. The outline should be run EMBROIDERY BUTTON HOLE AND BLANKET STITCHES Scallops Outlined and Padded. twice; this keeps the edge firm. An even darning or basting stitches, chain stitches or outline stitch may be used if the space is not too small. The padding may be worked in an embroidery hoop to keep it smooth and even. Scallops may be padded in the same way, or worked flat. In large figures the stitches are laid closely and ex- actly parallel the entire length of the form. They may be straight across or at an angle, but the one slant must be maintained throughout. In small curved figures, 122 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING the stitches may be placed more closely at the inner edge and spread slightly at the outer edge. In flat work where the leaf or petal is large, two or three stitches taken in the cloth, back of the face stitch, AA ARROW HEAD. DOUBLE ARROW HEAD AND CROW'S FOOT. Eyelet Embroidery holds them even and prevents misplacement in launder- ing. (All embroidery should be ironed on the wrong side.) Eyelet embroidery is a simple over and over stitch forming a smooth, round edge. Like satin stitch, all outlines are run with an even darning stitch, except the very small eyelet holes, made with a stiletto. Long or oval openings must be cut through the center. HEMS 123 Shadow Embroidery Arrow Heads Shadow embroidery is worked on the wrong side of thin material, using the cat stitch. The outline of the design only shows on the right side, the body of the design being seen dimly through the material. The arrow head and crow's foot are ornamental fastenings used in fine tailoring as endings for seams, tucks, plaits, and at corners. They are made as shown in the illustration. Mercerized cotton, linen, or any of the embroidery silks can be used for these stitches, in all sizes and colors, or they can be worked with ordinary thread, cotton or linen, sewing silk, or twist. Cotton thread wears better than linen. HEMS Hems A hem is a fold of goods twice folded to protect a Folding raw edge. The first turn or fold of the hem is the most important. It should be straight and even, folded to a thread, for upon it depends the beauty of the hem. The hem should always be turned towards the worker and creased firmly, but never pleated along the fold. First crease the narrow fold, then crease the second fold the desired width, marking by a measure and baste not too near the edge. The first fold along the woof threads should be at least one-fourth of an inch in width, as the woof threads give or stretch more than the warp threads; otherwise it will not lie flat. In sewing the hem, the needle should take up only Sowing the edge to be hemmed down and just enough to hold on the cloth or lining. In white work the stitches shouid be fine, showing as little as possible. Homs 124 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Bics Hom Facod Hom All bias and curved edges should have the first fold basted. In cloth or silk this first basting thread should match the material and not be taken out. A facing or faced hem is also used as a protection to the edge of a garment. A true bias or fitted facing should be used for a facing if the edges of the garment are curved. An extension hem is one in which the whole width of the hem is used. FORETRETERA LSID ORDER SENARE MESAS HEMMING a-Shows method of cutting to do away with a clumsy corner. HEMS 125 Slip-stitching or invisible hemming is done on silk, Slip-Stitching wool, and thick material. The hem is pressed with an iron, a stitch as fine as possible is taken on the surface of the cloth and the needle slipped under and through the first fold, drawing the thread lightly. The needle and thread used in this stitch must be very fine. MITERED CO NERS Method of Folding and Cutting. 126 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Rollod Hom Rolled hem and whipped gathers are made with the wrong side of the material next the worker. Make a tiny roll of the edge towards the worker, using the GEN ROLLED HEM AND WHIPPED GATHERS a-Rolled Hem Gathered ; 6—Whipped Roll; c-Double Whipped; d-Roll Hommed; e-Gathers Sewed to Band. left thumb and index finger, rolling an inch at a time (and no more) before hemming. Make fine, even stitches in the roll and goods. Keep the hem perfectly round, firm and not too large. This hem is adapted HEMS 127 Gathers only to fine material and the edge across the warp is the more easily rolled. To gather, whip the rolled hem without hemming, Whipped making overcasting stitches towards you, even and not too fine. Use coarser thread than for hemming. This gathering thread is used to hold down the edge as well as for drawing up the gathers and is not to be taken out, as is the ordinary gathering thread. It should not catch in the roll. Have the thread the length of the plain space to which it is to be sewed and regulate the gathers as you do the gathering. After the edge is rolled, whipped and gathered, it is sewed to the garment by the little scallops or raised parts made by the whipping. This is used only for making ruffles or gathering on very fine hand work. The French hem is used for table linen. Fold as in an ordinary hem, then fold the hem back on the right side and overhand the edge formed, taking fine stitches. Press the hem flat from the right side. Flannel hems should not be twice folded, for there Flannel will be a ridge instead of a flat surface after the gar- ment has been laundered, owing to the felting proper- ties of the wool. Hems on flannel should not be stitched by hand or machine, but cat stitched on the wrong side and finished on the right side with any ornamental stitch. Hems in infants' clothing may be turned on the right side and made ornamental by feather stitching. No selvage should ever be used on a hem. The sel- vage is more closely woven and will draw or pucker in laundrying French Hom Homs 128 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING TUCKS Tucks are folds made on thin material for orna- ment, to shorten or to provide for lengthening a gar- ment. If done by hand, a card measure is preferable to a tape measure for marking the space and width of the tucks. The folds should be creased to a thread, basted and sewed with a running stitch showing but little on the face, or stitched on the machine. Fine thread should be used. SEAMS Felled Seam A seam is the line of sewing that joins material; it may be plain or ornamental. The most important are the overhand, felled, French, slot, lapped, flannel, and beaded. The overhand seam is described under the overhand stitch. A fell is a seam hemmed down to the goods to pro- tect the raw edge. It is usually made in night dresses, drawers, corset covers, etc. Baste with the piece farthest from the worker extended one-eighth of an inch beyond the other and sewed with the grain of the goods, beginning at the widest part of any bias. Press the seam with the nail on the right side, turn the wide edge down flat to cover the raw edge and line of sewing, and hem flat either by hand or ma- chine. Care should be taken to keep the seam flat on the right as well as on the wrong side. If the felling is done with the machine hemmer, the wide edge must be on the opposite side. The seam may be basted with LI b a SEAMS Full; 6-French Screen. BEADED AND TAPED SEAMS A-Tapo basted on one edge, and the other edge turned and stitched; B-Beading whipped to the folded edges ; a-Stitched hem; 6-Hem finishsd with feather stitching. SEAMS 131 French Seam Beaded Seam both edges even if preferred, cutting off one edge after stitching A French seam is sewed twice—first on the right side as near the raw edge as possible. Cut off all frayed edges, turn the material by folding on the seam or line of sewing, so the seam is folded inside and the second sewing is on the wrong side below the raw edges. This is not a good seam for underwear worn next the body, as it leaves a ridge on the wrong side, but it is useful for skirts of thin material, etc. It is more easily made than a fell. Beaded seams used for fine white work have a line of beading overhanded between gores, hems, or gathers. The hem along the seam should be folded on the right side, leaving a perfectly flat surface to iron on the wrong side, and finished with an ornamental stitch covering the hem. The slot seam, used in cloth dresses and jackets, re- quires exact basting with silk or very fine thread with small, even stitches. If a coarse thread is used, the material will be badly marked. After basting, press the seam open as if it had been stitched, and baste the strap or under strip of the dress material (which has been cut perfectly straight and even) over the wrong side of the seam, having the center of the seam on the center of the strap. Stitch any width desired be- yond the center through the three thicknesses. This will hold the seam in position. Now remove the bast- ings from the seam and the slot effect is complete. If Slot Seams SLOT SEAM FINISHED WITH ARROW HEAD SEAMS 133 desired, there may be a double row of stitching, an extra row on the edge of the fold or plait. These seams may be finished at the bottom with arrow heads or stitched designs. The lines of machine stitching co MITITIT FLANNEL SEAMS AND HEMS Finished with various Ornamental Stitches. should not end without some ornament to appear to hold the plait. In the lapped seam the edges are folded each within the other or one over the other so that both sides are alike. If made of heavy material, the raw edges ate Lapped Seam B PLACKETS A--Made by folding a wide hem over a narrow one; B-Tape faced sewing for the purpose of a gusset. Method of folding the tape shown, PLACKETS 135 Seams left unturned; in muslin or linen the edges are in- turned, lapped, basted and the hem stitched on both edges or hemmed down on both sides by hand. Flannel seams should be stitched, opened and pressed Flannol flat, either on the right or wrong side of the garment. If on the right side, taffeta ribbon should be basted over the seam, so that the raw edges of flannel will not show, and cat stitched or buttonhole stitched on both sides of the ribbon, or any fancy stitch—not too long-may be used. This is the Dorothy seam. For the seam on the wrong side, the edges should be cat stitched with fine thread. Any ornamental stitch may be used on the right side of the seam. Always press flannel seams and hems before finishing. Flannel should never be hem stitched. PLACKETS A placket is an opening in a garment allowing it to be put on. The simplesi placket is made by cutting a. slit and folding a wide hem over a narrow one turned on the face of the goods; this makes a pleat below the vent. There should be a double line of stitching across the bottom of the hem to strengthen the placket. The tape faced placket is stronger and may be used in children's drawers, etc., in place of a gusset to strengthen the end of the opening. A single piece of tape folded back as for a loop is stitched along all edges, making an opening without a lap. This offers as much resistance as a gusset and is more quickly done. Tape Facod Placket A b - 2 FACED PLACKET A-Wrong side, opened, showing tape; B-Right side showing on-set piece; aa and bb the same ends of the tape; 1-2 method of folding and cutting end of on-set piece. PLACKETS 137 Faced Plackot In a third kind of placket, the opening is faced with a continuous piece of tape on both sides and finished with a piece of material on the outside. See illustra- tion. This makes a strong and simple placket. When SKIRT PLACKET WITH LAP a tape cannot be used, a hem or facing may be made on the under side of the opening and a facing on the upper side, over which the on-set piece is stitched. The on-set piece and facing may be cut from one piece, but the fitting is more troublesome. In figured goods, the piece set on should match the pattern exactly, 138 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Gathering A simple placket for underwear is made from a single strip of the goods put on like an extension hem. On drawers it may be turned in at the button- hole end, but not stitched down except at the band. The placket of a skirt should have an underlap ex- tending well below the opening: SEWING ON BANDS Divide the top of unhemmed edge of the garment in halves and mark with a cross stitch, notch or pin. Gather from the placket to the middle of the front gore, if a skirt, apron, or dress. Take a new thread and gather the remainder. Put in a second gathering thread one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch below the first. Two gathering threads are better than one and they should be longer than the length of space to be gathered. Stroke or lay the gathers above and below the threads. Divide the band and pin the middle to the center of the garment, placing the right side of the band on the wrong side of the garment. Pin in the middle and at each end, secure the gathering threads by winding around the pin, adjust the gathers, and baste between the gathering threads. Stitch just below the line of basting. Fold the band over on the right side, press, baste over the line of stitching, press again, then stitch on the right side after having turned in both ends and over-sewed. Turn the top of the band over on the right side one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch and stitch securely. This upper fold keeps FINISHES 4-Bias Facing; 6-Band on Gathers: 6-Corded edge. 140 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING the edge from wearing and stretching and is a stay for children's skirts and drawers where button holes are used and serves as a finish for the top of the band. For flannel, pleating or gathers may be used to put fullness into a band. Two rows of gathering threads DRAW TAPE FINISH FOR UNDER SKIRT Drawing Tapos should be used and the stitches should not be too fine. The band should be made of cotton or at least lined with it to avoid clumsiness and prevent shrinking. Ruffles are set in hems, etc., in the same manner. In finishing the top of an underskirt, many like to dispense with the placket and fitted band. This may be done by using drawing tapes at the back. The up- per edge is faced with a piece of material which should be bias in front to accommodate it to the curve, but may be straight across the back. Work a button hole FASTENINGS 141 Bias Facings at each side of the back, insert a tape through one button hole and draw it over an inch beyond the oppo- site one and fasten securely by two lines of stitching across the tape. A second tape is put through the other button hole and fastened in the same way. By pulling the tape on each side the fullness may be adjusted. All facings around curves, such as arm holes and neck, should be a true bias which is cut by holding the warp threads diagonally across the woof threads. These strips for facings, pipings, ruffles, etc., should be cut exactly even in width. All bands, ruffles, etc., of serge, twilled, or diagonal materials should be cut across the twill and not with it, in order to have the ruffle hang well. FASTENINGS The standard fastenings are buttons and button holes, hooks and eyes or hand made loops, lacings through rings and eyelet holes, loops over buttons, and fancy frogs, clasps, studs, ball and socket, "notta- hooks," etc. Button holes should be carefully measured and Making marked before cutting. They should be a little longer Button than the diameter of the button for flat buttons and one and one-quarter the diameter for round buttons. Hav- ing decided upon the distance apart they are to be placed, cut a marker from a piece of cardboard and measure off the space, marking with pins, French chalk, pencil, or thread. The distance from the edge (one-fourth inch), as well as the length of the button Holos 142 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING hole may also be marked with the card. The scissors should be sharp, the hand must be steady, and the cut should be made with one firm slash, not with two or three jerks. Great care must be taken that each but- ton hole is of the same length. The goods should be cut to a thread, for it is impossible to make a neat buttonhole if it is improperly cut. In cutting a round end buttonhole for thick goods, a punch may be used for the end, after which the remainder of the button- hole is cut directly on a line with the center of the circle. The same marker may be used to mark the position for the buttons. All markings for buttons and button- holes, or for hooks and eyes, should be made at one time. After cutting, the button holes are overcast. This should always be done directly after cutting, espe- cially if the goods ravels easily, otherwise it will be impossible to work a neat buttonhole. Overcasting should be done with very fine thread (No. 150 for white goods), split silk for wool and silk. Three overcast stitches on each side are sufficient for an ordi- nary size buttonhole. A very good plan to follow in cutting a buttonhole in heavy material or material that frays easily is to chalk the position and length of the buttonhole, then stitch a row of machine stitching each side of this mark, the two rows being a little more than one-eighth of an inch apart. This holds all the thicknesses to- Ovorcasting Buttonholes 1 ܓܓܕ BUTTONS, BUTTON HOLES, EYELETS, LOOPS 144 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Making Buttonholes gether and the buttonhole may then be cut easily. It also serves as a guide in working the buttonhole stitches. The buttonholing is begun at the inner side of the slit. Always place the knot on the outside of the garment a short distance to the right of the buttonhole, leaving a long stitch underneath which can be cut off when the buttonhole is finished. A buttonhole should be com- pleted with one thread if possible as it is difficult to mend the thread securely and neatly. Letter D for twist is usually employed. Insert the needle in the edge of the material and when half way through, take the two threads at the eye of the needle, bringing them towards you at the right and under the point of the needle, and draw the thread from you, making the purl or loop stitch di- rectly on the edge of the buttonhole. The stitches should be about the width of the needle apart to allow for the purl. Be careful to complete each stitch with a uniform movement so that the line will be perfectly straight and not wavy. The stitches are placed more closely together in the rounded end of the buttonhole where the chief wear comes. Many workers, particularly tailors, always "stay" or "bar" around a buttonhole before working. This may be done with several threads of twist or with a cord so that the worked edge of the buttonhole will be firm and distinct. Tailors usually use a cord as this makes the edges heavier. It is always well to stay button- Staying 146 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Cloak Buttons it. If a button is much concaved, the pin may be placed underneath. The pin is removed before winding. In sewing on a four-hole button, the stitches should be made symmetrically, either parallel or crossed, but not both. If parallel or in a two-holed button the stitches should run in the line of the buttonhole. The thread should always be fastened securely at the begin- ning and at the end of the work. Place the knot upon the outside of the garment where it may be cut off when the button is sewed securely. The knot is some- times placed under the button. In sewing buttons on a cloak or coat an extra strip of canvas or silesia over the canvas interlining should be placed the entire length of the buttoning for strength. This should be applied before the work on the garment is too far advanced and if cut sufficiently wide, will allow of any slight alteration. The sewing should go through the canvas facing and stay, but not through the under side or facing of the material. In sewing buttons on bodices a tape should be sewed over the front basting for a stay. If sufficient material has not been allowed for a lap, this should be added, as a lap is necessary under the opening of such but- tonholes. Buttons may be sewed through lining having a small button on the wrong side. This method prevents the cloth from tearing and makes an ornamental finish as well as a substantial one. FASTENINGS 147 Hooks and Eyos Buttons which are supplied with wire shanks should be sewed down firmly as the shank already provided permits the buttons to set up well from the material. They should be placed in such a position that the wire shank will run parallel with the buttonhole and not cross it. The position for hooks and eyes should be marked before sewing on. The simplest, though least desira- ble, method of sewing on these fastenings is to place the eye at the edge of the seam or facing and the hook sufficiently far back from the opposite side to give a lap. A much preferable method is to baste a bias strip of crinoline along the positions to be occupied by the hooks and eyes; this gives strength to the finish. Suf- ficient material should be allowed for folding over the shanks after the hooks and eyes have been sewed on, or they may be covered with silk ribbon, slipping the edge under the beak of each hook and then catstitched in position. The hooks and eyes are sewed securely through the crinoline and one thickness, but the stitches should not show on the outside. Over and over stitches are taken through the small rings in the line of the full and again on each bar of the eye and on the shank of the hook so that they may be held in position securely. In many cases, it is advisable to have an underlap of the material. This should be slip-stitched in position on the garment after the eyes have been sewed in place. HOOKS AND EYES Sewed on tape, Shanks covered with taffeta tape and with fold of the goods. PATCHING 149 Eyelets Underset Patch Eyelet holes are made with a stiletto which forces the threads aside, but does not cut them. The edge is finished with over and over stitches placed closely together, or with a buttonhole stitch making the purl on the outer edge of the stitches. Loops are made by buttonholing very closely over several foundation threads, making the purl on the outside edge. The needle may be run under the loop eye first if preferred. PATCHING With the underset patch have the part to be patched pressed smooth, baste the patch on the wrong side of the garment before cutting out the worn place. (If the garment or article to be mended is worn or faded and shrunken by laundering, boil the piece in soap, soda and water to fade the patch, if of cotton or linen.) After basting, cut away all the worn cloth, making a square or oblong hole. Cut to a thread. Cut each corner, diagonally, one-eighth or one-quarter of an inch, turn all four edges of the garment towards the wrong side. Begin at the center of one side and hem all around the square, taking slanting even stitches, not too close together. Remove the basting, trim the edges of the patch, press the patch on the wrong side and catch stitch to the garment. This shows less on the right side and does not make a hard line as if the patch were turned back on the edge. If the cloth has a pattern or stripe, match it perfectly, having the warp threads of both running the same way. Cut both hole and patch square. An oval or round patch is un- UNDERSET PATCH, RIGHT SIDE, EDGE TURNED AND HEMMED TO PATCH M My mo wa tus WRONG SIDE OF PATCH, CAT STITCHED 152 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING WRONG SIDE OF PATCH IN TABLE CLOTH-RAW EDGE OVERCAST workmanlike and does not wear well. Keep the cor- ners square and hem down well. The object of press- ing is to keep both garment and patch flat and even. Flannel patches should be cat-stitched on the right side. No flannel edges should ever be inturned. The onset patch is used on lined garments and lin- ings. The patch should be rectangular and larger than Onset Patch LINEN PATCH; CROSS STITCH INITIAL 154 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING the worn place. Fold the four edges on the wrong side of the patch, place the patch with its wrong side on the right side of the garment directly over the center of the hole. This will bring the folded edges of the WN W RIGHT SIDE OF FLANNEL PATCH Edge cat stitched but not turned, back cat stitched in the same way. patch between the two pieces of cloth and both right sides towards the worker. Do not baste, but pin care- fully. After the garment has been folded back until there are two folded edges side by side, overhand the DARNING 155 Patch for Trowsers seam with even slanting stitches. See that the corners are well sewed, that warp and woof threads run in the same direction, that pattern and stripes match. The worn part of the garment under the patch is cut away, leaving one-fourth of an inch on the three sides. Cut the corners diagonally and turn back the edge quarter of an inch, overcast and press. If this patch is sewed on a lining, the worn part is not cut away. If this patch is used to repair skirts near the band, only three sides are oversewed, the upper edge should be gathered into the band. A large patch is less conspicuous than a small one. An onset patch may be used for the seats of trousers by shaping the patch like the pieces on the seats of bicycle trousers and stitching on the machine. Heavy cloth will need no inturned edges. The same precau- tions are necessary regarding warp and woof, pattern, etc. DARNING Darning is usually done with a running stitch, with or without a piece of net or cloth underset. Thread for darning should be as near as possible the size of the threads in the garment. Whenever it can be done, a warp thread of the garment should be used. No sew- ing silk is fine enough to use without separating the thread and using one of the strands. Never use the thread as it is, as it is too hard twisted. Cotton and linen thread of the finest quality, untwisted, should be used for darning stockings and underwear. Linen may Thread for Darning 156 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Bias Dara be darned with linen or mercerized cotton. Cotton is preferable. A long slender needle with a large eye should be used. Darning should never be commenced with a knot, nor finished with a back stitch. A bias or diagonal cut and a three-cornered tear are the most difficult to repair. If the place is badly pulled and frayed, a piece of the same material should be basted on the wrong side of the material and darned in even stitches. Always darning parallel with the warp threads and the woof threads. In the diagonal tear, as the threads are cut diagonally, to prevent draw- ing apart, the darning threads must cross each other. The stitches around any darn should not end in a stiff even line ; this makes a hard edge which does not wear and is unsightly, and uncomfortable if on under- wear. The three-cornered tear may be darned in two ways. Begin by darning diagonally through the center, darn- ing back and forth towards the end of the tear until one-half has been finished; then begin at the center and work in the opposite direction. At the corner, the stitches should form the shape of a fan. The other method, which is the stronger, is done by darn- ing a square in the angle, first with the warp threads, then with the woof threads and finishing each end across the tear. Stocking darning may be done on the right side. Begin by picking up the stitches and drawing the Darning a Throo Cornered Toar DARNING 157 edges together. This should always be done in any kind of stocking darning, but not so close as to make a wrinkle. In knees and heels of stockings, or knitted under- STOCKINET DARNING OVER NET Interlaced Stitches and Chain Stitches. wear, a piece of net large enough to extend beyond the thin part should be basted carefully; then darn down the outer edges of the net and finally the hole or thin place. This makes a strong, neat piece of mending. If the hole' je large, the net may be covered with the 158 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 1 Purposes, may be chain stitch, thus imitating the knitting stitch. This should be done on the right side of the garment. If the hole is to be filled in with the interlaced stitches, draw the edges together, darn beyond the thin places, lengthwise of the knitted garment, making each line of stitches longer until the center of the hole is reached, then decrease in the same manner, making a diamond in shape. Darn across the hole in the same way, taking up every •alternate stitch as in weaving. Leave a tiny loop at the end of each row of darning, so that the threads will not draw, Darning, satisfactory for some done quickly on a double thread. sewing machine. It is best done in an embroidery ring, first drawing the edges together. Loosen the 'tension on the presser foot, use fine thread with light tension. Sew back and forth, first along the warp threads and then at right angles along the woof threads. The machine will be sewing backwards part of the time, but if the pressure is light, there will be no difficulty. For large holes, paper may be placed underneath. * Machino Darning MITERING EMBROIDERY OR LACE The mitering of lace or embroidery is often neces- sary in making collars and in finishing corners. Be- fore applying, plan carefully and select a scallop or portion of the embroidery which will produce the best effects when finished. This can be accomplished by folding the embroidery over at various portions of the A C MITERING AND JOINING EMBROIDERY A-Finished with a stitched seam ; B-Edge hemmed down and clotlı cat away underneath ; C-Joinod with lapped seam. 160 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING pattern until a suitable point is found. Fold over at right angles and mark along the line to be mitered. The triangle may now be cut, but an extra width must always be allowed for the seam, as there is frequently a slight unevenness and one side may have to be held a little full or stretched to make a perfect match. The mitered seam is over-sewed. After the corner is properly made, cut away the cloth of the embroidery, allowing only enough for an inturned seam on the edge. This seam may be stitched on the machine on both edges, or oversewed to the goods, or the embroidery may be securely sewed on the plain part, after which the underlying cloth may be cut away. This will make an almost perfect corner. Lace may be matched and mitered in a similar way. MATCHING AND JOINING LACE In joining lace, avoid a seam if possible. Select por- tions of the design that will match, placing one pat- tern of the same design over the other. Cut away a portion of the thick part of the pattern underneath and hem the edges and inner part of the design down with fine thread. Smyrna or Torchon lace is more difficult to hem or join when very open or very fine. A small, felled seam is better than lapping and trying to match the pattern Embroidery can be matched in the same way. Never let two heavy designs lap over each other. The one MATCHING AND MITERING 161 TOSTERONENSER INSERTION WITH MITRED CORNER, TAPED AND FACED; EMBROIDERY ROLLED WHIPPED AND GATHERED on the wrong side should be cut out and the edge sewed securely to the upper part of the design. The plain material above the embroidery can be joined by a lapped seam, turning first the right side and then the wrong side and hemming on both sides of the seam. MACHINE SEWING Types of Machines The sewing machine has taken away much of the drudgery of home sewing, but its use does not lessen the need of skill in hand work. No machine can finish ends of belts, collars, sew on trimming, fastenings, and like work and the finish has much to do with the gen- eral appearance of a garment. All the prominent makes of sewing machines were invented in the decade following Howe's patent in 1846. The two chief types of machines are the lock stitch, using double thread, and the chain or loop stitch, using a single thread. Whatever the make of machine it should be run in accordance with the rules accom- panying it. The worker should familiarize herself with the directions for setting and threading the needle, winding the bobbin, regulating the tension and the stitch and all other technicalities of the particular ma- chine she has to operate. Agencies of the various machines usually have skilled workers to give instruc- tion to beginners. While it is not always an economy of time to use the attachments for hemming, tucking, etc., unless much work is to be done, it is worth while to know how to use them if desired. As much or more skill is required for neat machine work as for hand sewing. Results will not be satisfactory without careful basting The machine should be kept well oiled, free from dust and gum and it should be run evenly. In case it becomes "gummed” a drop of kerosene on the parts Care of the Machine 162 MACHINE SEWING 163 Noodlo, and Thread that have been oiled will cut the gum. Remove the shuttle and run the machine rapidly for a moment, then wipe off all the kerosene and oil the machine carefully with good machine oil-only the best should be used. A machine should always be wiped thoroughly before any work is placed upon it. As in hand sewing, needles and thread should be selected with care. A blunt or bent needle should never be used, it should have a fine sharp point and the eye should be sufficiently large to carry the thread easily. The needle and thread should be suitable for the material to be sewed. Glazed thread should never be used in a machine. The best quality of thread and silk should be purchased but only enough for imme- diate use, as it loses strength with age, chiefly because of the action of the dyes and chemicals. Even white thread may become "tender” from the chemicals used in bleaching it. Sewing silk and cotton should be kept in a closed box to exclude the light and air. For sewing cotton or linen the best cotton thread should be used. Woolen, silk, and velvet should be stitched with the best machine silk. The thread should match the material in color. Cotton thread fades or loses its brightness when exposed to the light, there- fore for stitching that will show it is always better to use silk. The thread on the bobbin should be wound evenly and carefully to insure an even stitch and the tension of both threads should be equal, otherwise the stitch will not be perfect. As a lock stitch machine 164 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Fastening Throads requires two threads while in hand sewing only one is used, the two need not be as coarse as the single thread. For ordinary home sewing, underwear, thin gowns and the like, No. 70 to No. 100 will be found satisfactory Finer thread may be used when the ma- terials demand it, but no coarser than No: 50 should be used in the machine and this only with the coarsest material. Much time may be saved in fastening the threads at the ends of tucks, hems on sheets, towels, etc., by careful manipulation of the machine. For example, on sheets begin to stitch along the hem at the selvage, or if the end of the hem is over-sewed, begin an inch from the edge and stitch the hem towards the selvage, then lift the presser-foot so as to turn the work, and retrace the bit of stitching, continuing across the whole hem. When the end is reached, release the presser- foot, turn the work, and stitch back for an inch or more in the same line, as was done at the beginning of the hem. By this method the threads are fastened much more easily and quickly than by drawing them through on to the wrong side and tying or sewing them by hand and, of course, it is more satisfactory than the "shop" way of cutting them off short. Tucks or seams may be fastened in the same way. If fine thread is used the double stitching at the ends is hardly noticeable. When stitching a seam having one bias and straight side, let the bias side come next to the feed, Bias Sido Next Feod MACHINE SEWING 165 Stitching Gathers that is, on the underside. This is especially impor- tant in thin materials. If the material is very sheer, strips of soft paper-newspaper will answer for or- dinary purposes-should be sewed in the seam. This will insure a seam free from puckers and when fin- ished the paper can be pulled away easily. In sewing gathers on a band they should also come next the "feed," as it takes up the side next to it a little faster than the upper side. When the bias, or cross-way side of the seam, or gathers are next to the "feed" the material runs along smoothly, but if the straight side is towards it there is apt to be a pucker. Stitching can be done more easily on the right of the presser foot with the bulk of the material lying to the left. The tendency of the “feed” or teeth is to crowd the work off the edge as well as forward and the stitching may be guided better on the right side All straight seams should be stretched to the full extent of their straight edge in stitching, as the work passes under the presser foot . When a large amount of machine sewing is to be done---such as household linen, sheets, pillow cases and underwear-it is a good plan to do all the basting and hand work first and keep the machine stitching for a rainy or a damp day, as the thread is then less apt io break. A current of air or a breeze from an open window on a dry day will often cause the thread to snap. For the same reason the machine should never stand near the fire or radiator. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING PART II Read Carefully. This test consists of two parts,-an- swers to the questions and the making of models. Both should be sent to the School for inspection and correction. All models should be made about 4 by 6 inches so that they may be put into the envelope provided without being folded. Two series of models are given; either or both may be made. 1. What instruction have you ever had in sewing? (b) Has the subject any, educational value ? 2. What are the common basting stitches, and for what are they used ? 3. Can you make the running stitch properly? How is it done? 4. For what purpose may the cat stitch be used ? 5. Hems and Seams : Describe the different kinds for thick and thin materials, including those for flannel and state when they should be used. 6. Describe three kinds of plackets. 7. How are gathers made, and how sewed into a band ? 8. What can you say of fastenings? 9. With what sewing machine are you most famil- iar, and what are its peculiarities? IO. What sti hes or methods described in this les son are new to you? Note: After completing the answers, sign your full name. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING MODELS, FIRST SERIES I. STITCHES. On a piece of cotton about 4 by 6 inches, make with colored thread (1) a line of even basting stitches, (2) uneven basting stitches, (3) tacking, (4) running, (5) back stitch, (6) running and back, (7) half back. With embroidery silk make a row each of (1) cat stitch, (2) single feather, (3) double feather, (4) chain, (5) rows of French knots with border of outline stitch. Make your initial in one corner, using any stitch preferred. Overcast one long edge of the model, double overcast the opposite side, finish one end with plain loop or blanket stitch, and the other end with some fancy loop stitch. Fasten all threads as described in the text. II. SEAMS AND Hems. (a) Join two pieces of fine cotton with a French seam at the long edge, about 2 by 512 inches, with warp running lengthwise. (b) Cut a piece of muslin on a true bias and attach the bias edge to a with a felled seam. (c) Trim the model and hem all sides so that the finished model may measure 4 by 6 inches. III. DARNING AND PATCHING. (a) In gingham or figures cotton, make an underset patch of a square hole, matching the goods. (b) Darn a three-cornered tear. IV. FASTENINGS. The proper distance from the edge of folded goods make (a) button hole, one end rounded and the other finished with a bar tack. (b) Under it make a partly fin- TEXTILES AND CLOTHING ished, barred buttonhole. (c) Below this make an eyelet hole, (d) below the eyelet hole a loop, and sew on an eye. On a second piece of folded goods opposite the first buttonhole, (a) sew a four-hole button, corresponding in size to the buttonhole. (b) Opposite the second buttonhole sew on a two- hole button; (c) below, on other side of the goods, sew on two hooks for the loop and eye. Make the two parts of the model so that the corresponding fastenings will join. APRON. Using fine muslin, make a doll's apron, gathering into band at top. Above hem at the bottom, make two clusters of tucks of three each. V. MODELS, SECOND SERIES, FOR EXPERIENCED WORKERS I. ROLLED HEM; HEM STITCHING. Make a doll's apron of fine muslin, attach top to band with rolled, whipped gathers. Make tivo clusters of tucks of three each at the bottom and hem stitch the bottom hem. II. SLEEVE PLACKET. Make a taped sleeve placket as shown in the illustration III. MAKE A Slot SEAM, using dress goods and finish with an arrow head. (b) Make a large cloak buttonhole. IV. MITRE EMBROIDERY and finish as shown in the illustration. (b) Match and join the same. V. EMBROIDERY: Make something small and use- ful—a doily, stock, collar-illustrating some style of embroidery, or make a model of the first series which will afford you the most new experience. Textiles and Clothing Part III MAKING MEXICAN DRAWN-WORK TEXTILES AND CLOTHING PART III Good Tools Necessary DRESSMAKING The greatest obstacle to home sewing of any kind is the failure to provide suitable materials with which to do the work. To do good work-to make attractive gowns the simple tools which the work requires must be provided. First, there should be needles and pins of the best quality and make. They should be fine and well pointed. The needle should be suitable to the material to be sewn and sufficiently large to carry the thread easily. A blunt or bent needle should never be used. Long or milliner's needles are preferred by many for basting. A good supply of thread should be kept on hand- Thrond not too great a quantity, but the stock should be added to as it is used. There should be both silk and col- ored cotton, also twist for button holes, loops and arrow heads and knitting silk to sew on and finish feather bone. Two pairs of scissors are required-one with long, Sclagore sharp blades, and a pair of medium sizes for snipping machine stitches. Among the other necessary articles are a tape meas- ure, cake of wax, pencils or tailor's chalk, tracing wheel, emery, lap board. 168 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Tapes Cutting Tablo Canvas, scrim, or any like material should be kept in the sewing room, as these are invaluable for fac- ings, linings of collars, cuffs, etc. Hooks, eyes, but- tons, tape, linings, featherbone and shields are requis- ites not to be forgotten. Tape is constantly needed. Linen tape is thinner and makes a neater finish for some purposes than cot- ton tape. The bias tape or binding now kept by the larger stores is very useful for binding curved edges and for other purposes. If a regular cutting table is not available, the din- ing room table should be used. Skirts, bodices, rufe fles, and bias bands should be cut on firm, even, and large surfaces. If cut upon the floor or bed and pressed on a coarse crash towel, the garment will have the undesirable home-made look. A good pressing board should be provided and if possible a sleeve board. In the process of garment making of any kind too much stress cannot be laid upon constant and careful pressing. The ironing board should have for its outside cover a finely woven, perfectly smooth cloth, tightly stretched, free from wrinkles, and securely tacked. Where there is gas, a small, portable stove should be kept near the sewing table with a medium-sized flat iron. Lacking gas, one of the single burner oil stoves may be used. An electric flat iron is especially con- venient. A bust form is a great convenience in fitting and Pressing Board Bust Form PADDED BUST FORM (From Dressmaking Up-to-Date, Butterick Co.) 169 170 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING almost a necessity for one who does much home dress- ing. These may be purchased at department stores, Some kinds are adjustable, but it is always best to make a carefully fitted lining for it and pad out to the correct shape and size. The pattern should be one that extends well over the hips and heavy unbleached muslin may be used. After padding firmly, the front opening should be oversewed. Special care should be taken with shoulders and neck and the neck band should be carefully adjusted on the figure. A padded sleeve lining is also very useful in mak- ing sleeves. Dressmaking never should be begun until each needed article required for the work has been pur- chased. The sewing room should be in order; the machine well oiled and wiped before any work is un- dertaken. If the finished garment is to be perfect, careful at- tention must be given to every detail of the cutting and making up. To possess mechanical skill alone is not sufficient. A successful garment depends not only upon the dexterity with which the worker manipulates the actual tools of her craft, but upon all her faculties and her power of applying them. She must have a comprehension of the laws of beauty in dress, con-. struction, ornament, color, selection, economy. The artisan knows the technical part only, and looks upon each dress—each piece of lace and velvet—as so much material to be snipped and cut and sewed, copying from the fashion plate, making gown after gown alike. The artist, on the other hand, makes the gown Skill and Taste PATTERNS 171 to suit the individual wearer, considering each dress no matter how simple—and the simpler, the more art- istic—as a creation designed to suit the woman for whom it was planned. People who study economy from principle will never adopt anything extreme in weave, or color, or make. These extreme fashions are never lasting; they are too conspicuous and are vulgarized by bad copies, while a thing which is known to be good and beautiful once will remain so for all time. Those who are beginners in the art of dressmaking should select plain designs until skill is acquired. The making up and finishing of new fabrics and new or untried meth- ods are problems that often dismay even the most experienced dressmaker. PATTERNS The makers of good and reliable patterns are many. Always buy patterns of firms that make proportion of figure as well as fashion a study. These patterns state length of skirt, waist and hip measure and quan- tity of material required in all widths. Buy a skirt pattern with correct hip size, as it is much more diffi- cult to change this than to alter the dimensions of a waist. Adjust the pattern to the figure for which the garment is to be cut and see that it is right in all of its proportions. Always follow the notches indicated in the seams of the pattern, and thus avoid putting wrong pieces together. Be sure that the pattern is Selection of Patterna 172 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING What the Pattern Gives placed correctly upon the material with the straight grain or warp threads of the goods running directly on a line with the straight perforations indicated in the pattern. Lay the entire pattern upon the cloth. This gives an idea just where every piece is to come out. In symmetrical dresses the pattern gives one-half of the waist and the skirt, from center of back to center of front. The number of pieces in a plain pat- tern vary according to styles. The sleeve may be cut in one piece with the waist, as in kimona sleeves; the back of the waist may be all in one piece or have a side back when fitted waists are in vogue. Likewise skirts may have few or many gores. Most patterns allow for seams and state what that allowance is. All pieces are notched to show how they should go together. On the skirt pieces the front gore has one notch, the front side of the next gore one notch, the back side two notches, etc. The best patterns now are accompanied by charts showing the different pieces and the method of put- ting them together. Directions are given which, if followed carefully, enable one to cut and make the garment correctly. SKIRT MAKING Fashions in skirts vary greatly, but a well-fitted skirt should hang in graceful folds, be even around the bottom, should fit easily without being strained and without defining the figure too closely. The object of goring the skirt at the top is, of SKIRT MAKING 173 course, to take out unnecessary fullness. In draped skirts this fullness is partly taken care of by the folds. Skirts should allow perfect freedom in walk- ing, but prevailing styles do not always permit this. A skirt for street wear should be short enough not to pick up the dirt of the street—the narrow skirt may be longer than the wide one without becoming a "street sweeper." PLAN OF SKIRT MAKING Shortening or lengthening of pattern if neces- sary. Placing of goods. Pinning on of pattern so there is no waste. Cutting Removing and care of patterns. Finishing placket hole. Basting seam-fitting. Stitching Pressing Finishing of seams. Making and putting on waist-band. Marking length and finishing the bottom. Fastenings, loops, braids, hooks and eyes. To lengthen or shorten a skirt pattern, measure the figure and regulate the length of the patterns by mak- ing a fold in each gore two-thirds of the way from the top of the pattern if too long. This is for the simplest skirt pattern. The shape of the skirt may re- quire two folds, one two-thirds from the top and a small fold near the bottom to preserve the outline. If too short, pin the pattern on the material, cut Lengthening or Shortening Patterns 174 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Testing Patterns around the top of gore and on each side two-thirds of the distance from the top of gore. Unpin and draw the pattern down to the bottom and cut the required length. Except for wash material, or when the skirt is moderately narrow, do not turn a gored skirt up at the bottom to form a wide hem, as the fullness made by turning is hard to dispose of neatly and the right curve at the bottom of the skirt may be lost. Another way to lengthen the pattern is to cut it in two, two-thirds the distance from the top. See that all pleats or tucks are exactly the same width and at the exact distance from the top, or bottom of the gore, also that all seams are of the right length. A shorter skirt must be proportionately narrower. It is well to test the skirt and waist patterns by using inexpensive materials, such as calico, gingham, or cheap lining. Cut, baste, fit and make this as care- fully as if it were the best cloth or silk. If the skirt and waist are satisfactory, the pattern will do duty for several seasons. The plain waist pattern is the foundation for any waist and many changes can be made easily with a well-fitting skirt and plain waist pattern as a basis. As paper patterns soon wear out, after a waist and skirt have been perfectly fitted, it is a good plan to cut an exact pattern of cambric, both skirt and waist, tracing seams and notching the parts. This will en- able the home dressmaker to cut and make all ordi- nary dresses with little trouble and with but one try- ing on. It is always well to try on once, as materials differ and a slight change may be necessary. Cloth Patterns h 0103 d 0703 PLACING PATTERNS. At the left, on plain or symmetrical designs; at the right, on figured or napped goods. a–Half of front gore; 6–Second gore; c-Third gore; d-Back gore; e-Front waist; f-Under arm piece; g-Side back; h- Back; ;-Outside sleeve; j-Under sleeve; c d'—Piecing of goresc, d. 176 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Placing Patterns If the material is plain, has no nap, or if the de- sign is perfectly symmetrical, the gores may be alter- nated, the top of one gore coming opposite the bot- tom of the next. The half pattern of the front gore is always laid on a lengthwise fold of the goods. If the goods is wide, the other gores may be cut double with the cloth folded lengthwise. With narrow goods the cloth may be folded end to end after the middle gore has been cut out, and the other gores cut double. Care should be taken that the line of holes in the middle of the gores runs exactly in a line with the warp of the material—i. e., parallel to the selvage. If the goods has a figure, the design should run up- wards. Any nap should run downward, except with velvet or velveteen, in which it should run upwards. With such goods, the gores if cut double must be placed on a lengthwise fold, with the lengths running the same way. If the goods is narrow, the gores may have to be cut single, reversing the pattern (turning it over), so that both pieces may not be for the same side. If piecing is necessary on wide gores, it should always be done along the warp thread, with the usual care that any figure be made to match perfectly. Pin the middle of the pattern to the goods and smooth towards each end, pinning securely at top and bottom. Avoid too many pins and pin carefully, otherwise the pattern will be displaced. After the pattern is securely pinned, cut out the gores, using long, sharp shears. Care should be taken not to lift the material from the table, not to have Pinning Patterns Cutting Out SKIRT MAKING 177 Making Placket jagged, uneven edges, as both time and material will be wasted in straightening them. Open the shears as wide as possible, taking a long sweep of the mate- rial, and do not allow the points of the shears to come together. Mark all notches with basting thread, tailor's chalk, or notch the goods if it does not ravel. Now remove the pattern, pin carefully all pieces to- gether and fold as little as possible. The trinity-pin, baste, press—should be written in large letters in every sewing room, for much of the beauty of the gown de- pends upon these three. The placket, which may be at the back, side or front, may be finished before the gores are put to- gether. The placket is easier to finish in this way, may be pressed better, and the other gores are not crushed. On the left side of the opening sew an underlap of sufficient length to extend well below the end of the opening. Face the right side of the open- ing with a piece of the goods, or tape not too wide, hem or cat-stitch to the skirt, and finish with hooks and eyes, loops, or any fastening that will secure the placket. To join the skirt, pin the side gores to the front gores, beginning at the top, with pins running across the seams, then begin at the top of the skirt and baste downward, allowing all unevenness to come out at the bottom. Baste straight and evenly, with the gores laid flat on the table, taking one stitch at a time. Several stitches should never be taken at once on thick or piled goods, as the side next to the sewer is apt to be fuller in that case. When all seams are Joining the Skirt 178 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Lined Skirt Stitching Skirts basted, try on the skirt and make all changes neces- sary before stitching. Both the outside skirt and any under or "drop” skirt should be fitted as carefully as a waist. If the skirt is to be lined the lining should be made and fitted first, then ripped and the outside carefully basted on the lining, being well stretched over the lin- ing, care being taken to have the warp of the outside and the lining run the same way. This will prevent the lining from drawing the goods. A stitch of medium length should be used on all seams whether white goods or cloth. If the stitch is too long, the seam will "gap" and will show the thread; if too short, the seam is apt to draw. The line of stitch- ing must be absolutely parallel inside or outside of the basting or the curve will be ruined. Use silk or the best cotton for stitching skirts and be sure that the needle is not too coarse. After stitching, all bastings along the seams should be taken out by cutting the thread in several places. Never pull a basting the length of the skirt. The seams should be opened and pressed according to direc- tions. The seams may be finished with a taffeta bind- ing, overcast, stitched flat or notched, as the case de- mands. Fashion at times calls for lined skirts with stiffen- ing at the bottom. In such skirts the stiffening should be fitted to each lining gore separately and securely stitched before the lining and outside are put to- gether. Heavy cloth skirts with rows of stitching at the bottom should have a light canvas stitched in. Finishing Seams Stiffening SKIRT MAKING 179 Putting on Band The skirt is now ready for the band, which should be narrow. Always cut parallel with the selvage and the length of the underlap longer than the waist meas- ure, allowing for turning at the ends. The band should never be thick and clumsy and not too tight. Excellent webbing bands which are ready to be put on the skirt may be purchased—these are firm and not clumsy. Try on the skirt and fit the band carefully, mark- ing the seam with pins, a line of basting, or chalk. Hold the skirt easy on the band and baste with small stitches, then stitch on the machine. If the skirt is too tight around the hips, it will draw. If the skirt is stretched on the band, the seams will not fall in a straight line. For a high-waisted skirt without a band use a firm piece of belting one and one-half to two inches wide. Sew hooks and eyes on this belt, then baste skirt carefully to the top of the belt; try on. Stitch about one-fourth of an inch from the top, being sure that the skirt conceals the belt. Fasten skirt and belt separately, leaving the skirt free from the belt except at the top. Before finishing the seams be sure that the skirt fits the figure smoothly but does not draw anywhere; that the seams fall in a straight line, and that gathers and draping take graceful lines becoming to the figure. The draped skirt requires skill in handling material and is more difficult to make than the fitted skirt. While patterns may be followed in draping, the best results are obtained when it is done on the figure. Fitting and Draping 180 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Finishing

REPAIRING Fabrics are so much cheaper and so much easier to Economical obtain that patching has almost become one of the lost Monding arts. The twentieth century woman feels that her time is too valuable to be spent in mending the old clothes and that she can better afford to buy new. However that may be, no one disputes the utility of mending. Like so many other duties, mending is half done when well begun. A well made garment of good material should not be discarded when slightly worn, for a patch well put in or a neat piece of darning de- tracts in no way from the value of a garment and may even be a work of art. The children's clothes particu- larly should be kept in good order, for they are made uncomfortable by wearing garments that are out of re- pair, to say nothing of the demoralizing effect upon their characters. Laundering is the great ally to tears and not only Laundering doubles the size of the hole, but pulls the threads apart and Repairs so that it is impossible to make the mended place neat and smooth, therefore all clothing should be mended before washing. Stockings and woven underwear are much worn by the rubbing on the washboard and thin places going into the washing frequently come out as holes, so that it is true economy of effort and time to "run" or darn the thin places before they are worn through. It requires much less time and the garments last longer. 226 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Boys' Trowsers Sleeves It is a good plan, especially in knees of stockings and knitted underwear, to baste a piece of fine net over a worn or broken place and darn over it. (See Darn- ing.) Thread used for darning should be as near as possible the size of the threads in the garment. Darn- ing cotton, linen, wool, and silk of all shades can be bought, so that the problem of matching is no longer a difficult one. In mending the knees of boys' trousers a round patch should never be used. The seams should be ripped and the piece set in then, if the seams are pressed well, the patch will scarcely be noticeable. When bodices are worn under the arm, rip the seams and set in a new “under arm” piece. A good plan for one whose dresses are apt to wear through quickly is to have the under arm pieces and the adjacent parts of the front made of two thicknesses of the goods; then, as the outside wears through, the edges can be hemmed down or taken into the seam. When table cloths begin to wear in the middle fold or along the edge of the table, a few inches cut off one end and one side of the cloth will change the fold and the place where it falls over the table and give it a new lease of life. If the hem is turned down once and cat stitched, it will resemble the selvage more than a twice turned hem. In repairing or lengthening garments that have be- come too short, much can be done by adding to the bottom of the skirt and sleeves material of different Table Cloths Lengthening Garments REPAIRING 227 Extension Hem and Tucks texture. A cloth or serge skirt may be lengthened by facing with velvet of the same shade, covering the line of sewing with cord, braid, or passementerie of the same shade or black. There should be an under- facing of light-weight crinoline to make the bottom of the skirt firm and to give strength. The same facing and passementerie may be used at neck and sleeves. Thin gowns of lawn, dimity, etc., can be lengthened with a faced or extension hem, the line of sewing to be covered with feather stitch or any of the fancy stitches of white or colored thread. If the lawn or dimity has a colored figure, the embroidery silk or cotton may match this. Under skirts and drawers may be length- ened in the same way or rows of tucks may be added. In waist repairing, the sewing silk should match the material. Set the patch into the seams when possible and trust to careful pressing. If the material begins to wear near the end of the bones, cut off the bones an inch and take in the dart or seam. If the silk wears off around the hooks and eyes, move them along ever so little. Make a virtue of worn out seams by taking them in and covering them with fancy stitching. If the garment is lined, the outside should be carefully basted to the lining before stitching to take in the seam. It has been said that silk waists are serviceable as long as the upper parts of the sleeves remain good. If garments have not been well cared for from the first and beyond a certain point, “making over” is poor Waist Repairing 228 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Mending Blankets Use of Tape economy. Never attempt cleaning and making over old clothes unless the material is good enough to make it worth while to do the work well. The mending basket is an important adjunct of mending and should be well supplied with darning cot- ton of all colors and sizes, good English tape, black and white, of different widths, linen tape, bias tape, differ- ent kinds and sizes of needles,—sewing, darning, shoe, carpet, and tape needles. For repairing bands and facings, where buttons have been torn off by wringer or iron, and for strengthen- ing weak places, tape is invaluable. It saves the time required to turn in the edges of the cloth and is less clumsy and bungling. The mender should use good judgment as to the amount of work to be applied to each garment. She should substitute the machine needle whenever possible and not put tiny stitches by hand into half worn gar- ments or in unseen places. Ripped tucks and bands can be sewed in a few minutes on the machine. Serv- iceable darning can be done on the machine. Before putting away freshly laundered clothes it is a good plan to take out the clothes already in the draw- ers and lay the ones washed last on the bottom, thus all garments will wear alike, each article in its regular turn. Use of Judgment In Mending TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 229 BIBLIOGRAPHY Home and School Sewing, Frances Patton, ($.60, postage 6c). School Needlework, Olive C. Hapgood, ($.75, postage 6c). Sewing Course for Schools, Mary Schenck Woolman, ($1.50, postage 14c). Sewing Tablets-Graded Sewing Texts with all Materials. Seven parts, by Margaret L. Blair, ($.50 each, postage 8c each). School Garment Drafting, Jennie M. Haner, ($1.00, postage 6c). Lessons in Garment Drafting, Mae Gingles, ($.60, postage 6c). Progressive Lessons in Needlework, Catharine F. Johnson, ($.90, postage 8c). Dressmaking Up-to-date, Butterick Pub. Co., ($.25, postage 8c.) When Mother Lets Us Sew, Virginia Ralston, ($.75, postage 6c). The Art of Millinery, Anna Ben Yusuf, ($2.00, postage 14c). Practical Millinery Lessons, Illustrated Milliner Co., ($1.00, postage 8c). Dressmaking Self Taught, Curens, ($1.00, postage foc). Household Textiles, Charlotte M. Gibbs, ($1.25, postage 1oc). TEST QUESTIONS The following questions constitute the “written reci. tation” which the regular menībers of the A. S. H. E. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. They are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING PART III Read Carefully. To make this test of greatest value to you, write fully from your personal standpoint and experience. Try as many methods given in the text as your time will allow so that you may ask for explanation if the descriptions are not clear to you. Methods are many; if you do not agree with these given, suggest better ones. 2. I. (a) What are the requisites for good dress- making ? (b) How does dressmaking dif- fer from white sewing in make, finish, and ornamentation? From your point of view what do you consider a successful garment ? 3. Give methods of altering patterns. 4. Give briefly the method of cutting and making from patterns; (a) a shirt waist, with cuff open opposite seam: (b) a woolen skirt, including method of stitching, pressing, and finishing. 5. How may pressing be done to give the best re- sults ? What garments require little or no pressing, and why? 6. (a) State some of the principles and purposes of ornament. (b) What is your idea of orna- ment applied to garments ? (c) Give some errors in ornamentation not named in text. 231 232 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 7. Cut from magazines illustrations showing your idea of good and faulty ornamentation in dress. Give reason for your opinion. 8. Illustrate in some way, either by picture, draw- ing, embroidery, braid, or stitching, some de- sign appropriate for ornament work on neck or sleeve. 9. Where should ornament be placed, and why? 10. (a) Give your idea of appropriate design on tex- tiles. (b) The advantage and disadvantage of plain materials. II. Make a color card of silk, wool, paper or raffia showing colors that contrast. (b) Colors that harmonize. What colors do you find satisfactory for your own wear, and why? 13. What materials are best suited for infants' gar- ments ? (b) What can you say in regard to children's clothing? 14. What is your opinion of the care of clothing? (b) What experience have you had in clean- ing (a) cotton, (b) wool, (c) linen, (d) silk, (e) velvet ? 15. Do you consider it economy to repair garments ? Can you suggest better methods than those given in the text? 12. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 233 16. If possible make some garment, shirt waist, skirt, or simple dress while studying this les- son and describe in detail how you went about it, the result, time taken, total cost. Tell why you selected the design, the color, the mate- rial. 17. Have you found the ready made garments satis- factory in underwear and dresses ? 18. Tell of some of your failures in dressmaking and give the reasons for your lack of success. 19. What methods, new to you, have you tried in connection with this lesson? What questions have you to ask? Can you add any suggestions that would be help- ful to others in this work? 21. Wherein have the lessons been of practical value to you? 22. For Teachers. Draw up an outline for a course in sewing to combine two considerations: (a) adaptability to the child's interests and capaci- ties, (b) orderly sequence in the technica! part. Note: After completing the answers, sign your full name. 20. 234 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING REFERENCES: ORNAMENT AND DESIGN Bachelder-Principles of Design in America. ($3.00.) Brown-History of Decorative Art. ($1.25.) Carter, Mrs. H. J.-Historic Ornament in Color. (150. a sheet). Prang. Clifford-Period Decoration. ($3.00.) Crane-Claims of Decorative Art. (Out of print.) Crane-Line and Form. ($2.25.) Daniels—Teaching of Ornament. ($1.50.) Day-Application of Ornament. ($1.25.). Day-Nature in Ornament. ($4.00.) Day-Ornamental Design. (Out of print.) Day-Planning of Ornament. (Out of print.) Day—Decorative Design of all Ages. ($0.40.) Day-Ornament and Its Application. ($3.25.) Day-Ornamental Design, Anatomy of Pattern, Planning of Ornament. ($3.00.) Day-Some Principles of Everyday Art. (Out of print.) Glazier—Manual of Historic Ornament. (New edition in press.) Hulme—Birth and Development of Ornament. (Out of print.) Jones—Grammar of Ornament. ($18.00.) Prang-Art and Ornament in Egypt. ($1.50.) Note—The books out of print may be found in some public libraries. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 235 2 REFERENCES: HISTORY OF COSTUME Earle-Costume of Colonial Times. ($1.25.) Earle—Two Centuries of Costume in America, vols. ($2.50 each.) Evans—Chapters on Greek Dress. (Out of print.) Fairholt-Costume of England, 2 vols. ($1.50 each.) Hill-History of English Dress. (Out of print.) McClellan–Historic Dress in America. ($10.00.) Planchet—History in British Costume. ($1.50.) Quegly-What Dress Makes of Us. ($1.25.) Racinet—Costume. ($2.00.) Rhead-Chats on Costume. ($1.50.) Schild-Old English Peasant Costume from Boadicea to Queen Victoria. (Out of print.) SUPPLEMENTARY PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR CLASS STUDY ON TEXTILES AND CLOTHING MEETING I (Study pages 1-59) Primitive Methods Endeavor to obtain a Colonial spinning-wheel in working order, and get some one to operate it. If possible, obtain samples of weaving done on a hand loom. Examine a hand-loom if possible. They may be seen at the manufacturers of rag and remade carpets. References: Woman's Share in Primitive Culture, Mason, Chapter III, The Weaver. ($1.75, postage 16c.) Colonial Days in Old New England, by Earle. ($1.25, postage 12c.) Textile Fibres Collect an exhibit of raw fibres and fibres in process of manu- facture. Send to the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Department of Botany, Washington, D. C., for small sam- ples; to manufacturers of thread; to friends in manufac- turing towns. Test the various fibres by burning. Examine under a mi- croscope with a small hand-glass, if greater power cannot be obtained. Try warm acid-sulphuric, hydrochloric, or oxalic—on the fibres; let the fibres dry Also try a solu- tion of caustic soda on the fibres. References: The Textile Fibres, by Matthews. ($3.50, postage 16c.) Textile Fibres and Cotton Fibre, pamphlets of the American School of Correspondence. (500. each, postage 4c. each.) 236 PROGRAM 237 Send for all the Government Bulletins men- tioned in the Bibliography, page 104 Note that. the free bulletins are obtained simply by addressing the Department of Agricul. ture, Washington, D. C., but the sale bulle- tins only by sending coin or money order to the Superintendent of Documents, Wash- ington, D. C. MEETING II (Study pages 59-102) Modern Methods Visit a textile mill if possible, after studying the text. Practice home dyeing. Read carefully the directions given by the manufacturers of the dyes. See the booklet “Dia- mond Dyes,” to be obtained at many drug stores, or send for it to Wells Richardson, Burlington, Vermont. References: Text-books of the American School of Corre- spondence – especially Textile Chemistry and Dyeing. (Parts I, II, III, and IV, post- age 4c. each.) The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics, by Hummell. ($1.75, postage 12c.) Bleaching and Calico Printing (containing samples), by Duerr. ($4.00, postage 14c.) Weaves and Fabrics Show as many different kinds of weaves as possible. Separate rate the threads and examine under a hand microscope. Get the local dry-goods or department store to co-operate with you in getting up an exhibit of samples of standard goods--cotton, woolen, worsted, linen, and silk. Label each cample with the width and price. 238 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Test some of the samples of wash goods for fastness to wash- ing and light, by washing in warm water and soap (or boiling in the soap and water) and expose to sunlight all day for three or four days. Keep a part of each sample for comparison. (Select a composite set of answers to the Test Questions on Part I and send to the School, with report on the supple- mental work done and Meetings I and II.) MEETING III (Study pages 107-123) Sewing: Plain Stitches Send to manufacturers for samples showing the process of manufacture of pins, needles, etc. Demonstrate different ways of making the same stitches; discuss best methods. Embroidery Show how all the embroidery stitches are made. Get up an exhibit of all kinds of enbroidery, including Oriental, Japanese, old samplers, etc. Have members make Model I, First Series. References: Home and School Sewing, by Patton. ($0.60, postage 6c.) School Needlework, by Hapgood. ($0.75, post- .? age 6c.) Topic: Manual of Exercise in Hand Sewing, by Blair. ($1.25, postage roc.) Educational Value of Sewing in the Public Schools. Methods. See “A Sewing Course,”by Mary S. Woolman, Introduction ($3.50, post- age 20c.), and 'The Teaching of Domestic Science in the United States of America," by Alice Ravenhill, pages 9-10, 43-46. ($0.75, postage 12c.) PROGRAM 239 MEETING IV (Study pages 123-165) Hems, Seams, Fastenings, Darning, Patching Have all members make models II, III, IV, and V. Previously assign members to furnish models or examples of all other hems, seams, fastenings, patches, darns, etc., illustrated or described in the text, and as many more as possible. Machine Sewing Get the local sewing machine agent to give a demonstration of the workings of the attachments of the machine. (Select models and answers to Test Questions on Part II and send them to the School, with a report of Meetings III and IV.) MEETING V (Study pages 167-200) Dressmaking Get the local dry-goods or department store to lend different kinds of dress forms. Collect parterns from different makers. Show how patterns are altered to suit the figure. (See text and “Dressmaking Up to Date.") As many as possible cut out and begin making a simple shirt- waist or skirt. Show finished garment at next meeting, giving accurate account of cost and time spent. References: Dressmaking Up to Date, The Butterick Co. ($0.25, postage 8c.) Sewing and Garment Drafting, by Margaret L. Blair. ($1.25, postage 12c.) INDEX Adulteration of linen, 87 Alpaca, 90 Altering sleeve patterns, 194 Angora wool, 39 Aniline dyes, 79 Arrow heads, 123 Aack stitch, 112 Basting, 108 Bibliography, 103, 229 . Bleaching, 78 Bobbin, 19 Boning waist, 192 Bow, the, 208 Burling, 83 Bust form, 168 Button holes, 141 large, 145 making, 144 Buttons, sewing on, 145 Cotton goods, 85 home of, 30 Nankin, 34 sea island, 30 upland, 30 Cross stitch, 120 Cuffs, 196 Cutting table, 168 Darning, 155 on machine, 158 over net 157 Decorations, placing, 208 Distaff, 12 Double cloth, 77 Draped waist, 192 Drawing tapes, 140 Dressmaking, 167 Dyeing, 78 home, 80 Dyes, aniline, 79 Dyestuffs, natural, 80 Embroidery, 204 as ornament, 204 eyelet, 122 shadow, 123 stitches, 114 Extension hem, 227 Eyelet embroidery, 1 2 2 Eyelets, 149 Fabrics, 85 list of, 96 - 102 names of, 94 primitive, 27 width of, 93 Facing, bias, 141 skirt, 179 Fastening the thread, 109 Fastenings, 141 . Carding, 59 Care of clothing, 219 Cassimere twills, 73, 75 Cat stitch, 116 Catch stitch, 116 Chain stitch, 116 Checks, 213 Children's clothes, 216, 217 Cleaning, 59, 221 Collars, 198 putting on, 199 Color in dress, 214 Colors, mordant, 79 Combing, 60 Conventional designs, 213 Costumes, references, 234 Cotton, 29 boles, 32 fibers, 34 241 242 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Feather stitch, 118 Fibers, 29 cotton, 29 flax, 43 silk, 53 wool, 37 Finishes, 139 Finishing skirt, 179 seams, 196 waist, 192 Finishing, woolens, 83 Fitting, 173; 193 sleeves, 190 waists, 190 Flax, 43 fibers, 47 hackling, 44, 47 Flocks, 83 Folding garments, 220 French hem, 127 knots, 119 seam, 131 Fulling, 83 Fur, 40 Gathering, III, 138 Gathers, whipped, 127 Gauging, 112 Gigging, 83 Gingham, 86 Grease spots, 122 Hand sewing, 107 Harmony in dress, 215 Harness, the, 70 Heddle, 17 Hemp, 50 Hem stitch, 118 Hems, 123 bias, 124 faced, 124 flannel, 127 French, 127 folding, 123 Hems, rolled, 126 Herringbone stitch, 116 Home dyeing, 80 Hook and eyes, 147 Hydroscopic moisture, 42 Jacquard loom, 70 Joining lace, 160 Jute, 50 Knit goods, 72 Lace, design of, 208 Laces, use of, 207 Laundering, 225 Lengthening garments, 226 Linen, 86 adulteration of, 87 characteristics of, 47 Lining, cutting, 188 Loading silk, 56 Loons, 17 Colonial, 19, 21, 22 development of, 19 diagram of, 23 fly shuttle, 26 four harness, hand, 21 Jacquard, 70 Japanese, 20 modern, 25, 69 Navajo, 18 Swedish hand, 24 Loop stitch, 116 Madder bleach, 78 Machine darning, 158 sewing, 162 Mending, 83, 225 Mitering embroidery, 758 Modern methods, 59 Mohair, 90 Mordant colors, 79 Muslin, 85 Nankin cotton, 34 Natural dyestuffs, 80 - INDEX 243 Repairing, 225 Retting flax, 45 Roving, 61 Running stitch, 110 Olona, 53 Ornament, 203 embroidery as, 204 fitness of, 209 flowers as, 205 of textiles, 212 Ornamental stitches, 108, 114 Ornamentation, errors in, 204 Outline stitch, 114 Overcasting, 114, 142 Oversewing, 113 Packing clothing, 220 Passementerie, 206 Patching, 149 Patterns, 171 altering, 173 cloth, 174 lengthening, 173 pinning, 176 placing, 176 selection of, 171 testing, 174 use of, 172 Picking, 59 Piled fabrics, 91 Plackets, 135 faced, 137 Plaids, 213 Plain material, 212 Plush, 77 Pressing, 201 board, 168, 201 wet, 202 Primitive methods, 3 Printing, 81 block, 81 machine, 81 Sateen weave, 79 Satin, 91 stitch, 121 Scouring agents, 41 Sea island cotton, 30 Seams, 128 beaded, 131 felled, 128 flannel, 135 French, 131 lapped, 133 slot, 131 Serges, 88 Seven-gored skirt, 172 Sewing, hand, 107 machine, 162 Sewing machines, 162 care of, 162 types of, 162 use of, 164 Shadow embroidery, 123 Sheep, 39 Shirt waists, cutting, 182 plan for making, 183 Shuttle, 19 artificial, 58 boiling off, 56 fiber, 53 loading, 56, 90 production, 53 raw, 56 twilled, 91 Silk, wash, 91 Silk worm, 54 Silks, 90 Singeing, 78 Skirt, 172 band, 179 Silk, 53 warps, 82 Ramie, 50 Raw silk, 56 Reed, 19 Reeling silk, 54 244 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Tucked waist, 185 Tucking, 108 Tucks, 128 Unity in dress, 211 • Upland cotton, 30 Velvet, 92 weave of, 77 Velveteen, 92 Skirt binding, 180 braid, 180 making, 177 placket, 178 plan of making, 173 stiffening, 178 Sleeve making, 183 patterns, 194 Sleeves, cutting, 194, 195 finish of, 197 pressing, 198 putting in, 197 Slip-stitching, 125 Slot seams, 131 Speck dye, 83 Spindle, 6 whorl, 6 Spinning, 3, 59 primitive, 3 wheel, 12 with spindle, 6 Stains, 221 Stitches, 107 ornamental, 108, 114 plain, 107 Stockinet undergarments, 216 Stripes, 213 Stroking gathers, III Waists, 185 lined, 186 plan for making, 187 repairing, 227 tucked, 185 Wash silk, 91 Warping, 69 Weave, 72 diagrams, 73 plain, 73 basket, 76 double cloth, 77 rib, 76 sateen, 76 twill, 74 velvet, 77 Weaving, 14, 69 Wet pressing, 202 Wheel spinning, 12 Whipping stitch, 113 Whori, spindle, 6 Widths of fabrics, 93 Wool 37 Table linen, 87 Teazels, 83 Textile arts, origin of, 3 Textiles, 85, 212 design of, 212 list of, 96, 102 ornament of, 212 weaves, 72 Texture, 214 Trimming, 210 Tweeds, 88 Harris, 89 Twills, 74 Cassimere, 73, 75 uneven, 75 characteristics of, 37 fiber, 36 quality of, 38 scouring, 40 sorting, 40 value for clothing, 37 Woolens, 88 Worsteds, 88 Yokes, 200 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE SCHON SOLO BY MARION FOSTER WASHBURNE ASSOCIATE EDITOR MOTHER'S MAGAZINE AUTHOR "EVERYDAY ESSAYS" "FAMILY SECRETS, ETC. LECTURER TO CHICAGO FROEBEL ASSOCIATION E HOME CHICAGO AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS 1913 COPYRIGHT, 1905, BY AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOUSEHOLD ECONOMICS COPYRIGHT, 1906, 1910, BY HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION Entered at Stationers Hall, London SU Rights Reserved CONTENTS V AN OPEN LETTER DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD . 3 FAULTS AND THEIR REMEDIES 26 CHARACTER BUILDING 59 PLAY 76 OCCUPATIONS 90 ART AND LITERATURE IN CHILD LIFE 100 119 STUDIES AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS FINANCIAL TRAINING 126 RELIGIOUS TRAINING 131 APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 141 OTHER PEOPLE'S CHILDREN 145 . 149 152 157 THE SEX QUESTION FATHERS THE UNCONSCIOUS INFLUENCE ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY SUPPLEMENTAL STUDY PROGRAM 160 . . 170 175 INDEX 179 ži AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS CHIOACO January 1, 1907. My dear Madam: In beginning this subject of the "Study of Child Life" there may be lurking doubts in your mind as to whether any reliable rules can really be laid down. They seem to arise mostly from the perception of the great difference bem tween children. What will do for one child will not do for another. Some children are easily per- suaded and gentle, others willful, still others suilen or unresponsive. How, then, is it possi- ble that a system of education and training can be devised suitable for their various disposi- tions? We must remember that children are much more alike than they are different. One may have blue eyes, another gray, another black, but they all have two. We are, therefore, in a position to make rules for creatures having two eyes and these rules apply to eyes of all colors. Child- ren may be nervous, sanguine, bilious, or pleth- oric, but they all have the same kind of inter- nal organs and the same general rules of health apply to thom all In this series of lessons I have endeavored to set forth principles briefly and to confirm them by instances within the experience of every observer of childhood. . The rules given are such as are held at present by the best educators to be based upon sound philosophy, not at variance with the slight array or scientific facts at our command. Perhaps you yourself may be able to add to the number of reliable facts inteiligently re- ported that must be collected before much greater scientific advance is possible. There is, to be sure, an art of application of these rules both in matters of health of body and of health of mind and this art must be worked out by each mother for each individual child. We all recognize that it is a long endeavor before we can apply to our own lives such prin- ciples of conduct as we heartily acknowledge to be right. Why, then, expect to be able to apply principles instantly and unerringly to a little child? If a rule fails when you attempt to apply it, before questioning the principle, may it not be well to question your own tact and skills So far as I can advise with you in special instances of difficulty, I shall be very glad to do so; not that I shall always know what to do myself, but that we can get a little more light upon the problems by conferring together. I know well how difficult a matter this of child training is, for every day, in the management of my own t'amily of children, I find such philosophy, science and art as I can command very much put to the test. Sincerely yours, Marion Joshe Washburner Instructor (Copyrighted E. A. Perry.) FREIDRICH FROEBEL By courtesy of The Perry Pictures Co.. Malden, Mass. STUDY OF CHILD LIFE PART I. THE young of the human species is less able to care for itself than the young of any other spe- cies. Most other creatures are able to walk, or at any rate stand, within a few hours of birth. But the human baby is absolutely dependent and helpless, unable even to manufacture all the animal heat that he requires. The study of his condition at birth at once suggests a number of practical procedures, some of them quite at variance with the traditional procedures. HOW THE CHILD DEVELOPS Condition at Birth Let us see, then, exactly what his condition is. In the first place, he is, as Virchow, an authority on phy- siological subjects declares, merely a spinal animal. Some of the higher brain centers do not yet exist at all, while others are in too incomplete a state for serv- ice. The various sensations which the baby experi- ences-heat, light, contact, motion, etc.—are so many stimuli to the development of these centers. If the stimulus is too great, the development is sometimes unduly hastened, with serious results, which show themselves chiefly in later life. The child who is brought up in a noisy room, is constantly talked to and fondled, is likely to develop prematurely, to talk STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Weight at Birth and walk at an early age; also to fall into nervous decay at an early age. And even if by reason of an unusually good heredity he escapes these dangers, it is almost certain that his intellectual power is not so great in adult life as it would have been under more favorable conditions. A new baby, like a young plant, requires darkness and quiet for the most part. As he grows older, and shows a spontaneous interest in his surroundings, he may fittingly have more light, more companionship, and experience more sensations. The average boy baby weighs about seven pounds at birth; the average girl, about six and a half pounds. The head is larger in proportion to the body than in after life; the nose is incomplete, the legs short and bowed, with a tendency to fall back upon the body with the knees flexed. This natural tendency should be allowed full play, for the flexed position is said to be favorable to the growth of the bones, permitting the cartilaginous ends of the bones to lie free from pressure at the joints. The plates of the skull are not complete and do not fit together at the edges. Great care needs to be taken of the soft spot thus left exposed on the top of the head—the undeveloped place where the edges of these bones come together. Any injury here in early life is liable to affect the mind. The bony enclosures of the middle ear are unfin- ished and the eyes also are unfinished. It is a ques- tion yet to be settled, whether a new-born baby is blind State of Development HOW THE CHILD DEVELOPS. 5 and deaf or not. At any rate, he soon acquires a sensitiveness to both light and sound, although it is three years or more before he has amassed sufficient experience to estimate with accuracy the distance of objects seen or heard. He can cry, suck, sneeze, cough, kick, and hold on to a finger. All of these acts, though they do not yet imply personality, or even mind, give evidence of a wonderful organism. They require the co-operation of many delicate nerves and muscles—a co-operation that has as yet baffled the power of scientists to explain. Although the young baby is in almost constant motion while he is awake, he is altogether too weak to turn himself in bed or to escape from an uncomforta- ble position, and he remains so for many weeks. This constant motion is necessary to his muscular develop- ment, his control of his own muscles, his circulation, and, very probably, to the free transmission of nerv- ous energy. Therefore, it is of the first importance that he has freedom to move, and he should be given time every day to move and stretch before the fire, without clothes on. It is well to rub his back and legs at the same time, thus supplementing his gym- nastics with a gentle massage. By the time he is four or five weeks old it is safe to play with him a little every day, and Froebel has made his “Play with the Limbs” one oi his first educational exercises. In this play the mother lays the baby, un- dressed, upon a pillow and catches the little ankles in Educational Beginnings 6 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. First Efforts her hands. Sometimes she prevents the baby from kicking, so that he has to struggle to get his legs free; sometimes she helps him, so that he kicks more freely and regularly; sometimes she lets him push hard against her breast. All the time she laughs and sings to him, and Froebel has made a little song for this purpose. Since consciousness is roused and deepened by sensations, remembered, experienced, and com- pared, it is evident that this is more than a fanciful play; that it is what Froebel claimed for it—a real educational exercise. By means of it the child may gain some consciousness of companionship, and thus, by contrast, a deeper self-consciousness. The baby is at first unable to hold up its head, and in this he is just like all other animals, for no animal, except man, holds up its head constantly. The human baby apparently makes the effort because he desires to see more clearly-he could doubtless see clearly enough for all physical purposes with his head hung down, but not enough to satisfy his awakening men- tality. The effort to hold the head up and to look around is therefore regarded by most psychologists as one of the first tokens of an awakening intellectual life. And this is true, although the first effort seems to arise from an overplus of nervous energy which makes the neck muscles contract, just as it makes other muscles contract. The first slight raisings of the head are like the first kicking movements, merely im- pulsive; but the child soon sees the advantage of this HOW THE CHILD DEVELOPS. 7. Reflex Grasping apparently accidental movement and tries to master it. Preyer* considers that the efforts to balance the head are among the first indications that the child's will is taking possession of his muscies. His own boy ar- rived at this point when he was between three and four months old. The grasp of the new-born baby's hand has a sur- prising power, but the baby himself has little to do with it. The muscles act because of a stimulus pre- sented by the touch of the fingers, very much as the muscles of a decapitated frog contract when the cur- rent of electricity passes over them. This is called reflex grasping, and Dr. Louis Robinson, † thinking that this early strength of grasp was an important illustration of and evidence for evolution, tried ex- periments on some sixty new-born babies. He found that they could sustain their whole weight by the arms alone when their hands were clasped about a slender rod. They grasped the rod at once and could be lifted from the bed by it and kept in this position about half a minute. He argued that this early strength of arm, which soon begins to disappear, was a sur- vival from the remote period when the baby's ances- tors were monkeys or monkey-like people who lived in trees. However this may be, during the first week the baby's hands are much about his face. By accide *W. Preyer, Professor of Physiology, of Jena, author of "The Mind of the Child.” D. Appleton & Co, +Dr. Robinson, Physician and Evolutionist, Eclectic, Vol. 29. Beginnings of Will Power paper in The 8 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Growth of Will they reach the mouth, they are sucked; the child feels himself suck its own fist; he feels his fist being sucked. Some day it will occur to him that that fist belongs to the same being who owns the sucking mouth. But at this point, as Miss Shinn* has ob- served, the baby is often surprised and indignant that he cannot move his arms around and at the same time suck his fist. This discomfort helps him to make an effort to get his fist into his mouth and keep it there, and this effort shows his will beginning to take pos- session of his hands and arms. Since any faculty grows by its own exercise, just as muscles grow by exercise, every time the baby suc- ceeds in getting his hands to his mouth as a result of desire, every time that he succeeds in grasping an object as a result of desire, his will power grows. Action of this nature brings in new sensations, and the brain centers used for recording such sensations grow. As the sensations multiply, he compares them, and an idea is born. For the beginnings of mental devel- opment no other mechanism is actually needed than a brain and a hand and the nerves connecting them. Laura Bridgeman and Helen Keller, both of them deaf and blind, received their education almost entirely through their hands, and yet they were unusually capa- ble of thinking. The child's hands, then, from the beginning, are the servants of his brain-instruments *Miss Millicent Shinn, American Psychologist, author of "Bi- ography of a Baby." HOW THE CHILD DEVELOPS. 9 Intentional Grasping by means of which he carries impressions from the outer world to the seat of consciousness, and by which in turn he imprints his consciousness upon the outer world. The average baby does not begin to grasp objects with intention before the fourth month. The first grasping seems to be done by feeling, without the aid of the eye, and is done with the fingers with no at- tempt to oppose the thumb to them. So closely does the use of the thumbs set opposite the fingers in grasping coincide with the first grasping with the aid of sight, that some observers have been led to be- lieve that as soon as the baby learns to use its thumb in this way he proves that he is beginning to grasp with intention. The order of development seems to be, first, automa- tism, the muscles contracting of themselves in response to nervous stimuli; second, instinct, the inherited wis- dom of the race, which discovered ages ago that the hand could be used to greater advantage when the thumb was separated from the fingers; and thirdly, the child's own intelligence and will making use of this natural and inherited machinery. This order holds true of the development, not only of the hand, but of the whole organism. A little earlier than this, during the third month, the baby first looks upon his own hands and notices them. Darwin tells us that his boy looked at his own hands and seemed to study them until his eyes crossed. Order of Development Looking IO STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Tearing About the same time the child notices his foot and uses his hand to carry it to its mouth. It is some time later that he discovers that he can move his feet without his hands. About this time, three or four months old, the child begins to tear paper into pieces, and may be easily taught to let the pieces that have found their way into his mouth be taken out again. Now, too, he begins to throw things, or to drop them; then he wants to get them back again, and the patient mother must pick them up and give them back many times. Sometimes a baby is punished for this proclivity, but it is really a part of his development, and at least once a day he should be allowed to play in this manner to his heart's content. It is tact, not discipline, that is needed, and the more he is helped the sooner he will live through this stage and come to the next point where he begins to throw things. In this stage, of course, he must be given the proper things to throw-small, bright-colored worsted balls, bean-bags, and other harmless objects. If he is allowed to discover the pleasure there is in smashing glass and china, he will certainly be, for a time, a very destructive little person. When later he is able to creep—to throw his ball and creep after it—he will amuse himself for hours at a time, and so relieve those who have patiently attended him up to this time. In general we may lay down the rule that the more time and attention of the right sort is given to a young Throwing HOW THE CHILD DEVELOPS. II The Grasping Instinct child, the less will need to be given as he grows older. it is poor economy to neglect a young child, and try to make it up on the growing boy or girl. This is to substitute a complicated and difficult problem for a simple one. It is some time before a child's will can so overcome his newly-acquired tendency to grasp every possible object that he can keep his hands off of anything that invites him. The many battles between mothers and children on the subject of not touching forbidden gs are at this stage a genuine wrong and injus- tice to the child. So young a child is scarcely more responsible for touching whatever he can reach than is a piece of steel for being drawn toward a powerful magnet. Preyer says that it is years before voluntary inhibitions of grasping become possible. The child has not the necessary brain machinery. Commands and spatting of the hands create bewilderment and tend to build up a barrier between mother and child. Instead of doing such things, simply put high out of reach and sight whatever the child must not touch. Another way in which young children are often made to suffer because of the ignorance of parents is the leaving of undesired food on the child's plate. Every child, when he does not want his food, pushes the plate away from him, and many mothers push it back and scold. The real truth is that the motor sug- gestion of the food upon the plate is so strong that the child feels as if he were being forced to eat it I2 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. The Three Months' Baby Danger of Forcing every time he looks at the plate; to escape from eating it he is obliged to push it out of sight. But this difficulty comes later. Now we are con- cerned with a three-months-old baby. At this stage the child is usually able to balance his head, to sit up against pillows, to seize and grasp objects, and to hold out his arms when he wishes to be taken. Al- though he may have made a number of efforts to sit erect, and may have succeeded for a few minutes at a time, he still is far from being able to sit alone, unsup- ported. This he does not accomplish until the fifth or sixth month. There is nothing to be gained by trying to make him sit alone sooner; indeed, there is danger in it- danger in forcing young bones and muscles to do work beyond their strength, and danger also to the nerves. It is safe to say that a normal child always exercises all its faculties to the utmost without need of urging, and any exercise beyond the point of natural fatigue, if persisted in, is sure to bring about abnormal results. The first efforts toward creeping often appear in the bath when the child turns over and raises himself upon his hands and knees. This is a sign that he might creep sooner, if he were not impeded by cloth- ing. He should be allowed to spread himself upon a blanket every day for an hour or two, and to get on his knees as frequently as he pleases. Often he needs a little help to make him creep forward, for most Creeping HOW THE CHILD DEVELOPS. 13 babies creep backward at first, their arms being stronger than their legs. Here the mother may safely interfere, pushing the legs as they ought to go and showing the child how to manage himself; for very often he becomes much excited over his inability to creep forward. Climbing The climbing instinct begins to appear by this time —the seventh month—and here the stair-case has its great advantage. It ought not to be shut from him by a gate, but he should be taught how to climb up and down it in safety. To do this, start him at the head of the stairs, and, you yourself being below him, draw first one knee and then the other over the step, thus showing him how to creep backward. Two les- sons of about twenty minutes each will be sufficient. The only danger is in creeping down head foremost, but if he once learns thoroughly to go backward, and has not been allowed the other way at all, he will never dream of trying it. In going down backward, if he should slip, he can easily save himself by catching the stairs with his hands as he slips past. The child who creeps is often later in his attempts to walk than the child who does not; and, therefore, when he is ready to walk, his legs will be all the stronger, and the danger of bow-legs will be past. As long as the child remains satisfied with creeping, he is not yet ready either mentally or physically for walking. 14 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Standing Walking If the child has been allowed to creep about freely, he will soon be standing. He will pull himself to his feet by means of any chair, table, or indeed anything that he may get hold of. To avoid injuring him, no flimsy chairs or spindle-legged tables should be allowed in his nursery. He will next begin to sidle around a chair, shuffling his feet in a vague fashion, and some- times, needing both of his hands to seize some coveted object, he will stand without clinging, leaning on his stomach. An unhurried child may remain at this stage for weeks. Let alone, as he should be, he will walk without knowing how he does it, and will be the stronger for having overcome his difficulties himself. He should not be coaxed to stand or walk. The things in his room actually urge him to come and get them. Any further persuasion is forced, and may urge him be- yond his strength. Walking-chairs and baby-jumpers are injurious in. this respect. They keep the child from his native free- dom of sprawling, climbing, and pulling himself up. The activity they do permit is less varied and helpful than the normal activity, and the child, restricted from the preparatory motions, begins to walk too soon. A curious fact in the growth of children is that they seem to grow heavier for a certain period, and then to grow taller for a similar period. That is, a very young baby, say, two months old, will grow fatter for about six weeks, and then for the next six weeks will Alternate Growth HOW THE CHILD 15 child DEVELOPS. Precocity grow longer, while the child of six years changes his manner of growth every three or four months. These periods are variable, or at least their law has not yet been established, but the observant mother can soon make the period out for herself in the case of her own child. For two or three days, when the manner of growth seems to be changing from breadth to length, and vice versa, the children are likely to be unusually nervous and irritable, and these aberrations must, of course, be patiently borne with. In all these things some children develop earlier than others, but too early development is to be re- gretted. Precocious children are always of a delicate nervous organization. Fiske* has proved to us that the reason why the human young is so far more help- less and dependent than the young of any other species is because the activities of the human race have be- come so many, so widely varied, and so complex, that they could not fix themselves in the nervous struc- ture before birth. There are only a few things that the chick needs to know in order to lead a successful chicken life; as a consequence these few things are well impressed upon the small brain before ever he chips the shell; but the baby needs to learn a great many things—so many that there is no time or room to implant them before birth, or, indeed, in the few years immediately succeeding birth. To hurry the *John Fiske, writer on Evolutionary Philosophy. His theory of infancy is perhaps his most important contribution to science 16 child STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Early Ripening development, therefore, of certain few of these facul- ties, like the faculties of talking, and walking, of imitation or response, is to crowd out many other fac- ulties perhaps just beginning to grow. Such forcing will limit the child's future development to the few faculties whose growth is thus early stimulated. Pre- cocity in a child, therefore, is a thing to be deplored. His early ripening foretells an early decay; and a wise mother is she who gives her child ample opportu- nity for growing, but no urging. Ample opportunity for growth includes (1) Whole- some surroundings, (2) Sufficient sleep, (3) Proper clothing, (4) Nourishing food. We will take up these topics in order. Ample Opportunity for Growth WHOLESOME SURROUNDINGS. The whole house in which the child lives ought to be well warmed and equally well aired. Sunlight also is necessary to his well-being. If it is impossible to have this in every room, as sometimes happens in city homes, at least the nursery must have it. In the cen- tral States of the Union plants and trees exposed to the southern sun put forth their leaves two weeks sooner than those exposed to the north. The infant cannot fail to profit by the same condition, for the young child may be said to lead in part a vegetative as well as an animal life, and to need air and sunshine and warmth as much as plants do. The very best room in the house is not too good for the nursery, for in JOHN FISKE 18 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Tempera- ture Fresh Air no other room is such important and delicate work being done. The temperature is a matter of importance. It should not be decided by guess-work, but a ther- mometer should be hung upon a wall at a place equally removed from draft and from the source of heat. The temperature for children during the first year should be about 70 degrees Fahrenheit during the day and not lower than 50 degrees at night. Children who sleep with the mother will not be injured by a temperature 5 to 20 degrees lower at night. It is important to provide means for the ingress of fresh air. It is not sufficient to air the room from another room, unless that other room has in it an open window. Even then the nursery windows should be opened wide from fifteen minutes to half an hour night and morning, while the child is in another room; and this even when the weather is at zero or below. It does not take long to warm up a room that has been aired. Perhaps the best means of obtaining the ingress of fresh air without creating a draft upon the floor, where the baby spends so much of his time, is to raise the window six inches at the top or bot- tom and insert a board cut to fit the aperture. But no matter how well ventilated the nursery may be, all children more than six weeks old need unmodi- fied outside air, and need it every day, no matter what the weather, unless they are sick. Daily Outing SLEEP. 19 The daily outing secures them better appetites, quiet sleep, and calmer nerves. Let them be properly clothed and protected in their carriages, and all weathers are good for them. Children who take their naps in their baby-carriages may with advantage be wheeled into a sheltered spot, covered warmly, and left to sleep in the outer air. They are likely to sleep longer than in the house, and find more refreshment in their sleep. SUFFICIENT SLEEP. Few children in America get as much sleep as they really need. Preyer gives the record of his own child, and the hours which this child found necessary for his sleep and growth may be taken for a standard. In the first month, sixteen, in full, out of twenty-four hours were spent in sleep. The sleep rarely lasted beyond two hours at a time. In the second month about the same amount was spent in sleep, which lasted from three to six hours at a time. In the sixth month, it lasted from six to eight hours at a time, and began to diminish to fifteen hours in the twenty-four. In the thirteenth month, fourteen hours' sleep daily; in the seventeenth, prolonged sleep began, ten hours without interruption; in the twentieth, prolonged sleep became habitual, and sleep in the day-time was re- duced to two hours. In the third year, the night sleep lasted regularly from eleven to twelve hours, and sleep in the daytime was no longer required. 20 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Naps Preyer's record stops here. But it may be added that children from three to eight years still require eleven hours' sleep; and, although the child of three may not need a daily nap, it is well for him, until he is six years old, to lie still for an hour in the middle of the day, amusing himself with a picture book or paper and pencil, but not played with or talked to by any other person. Such a rest in the middle of the day favors the relaxation of muscles and nerves and breaks the strain of a long day of intense activity. PROPER CLOTHING Proper clothing for a child includes three things: (a) Equal distribution of warmth, (b) Freedom from restraint, (c) Light weight. Equal distribution of warmth is of great impor- tance, and is seldom attained. The ordinary dress for a young baby, for example, leaves the arms and the upper part of the chest unprotected by more than one thickness of flannel and one of cotton—the shirt and the dress. About the child's middle, on the contrary, there are two thicknesses of flannel—a shirt and band —and five of cotton, i. e., the double bands of the white and flannel petticoats, and the dress. Over the legs, again, are two thicknesses of flannel and two of cotton, i. e., the pinning blanket, flannel skirt, white skirt, and dress. The child in a comfortably warm house needs two thicknesses of flannel and one of cot- ton all over it, and no more. CLOTHING 21 The Gertrude Suit The practice of putting extra wrappings about the abdomen is responsible for undue tenderness of those organs. Dr. Grosvenor, of Chicago, who designed a model costume for a baby, which he called the Ger- trude suit, says that many cases of rupture are due to bandaging of the abdomen. When the child cries the abdominal walls normally expand; if they are tightly bound, they cannot do this, and the pressure upon one single part, which the bandages may not hold quite firmly, becomes overwhelming, and results in rupture. Dr. Grosvenor also thinks that many cases of weak lungs, and even of consumption in later life, are due to the tight bands of the skirts pressing upon the soft ribs of the young child, and narrowing the lung space. Freedom from restraint. Not only should the clothes not bind the child's body in any way, but they should not be so long as to prevent free exercise of the legs. The pinning-blanket is objectionable on this account. It is difficult for the child to kick in it; and as we nave seen before, kicking is necessary to the proper development of the legs. Undue length of skirt operates in the same way—the weight of cloth is a check upon activity. The first garment of a young baby should not be more than a yard in length from the neck to the bottom of the hem, and three-quarters of a yard is enough for the inner garment. The sleeves, too, should be large and loose, and the arm-size should be roomy, so as to prevent chafing. Objection to the Pinning Blanket 22 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. The sleeves may be tied in at the wrist with a ribbon to insure warmth. Lightness of weight. The underclothing should be made of pure wool, so as to gain the greatest amount of warmth from the least weight. In the few cases where wool would cause irritation, a silk and wool mixture makes a softer, but more expensive garment. Under the best conditions, clothes restrict and impede free development somewhat, and the heavier they are the more they impede it. Therefore, the effort should be to get the greatest amount of warmth with the least possible weight. Knit garments attain this most per- fectly, but the next best thing is all-wool flannel of a fine grade. The weave known as stockinet is best of all, because goods thus made cling to the body and yet restrict its activity very little. The best garments for a baby are made according to the accompanying diagram. They consist of three garments, to be worn one over the other, each one an inch longer in every way than the underlying one. The first is a princess gar- ment, made of white stockinet, which takes the place of shirt, pinning-blanket, and band. Before cutting this out, a box-pleat an inch and a half wide should be laid down the middle of the front, and a side pleat three-fourths of an inch wide on either side of the placket in the back. The sleeve should have a tuck an inch wide. These tucks and pleats are better run in by hand, so that they may be easily ripped. As the Princess Garment CLOTHING 23 baby grows and the flannel shrinks, these tucks and pleats can be let out. The next garment, which goes over this, is made in FRONT SLEEVE BACK FRONT WAISTI HALF OF SKIRT SLEEVE DIAGRAM OF THE “GERTRUDE” SUIT, the same way, only an inch larger in every measure- ment. It is made of baby flannel, and takes the place 24 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. of the flannel petticoat with its cotton band. Over these two garments any ordinary dress may be worn. Dressed in this suit, the child is evenly covered with two thicknesses of flannel and one of cotton. As the skirts are rather short, however, and he is expected to move his legs about freely, he may well wear long white wool stockings. As the child grows older, the principles underlying this method of clothing should be borne in mind, and clothes should be designed and adapted so as to meet these three requirements. FOOD. Natural Food The natural food of a young baby is his mother's milk, and no satisfactory substitute for it has yet been found. Some manufactured baby foods do well for certain children; to others they are almost poison; and for none of them are they sufficient. The milk of the cow is not designed for the human infant. It contains too much casein, and is too difficult of diges- tion. Various preparations of milk and grains are rec- ommended by nurses and physicians, but no conscien- tious nurse or physician pretends that any of them begins to equal the nutritive value of human milk. More women can nurse their babies than now think they can; the advertisements of patent foods lead them to think the matter of little importance, and they do not make the necessary effort to preserve and increase the natural supply of milk. The family phy- FOOD. 25 Bottle-fod Babies sician can almost always better the condition of the mother who really desires to nurse her own child, and he should be consulted and his directions obeyed. The importance of a really great effort in this direction is shown by the fact that the physical culture records, now so carefully kept in many of our schools and col- leges, prove that bottle-fed babies are more likely to be of small stature, and to have deficient bones, teeth and hair, than children who have been fed on mother's milk. The food question is undoubtedly the most impor- tant problem to the physical welfare of the child, and has, as well, a most profound effect upon his disposi- tion and character. Indiscriminate feeding is the cause of much of the trouble and worry of mothers. This subject is taken up at length in other papers of this course, and it will suffice to say here that the table of the family with young children should be regulated largely by the needs of the growing sons and daugh- ters. The simplified diet necessary may well be of benefit to other members of the family. Simple Diet The Child's World and the Adult's World FAULTS AND THEIR REMEDIES. The child born of perfect parents, brought up per- fectly, in a perfect environment, would probably have no faults. Even such a child, however, would be at times inconvenient, and would do and say things at variance with the order of the adult world. Therefore he might seem to a hasty, prejudiced observer to be naughty. And, indeed, imperfectly born, imperfectly trained as children now are, many of their so-called faults are no more than such inconvenient crossings of an immature will with an adult will. No grown person, for instance, likes to be inter- rupted, and is likely to regard the child who inter- rupts him wilfully naughty. No young child, on the contrary, objects to being interrupted in his speech, though he may object to being interrupted in his play; and he cannot understand why an adult should set so much store on the quiet listening which is so infre- quent in his own experience. Grown persons object to noise; children delight in it. Grown persons like to have things kept in their places; to a child, one place is as good as another. Grown persons have a preju- dice in favor of cleanliness, children like to swim, but hate to wash, and have no objections whatever to grimy hands and faces. None of these things imply the least degree of obliquity on the child's part; and yet it is safe to say that nine-tenths of the children JEAN PAUL RICHTER 28 ŠTUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Real Faults who are punished are punished for some of these things. The remedy for these inconveniences is time and patience. The child, if left to himself, without a word of admonishment, would probably change his conduct in these respects, merely by the force of imi- tation, provided that the adults around him set him a persistent example of courtesy, gentleness, and clean- liness. The faults that are real faults, as Richter* says, are those faults which increase with age. These it is that need attention rather than those that disappear of themselves as the child grows older. This rule ought to be put in large letters, that every one who has to train children may be daily reminded by it; and not exercise his soul and spend his force in trying to over- come little things which may perhaps be objectionable, but which will vanish to-morrow. Concentrate your . energies on the overcoming of such tendencies as may in time develop into permanent evils. To accomplish this, you must, of course, train the child's own will, because no one can force another person into virtue against his will. The chief object of all training is, as we shall see in the next section, to lead the child to love righteousness, to prefer right doing to wrong doing; to make right doing a perma- nent desire. Therefore, in all the procedures about Training the Will *Jean Paul Richter, “Der einsige." German writer and philosopher. His rather whimsical and fragmentary book on education, called "Levana," contains some rare scraps of wis- dom much used by later writers on educational topics. FAULTS AND THEIR REMEDIES. 29 Natural Punishment Breaking the Will to be suggested, an effort is made to convince the child of the ugliness and painfulness of wrong doing. Punishment, as Herbert Spencer* agrees with Froe- belt in pointing out, should be as nearly as possible a representation of the natural result of the child's action; that is, the fault should be made to punish itself as much as possible without the interference of any outside person; for the object is not to make the child bend his will to the will of another, but to make him see the fault itself as an undesirable thing. The effort to break the child's will has long been recognized as disastrous by all educators. A broken will is a worse misfortune than a broken back. In the latter case the man is physically crippled; in the former, he is morally crippled. It is only a strong, unbroken, persistent will that is adequate to achieve self-mastery, and mastery of the difficulties of life. The child who is too yielding and obedient in his early days is only too likely to be weak and incompetent in his later days. The habit of submission to a more mature judgment is a bad habit to insist upon. The child should be encouraged to think out things for himself; to experiment and discover for himself why his ideas do not work; and to refuse to give them up until he is genuinely convinced of their impractica- bility. *Herbert Spencer, English Philosopher and Scientist. His book on "Education" is sound and practical. +Freidrich Froebel, German Philosopher and Educator, founder of the Kindergarten system, and inaugurator of the new education. His two great books are “The Education of Man" and "The Mother Play." 30 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Emergencies It is true that there are emergencies in which his immature judgment and undisciplined will must yield to wiser judgment and steadier will; but such yield- ing should not be suffered to become habitual. It is a safety valve merely, to be employed only when the pressure of circumstances threatens to become danger- ous. An engine whose safety valve should be always in operation could never generate much power. Nor is there much difficulty in leading even a very strong- willed and obstinate child to give up his own way under extraordinary circumstances. If he is not in the habit of setting up his own will against that of his mother or teacher, he will not set it up when the quick, unfamiliar word of command seems to fit in with the unusual circumstances. Many parents practice cry- ing “Wolf! wolf !” to their children, and call the practice a drill of self-control; but they meet inevitably with the familiar consequences: when the real wolf comes the hackneyed cry, often proved false, is dis- regarded. When the will is rightly trained, disobedience is a fault that rarely appears, because, of course, where obedience is seldom required, it is seldom refused. The child needs to obey—that is true; but so does his mother need to obey, and all other persons about him. They all need to obey God, to obey the laws of nature, the impulses of kindness, and to follow after the ways of wisdom. Where such obedience is a set- tled habit of the entire household, it easily, and, as Disobedience HERBERT SPENCER 32 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. it were, unconsciously, becomes the habit of the child. Where such obedience is not the habit of the house- hold, it is only with great difficulty that it can become the habit of the child. His will must set itself against its instinct of imitativeness, and his small house, not yet quite built, must be divided against itself. Probably no child ever rendered entire obe- dience to any adult who did not himself hold his own wishes in subjection. As Emerson says: "In dealing with my child, my Latin and my Greek, my accomplishments and my money, stead me nothing, but as much soul as I have avails. If I am willful, he sets his will against mine, one for one, and leaves me, if I please, the degradation of beating him by my superiority of strength. But, if I renounce my will and act for the soul, setting that up as an umpire between us two, out of his young eyes looks the same soul; he reveres and loves with me.” Suppose the child to be brought to such a stage that he is willing to do anything his father or moth- er says; suppose, even, that they never tell him to do anything that he does not afterwards discover to be reasonable and just; still, what has he gained ? For twenty years he has not had the respon- sibility for a single action, for a single decision, right or wrong. What is permitted is right to him; what is forbidden is wrong. When he goes out into the world without his parents, what will happen? At the best he will not lie, or steal, or commit murder. That Negative Goodness FAULTS AND THEIR REMEDIES. 33 Real Disobedienco is, he will do none of these things in their bald and simple form. But in their beginnings these are hidden under a mask of virtue and he has never been trained to look öeneath that mask; as happened to Richard Feveril, sin may spring upon him unaware. Some one else, all his life, has labeled things for him; he is not in the habit of judging for himself. He is blind, deaf, and helpless—a plaything of circumstances. It is a chance whether he falls into sin or remains blameless. Disobedience, then, in a true sense, does not mean failure to do as he is told to do. It means failure to do the things that he knows to be right. He must be taught to listen and obey the voice of his own con- science; and if that voice should ever speak, as it sometimes does, differently from the voice of the con- science of his parents or teachers, its dictates must still be respected by these older and wiser persons, and he must be permitted to do this thing which in itself may be foolish, but which is not foolish to him. And, on the other hand, the child who will have his own way even when he knows it to be wrong should be allowed to have it within reasonable limits. Richter says, leave to him the sorry victory, only exercising suf- ficient ingenuity to make sure that it is a sorry one. What he must be taught is that it is not at all a pleasure to have his own way, unless his own way happens to be right; and this he can only be taught by having his own way when the results are plainly disastrous. Every time Liberty *“The Ordeal of Richard Feveril," by George Meredith. 34 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Self- Punish- ment that a willful child does wliat he wants to do, and suffers sharply for it, he learns a lesson that nothing but this experience can teach him. But his suffering must be plainly seen to be the re- sult of his deed, and not the result of his mother's anger. For example, a very young child who is deter- mined to play with fire may be allowed to touch the hot lamp or a stove, whenever affairs can be so ar- ranged that he is not likely to burn himself too se- verely. One such lesson is worth all the hand-spat- tings and cries of "No, no!" ever resorted to by anxious parents. If he pulls down the blocks that you have built up for him, they should stay down, while you get out of the room, if possible, in order to evade all responsibility for that unpleasant result. Prohibitions are almost useless. In order to con- vince yourself of this, get some one to command you not to move your right arm, or to wink your eye. You will find it almost impossible to obey for even a few moments. The desire to move your arm, which was not at all conscious before, will become overpowering. The prohibition acts like a suggestion, and is an impli- cation that you would do the negative act unless you were commanded not to. Miss Alcott, in “Little Men," well illustrates this fact in the story of the children who were told not to put beans up their noses, and who straightway filled their noses with beans. As we shall see in the next section, Froebel meets this difficulty by substituting positive commands for FAULTS AND THEIR REMEDIES. 35 Positivo Commands prohibitions; that is, he tells the child to do instead of telling him not to do. Tiedemann* says that example is the first great evolutionary teacher, and liberty is the second. In the overcoming of disobedience, no other teachers are needed. The method The method may be tedious; it may be many years before the erratic will is finally led to work in orderly channels; but there is no possibility of abridging the process. There is no short and sudden cure for disobedience, and the only hope for final cure is the steady working of these two great forces, example and liberty. To illustrate the principles already indicated, we will consider some specific problems together with sug- gestive treatment for each. QUICK TEMPER. This, as well as irritability and nervousness, very often springs from a wrong physical condition. The digestion may be bad, or the child may be overstim- ulated. He may not be sleeping enough, or may not get enough outdoor air and exercise. In some cases the fault appears because the child lacks the discipline of young companionship. Even the most exemplary adult cannot make up to the child for the influence of other children. He perceives the difference between himself and these giants about him, and the percep- tion sometimes makes him furious. His struggling individuality finds it difficult to maintain itself under the pressure of so many stronger personalities. He Causo of Temper *Tiedemann, German Psychologist. 36 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Remedy Solitude and Quiet makes, therefore, spasmodic and violent attempts of self-assertion, and these attempts go under the name of fits of temper. The child who is not ordinarily strong enough to assert himself effectively will work himself up into a passion in order to gain strength, much as men some- times stimulate their courage by liquor. In fact, pas- sion is a sort of moral intoxication. But whether the fits of passion are physical or moral, the immediate remedy is the same—his environ- ment must be promptly changed and his audience re- moved. He needs solitude and quiet. This does not mean shutting him into a closet, but leaving him alone in a quiet room, with plenty of pleasant things about. This gives an opportunity for the disturbed organism to right itself, and for the will to recover its normal tone. Some occupation should be at hand—blocks or other toys, if he is too young to read; a good book or two, such as Miss Alcott's “Little Men” and “Little Women," when he is old enough to read. If he is destructive in his passion, he must be put in a room where there are very few breakables to tempt him. If he does break anything he must be required to help mend it again. To shout a threat to this effect through the door when the storm of temper is still on, is only to goad him into fresh acts of re- bellion. Let him alone while he is in this temporarily insane state, and later, when he is sorry and wants to be good, help him to repair the mischief he has QUICK TEMPER. 37 wrought. It is as foolish to argue with or to threaten the child in this state as it would be were he a patient in a lunatic asylum. It is sometimes impossible to get an older child to go into retreat. Then, since he cannot be carried, and he is not open to remonstrance or commands, go out of the room yourself and leave him alone there. At any cost, loneliness and quiet must be brought to bear upon him. Such outbursts are exceedingly exhausting, using up in a few minutes as much energy as would suf- fice for many days of ordinary activity. After the attack the child needs rest, even sleep, and usually seeks it himself. The desire should be encouraged. Every reasonable precaution should be taken against the recurrence of the attacks, for every lapse into this excited state makes more certain the next lapse and weakens the nervous control. This does not mean that you should give up any necessary or right regu- lations for fear of the child's temper. If the child sees that you do this, he will on occasion deliberately work himself up into a passion in order to get his own way. But while you do not relax any just regu- lations, you may safely help him to meet them. · Give him warning. For instance, do not spring any dis- agreeable commands upon him. Have his duties as systematized as possible so that he may know what to expect; and do not under any circumstances nag him nor allow other children to tease him. Precautions to be Taken 38 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. SULLENNESS. This fault likewise often has a physical cause, seated very frequently in the liver. See that the child's food is not too heavy. Give him much fruit, and in- sist upon vigorous exercise out of doors. Or he may perhaps not have enough childish pleasures. For while most children are overstimulated, there still remain some children whose lives are unduly color- less and eventless. A sullen child is below the normal level of responsiveness. He needs to be roused, wak- ened, lifted out of himself, and made to take an active interest in other persons and in the outside world In many cases sullenness is an inherited disposition intensified by example. It is unchildlike and morbid to an unusual degree and very difficult to cure. The mother of a sullen child may well look to her own conduct and examine with a searching eye the pecu- liarities of her own family and of her husband's. She may then find the cause of the evil, and by removing the child from the bad example and seeing to it that every day contains a number of childish pleasures, she may win him away from a fault that will other- wise cloud his whole life. Taheritance and Example LYING. All lies are not bad, nor all liars immoral. A young child who cannot yet understand the obligations of truthfulness cannot be held morally accountable for his departure from truth. Lying is of three kinds. LYING. 39 Imaginative "Lying" (1.) The imaginative lie. (2.) The evasive lie. (3.) The politic lie. (1.) It is rather hard to call the imaginative lie a lie at all. It is so closely related to the creative in- stinct which makes the poet and novelist and which, common among the peasantry of a nation, is respon- sible for folk-lore and mythology, that it is rather an intellectual activity misdirected than a moral obliquity. Very imaginative children often do not know the dif- ference between what they imagine and what they act- ually see. Their mind's eye sees as vividly as their bodily eye; and therefore they even believe their own statements. Every attempt at contradiction only brings about a fresh assertion of the impossible, which to the child becomes more and more certain as he hears him- self affirming its existence. Punishment is of no use at all in the attempt to regulate this exuberance. The child's large statements should be smiled at and passed over. In the meantime, he should be encouraged in every possible way to get a firm grasp of the actual world about him. Manual training, if it can be obtained, is of the greatest ad- vantage, and for a very young child, the performance every day of some little act, which demands accuracy and close attention, is necessary. For the rest, wait; this is one of the faults that disappear with age. (2.) The lie of evasion is a form of lying which seldom appears when the relations between child and parents are absolutely friendly and open. However, The Lie of Evasion 40 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. the child who is very desirous of approval may find it difficult to own up to a fault, even when he is cer- tain that the consequence of his offense will not be at all terrible. This is the more difficult, because the more subtle condition. It is obvious that the child who lies merely to avoid punishment can be cured of that fault by removing from him the fear of punish- ment. To this end, he should be informed that there will be no punishment whatever for any fault that he freely confesses. For the chief object of punishment being to make him face his own fault and to see it as something ugly and disagreeable, that object is ob- viously accomplished by a free and open confession, and no further punishment is required. But when the child in spite of such reassurance still continues to lie, both because he cannot bear to have you think him capable of wrong-doing, and be- cause he is not willing to acknowledge to himself that he is capable of wrong-doing, the situation becomes more complex. All you can do is to urge upon him the superior beauty of frankness; to praise him and love him, especially when he does acknowledge a fault, thus leading him to see that the way to win your ap- proval—that approval which he desires so intensely- is to face his own shortcomings with a steady eye and confess them to you unshrinkingly. (3.) The politic lie is of course the worst form of lying, partly because it is so unchildlike. This is the kind of fault that will grow with age; and grow The Politic Lie LYING. 41 Inhorited Crookedness with such rapidity that the mother must set herself against it with all the force at her command. The child who lies for policy's sake, in order to achieve some end which is most easily achieved by lying, is a child led into wrong-doing by his ardent desire to get something or do something. Discover what this some- thing is, and help him to get it by more legitimate means. If you point out the straight path, and show the goal well in view at the end of it, he may be per- suaded not to take the crooked path. But there are occasionally natures that delight in crookedness and that even in early childhood. They would rather go about getting their heart's desire in some crooked, intricate, underhanded way than by the direct route. Such a fault is almost certain to be an inherited one; and here again, a close study of the child's relatives will often help the mother to make a good diagnosis, and even suggest to her the line of treatment. In an extreme case, the family may unite in dis- believing the child who lies, not merely disbelieving him when he is lying, but disbelieving him all the time, no matter what he says. He must be made to see, and that without room for any further doubt, that the crooked paths that he loves do not lead to the goal his heart desires, but away from it. His words, not being true to the facts, have lost their value, and no one around him listens to them. He is, as it were, rendered speechless, and his favorite means of getting Extremo Cases 42 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. his own way is thus made utterly valueless. Such a remedy is in truth a terrible one. While it is being administered, the child suffers to the limit of his en- durance; and it is only justified in an exertme case, and after the failure of all gentler means. JEALOUSY. Justice and Love Too often this deadly evil is encouraged in infancy, instead of being promptly uprooted as it ought to be. It is very amusing, if one does not consider the con- sequences, to see a little child slap and push away the father or the older brother, who attempts to kiss the mother; but this is another fault that grows with years, and a fault so deadly that once firmly rooted it can utterly destroy the beauty and happiness of an otherwise lovely nature. The first step toward over- coming it must be to make the reign of strict justice in the home so obvious as to remove all excuse for the . evil. The second step is to encourage the child's love for those very persons of whom he is most likely to be jealous. If he is jealous of the baby, give him spe- cial care of the baby. Jealousy indicates a tempera- ment overbalanced emotionally; therefore, put your force upon the upbuilding of the child's intellect. Give him responsibilities, make him think out things for himself. Call upon him to assist in the family con- claves. In every way cultivate his power of judg- ment. The whole object of the treatment should be JEALOUSY. 43 to strengthen his intellect and to accustom his emo- tions to find outlet in wholesome, helpful activity. One wise mother made it a rule to pet the next to the baby. The baby, she said, was bound to be petted a good deal because of its helplessness and sweetness, therefore she made a conscious effort to pet the next to the youngest, the one who had just been crowded out of the warm nest of mother's lap by the advent of the newcomer. Such a rule would go far to prevent the beginnings of jealousy. SELFISHNESS. This is a fault to which strong-willed children are especially liable. The first exercise of will-power af- ter it has passed the stage of taking possession of the child's own organism usually brings him into con- flict with those about him. To succeed in getting hold of a thing against the wish of someone else, and to hold on to it when someone else ants it, is to win a victory. The coveted object becomes dear, not so much for its own sake, as because it is a trophy. Such a child knows not the joy of sharing; he knows only the joys of wresting victory against odds. This is in- deed an evil that grows with the years. The child who holds onto his apple, his candy, or toy, fights tooth and nail everyone who wants to take it from him, and resists all coaxing, is liable to become a hard, sordid, grasping man, who stops at no obstacle to ac- complish his purpose. 44 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. The Only ild Yet in the beginning, this fault often hides itself and escapes attention. The selfish child may be quiet, clean, and under ordinary circumstances, obedient. He may not even be quarrelsome; and may therefore come under a much less degree of discipline than his ob- streperous, impulsive, rebellious little brother.. Yet, in reality, his condition calls for much more careful attention than does the condition of the younger brother. However, the child who has no brother at all, either older or younger, nor any sister, is almost invited by the fact of his isolation to fall into this sin. Only children may be—indeed, often are-precocious, bright, capable, and well-mannered, but they are sel- dom spontaneously generous. Their own small selves occupy an undue proportion of the family horizon, and therefore of their own. This is where the Kindergarten has its great value. In the true Kindergarten the children live under a dispensation of loving justice, and selfishness betrays itself instantly there, because it is alien to the whole spirit of the place. Showing itself, it is promptly condemned, and the child stands convicted by the only tribunal whose verdict really moves him—a jury of his peers. Normal children hate selfishness and con- demn it, and the selfish child himself, following the strong, childish impulse of imitation, learns to hate his own fault; and so quick is the forgiveness of chil- Kindergarten a Remedy SELFISHNESS. 45 Intimate Association & Help dren that he needs only to begin to repent before the circle of his mates receives him again. This is one reason why the Kindergarten takes chil- dren at such an early age. Aiming, as it does, to lay the foundations for right thinking and feeling, it must begin before wrong foundations are too deeply laid. Its gentle, searching methods straighten the strong will that is growing crooked, and strengthen the en- feebled one. But if the selfish child is too old for the Kindergar- ten, he should belong to a club. Consistent selfishness will not long be tolerated here. The tacit or outspoken rebuke of his mates has many times the force of a domestic rebuke; because thereby he sees himself, at least for a time, as his comrades see him, and never thereafter entirely loses his suspicion that they may be right. Their individual judgment he may defy, but their collective judgment has in it an almost magi- cal power, and convinces him in spite of himself. Whatever strong affections the selfish boy shows must be carefully cultivated. Love for another is the only sure cure for selfishness. If he loves animals, let him have pets, and give into his hands the whole re- sponsibility for the care of them. It is better to let the poor animals suffer some neglect, than to take away from the boy the responsibility for their condi- tion. They serve him only so far as he can be in- duced to serve them. The chief rule for the cure of selfishness is, then, to watch every affection, small and Cultivate Affections 46 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. -- large, encourage it, give it room to grow, and see to it that the child does not merely get delight out of it, but that he works for it, that he sacrifices himself for those whom he loves. LAZINESS. The Physical Cause This condition is often normal, especially during adolescence. The developing boy or girl wants to lop and to lounge, to lie sprawled over the floor or the sofa. Quick movement is distasteful to him, and often has an undue effect upon the heart's action. He is normally dreamy, languid, indifferent, and subject to various moods. These things are merely tokens of the tremendous change that is going on within his organism, and which heavily drains his vitality. Cer- tain duties may, of course, be required of him at this stage, but they should be light and steady. He should not be expected to fill up chinks and run errands with joyful alacrity. The six- or eight-year-old may be called upon for these things, and not be harmed, but this is not true of the child between twelve and sey- enteen. He has absorbing business on hand and should not be too often called away from it. Laziness ordinarily accompanies rapid growth of any kind. The unusually large child, even if he has not yet reached the period of adolescence, is likely to be lazy. His nervous energies are deflected to keep up his growth, and his intelligence is often temporarily dulled by the rapidity of his increase in size. Laziness and Rapid Growth LAZINESS. 47 Hurry Not Natural Moreover, it is not natural for any child to hurry. Hurry is in itself both a result of nervous strain and a cause of it; and grown people whose nerves have been permanently wrenched away from normal quietude and steadiness, often form a habit of hurry which makes them both unfriendly toward children and very bad for children. These young creatures ought to go along through their days rather dreamily and alto- gether serenely. Every turn of the screw to tighten their nerves makes more certain some form of early nervous breakdown. They ought to have work to do, of course,-enough of it to occupy both mind and body -but it should be quiet, systematic, regular work, much of it performed almost automatically. Only occasion- ally should they be required to do things with a con- scious effort to attain speed. However, there is a degree of laziness difficult of definition which is abnormal; the child fails to per- form any work with regularity, and falls behind both at school and at home. This may be the result of (1) poor assimilation, (2) of anaemia, or it may be (3) the first symptom of some disease. (1.) Poor assimilation may show itself either by (a) thinness and lack of appetite; (b) fat and ab- normal appetite; (c) retarded growth; or (d) irreg- ular and poorly made teeth and weak bones. (2.) Anaemia betrays itself most characteristically by the color of the lips and gums. These, instead of being red, are a pale yellowish pink, and the whole Abnormal Laziness Anaomia 48 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. complexion has a sort of waxy pallor. In extreme cases this pallor even becomes greenish. As the dis- ease is accompanied with little pain, and few if any marked symptoms, beyond sleepiness and weakness, it often exists for some time without being suspected by the parents. (3.) The advent of many other diseases is an- nounced by a languid indifference to surroundings, and a slow response to the customary stimuli. The child's brain seems clouded, and a light form of torpor in- vades the whole body. The child, who is usually active and interested in things about him, but who loses his activity and becomes dull and irresponsive, should be carefully watched. It may be that he is merely chang- ing his form of growth-i. e., is beginning to grow tall after completion of his period of laying on flesh, or vice versa. Or he may be entering upon the period of adolescence. But if it is neither of these things, a physician should be consulted. A milder degree of laziness may be induced by a too monotonous round of duties. Try changing them. Make them as attractive as possible. For, of course, you do not require him to perform these duties for your sake, whatever you allow him to suppose about it, but chiefly for the sake of their influence on his character. Therefore, if the influence of any work is bad, you will change it, although the new work may not be nearly so much what you prefer to have him do. Whatever the work is, if it is only emptying Monotony LAZINESS. 49 Helping waste-baskets, don't nag him, merely expect him to do it, and expect it steadily. In their earlier years all children love to help mother. They like any piece of real work even better than play. If this love of activity was properly encour- aged, if the mother permitted the child to help, even when he succeeded only in hindering, he might well become one of those fortunate persons who love to work. This is the real time for preventing laziness. But if this early period has been missed, the next best thing is to take advantage of every spontaneous in- terest as it arises; to hitch the impulse, as it were, to some task that must be steadily performed. For ex- ample, if the child wants to play with tools, help him to make a small water-wheel, or any other interest- ing contrivance, and keep him at it by various devices until he has brought it to a fair degree of comple- tion. Your aim is to stretch his will each time he at- tempts to do something a little further than it tends to go of itself; to let him work a little past his first impulse, so that he may learn by degrees to work when work is needed, and not only when he feels like it. UNTIDINESS. Neatnoss Not Natural Essentially a fault of immaturity as this is, we must beware how we measure it by a too severe adult standard. It is not natural for any young creature to take an interest in cleanliness. Even the young ani- mals are cared for in this respect by their parents; the 50 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Remedies cow licks her calf; the cat, her kittens; and neither calf nor kittens seem to take much interest in the pro- cess. The conscious love of cleanliness and order grows with years, and seems to be largely a mat- ter of custom. The child who has always lived in decent surroundings by-and-by finds them necessary to his comfort, and is willing to make a degree of ef- fort to secure them. On the contrary, the street boy who sleeps in his clothes, does not know what it is to desire a well-made bed, and an orderly room. The obvious method of overcoming this difficulty, then, is not to chide the child for the fault, but to make him so accustomed to pleasant surroundings that he cannot help but desire them. The whole process of making the child love order is slow but sure. It con- sists in (1) Patient waiting on nature: first, keep the baby himself sweet and clean, washing the young child yourself, two or three times a day, and showing your delight in his sweetness; dressing him so simply that he keeps in respectable order without the neces- sity of a painful amount of attention. (2) Example: He is to be accustomed to orderly surroundings, and though you ordinarily require him to put away some of his things himself, you do also assist this process by putting away a good deal to which you do not call attention. You make your home not only orderly but pretty, and yourself, also, that his love for you may lead him into a love for daintiness. (3) Habits: A few set observances may be safely and steadfastly de- Example Habit UNTIDINESS. 51 manded, but these should be very few: Such as that he should not come to breakfast without brushing his teeth and combing his hair, or sit down to any meal with unwashed hands. Make them so few that you can be practically certain that they are attended to, for the whole value of the discipline is not in the su- perior condition of his teeth, but in the habit of mind that is being formed. IMPUDENCE. Laok of Porooption Impudence is largely due to, (1) lack of perception; (2) to bad example and to suggestion; and (3) to a double standard of morality. (1.) In the first place, too much must not be ex- pected of the young savages in the nursery. Remem- ber that the children there are in a state very much more nearly resembling that of a savage or half- civilized nation than resembling your own, and that, therefore, while they will undoubtedly take kindly to showy ceremonial, they are not ripe yet for most of the delicate observances. At best, you can only hope to get the crude material of good manners from them. You can hope that they will be in the main kind in intention, and as courteous under provoca- tion as is consistent with their stage of development. If you secure this, you need not trouble yourself un- duly over occasional lapses into perfectly innocent and wholesome barbarism. 52 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Good manners are in the main dependent upon quick sympathies, because sympathies develop the per- ceptions. A child is much less likely to hurt the feel- ings or shock the sensibilities of a person whom he loves tenderly than of one for whom he cares very little. This is the chief reason why all children are so much more likely to be offensive in speech and ac- tion before strangers than when alone in the bosom of their families. They are so far from caring what a stranger thinks or feels that they cannot even fore- cast his displeasure, nor imagine its reaction upon mother or father. The more, then, that the child's sympathies are broadened, the more he is encouraged to take an interest in all people, even strangers, the better mannered will he become. (2.) Bad example is more common than is usual- ly supposed. Very few parents are consistently courte- ous toward their children. They permit themselves a sharp tone of voice, and rough and abrupt habits of speech, that would scarcely be tolerated by any adult. Even an otherwise gentle and amiable woman is often disagreeable in her manner toward her children, com- manding them to do things in a way well calculated to excite opposition, and rebuking wrong-doing in unmeasured terms. She usually reserves her soft and gentle speeches for her own friends and for her hus- band's, yet discourtesy cannot begin to harm them as it harms her children. Bad Example IMPUDENCE. 53 It is true that the children are often under foot when she is busiest, when, indeed, she is so distracted as to not be able to think about manners, but if she would acknowledge to herself that she ought to be polite, and that when she fails to be, it is because she has yielded to temptation; and if, moreover, she would make this acknowledgment openly to her children and beg their pardon for her sharp words, as she ex- pects them to beg hers, the spirit of courtesy, at any rate, would prevail in her house, and would influence her children. Children are lovingly ready to forgive an acknowledged fault, but keen-eyed beyond belief in detecting a hidden one. (3.) The most fertile cause of impudence is as- sumption of a double standard of morality, one for the child and another for the adult. Impudence is, at bottom, the child's perception of this injustice, and his rebellion against it. When to this double standard, -a standard that measures up gossip, for instance, as right for the adult, and listening to gossip as wrong for the child-when to this is added the assumption of infallibility, it is no wonder that the child fairly rages. For, if we come to analyze them, what are the speeches which we find so objectionable? “Do it yourself, if you are so smart.” “Maybe I am rude, but I'm not any ruder than you are.” “I think you are just as mean as mean can be; I wouldn't be so mean!" Is this last speech any worse in reality than Doublo Standard 54 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. can if “You are a very naughty little girl, and I am ashamed of you," and all sorts of other expressions of candid adverse opinion ? Besides these forms of impudence, there is the peculiarly irritating: "Well, you do it yourself; I guess I you can.” In all these cases the child is partly in the right. He is stating the fact as he sees it, and violently as- serting that you are not privileged to demand more of him than of yourself. The evil comes in through the fact that he is doing it in an ugly spirit. He is not only desirous of stating the truth, but of putting you in the wrong and himself in the right, and if this hurts you, so much the better. All this is because he is angry, and therefore, in impudence, the true evil to be overcome is the evil of anger. Show him, then, that you are open to correction. Admit the justice of the rebuke as far as you can, and set him an example of careful courtesy and for- bearance at the very moment when these traits are inost conspicuously lacking in him. If some special point is involved, some question of privilege, quietly, but very firmly, defer the consideration of it until he is master of himself and can discuss the situation with an open mind and in a courteous manner. Example CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. In all these examples, which are merely suggestive, it is impossible to lay down any absolute moral re- cipe, because circumstances so truly alter cases-in CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 55 Moral Confusion all these no mention is made of corporal punishment. This is because corporal punishment is never neces- sary, never right, but is always harmful. There are three principal reasons why it should not be resorted to: First, because it is indiscriminate. To inflict bodily pain as a consequence of widely various faults, leads to moral confusion. The child who is spanked for lying, spanked for disobedience, and spanked again for tearing his clothes, is likely enough to consider these three things as much the same, as, at any rate, of equal importance, because they all lead to the same result. This is to lay the foundation for a permanent moral confusion, and a man who cannot see the nature of a wrong deed, and its relative im- portance, is incapable of guiding himself or others. Corporal punishment teaches a child nothing of the reason why what he does is wrong. Wrong must seem to him to be dependent upon the will of another, and its disagreeable consequences to be escapable if cnly he can evade the will of that other. Second: Corporal punishment is wrong because it inculcates fear of pain as the motive for conduct, instead of love of righteousness. It tends directly to cultivate cowardice, deceitfulness, and anger-three faults worse than almost any fault against which it can be employed. True, some persons grow up both gentle and straightforward in spite of the fact that they have been whipped in their youth, but it is in spite of, and not because of it. In their homes other Toar versus Love 56 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Sensibilities Blunted be young good qualities must have counteracted the pernicious effect of this mistaken procedure. Third: Corporal punishment may, indeed, achieve immediate results such as seem at the moment to be eminently desirable. The child, if he enough, weak enough, and helpless enough, may be made to do almost anything by fear of the rod; and some of the things he may thus be made to do may be exactly the things that he ought to do; and this certainty of result is exactly what prompts many otherwise just and thoughtful persons to the use of corporal punishment. But these good results are ob- tained at the expense of the future. The effect of each spanking is a little less than the effect of the preceding one. The child's sensibilities blunt. As in the case of a man with the drug habit, it requires a larger and larger dose to produce the required effect. That is, if he is a strong child capable of en- during and resisting much. If, on the contrary, he is a weak child, whose slow budding will come only timidly into existence, one or two whippings followed by threats, may suffice to keep him in a permanently cowed condition, incapable of initiative, incapable of spontaneity. The method of discipline here indicated, while it is more searching than any corporal punishment, does not have any of its disadvantages. It is more search- ing, because it never blunts the child's sensibilities, CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. 57 Educativo Disciplino but rather tends to refine them, and to make them more responsive. The child thus trained should become more sus- ceptible, day by day, to gentle and elevating in- fluences. This discipline is educative, explaining to the child why what he does is wrong, showing him the painful effects as inherent in the deed itself. He cannot, therefore, conceive of himself as being ever set free from the obligation to do right; for that ob- ligation within his experience does not rest upon his mother's will or ability to inflict punishment, but upon the very nature of the universe of which he is a part. The effects of such discipline are therefore permanent. That which happens to the child in the nursery, also happens to him in the great world when he reaches manhood. His nursery training interprets and orders the world for him. He comes, therefore, into the world not desiring to experiment with evil, but clear-eyed to detect it, and strong-armed to over- come it. We are now ready to consider our subject in some of its larger aspects. Permanent Results TEST QUESTIONS The following questions constitute the "written reci. tation" which the regular members of the A. S. H. E. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. They are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. STUDY OF CHILD LIFB. PART I. Read Carefully. In answering these questions you are earnestly requested not to answer according to the text-book where opinions are asked for, but to answer according to conviction. In all cases credit will be given for thought and original observation. Place your name and full address at the head of the paper; use your own words so that your in- structor may be sure that you understand the subject. 1. How does Fiske account for the prolonged help- lessness of the human infant ? To what prac- tical conclusions does this lead? 2. Name the four essentials for proper bodily growth. 3. How does the child's world differ from that of the adult ? 4. In training a child morally, how do you know which faults are the most important and should have, therefore, the chief attention? 5. In training the will, what end must be held stead- ily in view ? 6. What are the advantages or disadvantages of a broken will ? 7. Is obedience important ? Obedience to what? How do you train for prompt obedience in emergencies? STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. 10. 8. What is the object of punishment? Does corporal punishment accomplish this object? 9. What kind of punishment is most effectiv Have any faults a physical origin? If so, name some of them and explain. II. What are the two great teachers according to Tiederman ? 12. What can you say of the fault of untidiness? 13. What are the dangers of precocity? 14. What do you consider were the errors your own parents made in training their children? 15. Are there any questions which you would like to ask in regard to the subjects taken up in this lesson? NOTE.—After completing the test, sign your full name. STUDY OF CHILD LIFE PART II 99 CARITAS From a Painting in the Bosion Public Library, by Abbot H Thayer STUDY OF CHILD LIFE PART II Froebel's Philosophy CHARACTER BUILDING Although we have taken up the question of pun- ishment and the manner of dealing with various child- ish iniquities before the question of character-build- ing, it has only been done in order to clear the mind of some current misconceptions. In the statements of Froebel's simple and positive philosophy of child culture, misconception on the part of the reader must be guarded against, and these misconceptions gener- ally arise from a feeling that, beautiful as his opti-- mistic philosophy may be, there are some children too bad to profit by it-or at least that there are oc- casions when it will not work out in practice. In the preceding section we have endeavored to show in detail how this method applies to a representative list of faults and shortcomings, and having thus, we hope, proved that the method is applicable to a wide range of cases-indeed to all possible cases—we will proceed to recount the fundamental principles which Froebel, and before him Pestalozzi,* enunciated; which those who adhere to the new education are to- day working out into the detail of school-room prac- tice. * Pestalozzi, Educator, Philosopher, and Reformer. Author of “How Gertrude Teaches Her Children." 60 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Object of Moral Training. The Reason Why As previously stated, the object of the moral train- ing of the child is the inculcation of the love of right- cousness. Frcebel is not concerned with laying down a mass of observances which the child must follow, and which the parents must insist upon. He thinks rather that the child's nature once turned into the right direction and surrounded by right influences will grow straight without constant yankings and twist- ings. The child who loves to do right is safe. He may make mistakes as to what the right is, but he will learn by these mistakes, and will never go far astray. However, it is well to save him as far as possible from the pain of these mistakes. We need to pre- serve in him what has already been implanted there; the love of understanding the reasons for conduct. When the childi asks "Why?" therefore, he should seldom be told “Because mother says so.” This is to deny a rightful activity of his young mind; to give him a monotonous and insufficient reason, temporary in its nature, instead of a lasting reason which will remain with him through life. Dante says all those who have lost what he calls “the good of the intel- lect” are in the Inferno. And when you refuse to give your child satisfactory reasons for the conduct you require of him, you refuse to cultivate in him that very good of the intellect which is necessary for his salvation. CHARACTER BUILDING. 61 Advantage of Positive Commands As soon, however, as your commands become posi- tive instead of negative, the difficulty of meeting the situation begins to disappear. lisappear. It is usually much easier to tell the child why he should do a thing than why he should not do its opposite. For example, it is much easier to make him see that he ought to be a helpful member of the family than to make him understand why he should stop making a loud noise, or refrain from waking up the baby. There is some- thing in the child which in calm moments recognizes that love demands some sacrifice. To this something you must appeal and these calm moments, for the most part, you must choose for making the appeal. The effort is to prevent the appearance of evil by the active presence of good. The child who is busy trying to be good has little time to be naughty. Original Goodness Frobel's most characteristic utterance is perhaps this: “A suppressed or perverted good quality—a good tendency, only repressed, misunderstood, or misguided—lies originally at the bottom of every shortcoming in man. Hence the only and infallible remedy for counteracting any shortcoming and even wickedness is to find the originally good source, the originally good side of the human being that has been repressed, disturbed, or misled into the shortcoming, and then to foster, build up, and properly guide this .good side. Thus the shortcoming will at last dis- appear, although it may involve a hard struggle 62 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Kindergarten Methods against habit, but not against original depravity in man, and this is accomplished so much the more rap- idly and surely because man himself tends to abandon his shortcomings, for man prefers right to wrong." The natural deduction from this is that we should say "do” rather than “don't”; open up the natural way for rightful activity instead of uttering loud warning cries at the entrance to every wrong path. It is for this reason that the kindergarten tries by every means to make right doing delightful. This is one of the reasons for its songs, dances, plays, its bright colors, birds, and flowers. And in this respect it may well be imitated in every home. No one loves that which is disagreeable, ugly, and forbidding; yet many little children are expected to love right doing which is seldom attractively presented to them. The results of such treatment are apparent in the grown people of to-day. Most persons have an under- lying conviction that sinners, or at any rate unconscien- tious persons, have a much easier and pleasanter time of it than those who try to do right. To the imagination of the majority of adults sin is dressed in glittering colors and virtue in gray, somber garments. There are few who do not take credit for right doing as if they had chosen a hard and disagreeable part instead of the more alluring ways of wrong. This is because they have been mis-taught in childhood and have come to think of wrongdoing as pleasant and virtue CHARACTER BUILDING. 63 Right Doing Made Easy as hard, whereas the real truth is exactly the oppo- site. It is wrongdoing that brings unpleasant conse- quences and virtue that brings happiness. There are those who object that by the kinder- garten method right doing is made too easy. The children do not have to put forth enough effort, they say; they are not called upon to endure sufficient pain; they do not have the discipline which causes them to choose right no matter how painful right may be for the moment. Whether this dictum is ever true or not, it certainly is not true in early child- hood. The love of righteousness needs to be firmly rooted in the character before it is strained and pulled upon. We do not start seedlings in the rocky soil or plant out saplings in time of frost. If tests and trials of virtue must come, let them come in later life when the love of virtue is so firmly established that it may be trusted to find a way to its own satisfaction through whatever difficulties may oppose. In the very beginning of any effort to live up to Froebel's requirements it is evident that children must not be measured by the way they appear to the neigh- bors. This is to reaffirm the power of that rigid tradition which has warped so many young lives. She who is trying to fix her child's heart upon true and holy things may well disregard her neighbor's com- ments on the child's manners or clothes or even upon momentary ebullitions of temper. She is working Neighbors' Opinions 64 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. The Family Republic below the surface of things, is setting eternal forces to work, and she cannot afford to interrupt this work for the sake of shining the child up with any prema- ture outside polish. If she is to have any peace of mind or to allow any to the child, if she is to live in any way a simple and serene life, she must establish a few fundamental principles by which she judges her child's conduct and regulates her own, and stand by these principles through thick and thin. Perhaps the most fundamental principle is that enunciated by Fichte. “Each man,” he says, “is a free being in a world of other free beings." There- fore his freedom is limited only by the freedom of the other free beings. That is, they must "divide the world amongst them.” Stated in the form of a com- mand he says again, "Restrict your freedom through the freedom of all other persons with whom you come in contact.” This is a rule that even a three-year-old child can be made to understand, and it is astonish- ing with what readiness he will admit its justice. He can do anything he wants to, you explain to him, except bother other people. And, of course, the corollary follows that every one else can do whatever he pleases except to bother the child. This clear and simple doctrine can be driven home with amazing force, if you strictly respect the child's right as you require him to respect yours. You should neither allow any encroachments upon your own proper privileges, except so far as you explain that this is Rights of Others CHARACTER BUILDING. 65 only a loving permission on your part, and not to be assumed as a precedent or to be demanded as a right; nor should you yourself encroach upon his privileges. If you do not expect him to interrupt you, you must not interrupt him. If you expect him to let you alone when you are busy, you must let him alone when he is busy, that is, when he is hard at work playing. If you must call him away from his playing, give him warning, so that he may have time to put his small affairs in order before obeying your com- iriand. The more carefully yo do this the more willing will be his response on the infrequent occa- sions when you must demand immediate attention. In some such fashion you teach the child to respect the rights of others by scrupulously respecting those rights to which he is most alive, namely, his own. The next step is to require him with you to think out the rights of others, and both of you together should shape your conduct so as to leave these rights uninfringed. As soon as the young child's will has fully taken pos- session of his own organism he will inevitably try to rule yours. The establishment of the law of which I have just spoken will go far toward regulating this new-born desire. But still he must be allowed in some degree to rule others, because power to rule others is likely to be at some time during his life of great importance to him. To thwart him absolutely in this respect, never yielding yourself to his imperious de- mands, is alike impossible and undesirable. His will The Child's Share in Ruling 66 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. must not be shut up to himself and to the things that he can make himself do. In various ways, with due consideration for other people's feelings, with courtesy, with modesty, he may well be encouraged to do his share of ruling. And while, of course, he will not begin his ruling in such restrained and thoughtful fashion as is implied by these limitations, yet he must be suffered to begin; and the rule for the respect of the rights of others should be suffered gradually to work out these modifications. A safe distinction may be made as follows: Per- mit him, since he is so helpless, to rule and persuade others to satisfy his legitimate desires, such as the de- sire for food, sleep, affection, and knowledge; but when he demands indulgencies, reserve your own liberty of choice, so as to clearly demonstrate to him that you are exercising choice, and in doing so, are well within your own rights. There is one simple outward observation which greatly assists in the inculcation of these funda- mental truths—that is the habit of using a low voice in speaking, especially when issuing a command or ad- ministering a rebuke. A loud, insistent voice prac- tically insures rebellion. This is because the low voice means that you have command of yourself, the loud voice that you have lost it. The child submits to a controlled will, but not to one as uncontrolled as his In both cases he follows your example. If you are self-controlled, he tends to become so; if you are Low Voice Commands own. CHARACTER BUILDING. 67 Limitations of Words excited and angry, he also becomes so, or if he is already so, his excitement and anger increases. While most mothers rely altogether too much upon speech as a means of explaining life to the child, yet it must be admitted that speech has a great function to perform in this regard. Nevertheless it is well to bear in mind that it is not true that a child will always do what you tell him to do, no matter how plain you may tell him, nor how perfectly you may explain your ret- sons. In the first place, speech means less to children than to grown persons. Each word has a smaller content of experience. They cannot get the full force of the most clear and eloquent statement. Therefore all speech must be reinforced by example, and by as many forms of concrete illustrations as can be commanded. Each necessary truth should enter the child's mind by several channels; hearing, eye-sight, motor activity should all be called upon. Many truths may be dramatized. This, where the mother is clever enough to employ it, is the surest method of appeal. But in any case, speech alone must not be relied upon, nor the child considered a hopeless case who does not respond to it. Denunciatory speech especially needs wise regulation. As Richter says, “What is to followed as a rule of prudence, yea, of justice, toward grown-up people, should be much more observed toward children, name- 68 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. ly, that one should never judgingly declare, for in- stance, “You are a liar,” or even, “You are a bad boy,” instead of saying, “You have told an untruth,” or “You have done wrong." For since the power to command yourself implies at the same time the power of obey- ing, man feels a minute after his fault as free as Socra- tes, and the branding mark of his nature, not his deed, must seem to him blameworthy of punishment. "To this must be added that every individual's wrong actions, owing to his inalienable sense of a moral aim and hope, seem to him only short, usurped inter- regnums of the devil, or comets in the uniform solar system. The child, consequently, under such a moral annihilation, feels the wrong-doing of others more than his own; and this all the more because, in him, want of reflection and the general warmth of his feel- ings, represent the injustice of others in a more ugly light than his own.” Example If any one desires to prove the superior force of Precept example over precept, let him try teaching a baby to say "Thank you" or "Please,” merely by being scrupu- lously careful to say these things to the baby on all fit occasions. No one has taken the statistics of the num- ber of times every small child is exhorted to perfect himself in this particular observance; but it is safe to say that in the United States alone these injunctions are spoken something like a million times a day and all quite unnecessarily. The child will say "Please” and “Thank you” without being told to do so, if he versus CHARACTER BUILDING. 69 Politeness to Children merely has his attention called to the fact that the people around him all use these phrases. The truth is, too many parents forget to speak these agreeable words whenever they ask favors of their own children; so the force of their example is marred. What you do to the child himself, remember, always outweighs anything you do to others before him. This is the reason why it is necessary that you should ac- knowledge your own shortcomings to the child, if you expect him to acknowledge his to you. It is also necessary sometimes to point out clearly the kind and considerate things that you are in the habit of doing to others, lest the untrained mind of the young child may fail to see and so miss the force of your example. But in thus revealing your own good deeds to the child, remember the motive, and reveal them only (a) when he cannot perceive them of himself, (b) when he needs to perceive them in order that his wn con- duct may be influenced by them, and (c) at the time when he is most likely to appreciate them. This latter requirement precludes you from announcing your own righteousness when he is naughty, and compels you, of course, to go directly against your native impulse, which is to mention your deeds of sacrifice and kind- ness only when you are angry and mean to reproach him with them. When you tell him how devoted you have been at some moment when you are both thor- oughly angry, he is in danger of either denying or hating your devotion; but when you refer to it tender- 70 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Law Making Habit ly, and, as your heart will then prompt you, modestly, at some loving moment, he will give it recognition, and be moved to love goodness more devotedly because you embody it. Another important rule is this: Do not make too many rules. Some women are like legislatures in per- petual session. The child who is confused and tantal- ized by the constant succession of new laws learns presently to disregard them, and to regulate his life according to certain deductions of his own-sometimes surprisingly wise and politic deductions. The way to cure yourself of this law-making habit is to stop think- ing of every little misdeed as the beginning of a great wrong. It is very likely an accident and a combina- tion of circumstances such as may not happen again. To treat misdemeanors which are not habitual nor char- acteristic as evanescent is the best way to make them evanescent. They should not be allowed to enter too deeply into your consciousness or into that of your child. Live with Your Children In order to be able to discriminate between accidental wrong-doing, and that which is the first symptom of wrong-thinking, you must be in close touch with your children. This brings us to Froebel's great motto, "Come, let us live with our children!” This means that you are not merely to talk with your child, to hear from his lips what he is doing, but to live so closely with him, that in most cases you know what CHARACTER BUILDING. 71 he is doing without any need of his telling you. When, however, he does tell you something which happened in the school play-ground or otherwise out of the range of your knowledge, be careful not to moralize over it. Make yourself as agreeable a secret-keeper as his best friend of his own age ; let your moralizing be so rare that it is effective for that very reason. If the occasion needs moral reflection at all and that seldom happens—the wise way is to lead the child to do his own reflecting ; to arrive at his own conclusions, and if you must lead him, by all means do so as invisibly as possible. For the most part it is safe to take the confessions lightly, and well to keep your own mind young by looking at things from the boy's point of view. The Subject of Sex If, however, there is to be perfect confidence be- tween you, the one subject which is usually kept out of speech between mothers and children must be no forbidden subject between them; you must not refuse to answer questions about the mystery of sex. If you are not the fit person to teach your child these impor- tant facts, who is ? Certainly not the school-mates and servants from whom he is likely to learn them if you refuse to furnish the information. Usually it is suf- ficient simply to answer the child's honest questions honestly; but any mother who finds herself unable to cope with this simple matter in this simple spirit, will find help in Margaret Morley's "Song of Life,” in the 72 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Wood-Allen Publications, and the books of the Rev. Sylvanus Stall.* In respect to these matters more than in respect to others, but also in respect to all matters, children often do not know that they are doing wrong, even when it it very difficult for parents to believe that they do not intend wrong-doing. As we have seen from our analysis of truthfulness, the child may very often lie without a qualm of conscience, and he may still more readily break the unwritten rules of courtesy, asking abrupt and even cruel questions of strangers, and haul the family skeleton out of its closet at critical moments. Such things cannot be wholly guarded against, even by the exercise of the utmost wisdom, but the habit of reasoning things out for himself is the greatest help a child can have. The formation of the bent of the child's nature as a whole is a matter of unconscious education, but as he grows in the power to reason, conscious education must direct his mental activity. It is not enough for him, as it is not enough for any grown person, to do the best that he knows; he must learn to know the best. The word righteousness itself means right-wiseness, i. e., right knowingness. To quote Froebel again, “In order, therefore, to im- part true, genuine firmness to the natural will-activity Righteous- ness “What a Young Girl Ought to Know" and "What a Young Woman Ought to Know,' by Dr. Mary Wood Allen. “What a Young Boy Ought to Know,” “What a Young Man Ought to Know," by Rev. Sylvanus Stall. CHARACTER BUILDING. 73 of the boy, all the activities of the boy, his entire will should proceed from and have reference to the develop- ment, cultivation, and representation of the internal. Instruction in example and in words, which later on become precept and example, furnishes the means for this. Neither example alone, nor words will do; not example alone, for it is particular and special, and the word is needed to give the particular individual exam- ple universal applicability; not words alone, for exam- ple is needed to interpret and explain the word, which is general, spiritual, and of many meanings. "But instruction and example alone and in them- selves are not sufficient; they must meet a good pure heart and this is the outcome of proper educational influences in childhood." Lest these directions should seem to demand an al- most superhuman degree of control and wisdom on the part of the mother, remember that moral precocity is as much to be guarded against as mental precocity. Remember that you are neither required to be a per- fect mother nor to rear a perfect child. As Spencer remarks, a perfect child in this imperfect world would be sadly out of joint with the times, would indeed be a martyr. If your basic principles are right and if your child has before him the daily and hourly spectacle of a mother who is trying to conform herself to high standards, he will grow as fast as it is safe for him to grow. Spencer says: “Our higher moral faculties like our higher intellectual ones, are comparatively Moral Precocity 74 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. complex. As a consequence they are both compara- tively late in their evolution, and with the one as with the other, a very early activity produced by stimula- tion will be at the expense of the future character. Hence the not uncommon fact that those who during childhood were instanced as models of juvenile good- ness, by and by undergo some disastrous and seemingly inexplicable change, and end by being not above but below par; while relatively exemplary men are often the issue of a childhood not so promising. “Be content, therefore, with moderate measures and moderate results, constantly bearing in mind the fact that the higher morality, like the higher intelligence, must be reached by a slow growth; and you will then have more patience with those imperfections of nature which your child hourly displays. You will be less prone to constant scolding, and threatening, and for- bidding, by which many parents induce a chronic irri- tation, in a foolish hope that they will thus make their children what they should be." In conclusion, the rules that may be safely followed in character-building may be summed up thus: (1) Recognize that the object of your training is to help the child to love righteousness. Command lit- tle and then use positive commands rather than prohi- bitions. Use "do" rather than "don't." (2) Make right-doing delightful. (3) Establish Fichte's doctrine of right, see page Rules in Character Building 64. CHARACTER BUILDING. 75 (4) Teach by example rather than precept. There- fore respect the child's rights as you wish him to re- spect yours. (5) Use a low voice, especially in commanding or rebuking (6) In chiding, remember Richter's rule and re- buke the sin and not the sinner. (7) Confess your own misdeeds, by, this means and others securing the confidence of your children. Finally, remember that this is an imperfect world, you are an imperfect mother, and the best results you can hope for are likely to be imperfect. But the results may be so founded upon eternal principles as to tend continually to give place to better and better results, PLAY Although Froebel is best known as the educator who first took advantage of play as a means of education, he was not, in reality, the first to recoginze the high value of this spontaneous activity. He was indeed the first to put this recognition into practice and to use the force generated during play to help the child to a high- er state of knowledge. But before him Plato said that the plays of children have the mightiest influence on the maintenance or the non-maintenance of laws; that during the first three years the child should be made “cheerful” and “kind” by having sorrow and fear and pain kept away from him and by soothing him with music and rhythmic movements. Aristotle held that children until they were five years old "should be taught nothing, not even necessary la- bor, lest it hinder growth, but should be accustomed to use so much motion as to avoid an indolent habit of body, and this,” he added, “can be acquired by various means, among others by play, which ought to be neither illiberal, nor laborious, nor lazy." Luther rebukes those who despise the plays of chil- dren and says that Solomon did not prohibit scholars from play at the proper time. Fenelon, Locke, Schil- ler, and Richter all admit the deep significance of this universal instinct of youth. Preyer, speaking not as a philosopher or educator, but as a scientist, mentions "the new kinds of pleas- Aristotle Luther PLAY. 77 urable sensations with some admixture of intellectual elements,” which are gained when the child gradually begins to play. Much that is called play he considers true experimenting, especially when the child is seen to be studying the changes produced by his own activity, as when he tears paper into small bits, shakes a bunch of keys, opens and shuts a box, plays with sand, and empties bottles, and throws stones into the water. "The zeal with which these seemingly aimless movements are executed is remarkable. The sense of gratification must be very great, and is principally due to the feeling of his own power, and of being the cause of the various changes.” All these authorities are quoted here in order to show that the practical recognition of play which ob- tains among the advanced educators to-day is not a piece of sentimentalism, as stern critics sometimes de- clare, but the united opinion of some of the wisest minds of this and former ages. As Froebel says, “Play and speech constitute the element in which the child lives. At this stage (the first three years of childhood) he imparts to everything the virtues of sight, feeling, and speech. He feels the unity between himself and the whole external world." And Froebel conceives it to be of the profoundest importance that this sense of unity should not be disturbed. He finds that play is the most spiritual activity of man at this age, "and at the same time typical of human life as a whole of the Educational Value of Play 78 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Freedom inner, hidden, natural life of man and all things; it gives, therefore, joy, freedom, contentment, inner and outer rest, peace with the world; it holds the sources of all that is good. The child that plays thor- oughly until physical fatigue forbids will surely be a thorough, determined man, capable of self-sacrifice for the promotion and welfare of himself and others." But all play does not deserve this high praise. It fits only the play under right conditions. Fortunately these are such that every mother can command them. There are three essentials: (1) Freedom, (2) Sym- pathy, (3) Right materials. (1) Freedom is the first essential, and here the child of poverty often has the advantage of the child of wealth. There are few things in the pover- ty-stricken home too good for him to play with ; in its narrow quarters, he becomes, perforce, a part of all domestic activity. He learns the uses of household utensils, and his play merges by imperceptible degrees into true, healthful work. In the home of wealth, however, there is no such freedom, no such richness of opportunity. The child of wealth has plenty of toys, but few real things to play with. He is shut out of the common activity of the family, and shut in to the imitation activity of his nursery. He never gets his small hands on realities, but in his elegant clothes is confined to the narrow conventional round that is falsely supposed to be good for him. PLAY. 79 Sympathy Froebel insists upon the importance of the child's dress being loose, serviceable, and inconspicuous, so that he may play as much as possible without con- sciousness of the restrictions of dress. The playing child should also have, as we have noticed in the first section, the freedom of the outside world. This does not mean merely that he should go out in his baby- buggy, or take a ride in the park, but that he should be able to play out-of-doors, to creep on the ground, to be a little open-air savage, and play with nature as he finds it. (2) Sympathy is much more likely to rise spon- taneously in the mother's breast for the child's troubles than for the child's joys. She will stop to take him up and pet him when he is hurt, no matter how busy she is, but she too often considers it waste of time to enter into his plays with him; yet he needs sympathy in joy as much as in sorrow. Her presence, her inter- est in what he is doing, doubles his delight in it and doubles its value to him. Moreover, it offers her op- portunity for that touch and direction now and then, which may transform a rambling play, without much sequence or meaning, into a consciously useful per- formance, a dramatization, perhaps, of some of the child's observations, or an investigation into the na- ture of things. (3) Right Material. Even given freedom and sympathy, the child needs something more in order to 80 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Mud-pies play well: he needs the right materials. The best ma- terials are those that are common to him and to the rest of the world, far better than expensive toys that mark him apart from the world of less fortunate chil- dren. Such toys are not in any way desirable, and they may even be harmful. What he needs are various simple arrangements of the four elements- earth, air, fire, and water. (1) Earth. The child has a noted affinity for it, and he is specially happy when he has plenty of it on hands, face, and clothes. The love of mud-pies is uni- versal; children of all nationalities and of all degrees of civilization delight in it. No activity could be more wholesome. Next to mud comes sand. It is cleaner in appear- ance and can be brought into the house. A tray of moistened sand, set upon a low table, should be in every nursery, and the sand pile in every yard. Clay is more difficult to manage indoors, because it gets dry and sifts all about the house, but if a corner of the cellar, where there is a good light, can be given up for a strong table and a jar of clay mixed with some water, it will be found a great resource for rainy days. If modeling aprons of strong material, but- toned with one button at the neck, be hung near the jar of clay, the children may work in this material with- out spoiling their clothes. Clay-modeling is an excel- lent form of manual training, developing without for- cing the delicate muscles of the fingers and wrists, and Sand Clay PLAY. 81 Digging gyving wide opportunity for the exercise of the imagin- ation. Earth may be played with in still another way. Chil- dren should dig in it; for all pass through the digging stage and this should be given free swing. It develops their muscles and keeps them busy at helpful and con- Au HALF BACK FRONT SLEEVE PATTERN OF A MODELING APRON. structive work. They may dig a well, make a cave, or a pond, or burrow underground and make tunnels like a mole. Give them spades and a piece of ground they can do with as they like, dress them in overalls, and it will be long before you are asked to think of another amusement for them. In still another way the earth may be utilized, for children may make gardens of it. Indeed, there are those who say that no child's education is complete Gardens 82 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Kites Windmills Soap-bubbles until he has had a garden of his own and grown in it all sorts of seeds from pansies to potatoes. But a gar- den is too much for a young child to care for all alone. He needs the help, advice, and companionship of some older person. You must be careful, however, to give help only when it is really desired; and careful also not to let him feel that the garden is a task to which he is driven daily, but a joy that draws him. (2) The Air. The next important plaything is the air. The kite and the balloon are only two instru- ments to help the child play with it. Little windmilis made of colored paper and stuck by means of a pin at the end of a whittled stick, make satisfactory toys. One of their great advantages is that even a very young child can make them for himself. Blowing soap-bub- bles is another means of playing with air. By giving the children woolen mittens the bubbles may be caught and tossed about as well as blown. (3) Water. Water. Perhaps the very first thing he learns to play with is water. Almost before he knows the use of his hands and legs he plays with water in his bath, and sucks his sponge with joy, thus feeling the water with his chief organs of touch, his mouth and tongue. A few months later he will be glad to pour water out of a tin cup. Even when he is two or three years old, he may be amused by the hour, by dressing him in a woolen gown, with his sleeves rolled high, and setting him down before a big bowl or his own bath-tub half full of warm water. To this To this may be PLAY. 83 added a sponge, a tin cup, a few bits of wood, and some paper. They should not be given all at once, but one at a time, the child allowed to exhaust the possibilities of each before another is added. Still later he may be given the bits of soap left after a cake of soap is used up. Give him also a few empty bottles or bowls and let him put them away with a solid mass of soap- suds in them and see what will happen. When he is older-past the period of putting everything in his mouth-he may be given a few bits of bright ribbons, petals of artificial flowers, or any bright colored bits of cloth which can color the water. Children love to sprinkle the grass with the hose or to water the flowers with the sprinkling can. They enjoy also the metal fishes, ducks, and boats which may be drawn about in the water by means of a magnet. Presently they reach the stage when they must have toy-boats, and next they long to go into real boats and go rowing and sailing. They want to fish, wade, swim, and skate. Some of these pastimes are dangerous, but they are sure to be indulged in at some time or other, with or without permission. There never grew a child to sturdy manhood who was successfully kept away from water. The wise mother, then, will not forbid this play, but will do her best to regulate it, to make it safe. She will think out plans for permitting children to go swimming in a safe place with some older per- son. She will let them go wading, and at holiday time Dangerous Pastimes 84 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. will take them boat-riding. If she permits as much activity in these respects as possible, her refusal when it does come will be respected; and the child will not, unless perhaps in the first bitterness of disappointment, think her unfriendly and fussy. Above all, he is not likely to try to deceive her, to run off and take a swim on the sly, and thus fall into true danger. (4) Fire is another inevitable plaything. Miss Shinn reports that the first act of her little niece that showed the dawn of voluntary control of the muscles was the clinging of her eyes to the flame of a candle, at the end of the second week. The sense of light and the pleasure derived from it is one of the chief in- centives to a baby's intellectual development. But since fire is dangerous the child must be taught this fact as quickly and painlessly as possible. He will probably have to be burned once before he really under- stands it, but by watching you can make this pain very small and slight, barely sufficient to give the child a wholesome fear of playing with unguarded fire. For instance, show that the lamp globe is hot. It is not hot enough to injure him, but quite hot enough to be un- pleasant to his sensitive nerves. Put your own hand on the lamp and draw it away with a sharp cry, saying warningly, “Hot, hot!" Do not put his hand on the lamp, but let him put it there himself and then be very sympathetic over the result. Usually one such lesson is sufficient. Only do not permit yourself to call every- thing hot which you do not want him to touch. He Precaution with Fire PLAY. 85 Bonfires will soon discover that you are untruthful and will never again trust you so fully. Under proper regulations, however, fire may be played with safely. Bonfires with some older person in attendance are safe enough and prevent unlawful bonfires in dangerous places. The rule should be that none of the children may play with fire except with permission; and then that permission should be grant- ed as often as possible that the children may be en- couraged to ask for it. A stick smouldering at one end and waved about in circles and ellipses is not dangerous when elders are by, but it is dangerous if played with on the sly. Playing with fire on the sly is the most dangerous thing a child can do, and the only way to prevent it is to permit him to play with fire in the open. A beautiful game can be made from a number of Christmas tree candles of various colors and a bowl of water. The candles are lighted and the wax dropped into the water, making little colored cir- cles which float about. These can be linked together in such a fashion as to form patterns which may be lifted out on sheets of paper. The magic lantern is an innocent and comparatively cheap means of playing with light. If it is well taken care of and fresh slides added from time to time it can be made a source of pleasure for years. Jack-o'-lan- terns are great fun, and when pumpkins are not avail- able, oranges may be used instead. Besides these elemental playthings the child gets Magic Lantern 86 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Rhythmic Movements much valuable pleasure out of the rhythmic use of his own muscles. All such plays Plato thought should be regulated by music, and with this Froebel agreed, but in the household this is often impossible. The chil- dren must indulge in many movements when there is no one about who has leisure to make music for them. Still, when they come to the quarrelsome age, a few minutes' ſhythmic play to the sound of music will be found to harmonize the whole group wonderfully. For this purpose the ordinary hippity-hop, fast or slow according to the music, is sufficient. It is as if the regulation of the body to the laws of harmony re- acted upon minds and nerves. Such an exercise is particularly valuable just before bed-time. The chil- dren go to sleep then with their minds under the influ- ence of harmony and wake in the morning inclined to be peaceful and happy. A book of Kindergarten songs, such as Mrs. Gay- nor's “Songs of the Child World” and Eleanor Smith's "Songs for the Children,” ought to be in every household, and the mother ought to familiarize herself with a dozen or so of these perfectly simple melodies. Of course the children must learn them with her. When once this has been done she has a valuable means of amusing them and bringing them within her control at any time. She may hum one of the songs or play it. The children must guess what it is and then act out their guess in pantomime, so that she can see what they mean. Perhaps it is a windmill song; Songs PLAY. 87 Dramatic Plays Dancing their arms fly around and around in time to the music, now fast, now slow. Perhaps it is a Spring song; the children are birds building their nests. Other songs turn them into shoemakers, galloping horses, or sol- diers. Dramatic plays, whether simple, like this, or elabo- rate, are, as Goethe shows in Wilhelm Meister, of the greatest possible educational advantage. In them the child expresses his ideas of the world about him and becomes master of his own ideas. He acts out whatever he has heard or seen. He acts out also whatever he is puzzling about, and by making the terms of his prob- lem clear to his consciousness usually solves it. As for dancing, Richter exclaims: “I know not whether I should most deprecate children's balls or most praise children's dances. For the harmony con- nected with it (dancing) imparts to the affections and the mind that material order which reveals the highest, and regulates the beat of the pulse, the step, and even the thought. Music is the meter of this poetic move- ment, and is an invisible dance, as dancing is a silent music. Finally, this also ranks among the advantages of his eye and heel pleasure; that children with chil- dren, by no harder canon than the musical, light as sound, may be joined in a rosebud feast without thorns or strife.” The dances may be of the simplest kind, such as “Ring Around a Rosy," "Here We Go, To and Fro," "Old Dan Tucker" and the “Virginia Reel.” The old-fashioned singing plays, such as "London 88 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Toys Bridge," "Where Oats, Peas, Beans, and Barley Grow," and "Pop Goes the Weasel" have their place and value. Several collections of them have been made and published, but usually quite enough material may be found for these plays in the memories of the people of any neighborhood. All these plays, it will be noticed, call for very simple and inexpensive apparatus, in most cases for no apparatus at all. Nevertheless there is a place for toys. All children ought to have a few, both because of the innocent pleasure they afford and because they need to have certain possessions which are inalienably their own. A simple and inexpensive list of suitable toys adapted to various ages is given at the end of this section. Most of them are exactly the toys that parents usually buy. But it will be noticed that none of them are very elaborate or expensive, and that the patrol wagon is not among them. This is because the patrol wagon directly leads to plays that are not only un- educational but positively harmful in their tendencies. The children of a whole neighborhood were once led into the habit of committing various imitation crimes for the sake of being arrested and carried off in a min- iature patrol wagon. If any such expensive and elabo- rate toys are bought, it may well be the plain express wagon or the hook and ladder and fire engine. The first of these leads to plays of industry, the second to those of heroism. PLAY. 89 LIST OF TOYS SUITABLE FOR VARIOUS AGES. Before 1 year Ball, rubber ring, soft animals and rag dolls.... Blocks and Bells.. 1 year Small chair and table. .14 years Noah's Ark.... 2 years Picture books.. 2 years Materials and instruments.. .2 to 3 years Carts, stick-horses, and reins.... .242 to 3 years Boats, ships, engines, tin or wooden animals, dolls, dishes, broom, spade, sand-pile, bucket, etc.. 3 years Hoop, games and story-books... Б year OCCUPATIONS Home Kindergarten There are a number of books designed to teach mothers how to carry the Kindergarten occupations over into the home; but while such books may be help- ful in a few cases, in most cases better occupations pre- sent themselves in the course of the day's work. The Kindergarten occupations themselves follow increasing- ly the order of domestic routine. For example, many children in the Kindergarten make mittens out of eider- down flannel in the Fall, when their own mothers are knitting their mittens, and make little hoods either for themselves or for their dolls. At other periods they put up little glasses of preserves or jelly, and study the industry of the bees and the way they put up their tiny jars of jelly. Their attention is called also to the preparations that the squirrels and other animals make for winter, and to that of the trees and flowers. In other words, the occupations in the Kindergarten are designed to bring the children into conscious sympathy with the life of nature and of the home. That mother who keeps this purpose in mind and applies it to the occupations that come up naturally in the course of a day's work, will thereby bring the Kindergarten spirit into her own home much more truly than if she invests in a number of perforated sew- ing cards and colored strips of paper for weaving. Not that there is any harm in these bits of apparatus, pro; Kindergarten Yethods OCCUPATIONS. 91 Helping Mother vided that the sewing cards are large and so perforated as not to task the eyes and young fingers of the sewer. But unless for some special purpose, such as the mak- ing of a Christmas or birthday gift, these devices are unnecessary and better left to the school, which has less richness of material at hand than has the home. In allowing the children to enter as workers into the full life of the home several good things are accom- plished. (1) The eager interest of the developing mind is utilized to brighten those duties which are likely to remain permanent duties. Nor does this ob- servation apply only to girls. Domestic obligations are supposed to rest chiefly upon them, but the truth is that boys need to feel these obligations as keenly as the girls, if they are to grow into considerate and helpful husbands and fathers. The usual division of labor into forms falsely called masculine and feminine is, therefore, much to be deplored. Moreover, at an early age children are seldom sex-conscious, and any precocity in this direction is especially evil in its re- sults; yet many mothers from the beginning make such a division between what they require of their boys and of their girls as to force this consciousness upon them. All kinds of work, then, should be allowed in the beginning, however it may differentiate later on, and little boys as well as little girls should be taught to take an interest in sewing, dish-washing, sweeping, dusting, and cooking-in all the fornis of domestic activity. 92 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Teaching Mother This is so far recognized among educators that the most progressive primary schools now teach cooking to mixed classes of boys and girls, and also sewing. These activities are recognized as highly educational, being, as they are, interwoven with the history of the race and with its daily needs. When they are studied in their full sum of relationship, they increase the child's knowledge of both the past and the living world. (2) Besides the deepening of the child's interest in that work which in some form or other he will have with him always, is the quickening of the mother's own interest in what may have come to seem to her mere daily drudgery. Any woman who undertakes to per- form so simple an operation as dish-washing with the help of a bright happy child, asking sixteen questions to the minute, will find that common-place operation full of possibilities; and if she will answer all the questions she will probably find her knowledge strained to the breaking point, and will discover there is more to be known about dish-washing than she ever dreamed of before; while in cooking, if she will make an effort to look up the science, history, and ethics involved in the cooking and serving of a very simple meal, she will not be likely to regard the task as one beneath her, but rather as one beyond her. No one can so lead her away from false conventions and narrow prejudices as a little child whom she permits to help her and teach her. OCCUPATIONS. 93 The Love of Work To Mako "Helping" of Benefit (3) The child's spontaneous joy in being active and in doing any service is being utilized, as it should be, in the performance of his daily duties. We have al- ready referred to the fact that all children in the be- ginning love to work, and that there must be some- thing the matter with our education since this love is so early lost and so seldom reacquired. If when young children wish to help mother they are almost invariably permitted to do so, and their efforts greeted lovingly, this delight in helpfulness will remain a blessing to them throughout life. But in order to get these benefits from the domestic activities two or three simple rules must be observed. (1) Do not go silently about your work, expecting your child to be interested and to understand without being talked to. Play with him while you work with him and see the realization of youthfulness that comes to yourself while you do it. Many tasks fit for child- ish hands are in their nature too monotonous for child- ish minds. Here your imagination must come into play to rouse and excite his activity. For instance, you are both shelling peas. When he begins to be tired you suggest to him, “Here is a cage full of birds, let us open the door for them;" or you may tell a story while you work, but it should be a story about that very activity, or the child will form the habit of dreaming and dawdling over his work. Such stories may be perfectly simple and even rather pointless and yet do good work; the whole object is to keep the child's fly- 94 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Fatigue away imagination turned upon the work at hand, thus lending wings to his thought, and lightness to his fingers. Moreover, the mother who talks with her child while working is training in him the habit of bright unconscious conversation, thus giving him a most use- ful accomplishment. Making a game or a play out of the work is, of course, conducive to the same good re- sults. When the story or the talk drags, the ganie with its greater dramatic power may be substituted. (2) Children should neither be allowed to work to the point of fatigue nor to stop when they please. Fa- tigue, as our latest investigators in physiological psy- chology have conclusively proved, is productive of an actual poison in the blood and as such is peculiarly harmful to young children. But while work-or for that matter play either-must never be pushed past the point of healthful fatigue, it may well be pushed past the point of spontaneous interest and desire: the child may be happily persuaded by various hidden means to do a little more than he is quite ready to do. By this de- vice, which is one of the recognized devices of the Kindergarten, mothers increase by imperceptible de- grees that power of attention which makes will power. (3) Set the example of willing industry. Neither let the child conceive of you as an impersonal necessary part of the household machinery, nor as an unwilling martyr to household necessities. Most mothers err in one or the other of these two directions, an them err in both: they either, (a) perform the in Willing Industry many of OCCUPATIONS. 95 numerable services of the household so quietly and steadily that the child does not perceive the effort that the performance costs and, therefore, as far as his consciousness is concerned, is deprived of the force of his mother's example, or (b) they groan aloud over their burdens and make their daily martyrdom vocal. Either way is wrong, for it is a mistake not to let a child see that your steady performance of tasks, which cannot be always delightful, is a result of self-dis- cipline; and it is equally a mistake to let him think that this discipline is one against which you rebel. For in reality you are so far from being unwilling to bind yourself in his service that if he needed it you would promptly double and quadruple your exertions. It is exactly what you do when he is sick or in danger; and if he dies the sorest ache of your heart is the ache of the love that can no longer be of service to the be- loved. (4) Remember that monotony is the curse of labor for both child and adult, but that monotony cannot exist where new intellectual insights are constantly being given. Therefore, while the daily round of labor, shaped by the daily recurring demands for food, warmth, cleanliness, and sleep, goes on without much change, seize every opportunity to deepen the child's perception of the relation of this routine to the order of the larger world. For instance, if a new house is being built near by, visit it with the children, comparing it with your own house, figure out whether it is going Monotony 96 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Beautiful Work to be easier to keep clean and to warm than your house is and why. If you need to call in the carpenter, the plumber, the paper-hanger, or the stoveman, try to have him come when the children are at home, and let them satisfy their intense curiosity as to his work. This knowledge will sooner or later be of practical value, and it is immediately of spiritual value. (5) Beautify the work as much as possible by let- ting the artistic sense have full play. This rule is so important that the attempt to establish it in the larger world outside of the home has given rise to the move- ment known as the arts and crafts movement, which has its rise in the perception that no great art can come into existence among us until the common things of daily living—the furniture, the books, the carpets, the chinaware—are made to express that creative joy in the maker which distinguishes an artistic product from an inartistic one. This creative joy, in howsoever small degree, may be present in most of the things that the child does. If he sets the table, he may set it beautifully, taking real pleasure in the coloring of the china and the shine of the silver and glass. He ought not to be permitted to set it untidily upon a soiled ta- blecloth. (6) This is a negative rule, but perhaps the most important of all : DO NOT NAG. The child who is driven to his work and kept at it by means of a constant pressure of a stronger will upon his own, is deriving little, if any, benefit from it; and as you are The Right Spirit OCCUPATIONS. 97 not teaching him to work for the sake of his present usefulness, which is small at the best, but for the sake of his future development, you are more desirous that he should perform a single task in a day in the right spirit, than that he should run a dozen errands in the wrong spirit. (7) Besides a regular time each day for the per- formance of his set share in the household work, give him warning before the arrival of that hour. Children have very incomplete notions of time; they become much absorbed in their own play; and therefore no child under nine or ten years of age should be expected to do a given thing at a given time without warning that the time is at hand. Besides these occupations which are truly part of the business of life come any number of other occupa- tions—a sort of a cross between real play and steady work, what teachers call "busy work"-and here the suggestions of the Kindergarten may be of practical value to the mother. For instance, weaving, already referred to, may keep an active child interested and quiet for considerable periods of time. Besides the regular weaving mats of paper, to be had from any Kindergarten supply store, wide grasses and rushes may be braided into mats, raffia and rattan may be woven into baskets, and strips of cloth woven into iron- holders. A visit to any neighboring Kindergarten will acquaint the mother with a number of useful, simple objects that can be woven by a child. Whatever he "Busy Work" 98 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Sewing weaves or whatever he makes should be applied to some useful purpose, not merely thrown away; and while it is true that a conscientious desire to live up to this rule often results in a considerable clutter of flimsy and rather undesirable objects about the house, still, ways may be devised for slowly retiring the oldest of them from view, and disposing of others among patient relatives. Sewing is another occupation much used in the Kin- dergarten as well as in the home. Beginning with the simple stringing of large wooden beads upon shoe- strings, it passes on to sewing on buttons, and sewing doll clothes to the making of real clothing. This last in its simplest form can be begun sooner than most parents suppose, especially if the child is taught the use of the sewing machine. There is really no reason why a child, say six years old, should not learn to sew upon the machine. His interest in machinery is keen at this period, and two or three lessons are usually sufficient to teach him enough about the mechanism to keep him from injuring it. Once he has learned to sew upon the machine, he may be given sheets and towels to hem, and even sew up the seams of larger and more complex articles. He will soon be able to make aprons for himself and his sisters and mother. Toy sewing machines are now sold which are really useful playthings, and on which the child can manu- facture a number of small articles. Those run by a treadle are preferable to those run by a hand crank, OCCUPATIONS. 99 Drawing Cutting Pasting because they leave the child's hands free to guide the work. Drawing, painting, cutting and pasting are excellent occupations for children. A large black-board is a useful addition to the nursery furnishings, but the children should be required to wash it off with a damp cloth, instead of using the eraser furnished for the purpose, as the chalk dust gets into the room and fills the children's lungs. Plenty of soft pencils and cray- ons, also large sheets of inexpensive drawing paper, should be at hand upon a low table so that they can draw the large free outlines which best develop their skill, whenever the impulse moves them. If they have also blunt scissors for cutting all sorts of colored papers and a bottle of inocuous library paste, they will be able to amuse themselves at alınost any time. Some water colors are now made which are harmless for children so young that they are likely to put the paints in their mouths. Paints are on the whole less objectionable than colored chalks, because the crayons drop upon the floor and get trodden into the carpet. If children are properly clothed as they should be in simple washable garments, there is practically no diffi- culty connected with the free use of paints, and their educational value is, of course, very high. Painting TEST QUESTIONS The following questions constitute the "written reci. tation" which the regular members of the A. S. H. E. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. They are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. STUDY OF CHILD LIFE PART II Read Carefully. In answering these questions you are earnestly requested not to answer according to the text-book where opinions are asked for, but to answer according to conviction. In all cases credit will be given for thought and original observation. Place your name and full address at the head of the paper; use your own words so that your instructor may be sure that you understand the subject. 2. 1. State Fichte's doctrine of rights and show how it applies to child training. If possible, give an ex- ample from your own experience. What is the aim of moral training ? 3. What two sayings of Froebel most characteristic- ally sum up his philosophy ? 4. What is the value of play in education? 5. What are the natural playthings? Tell what, in your childhood, you got out of these things, or if you were kept away from them, what the pro- hibition meant to you. 6. What do you think about children's dancing ? And acting ? 7. Do you agree with those who think that the Kin- dergarten makes right doing too easy? State the reasons for your opinion. STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. IO. 8. What can you say of commands, reproofs, and rules? 9. Should you let the children help you about the house, even when they are so little as to be troublesome? Why? If they are unwilling to help, how do you induce them to help? What would you suggest as regular duties for children of 4 to 5 years ? Of 7 to 8 years ? II. Which do you consider the more important, the housework or the child? 12. Wherein may the mother learn from the child ? 13. What is the difference between amusing children and playing with them? Which is the proper method ? 14. Mention some good rules in character building. 15. From your own experience as a child what can you say of teaching the mysteries of sex? 16. Are there any questions you would like to ask, or subjects which you wish to discuss in connec- tion with this lesson? Note. After completing the test sign your full name. STUDY OF CHILD LIFE PART III MADONNA AND CHILD By Murillo, Spauish painter of the seventeenth century STUDY OF CHILD LIFE PART III ART AND LITERATURE IN CHILD LIFE Influence of Art The influence of art upon the life of a young child is difficult of measurement. It may freely be said, however, that there is little or no danger in exaggerat- ing its influence, and considerable danger in underrat- ing it. It is difficult of measurement because the in- fluence is largely an unconscious one. Indeed, it may be questioned whether that form of art which give him the most conscious and outspoken pleasure is the form that in reality is the most beneficial; for, unques- tionably, he will get great satisfaction from circus posters, and the poorly printed, abominably illustrated cheap picture books afford him undeniable joy. He is far less likely to be expressive of his pleasure in a sun- shiny nursery, whose walls, rugs, white beds, and sun- shiny windows are all well designed and well adapted to his needs. Nevertheless, in the end the influence of this room is likely to be the greater influence and to permanently shape his ideas of the beautiful; while he is entirely certain, if allowed to develop artistically at all, to grow past the circus poster period. This fact—the fact that the highest influence of art is a secret influence, exercised not only by those decora- tions and pictures which flaunt themselves for the pur- pose, but also by those quiet, necessary, every-day 102 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Color things, which nevertheless may most truly express the art spirit—this fact makes it difficult to tell what art and what kind of art is really influencing the child, and whether it is influencing him in the right directions. Until he is three years old, for example, and often until he is past that'age, he is unable to distinguish clearly between green, gray, and blue; and hence these cool colors in the decorations around him, or in his pictures, have practically no meaning for him. He has a right, one might suppose, to the gratification of his love for clear reds and yellows, for the sharp, well- defined lines and flat surfaces, whose meaning is plain to his groping little mind. Some of the best illus- trators of children's books have seemed to recognize this. For example, Boutet de Monvil in his admirable illustrations of Joan of Arc meets these requirements perfectly, and yet in a manner which must satisfy any adult lover of good art. The Caldecott picture books, and Walter Crane's are also good in this respect, and the Perkins pictures issued by the Prang Educational Co. have gained a just recognition as excellent pictures for hanging on the nursery wall. Many of the illustra- tions in color in the standard magazines are well worth cutting out, mounting and framing. This is especially true of Howard Pyle's work and that of Elizabeth Shippen Green. Since photogravures and photographs of the master- pieces can be had in this country very inexpensively, there is no reason why children should not be made Classic Art McMan SHEETSTER DAIRY When BOEING MWING FROM MORTYPANERIN Axa De Spinning WITO MAM SINGING Qon MY BORN "My Mary" Buw. WOOLEN ANTIL.CO THAT MESURMA UHSIN ARE TREND ANTROSTATI AGS SCHE HOT IN THE HEN “Blow, Wind Blow » PERKINS' PICTURES 104 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Plastic Art acquainted at an early age with the art classics, but there is danger in giving too much space to black and white, especially in the nursery where the children live. Their natural love of color should be appealed to do deepen their interest in really good pictures. Nevertheless, it is a matter of considerable difficulty still to find colored pictures which are inexpensive and yet really good. The Detaille prints, while not yet cheap, are not expensive either, and are excellent for this purpose; but the insipid little pictures of fairies, flowers, and birds may be really harmful, as helping to form in the young child's mind too low an ideal of beauty—of cultivating in him what someone has called “the lust of the eye.” What holds true of the pictorial art holds equally true of the plastic art. As Prof. Veblin of the Uni- versity of Chicago has scathingly declared, our ideals of the beautiful are so mingled with worship of ex- pense that few of us can see the genuine beauty in any object apart from its expensiveness. For this reason as well as, perhaps, because of a remnant of barbarism in us, we love gold and glitter, and a great deal of elaboration in our vases, and are far from being over- critical of any piece of statuary which costs a respect- able sum. A certain appreciation, however, of the real value of a good plaster-cast has been gaining among us of late years, and many public schools, especially in the large cities, have been establishing standards of good taste RELIEF MEDALLION By Andrea della Robbia, in Foundling Hospital, Florence THE DRAMA. 107 old-fashioned nonsense songs, such as "Billy Boy,” “Mary had a Little Lamb” and “Hey Diddle Diddle, the Cat and the Fiddle," may also have a pleasant and harmless place of their own. Instrumental music should be on the same general order, not loud and showy, but clear, simple, sweet, and free from startling effects. Dashing pieces, rag-time pieces, marches, two-steps, and familiar tunes with va- riations, instead of bringing about a spirit of gentle- ness and harmony, actually tend to produce self-assert- iveness and quarrelsomeness. Let any mother who does not believe this try the effect of an hour of the one kind of music on one evening, and an hour of the other kind on another evening. The difference will be immediately apparent. The influence of the drama must not be forgotten. This form of art, fallen so low among us since the time of the Puritans that it can scarceiy be called an art at all, is, nevertheless, the art which perhaps above all others has an immediate and yet lasting influence. Children are themselves instinctively dramatic. They like to compose and act out all sorts of dramas of their own, from playing house (which is nothing but a drama prolonged from day to day), to such dramatic games as Statue-posing and Dumb Crambo. All chil- dren like to dress up, to wear masks, and to imitate the peculiarities of persons about them; to try on, as it were, the world as they see it, and discover thereby how the actors in it feel. Goethe's Wilhelm Meister Tho Drama 108 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. has already been referred to. In this—his great book on education-he practically bases all education upon the drama, and even throws the treatise itself into dramatic form. This does not mean, however, that all children should be permitted to go to the theater as freely as they like. No; the plays which they compose and act for themselves have a far higher value educationally than most of the spectacular presentations of the old fairy tales with which they are usually regaled, and certainly more than the sensational melodramas which give them false ideas of art and morality. They should go sometimes to the theater to see really good and simple plays, but they should be oftener' encouraged to get up for themselves plays at home. If, as they grow older, they are helped to think out their costumes with something of historical accuracy, to be true to the spirit and scenery of the times in which the representa- tions are laid, the activity can be made to increase in value to them as the years go by. There is ilo other art, perhaps, by which the child so intimately links the world spirit with his own spirit. It is for this reason that the School of Education in the University of Chi- cago is equipped with small theaters in which the children act. As for the art of literature, not all children love read- ing, perhaps, but certainly all children love to hear stories told, and the skilful mother will direct this spontaneous affection into a love for reading. No Literature LITERATURE. 109 Fairy Tales other single love, except perhaps the love of nature, so emancipates the child from the thrall of circum- stances. If he can escape from the small ills of life into fairy-land merely by opening the covers of a book, be sure that these ills will not have power to crush him, unless they be very great ills indeed. There are those who still believe that fairy tales and fiction of all sorts are nothing but lies. Poor souls, with their faces against the stone wall of hard facts, they can never look up into the sky and see the winged and beautiful thoughts freely disporting there. They make no distinction between truth and fact, yet truth is of the spirit and fact of the flesh; and truth, because it is of the spirit, may appear under many forms, even under the form of play. All rightly told and rightly conceived fairy-tales are true just as a good picture is true. The painter uses oil, turpentine, and pigment to represent the wool of a sheep, the water of a pond, the green spears of grass. Some literal-minded per- son might say that he was lying because he pretented that his little square of canvas truthfully represented grazing sheep at the brook-side, but most of us recog- nize that he is really telling the truth only in another than an every day form. In the same way the writer of fairy-tales tells the truth, using the pigments of the imagination. If children ask whether a given story is true or not, answer without hesitation, "yes." It is true, but it is a fairy kind of truth; it is inside truth. There is magic IIO STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Imagination and Sympathy in it and a mystery. The child who is never allowed to read fairy tales, the man or the woman who pre- fers the newspaper to a good book of fiction, misses much in life. It is not only that the imagination—the divinest quality of man, because the quality that makes man in his degree a creator--does not receive culture, and that he misses the indescribable intellectual ecstasy that comes only with the setting free of the wings of the mind, but that also he is inevitably shorn of his sympathy and shut up to a narrow circle of interests. For sympathy, above all moral qualities, is dependent upon imagination. If you cannot imagine how you would feel under your neighbor's conditions, you can- not deeply sympathize with him. The person of un- imaginative mind sympathizes only with those whose experience and habits are similar to his own. He never escapes from the narrow circle of his own per- sonality. But the man whose imagination has been kept flexible and ready from earliest childhood has within him the power of sympathizing with what- ever is human-yes! even with creatures and things below the human level. Without imagination, there- fore, it is not possible for a man to be a great scientist, for science demands sympathy with processes and ob- jects which are not yet human. It is not possible, ob- viously, for him to be a great artist of any kind, for all art is interpretation of the world by means of the imagination. It is not possible for him, even, to be a good man in any broad sense, for the man whose LITERATURE. III Books sympathies are narrow is often found to be guilty of injustice towards those who lie outside the pale of those sympathies. By all means, then, encourage the love of reading in your children, and get them the best of story-books to read, and subscribe to the best magazines. Read with them. Let some reading enter into every day's life; talk over what has been read at the dinner-table, and so avoid harmful personalities and disagreeable criti- cisms. As to the books to choose, choose the best. Gen- erally speaking, the best are those that have some dignity of age upon them. As in music you chose the folksongs, so in children's literature also choose the old fashioned fairy stories, such as those collected by the Brothers Grimm and by Andrew Lang. Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Stories of course are clas- sics. Hawthorne's Tanglewood Tales give excellent suggestions as to the right use to be rnade of the old mythologies. Many of the supplementary readers now being so widely used in the public schools are good, simple versions of these old stories which helped to make the world what it should be. For the rest there are two standard children's magazines which help to form a good taste in literature and which are continually sug- gestive of the right sort of reading material. These are The Youth's Companion and St. Nicholas. Finally, all appreciation of literature and art depends upon a love of and some knowledge of nature. Fairy Naturo Study II2 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Art and Nature stories and mythology especially are so dependent upon nature for their inner meaning and significance as scarcely to be intelligible without some knowledge of natural processes and laws. Of course, it is true that art in its turn idealizes nature and fills her beauti- ful form with a beautiful soul; so that the child who is being developed on all sides needs to take his books and his pictures out of doors in order to get the full good of them. No amount of music, art, and literature can make up. for the free life in the fields and under the sky which all these arts describe and interpret. If he should be so unhappy as to have to choose between nature and art, it would be better for him to choose nature, be- cause then, perhaps, art might be born in his own soul. But there is happily no need for such a painful choice. He can sing his little song out of doors with the birds and notice how they join in the chorus. He can paint evening sunsets with the pine-trees against it far better out of doors than indoors with copy perched before him. He can look down the aisles of the real woods to watch for the enchanted princess, or for the chivalrous knight whose story he is reading. Art and nature belong together in the unified soul of the child. Well for him and for the world in which he lives if they are never divorced, but he goes on to the end loving them both and seeing them both as one. CHILDREN'S ASSOCIATES The Kindergarten If the child was intended to grow into a man of fam- ily, merely, family training might be sufficient for him, but since he must grow into a member of society, so- cial training is as necessary for him as family training. Failure to recognize this truth is at the bottom of the current misconceptions of the Kindergarten. There are still thousands of persons who suppose it is only a superior sort of day-nursery where children may be safely kept and innocently employed while the mother gets the housework done. While this might be a laudable enough function to perform, it is by no means the function of the Kinder- garten. This method of instruction aims at much more. It aims to lay foundations for a complete later education, and especially to make firm in the child those virtues and aptitudes which, when they are held by the majority of men, constitute the safety and wel- • fare of society. For this reason, no home, however well ordered, can supply to the child what the Kinder- garten supplies. For the home is necessarily limited to the members of one family, while the Kindergarten, on the contrary, makes plain to the child the claims upon him of society not made up of his kinsfolk. It is the wide world in miniature, and if it is a properly organized Kindergarten, it will contain within itself a wide variety of children-children of wealth and of 114 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. poverty, of ignorance and of gentle breeding—and will bring them all under one just rule. For only by this commingling of many characters upon a common level and under the strict reign of justice can the child be fitted practically, and by means of a series of pro- gressive experiments, for citizenship in a genuine democracy. lusivo uciates Parents sometimes so far miss the aim of the Kin- dergarten as to desire that instead of such a com- mingling there shall be a narrow limit set; that in the Kindergarten shall be only such children as the child is accustomed to associatė with. But if the Kinder- garten acceded to this demand, as it seldom does, it would lose much of its usefulness, for every one knows that children cannot be permanently sheltered from contact with the outside world, nor can they be al- ways reared in an atmosphere of exclusiveness. A wisdom greater than the mother's has ordered that no child shall be so narrowly nourished. If he has any freedom whatever, any naturalness of life, he must and will enlarge his circle of acquaintances beyond the limit of his mother's calling list. Indeed, even those Kindergartens which are pro- fessedly exclusive, and which confine their ministra- tions to the children of one particular neighborhood, are obliged by the nature of things to contain nascent individualities of almost every type. For no neigh- borhood, however equal in wealth and fashion, ever produced children of an unvarying quality. In any CHILDRENS ASSOCIATES. 115 Evil Example circle, no matter how exclusive, there are mischievous children, children who use bad language, children who have sly, mean tricks, children who do not speak the truth, and who are in other ways quite as undesirable as the children of the poor and ignorant. It is often asserted, indeed, that the children of exclusive neigh- borhoods very often show more varieties of badness than the children of the open street. The records of the private Kindergarten as compared with the public Kindergarten amply prove this statement. Since, then, whether you confine your child to the limits of your own circle or not, you cannot success- fully keep him from playing with children who are more or less objectionable, what are you going to do to keep him from the harm of such association? You have to make him strong enough to withstand temp- tation and resist the force of evil example. Of course, he must have as little of the wrong example, especially in his younger and tenderer years, as can be managed without too greatly checking his activity and curtail- ing his freedom. Yet after all he is to be taught a positive and not a negative righteousness, and if his home training is not sufficient to enable him to stand against a certain downward pull from the outside, there is something the matter with it. While he must not be strained too hard, nor too constantly associate with children whose manners put his manners to the test, still he ought by degrees, al- most imperceptibly, to be accustomed to holding to the CHILDRENS ASSOCIATES. 117 Sharing the Child's Play social training of her child, and this means that she must know his playmates, not only through his report of them, but through her own observation of them, and that they must be sufficiently at home with her to betray their true characters in her presence. And this means, of course, that she must become her child's playmate. There are few women who think that they have time for this, but there are also few who would not be benefited by it. If anywhere there is a fountain of youth, it gushes up invisibly wherever playing chil- dren are, and she who plays with them gets sprinkled by it. If there be no time during the busy day when she can justly enter into the children's free play, at least there is a little while in the iate afternoon or in the early evening when she can do so, if she will. An hour or two a week spent in active association with children at their games will make her intimately acquainted with all their playmates, and, moreover, constitute her a power of first magnitude among them. Her mother- hood thus extends itself, and she blesses not only her own children, but all those who come near her chil- dren. In this respect no Kindergarten can take the place of the mother's own companionship with the child in his social life. In an ideal condition the child las his Kindergar- ten in the morning; his quiet hours, one of them en- tirely solitary, in the afternoon; his social time, when he, his brothers and sisters and mother, are joined 118 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. The Children's Hour with the other children and mothers in the neighbor- hood, in the late afternoon, and his family time, with both father and mother, in the evening before going to bed. In thus sharing her child's social life the mother admits the claim upon her of social responsibility; she sees that her duty is not to her own home alone, but to the other homes with which hers is linked—not to her own child alone, but to all children whose lives touch her child's life. Her own nature widens with the perception, and she enhances her direct teaching with the force of a beautiful example. STUDIES AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS Abstract Studies There may easily be too many studies and too many as complishments in the life of any child. As our schools are constituted there are certainly too many studies of the wrong kind being carried on every day. But there are also too few studies of the right kind. In one of our large cities a test was once made as to how much the children who left school at the fifth grade, as 70 per cent of them do, had actually learned in a way that would be of practical value to them, and the results were most discouraging. These city chil- dren who could recite their tables of measurements with glibness, and who performed with a fair degree of success several hundred examples dealing with units of measure, could not tell whether their school-room floor contained one acre or two hundred and forty! None of them suspected that it contained less than an Although they could bound the States of the Union, and give the principal exports and imports, they knew next to nothing of their own city and of its actual relation to the countries which they studied in their geography lessons. The teachers, in ex- planation, laid much of the blame for this state of af- fairs upon the parents, saying that they took but little interest in their children's studies, and never attempt- ed to link them to the things of every-day life. But while this claim might be justified to some extent, it acre. 122 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. have noticed; or in the geographical laboratory, with streams of water try to reproduce in miniature the action of the brook upon the soil through which it flows. For their arithmetic lesson they estimate the num- ber of years the brook must have been flowing to have cut its valley to its present depth. They make a full report and description of their day's work for their reading and writing lesson. They have thus gained an immense amount of information, and have done a great deal of hard work; but instead of being nervously exhausted, they are bright and exhilarated. Such fatigue as they know is wholesome and fits them for a sound night's sleep. When it is impossible to send the child to such a school as this, something may be done by supplement- ing the ordinary school by some of these procedures. The clay jar, the crayons, and the paints have already been suggested, and with the parents' interest in the child's studies, helping him to model and paint things which he studies at school, he will instantly show the good effect of the home training and encouragement. As for field trips, the regular Sunday walk, or evening stroll, may be made to take its place. If you think that you do not know enough to teach your child on these walks, give him then the privilege of teaching you. He will work the harder in order to rise to the occa- Home Expedients sion. 124 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Natural Talent Of course, if she is naturally musical some kind of help and sympathy must be given her in her attempt to master the piano or violin or to manage her own voice. But while she should be allowed to learn as much as her unurged energies permit her to learn, she should not be required to practice more than a very small amount, say half an hour a day. The bulk of her musical education should be acquired in the vacation time, when she can give two hours a day without overstraining The same general rules hold good of dancing, paint- ing, the acquirements of foreign languages, a special course of reading, or any other work undertaken in addition to the regular school work. This latter, as it is now constituted, is quite as severe a nervous and intellectual strain as most young people can undergo with safety. There is one characteristic in young people which needs to be noted in this connection :the desire to take up some form of work, to strive with it furiously for a brief while, to drop it unfinished; take up an- other with equal eagerness, drop that in turn and go on to a third. This performance is peculiarly irritat- ing to all systematic and ambitious parents. Some- times they rigidly insist that each task shall be finished before a new one is assumed. But in reality, is this necessary? It seems to be as natural for a young mind to set eagerly to work for a short time at each new bit of knowledge, as it is for a nursing child to "Enthusiasms" STUDIES AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS. 125 require refreshments every two or three hours. It is an adult trait to stick to a task, even though a very long one, until it is accomplished. The youthful trait is to take kindly to a clutter of unfinished tasks. The youthful consciousness is of a world full of jostling interests. Why not let the children alone, and allow them to spring lightly from one enthusiasm to another? Of course you will help them to finish, either at the first sitting or at the second or at the third, the task that was undertaken when that particular enthu- siasm was at its height. The drawing which has re- mained on the easel during the foot-ball season may be suggestively brought to notice again in the quiet times between Thanksgiving and Christmas. The boat be- gun last summer may well be finished in the days of the succeeding Spring when all the earth is full of the sound of running water. Thus each task, though not completed at once, gets done in the end; and the youthful capacity for many sympathies and many de- sires has not been narrowed. Such a line of conduct presupposes, of course, that the parent considers only the child's best welfare, and not his own parental vanity. He is not desirous that his son shall do anything so well as to attract the at- tention and admiration of the neighbors. He is de- sirous merely that the boy shall grow up wholesomely and happily, showing such superiority as there may be in him when the fitting time and opportunity present themselves. He will not attempt to make a musician Parental Vanity 126 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Development of Intellect of an unmusical child, nor a mechanic of an artistic child. He will not object to the brilliant and im- practical dreams of the young inventor, but will help to make them practicable; and though he may squirm at some of the investigations of the budding scientist, he will not forbid them. For such a parent recognizes that the important thing, educationally, is to secure the reaction of ex- pression upon thought and feeling. That is, he is not trying to secure at this time—at any time during youth-perfect expression of any thought or feeling, but only to deepen feeling and clarify thought by encouraging all attempts at expression. He does not wish his child to make a finished picture or a perfect statue, but to acquire a greater sensitiveness to color and form by each attempt to express that color and form which he already knows. Thus whatever studies and accomplishments his child may be in the act of acquiring are seen to be nothing as acquisitions, but the child himself is seen to be growing stage by stage within the clumsy scaffolding. FINANCIAL TRAINING The financial training of children ought really to be considered under the head of moral training, but in some respects it can come equally well under the head of intellectual training; for to spend money well re- quires both self-control and intelligence. Some persons seem to think that all that a child can be taught in this FINANCIAL TRAINING. 127 Regular Allowance regard is to save money, and they meet the situation by purchasing various shapes and styles of savings banks. But it is entirely possible to teach the child too thor- oughly in this respect and to make him so fond of his jingling pennies safe within a yellow crockery pig or iron cupolaed mansion that he will not spend them for any object, however laudable. Others evade the issue as long as possible by giving the child no money at all; while most of us pursue an uncertain and wabbly course, sometimes giving money, sometimes withhold- ing it, sometimes exhorting the child to spend, and sometimes to save. In truth spending wisely is a difficult problem. As a rule the child may safely be induced to lay by for a season and then encouraged to spend for some gen- erous purpose. Christmas and other festivals offer ex- cellent opportunities for proper disbursement of the hoarded funds. These may be supposed to have accu- mulated from irregular gifts; but as the child grows older he should come into receipt of a regular definite allowance, perhaps conditioned upon his performance of some stated duty. A certain part of his allowance he may be permitted to spend upon such frivolities as are naturally dear to his young heart; another part of it he should be encouraged--not commanded—to put aside for larger purposes. The giving of this allowance must not be confused with the pernicious habit of bribing the child to the per- formance of those little daily courtesies and duties 128 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. which he ought to be willing to perform out of love and a sense of right. A certain part of his daily work, such as seeing that the match-boxes all over the house are filled, or some similar share of the general labor of the household, may be regarded as that for which he is paid wages; and any extra task which does not justly belong to him, he may sometimes be paid for perform- ing; but not always. For instance, he ought to be will- ing to run to the grocery for mother withoạt demand- ing that he be paid a penny for the job; yet sometimes the penny may be forthcoming. The point is that he should be ready to work, even to work hard, without pay, and yet that he should never feel that his mother withholds pay from him when she can give it and he receive it without injury. When the money is once his, he should be allowed to feel the full happiness and responsibility of posses- sion, and if he insists upon spending it foulishly, should be allowed to do it and to suffer to the full the un- comfortable consequer!ces. If, on the contrary, he will not spend it at all, his mother must use every means in her power to lessen the desire for ownership and to increase his love for others and his eagerness to please them. As judgment develops the allowance may well be increased to provide for necessities in tire way of inci- dentals and clothing until at the "age of discretion" he is in full charge of the funds for his personal expenses. He should be encouraged to apply his knowledge of Spending Foolishly FINANCIAL TRAINING. 129 commercial arithmetic in the keeping of personal ac- counts. Experience in spending a fixed amount of money is especially needful for the daughters. Most young men have the value of money and financial responsibility forced upon them in the natural course of events, but too often the young wife has not had the training qual- ifying her for the equal financial partnership which should exist in the ideal marriage, UNPO THE INFANT GALAHAD- FIRST SIGHT OF THE GRAIL From the mural paintings by Edwin A. Abbey in the Boston Public Library RELIGIOUS TRAINING Sunday School Teachers If the common school is not sufficient for the secular education of the child, certainly the Sunday School is not sufficient for his religious education. In the common schools the teachers are more or less trained for their work. It is a life occupation with them; by means of it they earn their living, and their daily success with their pupils marks their rate of progress toward higher fields of endeavor. Nothing of this sort is true in the Sunday School. While occasionally it happens that a day school teacher becomes a Sunday School teacher, this is seldom true, for most teachers who teach during the week feel that they need the Sunday for rest; and while some Sunday School teachers betray a commendable earnestness and zeal for their work, and associations and conventions have latterly added somewhat to the joint effort to better the conditions, still it remains true that the teaching in the Sunday Schools is far below the pedagogic level of the common schools. Yet the subject which is deaſt with in the Sunday Schools, instead of being of less importance than that dealt with in the common schools, is of pre-eminently greater importance. Because of its subtlety, its intimacy with the hidden springs of con- duct, it calls for the exercise of the very highest teach- ing skill. 132 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Some sort of recognition of these two facts-that Sunday School teachers are in most cases very inade- quately trained for their work, and that the work itself is of great importance, and of equally great dif- ficulty—has led to the issuing of many quarterlies, International Lesson Leaflets, and other Sunday School aids. Necessary as such help may be under present conditions, they cannot possibly meet the many diffi- culties of the case. If the central committees, who issue these leaflets, were composed wholly of the wisest men and women on earth, it would still be impossible for them to give lessons to the millions of children in their various denominations which should meet the personal needs, and daily interests of these young people. As a consequence, Sunday School teaching is and must be largely theoretical and still more largely ex- egetical, and with neither theory nor exegesis is the young mind of the developing child very much con- cerned. What he needs is not the historical side of religion or of that great body of religious literature which we call the Bible, but a living faith which links all that was taught by the prophets and apostles, cen- turies ago, with what is happening in the child's own town and family at that very moment. It is a wide gap to bridge, and it cannot be bridged by a semi- historical review backed by picture cards, golden texts, and stars for good behavior. These things are merely the marks of an endeavor to fitly accomplish a great Sunday School Teaching RELIGIOUS TRAINING. 133 task, an endeavor almost absurdly out of proportion to this aim, rendered significant, however, because it is the earnest of a great faith and a great hope. So far as Sunday Schools help children, it is because of this spirit of faithfulness, and not because of the form which it has assumed. In choosing, then, whether you shall send your child to a Sunday School, choose by the presence or absence of this spirit. If you know the teachers of the Sunday School to be earnest, loving, and de- voted, you may with safety assume that their per- sonal influence will make up for what is archaic in their method of teaching. Where the spirit is present only in a few, or where it manifests itself only occa- sionally, as at seasons of revival, you may well hesi- tate to let your child attend. A great improvement would come about if parents would show a greater interest and encourage proper teachers to take charge of classes. It is a thankless task at present. There is one great danger in the teaching of any Sunday School-one which the best of them cannot wholly escape—and that is, that, in the very nature of things, they teach theory and not practice. Harm- ful as this may be, indeed as it surely is in adult life, it does not begin to be so harmful as it does in youth, for the young child, as we have seen, is and should remain a unit in consciousness. His life, his intellect, and his will are one-an undivided trinity. The divorce of these three is at any time a regrettable oc- Theory Not Practice 134 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Useless Truths currence; the divorce of them in early life is an almost irreparable disaster. The current theory is that children will learn many truths in the Sunday School which they will not put into practice then, perhaps, but which they will find useful in later life. This fallacy underlies, of course, almost all conventional education and has only been overthrown by the dictum of modern psychology, that there is but small storage accommodation in the brain for facts which have no immediate relation to life. What may be termed the saturating power of the brain is limited, and after it has soaked up a rather small number of truths, it can contain no more until it has in some way disposed of those that it still has--either by making them part of its own living structure, which is done only by making immediate application of them; or by dropping them below the threshold of conscious- ness, that is, in common language, forgetting them. Moreover, the brain may form the habit of easily dropping all that relates to a given subject into the limbo where unused things lie disregarded, and when this becomes the habitual method of disposing of re- ligious instruction, the results are particularly deplor- able. Feeble as her own knowledge may be, a mother has certain advantages as a teacher of her children over any but the exceptional Sunday school teacher. For, first, she knows the children, and, knowing them, knows their needs. Secondly, she knows their daily lives and con- The Mother as Teacher RELIGIOUS TRAINING. 135 tinually during the week can point out wherein they fail to live up to their Sunday's lesson. And again and most important, she loves them tenderly, and from love flows wisdom. Usually the mother gives her own chil- dren a love far beyond that given by anyone else, and this deeper love sharpens her intellectual faculties and makes her both a keen observer and a good tactician. Giving her children some simple lesson on Sunday aft- ernoon, she finds a hundred opportunities to make the lesson living and vital to them during the succeeding week. In the early years of the child's life, the mother is usually the one to decide whether he shall attend Sunday School or not, but as he approaches adolescence he is likely to take the matter in his own hands, and if it happens that some revivalist or a new stirring preacher comes in contact with his life at this time, he is very likely to be swept off his feet with a sudden zeal of religious enthusiasm, which his mother fears to check. The reports of memberships, baptisms, etc., show that a large number become converted and join the church during adolescence. While this does not in the least argue that the conclusions that they reach at that time are therefore unsound—for adolescence is not a disease, nor a form of insanity, but a normal, if excitable, condition—still it does prove, when coupled with the further fact that in adult life these young converts often relapse into their previous con- dition, that a more lastinig basis for religion must be Religious Enthusiasm 136 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. found than the emotional intensity of this period of life. A religion to be lasting must be coldly reaffirmed by the intellect: the dictum of the heart alone is not suf- ficient. Religious enthusiasm, like all other forms of enthusiasm, tends of itself to bring about the oppo- site condition, and to be succeeded by fits of despond- ency and bitterness as intense and severe as the en- thusiasm itself was brilliant and ecstatic. The history of all great religious leaders amply proves this. They had their bitter hours of wrestling with the powers of darkness, hours which almost counter-balanced the hours of uplift. Only clearly thought-out intellectual convictions reinforced by the habit of daily righteous living can secure the soul against such emotional aberrations. Therefore, although the religious excitability of adolescence must not be thwarted lest it be turned into less helpful channels, and lest religion lose all the beauty and compelling power lent to it by the glow of youthful feelings, yet it must be so balanced and ordered by a clear reason, and especially by the habit of putting each enthusiasm to the test of conduct, that the young mind may remain true to its law of growth, developing harmoniously on all three sides at once. The danger of permitting a young boy or girl while under the influence of this emotional instability to enter into any special form of religious service is the danger of reaction. He will discover that all is not as his early vision led him to suppose—because that Danger of Reaction RELIGIOUS TRAINING. 137 A Difioult Period early vision was of things too high and holy for any earthly realization—and he may turn against what seems to him to be hypocrisy and pretense with a bit- terness proportioned to his former love. Many honest, faithful men and women remain in this state of re- action for the rest of their lives. Nevertheless, it will not do to thwart these young beginnings. They must neither be nipped in the bud nor forced to a premature ripening. Above all they must not be suffered to endure the killing frost of ridicule. The period is a difficult one, but, as Dr. Stanley Hall points out, it is supremely the mother's oppor- tunity. If she can hold her boy's or her girl's con- fidence now, can ease their eager young hearts with an intelligent sympathy, she can probably keep them from any public commitment. Perhaps they may desire to confide in the minister; if so, let the mother confide in him first. Perhaps they have bosom friends, passing through the same stirring experience; then let the mother win over these friends. Her object should be to shelter this beautiful senti- ment; to keep it safe from exposure; above all, to utilize it as a motive-power—as an incentive to noble action. The Kindergarten rule is a good one: as quick as a love springs in a child's breast, give it something to do. When the love of God awakes there, give it much to do. Usually, the only way open is to join the church, to make a public profession. The wise mother will see to it that there are other ways, 138 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. Bible Study urging the young knight to serve his King by going forth into the world immediately about him and fight-, ing against all forms of evil, giving him a practical, definite quest. The result of such restriction of public speech, and stimulation of private deed, will be a sin- cere, lowly-minded religion, so inwoven with the truest activities as to be inseparable from them. Such a religion knows no reaction. Now is supremely the time for a study of the Bible. Interesting as a Divine Story Book to the young chil- dren, it becomes the Book of Life to these older ones. In teaching it at home, a few simple rules need to be borne in mind. The first is that the Bible must be thought of not as a series of disconnected texts and thoughts, but as a connected wliole. The division of King James' Bible into verses and chapters is but poorly adapted to this purpose. The illogical, strange character of the paragraphing, as measured by the standards of modern English, is apparent at a glance, for often a verse will end in the middle of sentence, and the sentence be concluded in the next verse. The chapters in the same way often fail to finish the sub- ject with which they deal, and sometimes include sey- eral subjects. Therefore, the mother who undertakes to read the Bible to her children needs first to go through the lesson herself, and to decide what sub- ject, not what chapter, she will take up that day. There is a reader's edition of the Bible, and one called the "Children's Bible," both of which aim to leave out all RELIGIOUS TRAINING. 139 Children's Bible repetition and references and to arrange the Bible narrative in a simple, consecutive order, nevertheless employing the beautiful Bible ianguage. These edi- tions might prove of considerable help to mothers who feel unequal to doing the work by themselves. Second, comparable to this in importance is the reading of the Bible and talking about it in a perfectly ordinary tone of voice; for what you want is to make the Bible teachings live in to-day. You must not, therefore, suggest by your tone or manner that they belong to another day, and that they are, in some sense, to be shut out from common life and speech. This does not mean such common use of Biblical phrases in every day conversation as to cause it to grow into that form of irreverence known as cant, but it does mean simple usage of Bible thought, and the effort to fit it to the conditions of daily life. Such a habit in itself will force any family to discriminate as to what things in the Bible are living and eternal, and what things belong rightly to that far away time and place of which the Bible narrative treats, thus practicing both teacher and pupils—that is, both parents and children—in the art of finding the universal spirit of truth under all temporal disguises. Without this art the Bible is a closed book, even to the closest student. Again, every effort should be made to help the home Bible class to understand the period studied in that week's lesson, and to this end secular literature and art should be freely called upon, not only such stories, Making Lessons Real 140 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. for example, as “Ben Hur," but other stories not necessarily religious, which deal with the same time and place; they are of great help in putting vividly before the children and parents the temporal setting of the eternal stories. Cannon Farrar's “Life of Christ” is a very great help to the realization of the New Testament scenes, as is also Tissot's “Pictorial Life of Christ." In short every art should be made to deepen and clarify the conceptions roused by the study of the Bible. Conclusion The mother who undertakes the tremendous task of rightly training her children, will need to exercise herself daily in all the Christian virtues—and if there are any Pagan ones not included under faith, hope, charity, patience, and humility, to exercise those also. With these virtues to support her, she will be able to use whatever knowledge she may acquire. Without them she can do nothing. STUDY OF CHILD LIFE PART III Read Carefrilly. In answering these questions you are earnestly requested not to answer according to the text-book where opinions are asked for, but to answer according to conviction. In all cases credit will be given for thought and original observation. Place your name and full address at the head of the paper; use your own words so that your instructor may be sure that you understand the subject. 2. I. How can you bring the influence of art to bear upon your child ? What is the influence of music? How can you employ it? 3. Do you believe in fairy tales for children? State your reasons. 4. How would you encourage the love of nature in your child? 5. What is it that the Kindergarten can do better than the home? 6. Suppose that your child had some undesirable acquaintances, how would you meet the situa- tion ? 7. What can you say of accomplishments for chil- dren ? STUDY OF CHILD LIFE. 11. 12. 8. If manual training, physical culture, domestic science, etc., are not taught in your schools and you wish your children to get some of the ad- vantages of these studies, how will you set about it? 9. What do you understand to be the correlation of studies ? IO. Should parents become acquainted with the teach- ers of their children and their methods ? Why? How may children be taught the use of money? State the advantages and disadvantages of Sunday schools. What have they meant in your own experience ? 13. How will you train your child religiously? Can anyone take this task from you? 14. What rules must be borne in mind in teaching the Bible at home? 15. Give some experience of your own (or of a friend) in the training of a child wherein a success has been achieved. 16. Are there any questions you would like to ask or subjects which you wish to discuss in con- nection with the lessons on the Study of Child Life? Note. After completing the test sign it with your full name. Supplementary Notes on STUDY OF CHILD LIFE BY MARION FOSTER WASHBURN APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES. In this "Study of Child Life" we have considered some of the fundamental principles of education. When we think of the complex inheritance of the American people it is, perhaps, no wonder that many families contain individuals varying so widely from each other as to seem to require each a complete system of edu- cation all to himself. We are a people born late in the history of the race, and our blood is mingled of the Norseman's, the Celt's, and the Latin's. Advancing civilization alone would tend to make us more complex, our problems more subtle; but in addition to this we are mixed of all races, and born in times so strenuous that, sooner or later, every abre of our weaving is strained and brought into prominence. In the letters from my students this fact, with which I was already familiar in a general sort of way, has been brought more particularly to my attention. In all cases, the situation has been responsible for much confusion and difficulty. In a good many, it has led to family tragedies, varying in magnitude from the unhappiness of the misunderstood child to that of the lonely woman, suffering in adult life from the faults of her upbringing, and the failure of the family ties whose need she felt the more as the duties of moth- 141 142 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE erhood pressed upon her. If it were possible for me to violate the confidence of my pupils I could prove very conclusively that the old-fashioned system of bringing up children on the three R's and a spanking did not work so well as some persons seem to think. I could prove that the problem has grown past the point where instinct and tradition may be held as suffi- cient to solve it. Everyone, seeing these letters, would be obliged to confess, "Yes, indeed, here is plain need of training for parents." Yet, at the same time, these same persons would be tempted to inquire, “But can any training meet such a difficult situation ?” Here is despair; and some cause for it. When one's own mother has not understood one; when one has lived lonely in the midst of brothers and sisters who are more strange than strangers; when one's childhood is full of the memory of obscure but intense sufferings, one flies for relief, perhaps, to any one who offers it hopefully enough; but one does not really expect to get it. Can training, especially by correspondence, meet the need? Not wholly, of course, let us be frank to admit. No amount of theory, however excellent, can take the place of the drill given only in the hard school of experience. But when the theory is not merely theory, but sound principle, based on scientific observation, confirmed by the wide experience of many persons, it is as valuable in practical life as any rule of mathematics to the prac- tical engineer. We all know that the technical cor- respondence schools really do fit young mechanics to APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 143 move on and up in the trade. By correspondence he is given what Froebel cails the interpreting word. The experience in application the student has to sup- ply himself. So in the matter of education. There are genuine principles which underlie the development of every child that lives—even the feeble-minded, deaf, and blind. Read Helen Keller's wonderful life, if you want to see the proof of it. Just as surely as a child has two legs and has to learn to walk on them by a series of prolonged experiments, just so surely he has (a) a sense of justice, (b) an instinct for freedom, (c) a love of play. Every kind of child has all these in- stincts, as much as he has love for food and drink; and to educate him consists in developing these instincts into (a) the habit of dealing justly by others, (b) the right use of freedom, (c) love of work. The particu- lar methods may differ. The principles do not and CANNOT DIFFER. She who would succeed in child training must hold to these truths with all her might and main-making them, in fact, her religion, for they are the doctrines of the Christian religion as applied to motherhood. To hold them lightly, or even experimentally, will not do. One must walk in faith. And that the faith may not be blind, but may be based on experience and un- derstanding, let me suggest this means of proof: In- stead of asking yourself how the laws laid down in these little books would fit this or that particular child, your own or another's, ask how they would have fitted 144 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE you, if they had been applied to you by your own mother. Take the chapter on faults, pick out the one which was yours, in childhood -oh, of course, you've got over it now !—think of some bitter trouble into which that fault hurried you, and conceive that, instead of the punishment you did receive, you had been treated as the lesson suggests—what, do you think, would have been the result? And so with the other chapters-even with that much-mooted question of companionship. Test the truth of them all by their imaginary application to the child you know best. When you can, find the principles that your own mother did employ in your education, and examine the result of what she did. Some of the principles will suddenly become luminous to you, I am sure; and some things that happened in the past receive an expla- nation. Such a self-examination, to be of any value, must be rigidly honest. There is too much at stake here for you to permit any remnants of bitter feeling to influence your judgment—and you will surely be sur- prised to find how many bitter resentments will show that they yet have life. The past is dead, as far as your power to change it is concerned; but it lives, as a thing that you can use. Here is your own child, to be helped or hindered by what you may have endured. It will all have been worth while, if by means of it you can save him from some bruises and falls. Every bit- terness will be sweetened if you can look through it OTHER PEOPLE'S CHILDREN 145 and find the truth which shall serve this dearer little self who looks to you for guidance. Then, when you have found the principles true—and not one minute before put them rigidly into prac- tice. I say, not one minute before you are convinced, because it is better to hold the truth lightly in the mem- ory as a mere interesting theory you have never had time to test, than to swallow it, half assimilated. Truth is a real and living power, once it is applied to life; and to half-use it in doubt, and fear, is to invite indiges- tion and consequent disgust. Take of these teachings that which you are sure is sound and right, and use it faithfully, and unremittingly. Be careful that no plea of expediency, no hurry of the moment, makes you false. If you are thus faithful in small things, one after the other, in a series fitted to your own peculiar constitution, the others will prove themselves to you; for they are coherent truths, and not one lives to itself alone, but joins hands with all the rest. Being truths, they fit all human minds—yours and mine, and those of our children, no matter how diverse we may be. OTHER PEOPLE'S CHILDREN Isn't it ridiculously true that, as soon as we get enlightened ourselves, we burn to enlighten the rest of the world? We do not seem to remember our own feelings during the years of darkness, and the con- tentment of those who remain as we were surpasses our power of comprehension. It is really comforting to my own sense of impatience and balked zeal to find 146 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE how many of my pupils are dreadfully concerned about other people's children. This one's heart burns over the little boy next door who is shamefully mismanaged and who already begins to show the ill effects of his treatment. That one has a sister-in-law who refuses to listen to a word spoken in season. Between my smiles—those comfortable smiles with which we recognize our own shortcomings—I, too, am really concerned about the sister-in-law's children. It is true that their mother ought to be taught better, and that, if she isn't, those innocent lambs are going to suffer for it. Off at this distance, without the ties of kindred to draw me too close for clear judgment, I see, though, that we have to walk very cautious- ly here, for fear of doing more harm than good. Bet- ter that those benighted women never heard the name of child-study, than to hear it only to greet it with rebellion and hatred. Yet to force any of our principles upon her attention when she is in a hostile mood—or to force them, indeed, in any mood-is to invite just this attitude. Most of us, by the time that we are sufficiently grown up to undertake the study of child life, have outgrown the habit of plainly telling our friends to their faces just what we think of their faults; yet this is a safe and pleasant pastime beside that other of try- ing to tell them how to bring up their children. You stand it from me, because you have invited it, and per- haps still more because you never see me, and the per- OTHER PEOPLE'S CHILDREN 147 sonal element enters only slightly and pleasantly into our relationship. I sometimes think that students pour out their hearts to me, much as we used to talk to our girl friends in the dark. I'm very sure I should never dare to say to their faces what I write so freely on the backs of their papers ! You see, the adult, too, has his love of freedom; and while he can stand an indirect, impersonal preach- ment, which he may reject if he likes without apology, he will not stand the insistence of a personal appeal. I've let “Little Women” shame me into better conduct, when I was a girl, at times when no direct speech from a living soul would have brought me to anything but defiance—haven't you? We have to apply our prin- ciples to the adult world about us, as well as to the child-world, and teach, when we permit ourselves to teach at all, chiefly by example, by cheerful confession of fallibility, by open-mindedness. Above all things, we have to respect the freedom of these others, about whom we are so inconveniently anxious. It is fair, though, that the spoken word should in- terpret what we do. It is fair enough to tell your sister-in-law what you think and ask her judgment upon it, if you can trust yourself not to rub your own judgment in too hard. If you are unmarried, and a teacher, you will have to concede to her preposterous marital conceit a humble and inquiring attitude, and console your flustered soul by setting it to the ingeni- ous task of teaching by means of a graduated series of 148 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE artful inquiries. Don't, oh don't! seek for an out- spoken victory. Be content if some day you hear her proclaim your truth as her own discovery. It never was yours, anyway, any more than it is hers or than it is mine. Be glad that, while she claims it, she at least holds it close. If you are a mother, you are in an easier case. You can do to your own children just what she ought to do to hers, and tell about it softly, as if sure of her sym- pathy. If you are very sincere in your desire for the welfare of her child, you may even ask her advice about yours, and so gain the right to offer a little in exchange -say one-tenth of what she gives. All these warnings apply to unsought advice-a dangerous thing to offer under any circumstances. Except there is a real emergency, you had better avoid it. If your nephew or little neighbor is winning along through his troubles fairly well, best keep hands off. But if you absolutely must interfere, guard yourself as I suggest, and remember that, even then, you will assuredly get burned, if you play long with that dan- gerous fire of maternal pride! When your advice is sought, you are in a different position. Then you have a right to speak out, though if you are wise and loving you will temper that right with charity. No one can be too gentle in dealing with a soul that honestly asks for help; but one can easily be too timid. Think, under these circumstances, of yourself not at all; but put yourself as much as THE SEX QUESTION 140 possible in her place; be led by her questions; and an. swer fearlessly from the depths of the best truth you hold. Then leave it. You can do no more. What becomes of that truth, once you have lovingly spoken it, is no more of your concern. THE SEX QUESTION Always convinced of the importance of this subject, my convictions have deepened to the point of dismay since learning, through this school, of the many women who have suffered and who continue to suffer, both mentally and physically, because, in early girlhood, they were not taught those finer physiological facts upon which the very life of the race depends. Yet, strangely enough, these very victims find it almost impossible to give their children the knowledge neces- sary to save them from a similar fate. It is as if the lack of early training in themselves leaves them help- less before a situation from which they suffer but which they have never mastered. Of course such feelings, in themselves morbid, are not to be trusted. Faced with a task like this we have only to ask ourselves not "Is it hard ?" but "Is it in truth my task?" If it is, we may be sure that we shall be given strength to do it, provided only that we are sincere in our willingness to do it and do not count our feelings at all. It is preposterous to have such feelings, in the first place. They are wholly the product of false teaching. For we have no right—as we recognize when we stop 150 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE to think about it in calmness of spirit, and apart from our special difficulty—to sit in scornful judgment upon any of the laws of nature. When we find ourselves in rebellion against them, what we have to do is to change the state of our minds, for change the laws we cannot. If we women could inaugurate a gigantic strike against the present method of bearing children -and I imagine that millions would join such a strike if it held out any promise of success we still could accomplish nothing. To fret ourselves into a frazzle over it, is to accomplish less than nothing ;—it is to enter upon the pathway to destruction. In teaching our children, then, we have first to con- quer ourselves—that painful, reiterated, primal neces- sity, which must underlie all teaching. Having done So, we shall find our task easier than we supposed. The children's own questions will lead us; and if we simply make it a rule never to answer a question falsely no matter how far it may probe, we shall find ourselves not only enlightening but receiving enlight- enment. For nothing is so sure an antidote to morbid- ness as the unspoiled mind of a child. He looks at the facts with such a calm, level gaze that proportions are restored to us as we follow his look. Many of my letters show that adult women, wives and mothers, still grope for the truth that lies plain to the eyes of any simple child-the truth that there is no such thing as clean and unclean, only use and misuse. Others, through love, and the splendid reve- THE SEX QUESTION 151 lations that it makes, have risen so far above their former misconceptions that they fear to tell a child the facts before he has experienced the love. I can imagine that in an ideal world some such reticence might be good and right—but this is far from an ideal world. We have to train our children relatively, not absolutely, in the knowledge that we do not control all their environment. I think the solution of the diffi- culty is to teach the facts of sex in a perfectly calm, unemotional, matter-of-fact manner, just as one teaches the laws of digestion. When knowledge of evil is thrust upon our child let us be sorry with him that those other children have never been taught, and that they are doing their bodies such sad mischief. But don't exaggerate it; don't be too shocked ; don't con- demn the poor little sinners, who are also victims, too severely. Charity toward wrong-doing is the best prophylactic against imitation. We never feel the lure of a sin which grieves us in another; but often the call of a sin which we too strongly condemn. Be- cause the very strength of the condemnation rouses our imaginations, is in itself an emotion, and, since it is certainly not a loving one, must necessarily be linked with all other unloving and therefore evil emo- tions. As far as possible, let us keep feeling out of this subject, until such time as the true and beautiful feeling of love between husband and wife arises and uplifts it. 152 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE FATHERS And now comes the editor of these lessons and ac- cuses me of neglecting the fathers ! Nothing in this world could be farther from my thoughts. Not only do I agree with him that “all ordinary children have fathers, and it might be well to put in a paragraph;" but I am cheerfully willing to write a whole book on the subject, provided that a mere modicum of readers can be assured me. I fairly ache to talk to fathers, having a really great ideal of them, and whenever a class of them can be induced to take up a correspond- ence course I shall be glad to conduct it. Joking aside, however, I truly feel that the saddest lack many of our children have to suffer is the lack of fathers; and the saddest lack our men have to suffer is the lack of children. So little are most men awake to this subject that I am perfectly convinced that much of the prevalent “race suicide” is due to their objec- tions to a large family, rather than to their wives'. Upon them comes the burden of support. They get few of the joys which belong to children, and nearly all of the woes. Seldom do they share the games of their offspring, or their happy times; and almost al- ways the worst difficulties are thrust upon them for solution. Not that they often solve them! How can we expect it? There is Edgar growing very untruthful and defiant. We have concealed all the first stages of the disease for fear of bothering poor tired papa. At last it FATHERS 153 reaches such a height that we can conceal it no longer. We Aling the desperate boy at the very head of the bewildered father, and then have turns of bitter dis- appointment because the remedies that are applied may be so much cruder, even, than our own. Here is a boy who gets close to his father only to find the prox- imity very uncomfortable; and a father who becomes acquainted with his son only through the ugly revela- tions of his worst faults. Not but that the fathers are somewhat to blame, too. Without urging by us, they ought, of course, to take a spontaneous interest in the lives for which they are responsible. They ought to, and they often do; but their interest is sometimes ill-advised, and conse- quently unwelcome. There are fathers whose interest is a most inconvenient thing. When they are at home, they run everything, growl at everything, upset, as like as not, all that the mother has been trying to do during the day. I know wives who are distinctly glad to encourage their husbands in the habit of lunch- ing down-town, so that they can have a little room for their own peculiar form of activity. And maybe we all have times of sympathizing with the woman in this familiar story: There was a man once who never left the house without a list of directions to his wife as to how she should manage things during his absence. “Better have the children carry umbrellas this morn- ing; it's going to rain," said he, as he went out of the door. "Be sure to put on their rubbers. And since 154 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE the baby is so croupy I'd get out his winter flannels, if I were you." "Yes, dear," said the patient wife. "Make your mind easy. I'll take just as good care of them as if they were my own children.” Of course this is an extreme case. There are other fathers whose whole idea of the parental relation seems to be indulgence. No system of discipline, however mild, can be carried out when such a man wins the children's hearts and ruins their dispositions. It is he, isn't it? (I don't quite recol- lect the tale) who was sent, after death, to the warm regions, there to expiate his many sins of omission. And his adoring children, who had been hauled to heaven by the main strength, let us say, of their mother, found that the only thing they could do for him was to call out celestial hose company number one and ask them to play awhile upon the overheated apart- ments of poor tired papa. The truth is-sit close and let no man hear what we say !—that these fathers are much what we, the mothers, make them. If, under the mistaken idea of saving father from all the worries of the children, we hurry the youngsters off to bed before he comes home in the evening, conceal our heart-burnings over them, do our correspondence-school work in secret and soli- tude, meditate in the same fashion over plans for their upbringing, talk to our neighbors but never to him about the daily troubles, how can we expect any man FATHERS 155 on earth, no matter how susceptible of later angelic growth, to become a wise and devoted father? Tired or not, he is a father, not a mere bread-winner. Whether he likes it at the moment or not, it is for his soul's health for him to enter into the full life of his family, including those problems which are at the very heart of it, after his day of grinding, and very likely unloving, work at the office. Here love enters to in- terpret, to soften, to make all principles live. Here alone he can give himself to those gentler forms of judgment which are necessary as much to the com- pletion of his own character as to the happiness and welfare of his wife and children. Someone has said that we wrong our friends when we ask nothing of them; and certainly it is true that we wrong our hus- bands when we do not demand big and splendid things of them. That word demand troubles me a little. women demand-and demand terribly! But what they demand is indulgence, sympathy, interest-I think sometimes that they crave a man's utter absorption in themselves much as a man craves strong drink. It is their form of intoxication. Such demanding is not, of course, what I mean. Demand nothing for yourself, beyond simple justice. Not love, for that flies at the very sound of demand, and dies before nagging. But demand for the man himself, call upon his nobler qual- ities, and don't let him palm off on you his second-best. Many a man is loved and honored by his business asso- So many 156 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE ciates whose wife and children never catch a glimpse of the finer side of him. Demand the exercise of these fine traits in the home. Demand that he be a fine man in the eyes of his children as in the eyes of his friends. Be sure that he will rise to the occasion with a splendid sense of having, now, a home that is a home, of having a wife who is wived to the man he likes best to be. This bids fair to be as I knew it would, if once I permitted myself to write at all on the subject--not a paragraph, but a whole essay-or perhaps, if I did not check myself, a whole volume! But after all, what I want to say is merely that as no child can be born with- out a father, so he cannot be properly trained without a father's daily assistance. And that, since most fathers come to the task even more untrained than the mothers, some training must be undertaken. By whom? By the mother. It is, I solemnly believe, your duty to go ahead a little on this part of the jour- ney, find out what ought to be done, and teach, coax, induce your husband to co-operate with you in these things. No one knows better than you do that he is only a boy at heart after all—perhaps the very dearest boy of them all. This boy you have to help while yet the other children are little—but be sure that, as you teach him, so, all the time, will he teach you. Every principle laid down in this book, above all others the principle of freedom, will apply to him. He will take the lessons a trifle more reluctantly but more lastingly than the younger boys; and in a little while you will THE UNCONSCIOUS INFLUENCE 157 be envied of all your women friends because of the competency, the reliability, the contentment of your children's father. THE UNCONSCIOUS INFLUENCE When all is said and done, it remains true that the finest, the most subtle and penetrating influence in education is precisely that education for which no rules can be laid down. It is the silent influence of the mo- tives which impel the persons who constantly surround us. If we examine for a little our own childhood we see at once that this is so. What are those canons of conduct by which we judge others and even occasion- ally ourselves? Whence came that list of impossible chings, those things that are so closed to us that we cannot, even under great stress, of temptation, con- ceive ourselves as yielding to them? There is an enlightening story of a young man, born and bred a gentleman, who, by the way of fast living falls upon poverty. In the hard pressure of his finan- cial affairs he is about to commit suicide, when sud- denly he finds, in an empty cab, a roll of bills amount- ing to some thousands of dollars. The circumstances are such that he knows that he can, if he will, discover the owner; or, he can, without fear of detection, keep the money himself. He makes up his mind, deliberate- ly, to keep it, and then, almost against his will, sub- consciously as it were, walks to the office of the man who lost the money and restores it to him. _ 158 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE Now, doubtless, in his downward career he had done many things which judged by any absolute stand- ard of morality were quite as wrong as the keeping of that money would have been, but the fact remained that he could not do that deed. Others, yes, but not that. He was a gentleman, and gentlemen do not steal private property, whatever they may do about public property. Yet probably, in all his life he had not once been told not to steal_not one word had he been taught, openly, on the subject. No one whom he knew stole. He was never expected to steal. Stealing was a sin beyond the pale. So strong was this unconscious, but unvarying influence, that by it he was saved, in the hour of extreme need, from even feeling the force of a temptation that to a boy born and reared, say, in the slums, would have been overwhelming. Now, considering such things, I take it that it be- hooves us, as parents, to look closely at the sort of per- sons that we are, clear inside of us. To examine, as if with the clear eyes of our own children, waiting to be clouded by our sophistries, the motives from which we habitually act in the small affairs of everyday life. Are we influenced by fear of what the neighbors will say? Have we one standard of courtesy for company times, and another for private moments? If so, why? Are we self-indulgent about trifles ? Are we truthful in spirit as well as in letter? Do we permit ourselves to cheat the street-car and the railroad company, teach- ing the child at our side to sit low that he may ride THE UNCONSCIOUS INFLUENCE 159 for half-fare? Do we seek justice in our bargaining, or are we sharp and self-considerate? Do we practice democracy, or only talk it and wave the flag at it? And so on with a hundred other questions as to those small repeated acts, which, springing from base mo- tives, may put our unconscious influence with our chil- dren in the already over-weighted down-side of the scale; or met bravely and nobly, at some expense of convenience, may help to enlighten the weight of in- herited evil. Sometimes I wonder how much of what we call inherited evil is the result not of heredity at all, but of this sort of unconscious education. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS THE SELF-DISTRUSTFUL CHILD. “Your question is an excellent one. The answer to it is really contained in your answer to the question about obedience. If a child obeys laws not persons, and is steadily shown the reasonableness of what is required of him, he comes to trust those laws and to trust himself when he is conscious of obeying. But in addition to this general training, it might be well to give a self-distrustful child easy work to do—work well within his ability—then to praise him for per- forming it; give him something a little harder, but still within his reach, and so on, steadily calling on him for greater and greater effort, but seeing to it that the effort is not too great and that it bears visible fruit. He should never be allowed to be discouraged; and when he droops over his work, some strong, friendly help may well be given him. Sensitive, con- scientious children, such as I imagine you were, are sometimes overwhelmed in this way by parents, quite unconscious of the pain they are giving by assigning tasks that are beyond the strength and courage of the young toilers. "At the same time, much might be done by training the child's attention from product to process. You know the St. Louis Fair does not aim to show what has been done, but how things are done. So a child -so you-can find happiness and intellectual uplift in 160 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS 161 studying the laws at work under the simplest em- ployment instead of counting the number of things finished." COMPANY WAYS "A boy who is visiting us is so beset with rules and 'nagged' even by glances and nudges, that I wonder that he is not bewildered and rebellious. He seems good and pleasant and obedient (12 years old), but I keep wondering why ?” "Perhaps these were company ways inspired by an over-anxiety on his mother's part that he should appear well. Oh, I have been so tempted in this direction ! for of course people look at my children to see if they prove the truth of my teachings, and as they are vigor- ous, free and active youngsters, with decided char- acteristics they often do the most unexpected and un- comfortable things! There must be good points both in the boy himself—the boy you mention and in his training which offset the bad effects of the ‘nagging' you notice—and possibly the nagging itself may not be customary when he is at home. And perhaps the mother knows that you are a close observer of chil- dren.” THEORY BEFORE PRACTICE “There is only one danger in learning about the training of children in advance of their advent, and that is the danger of being too sure of ourselves too systematic. The best training is that which is STUDY OF CHILD LIFE most invisible-which leaves the child most in free- dom. Almost the whole duty of mothers is to provide the right environment and then just love and enjoy the child as he moves and grows in it. But to do this apparently easy thing requires so much simplicity and directness of vision and most of us are so complex and confused that considerable training and consider- able effort are required to put us into the right atti- tude. “For myself, soon after I took my kindergarten training, which I did with three babies creeping and playing about the school-room, I read George Mere- dith's "Ordeal of Richard Feveril" (referred to on p. 33, Part I) and felt that that book was an excellent counter-balance, saving me, in the nick of time, from imposing any system, however perfect, upon my chil- dren. Perhaps you will enjoy reading it, too." THE EMOTIONAL APPEAL “Doing right from love of parent may easily be- come too strong a factor and too much reliance may be placed upon it. There are few dangers in child training more real than the danger of over working the emotional appeal. You do not wish your child to form the habit of working for approval, do you? THE FOOD QUESTION "The food question can be met in less direct ways with your young baby. No food but that which is good for him need be seen. It is seldom good to have so young a child come to the family table. It is better ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS 163 he would have his own meals, so that he is satisfied with proper foods before the other appears. Or, if he must eat when you do, let him have a little low table to himself, spread with his own pretty little dishes and his own chair, with perhaps a doll for com- panion or playmate. From this level he can not see or be tempted by the viands on the large table; yet, if his table is near your chair you can easily reach and serve him. It is a real torment to a young child to see things he must not touch or eat, and it is a perfectly unnecessary source of trouble. "My four children ate at such a low table till the oldest was eight years old, when he was promoted to our table, and the others followed in due order.” AIR CASTLES "What a wonderful reader you were as a child! and certainly the books you mention were far beyond you. Yet I can not quite agree that the habit of air- castle building is pernicious. Indeed I believe in it. It needs only to be balanced by practical effort, di- rected towards furnishing an earthly foundation for the castle. Build, then, as high and splendid as you like, and love them so hard that you are moved to lay a few stones on the solid earth as a beginning of a more substantial structure; and some day you may wake to find some of your castles coming true. Those practical foundation stones underlying a tremendous tower of idealism have a genuine inagic power. Build 164 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE all you like about your baby, for instance. Think what things Mary pondered in her heart. “No, I'm never worried about idealism except when it is contented with itself and makes but little effort at outward realization. But the fact that you are taking this course proves that you will work to realize your ideals. “I don't think it very bad either to read to “kill time." Though if you go on having a family, you won't have any time to kill in a very little while. But do read on when you can, otherwise you may be shut in, first you know, to too small a world, and a mother needs to draw her own nourishment from all the world, past and present." DUTY TO ONESELF "Yes, I should say you were distinctly precocious, and that you are almost certainly suffering from the effects of that early brilliancy. But the degree was not so great as to permanently injure you, especially if you see what is the matter, and guard against re- peating the mistakes of your parents. I mean that you can now treat your own body and mind and nerves as you wish they had treated them. Pretend that you are your own little child, and deal with yourself ten- derly and gently, making allowances for the early sirain to which you were subjected. So few of us American women, with our alert minds, and our Puri. tanic consciences, have the good sense and self-con- ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS 165 trol to refrain from driving ourselves; and if, as often happens, we have formed the bad habit early in life, reform is truly difficult, but not impossible. We can get the good of our disability by conscientiously driv- ing home the principle that in order to 'love others as ourselves' we must learn to love ourselves as we love others. We have literally no right to be unrea- sonably exacting toward ourselves,—but perhaps I am taking too much upon myself by preaching outside the realm of child study.” THE MOTHER AND THE TEACHER "Your paper has been intensely interesting to me. I have always held that a true teacher was really a mother, though of a very large flock, just as a true mother is really a teacher, though of a very small school. The two points of view complete each other and I doubt if either mother or teacher can see truly without the other. They tell us, you know, that our two eyes, with their slight divergence of position, are necessary to make us see things as having more than one side; and the mother and the teacher, one seeing the individual child, the other the child as the member of the race, need each other to see the child as the complex, many-sided individual he really is. "In your school, do you manage to get the mothers to co-operate? Here, I am trying to get near my chil- dren's teachers. They try, too; but it is not altogether easy for any of us. We need some common meeting 166 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE ground-some neutral activity which we could share. If you have any suggestions, I shall be glad to have them. Of course, I visit school and the teachers visit me, and we are friendly in an arm's length sort of fashion. That is largely because they believe in cor- poral punishment and practice it freely and it is hard for us to look straight at each other over this dis- agreement." CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. To the Matron of a Girls' Orphan Asylum “Now to the specific questions you ask. My an- swers must, of course, be based upon general princi- ples—the special application, often so very difficult a matter, must be left to you. To begin with corporal punishment. You say you are 'personally opposed, but that your early training and the literal interpre- tation of Solomon's rod keep you undecided.' Surely your own comment later shows that part, at least, of the influence of your early training was against cor- poral punishment, because you saw and felt its evils in yourself. Such early training may have made you un- apt in thinking of other means of discipline; but it can hardly have made you think of corporal punish- ment as right. “And how can anyone take Solomon's rod any more literally than she does the Savior's cross? We are bid, on a higher authority than Solomon's proverbs, to take up our cross and follow Him. This we all ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS 167 In any interpret figuratively. Would you dream, for instance, of binding heavy crosses of wood upon the backs of your children because you felt yourselves so enjoined in the literal sense of the Scriptures? Why, then, take the rod literally? It is as clearly used to desig- nate any form of orderly discipline as the cross is used to designate endurance of necessary sorrows. "The letter killeth, but the spirit maketh alive.' “As to your next question about quick results, I must recognize that you are in a most difficult posi- tion. For not the best conceivable intentions, nor the highest wisdom, can make the unnatural conditions you have to meet, as good as natural ones. asylum many purely artificial requirements must be made to meet the artificial situation. Time and space, those temporal appearances, grow to be menacing monsters, take to themselves the chief realities. Never- theless, so far as you are able, you surely want to do the natural, right, unforced thing. And with each successful effort will come fresh wisdom and fresh strength for the next. “Let me suggest, in the case you mention, of inso- lence, that three practical courses are open to you: one to send or lead the child quietly from the room, with the least aggressiveness possible, so as not fur- ther to excite her opposition, and to keep her apart from the rest until she is sufficiently anxious for soci- ety to be willing to make an effort to deserve it; or 168 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE two, to do nothing, permitting a large and eloquent silence to accentuate the rebellious words; or three, to call for the condemnation of the child's mates. Speaking to one or two whose response you are sure of first, ask each one present for an expression of opinion. This is so severe a punishment that it ought not often to be invoked; but it is deadly sure. STEALING “The question of honesty is, indeed, most difficult. I do not think it would lower the standard of morality to assume honesty, as the thing you expected to find, to accept almost any other explanation, to agree with the whole body of children that dishonesty was so much the fault of dreadfuily poor people who had nothing unless they stole it, that it could not be their fault, who had so much—couldn't be the fault of any- one who was well brought up, as they were. Empha- size, in story and side allusion, at all sorts of odd mo- ments when no concrete desire called away the chil- dren's minds, the fact that honesty is to be expected everywhere, except among terribly unfortunate people -of course assuming that they with their good shelter and good schooling are among the fortunate ones. Then you will give to each child not only plenty of everything, but things individualized, easily distin- guished, and a place to put them in. I've often thought that the habit of buying things wholesale—so many dolls, all exactly alike, so many yards of calico for ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS 169 dresses, all exactly alike, leads, in institutions like yours, to a vague conception of private property, and even of individuality itself. If some room could be allowed for free choice the children be allowed to buy their own calicoes, within a given price, or to choose the trimmings or style, etc. I feel sure the re- sult would be a sturdier self-respect and a greater sense of that difference between individuals which needs emphasizing just as much as does the solidarity of individuals." BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS FOR MOTHERS Fundamental Books (Philosophy of Education---Pedagogy) The Science of Rights ($5.00, postage 30c), J. G. Fichte. Education of Man ($1.50, postage 12c), Friedrich Froebel. Mottoes and Commentaries of Froebel's Mother Play ($1.50, postage 14c), translated by Susan E. Blow. The Part Played by Infancy in the Evolution of Man ($2.00, postage 15c), from "A Century of Science,” article by John Fiske. How Gertrude Teaches Her Children ($1.50, postage 14c), Pestalozzi. Levana, Bohn Library ($1.00, postage 12c), Jean Paul Rich- ter. Education ($1.25, postage 12c), Herbert Spencer. General Books on Education Household · Education ($1.25, postage Ioc), Harriet Mar- tineau. Bits of Talk About Home Matters ($1.25, postage roc), H. H. Jackson. Biography of a Baby ($1.50, postage 12c), Millicent Shinn. Study of Child Nature ($1.00, postage ioc), Elizabeth Har- rison. Two Children of the Foot Hills ($1.25, postage 1oc), Eliza- beth Harrison. The Moral Instruction of Children ($1.50, postage 14c), Felix Adler. The Children of the Future ($1.00, postage roc), Nora A. Smith. Children's Rights ($1.00, postage roc), Kate Douglas Wiggin and Nora A. Smith. . Republic of Childhood (3 vols., each $1.00; postage noc), Kate Douglas Wiggin and Nora A. Smith. Educational Reformers ($1.50, postage 14c), Quick. 170 BIBLIOGRAPHY 171 Lectures to Kindergartners - ($1.00, postage roc), Elizabeth Peabody. The Place of the Story in Early Education ($0.50, postage 6c), Sara E. Wiltse. Children's Ways ($1.25, postage roc), Sully. Kindergarten and Child Culture Papers ($3.50, postage 20c), Barnard. Adolescence (2 vols., $7.50; postage 56c), G. Stanley Hall. Psychology and Advanced The Mind of the Child (2 vols., each $1.50, postage roc), W. Preyer. The Intellectual and Moral Development of the Child ($1.50, postage 12c), G. Compayre. Child Study ($1.25, postage 14c), Amy Tanner. The Story of the Mind ($0.35, postage 6c), J. Mark Bald- win. Psychology (Briefer Course, $1.60; postage 16c. Advanced Course, 2 vols., $4.80; postage 44c), James. School and Society ($1.00, postage roc), John Dewey. Emile ($0.90, postage 8c), Rousseau. Pedagogics of the Kindergarten ($1.50, postage 12c), Froebel. Education by Development ($1.50, postage 12c), Froebel. Kindergarten and Child Culture Papers, Henry Barnard. Letters to a Mother on the Philosophy of Froebel ($1.50. postage 12c), Blow. Studies of Childhood ($2.50, postage 20c), Sully. Mental Development ($1.75, postage 16c), Baldwin. Education of Central Nervous System ($1.00, postage 16c), Halleck. Child Observations, Imitative Symbolic Education $1.50, post- age 12c), Blow. Interest as Related to Will ($0.25, postage 6c), Dewey. Religious Training Christian Nurture ($1.25, postage 12c), Horace Bushnell. 172 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE On Holy Ground ($3.00, postage 300), W. L. Worcester. The Psychology of Religion ($1.50, postage 14c), E. D. Star- buck. The Sex Question The Song of Life ($1.25, postage 12c), Margaret Morley. What a Young Boy Ought to Know ($1.00, postage 10c), Rev. Sylvanus Stall. What a Young Girl Ought to Know ($1.00, postage roc), Rev. Sylvanus Stall. Duties of Parents to Children in Regard to Sex ($0.40, postage 40), Rev. Wm. L. Worcester. How to Tell the Story of Reproduction to Children, Pamphlet 5c; order from Mothers' Union, 3408 Harrison Street, Kan- sas city, Mo. of General Interest to Mothers Wilhelm Meister ($1.00, postage 14c), Goethe. Story of My Life ($1.50, postage 14c), Helen Keller. The Ordeal of Richard Feveril ($1.50, postage 14c), George Meredith. Up from Slavery ($1.50, postage 14c), Booker T. Wash- ington. Emmy Lou ($1.50, postage 14c), Mrs. George Madden Mar. ten. The Golden Age ($1.00, postage roc), Kenneth Grahame, Dream Days ($1.00, postage roc), Kenneth Grahame. In the Morning Glow ($1.25, postage 12c), Roy Rolf Gil- son. Man and His Handiwork, Wood. Primitive Industry ($5.00, postage 40c), Abbott. Every Day Essays ($1.25, postage roc), Marion Foster Wash- burne. Family Secrets $1.25, postage roc), Marion Foster Wash- burne. BIBLIOGRAPHY 173 BOOKS FOR CHILDREN Fairy Tales Grimm's Fairy Tales ($0.50, postage 14c). Andrew Lang's Green, Yellow, Blue and Red Fairy Books (each $0.50, postage 14c). Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Tales ($0.50, postage 14c). Tanglewood Tales ($0.75, postage 14c), Hawthorne. The Wonder Book ($0.75, postage 12c), Hawthorne Old Fashioned Fairy Tales by Tom Hood, retold by Marion Foster Washburne. (In press.) Adventures of a Brownie, by Dinah Maria Mulock Craik. Edited by Marion Foster Washburne. (In press.) A Few Books for Various Agos Water Babies ($0.75, postage 12c), Charles Kingsley. At the Back of the North Wind ($0.75, postage 12c), George McDonald Little Lame Prince ($0.50, postage 8c), Dinah Maria Mulock Craik. In the Child World ($2.00, postage 16c), Emilie Poulson. Nature Myths ($0.35, postage 6c), Flora J. Cooke. Sharp Eyes ($2.50, postage 18c), Gibson. Stories Mother Nature Told ($0.50, postage 6c), Jane An- drew. Jungle Books (2 vols, each $1.50; postage 16c), Kipling. Just-So Stories ($1.20, postage 12c), Kipling. Music for Children Finger Plays ($1.25, postage 12c), Emilie Poulson. Fifty Children's Songs, Reinecke. Songs of the Child World (2 vols., each $1.00; postage 12c), Gaynor. Songs for the Children (2 vols., each $1.25; postage 14c), Eleanor Smith. 30 Selected Studies (Instrumental), ($1.50, postage 14c), Heller. 174 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE Pictures for Children Detaille Prints, Boutet de Monvil, Joan of Are. Caldecott: Picture Books (4 vols., each $1.25; postage 12c). Walter Crane: Picture Books ($1.25, postage roc). Colored illustrations cut from magazines, notably those drawn by Howard Pyle, Elizabeth Shippen Greene, and Jessie Wil- cox Smith. See articles in “Craftsman” for December, 1904, February and April, 1905, “Decorations for School Room and Nursery." Note.-Books in the above list may be purchased through the American School of Home Economics at the prices given. Members of the School will receive students' discount. Program for Supplemental Work on the STUDY OF CHILD LIFE BY MARION FOSTER WASHBURN. MEETING I Infancy. (Study pages 3-25) (a) Its Meaning. See Fiske on "The Part Played by Infancy in the Evolution of Man" in "A Century of Science” (160). (b) General Laws of Progression. See Millicent Shinn's "Biography of a Baby" (120), and W. Preyer's “The Mind of the Child” (200). Give resumés of these two books. (c) Practical Conclusions. Hold Experience Meeting to conclude afternoon. MEETING II Faults and Their Remedies. (Study pages 26-57) (a) General Principles of Moral Training. Read Herbert Spencer on "Education" (12c), chapter on "Punishment”; also call for quotations from H. H. Jack- son's "Bits of Talk About Home Matters” (10c). (b) Corporal Punishment. Why It Is Wrong. (c) Positive Versus Negative Moral Training. Read extracts from Froebel's “Education of Man" (12c), and Richter's "Levana" (12c), Kate Douglas Wiggin's "Chil- dren's Rights” (10c), and Elizabeth Harrison's “Study of Child Nature” (10c), are easier and pleasanter reading, sound, but less fundamental. Choice may be made between these two sets of books, according to conditions. (Select answer to test questions on Part I and send them to the School.) 175 176 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE MEETING III Character Building. (Study pages 59-75) Read extracts from Froebel, Pestalozzi, and Harriet Mar- tineau. (a) From Froebel to show general principles (12c). (b) From Pestalozzi (140) or if that is not available, from “Mottoes and Commentaries on Froebel's Mother- Play” (14c), to show ideal application of these general prin- ciples. (c) From Harriet Martineau's "Household Education” (10c), or “Children's Rights” (10c), to show actual applica- tion of these general principles. Experience meeting. MEETING IV Educational Value of Play and Occupations. (Study pages 78-99) (a) General Principles-Quote authorities from past to present. Read from "Education of Man" (120) and “Mother Play” (14c). (b) Representative and Symbolic Plays. See “Education of Man" (120) and “Letters to a Mother on the Philosophy of Froebel” (120). Dancing and Drama from Richter's "Levana" (120). (c) Nature's Playthings (Earth, Air, Fire, and Water). Ask members of class to describe plays of their own child- hood and tell what they meant to them. (Select answer to test questions on Part II.) MEETING V Art and Literature in Child Life. (Study pages 100-112) Ask members to bring good pictures and story-books, thus making exhibit. (a) Place of Pictures in Children's Lives. Of Color. Of Modeling. Influence of artistic surroundings. If anyone knows of a model nursery or schoolroom, let her describe it. CLASS STUDY PROGRAM 177 Are drawing and modeling at school "fads" or living bases for educational processes? See Dewey on "The School and Society” (10c). (b) Place of fiction in education. See “The Place of the Story in Early Education” (6c). (c) Accomplishments. Practical discussion of the ad- vantages and disadvantages of music lessons, the languages, and other work out of school. See “Adolescence," by G. Stanley Hall. MEETING VI Social and Religious Training. (Study pages 114-140 and Supplement) (a) The Question of Associations. See Dewey's “The School and Society” (10c), “The Republic of Childhood" (300). Quote "Up from Slavery" (140) and "Story of My Life” (14c), to show that the humblest com- panions may sometimes be the most desirable. (b) The New Education. See catalogues of the Francis W. Parker School, Chicago, Ill., (4c); The Elementary School, University of Chicago, (60); State Normal School, Hyannis, Mass., (40); "School Gardens," Bulletin No. 160, Office of Experiment Stations, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., (2c). (c) The Sex Question. Where are the foundations of morality laid-in church, school, home, or street? Read entire, “Duties of Parents to Children in Regard to Sex" (pamphlet, 5c). (d) Religious Training. Read from "Christian Nurture" (120) and "Psychology of Religion" (140). (Select answer to test questions on Part III.) For more extended program, book lists for mothers, children's book list, loan papers, send to the National Con- 778 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE gress of Mothers, Mrs. E. C. Grice, Corresponding Secretary, 3308 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Price, 10 cents each. See also “The Child in Home, School, and State," with address by President Roosevelt.-Report of the N. C. M. for 1905. Price, 50c. NOTE.—When reference books mentioned in the foregoing program are not available from public libraries, they may be borrowed of the A. S. H. E. for the cost of postage indi- cated in parentheses. Three books may be borrowed at one time by a class, one by an individual. For class work, a book may be kept for two weeks, or longer, if there is no other call for it. Send stamps with requests, which should be made several weeks in advance to avoid disappointment. INDEX Abnormal laziness, 47 Bible lessons made real, 139 Abstract studies, 119 study, 138 Accomplishments and stud Bonfires, 85 ies, 119 Books for children, 111, 170 showy, 123 Bottle-fed babies, 25 Accounts, personal, 129 Breaking the will, 29 Adolescence, religious exci Busy work, 97 tability of, 136 Adult's world, 24 Care of pets, 45 Advantage of positive com Cause of impudence, 51 mands, 61 of iritability and nervous- Affections, cultivation of, 45 ness, 35 Aims of kindergarten, 45 of rupture, 21 Air as a plaything, 82 of temper, 35. castles, 163 Character building, rules in, 74 Allowance, regular, 127 Children, other people's, 145 Alternate growth of children, Children's associates, 113 14 Bible, 139 Anæmia, 47 clubs, value of, 45 Answer honest questions, 71 hour, the, 118 Answers to questions, 100 Child's share in family re- Application of principles, 141 public, 65 Aristotle's teachings, 76 world, 24 Art and literature in child Classic art, 102 life, 101 Clay modeling, 80 and nature, 112 Climbing, 13 classic, 102 Clothing, proper, 20 influence of, 101 Color, 102 plastic, 104 Colored pictures, 104 Associates, children's, 113 Commands, disagreeable, 37 exclusive, 114 positive, 35 useless, II Baby-jumpers, 14 Company ways, 161 Bandaging the abdomen, 21 Conclusion, 140 Beginnings of will, 7 Condition at birth, 3 Bible, children's, 139 Consciousness of self, 6 179 180 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE 66 Corporal punishment, 54, 166 Emergencies, 30 Correlation of studies, 121 Enthusiasm, religious, 135 Correspondence training, 142 Enthusiasms,” 124 Costume, model, 21 Essentials of play, 78 Creeping, 12 Evasive lying, 39 Cultivate affections, 45 Evils, permanent, 28 Cutting and pasting, 99 resulting from corporal pun- ishment, 55 Daily outing, 18 Example, bad, 52 Dancing for children, 87 courteous, 54 Danger of forcing, 12 evil, 115 Dangerous pastimes, 83 versus precept, 34, 68 Darwin's observations, 9 Exclusive associates, 114 Depravity, original, 61 Development of intellect, 126 Fairy tales, 109 premature, 3 Family republic, 64 Diagram of Gertrude suit, 23 Fathers, 152, Diet, simple, 25 responsibilities of, 154 Disadvantages of Sunday Fatigue harmful to children, Schools, 134 94 Disagreeable commands, 37 Faults and their remedies, 26 Discipline, educative, 57 real, 28 Disobedience, 30 temporary, 24 real, 33 Fear versus love, 55 Double standard of morality Feeding, indiscriminate, 25 Financial training, 126 Double standards, 158 Fire as a plaything, 84 Drama, 107 First grasping, 9 Dramatic games, 107 Fiske's doctrine of right,64 plays, 87 teachings, 15 Drawing and painting, 99 Food, natural, 24 Dress for play, 79 question, 162 Dress, proper, 20. undesired, 11 Duties, systematized, 37 Forcing, danger of, 12 Duty to one's self, 164 Fresh air, 18 Frobel's great motto, 70 Education, the new, 120 philosophy, 59 scientific, 121 Fundamental principles of the Educational beginnings, 5 the new education, 59 exercises, 5 value of play, 77 Games, drmatic, 107 Educative discipline, 57 Gardens for children, 81 Effect of Sunday school teach Gertrude suit, 21 ing, 132 Goodness, original, 61 53 INDEX 181 IIO Goodness, negative, 32 Liberty, 33, 64 Grasping, 9, 1 Limitations of words, 67 Growth of children, 14 Literature, 108 of will, 8 and art, 101 Looking, 9 Helping, 93 Love of work, 93 mother, 91 versus fear, 55 Home kindergarten, 90 Low voice commands, 66 How the child develops, 3 Lungs, weak, 21 Luther's teachings, 76 Imagination and sympathy, Lying, evasive, 39 imaginative, 39 Imitativeness, instinct of, 32 kinds of, 38 Imaginative lying, 39 politic, 40 Immature judgment, 30 Impudence, cause of, 51 Magazines for children, 11: Incomplete development at Magic lantern, 85 birth, 4 Massage, 5. Indiscriminate feeding, 25 Meaning of righteousness, 72 punishment, 55 Model costume, 21 Industry, willing, 94 Modeling apron, 81 Influence of art, 101 clay, 80 Inherited crookedness, 41 Monotony undesirable, 95 disposition, 38 Moral precocity, 73 Instinct, 9 training, object of, 60 of imitativeness, 32 Mother and teacher, 165 Insrumental music, 107 Mother, teaching, 92 Intellect, development of, 126 Mothers as teachers, 134 Irritability, cause of, 35 Mud pies, 80 Muscular development, 5 Jealousy, 42 Music for children, 106 Justice and love in the family, instrumental, 107 42 study of, 124 Mystery of sex, 72 Kindergarten, aims of, 45 as a remedy for selfishness, Nagging, 96 44 Naps, 20 methods, 62 Natural food, 24 methods in the home, 90 punishment, 29 social advantages of, 113 talent, 124 Knit garments, 22 Nature study, 112 Negative goodness, 32 Law-making habit, 70 Neighbors' opinions, 63 Laziness, 46 Nervousness, cause of, 3: IS 2 STUDY OF CHILD LIFE self, 34 New education, the, 120 Premature development, 3 principles of, 59 Preyer's record, 11, 19 Normal child, 12 Principles, application of, 141 Nursery requisites, 16 Prohibitions, useless, 34 Punishment, corporal, 54 Object of moral training, 60 indiscriminate, 55 of punishment, 40 natural, 29 Objection to pinning blank object of, 40 et, 21 Obligation of truthfulness, 38 Occupations, 90 Questions, answers to, 160 Only child, the, 44 Quick temper, 35 Opportunity for growth, 16 Ośder of development, 9 Real disobedience, 33 Other people's children, 145 faults, 28 Quting, daily, 18 Reflex grasping, 7 Regular allowance, 127 Painting and drawing, 99 Religious enthusiasm, 135 Parental indulgence, 154 excitability of adolescence, vanity, 125 136 Pasting and cutting, 99 training, 131 Permanent evils, 28 Remedy for fits of temper, 36 Personal accounts, 129 Responsibilities of fathers, 154 Pets, care of, 45 Restrictions of dress, 79 Physical cause of laziness, 46 Rhythmic movements, 86 culture, 123 Richter's views, 28, 87 culture records, 25 Right doing, 28 Philosophy, Froebel's 59 made easy, 63 Pictures, colored, 104 Righteousness, meaning of, 72 Pinning blanket, objection to Right material for play, 79 Rights of others, 64 Plastic art, 104 Rules in character building, 74 Play, 76 Rupture, cause of, 21 educational value of, 77 essentials of, 78 Sand piles, 80 with the limbs, 5 Scientific education, 12I Politeness to children, 69 Self-distrustful child, 160 Politic lie, the, 40 Selfishness, 43 Positive commands, 35, 61 Self-mastery, 29 Precautions to prevent at punishment, 34 tacks of temper, 37 Sewing, 98 with fire, 84 Sex, 71 Precocity, 15 mystery of, 72 moral, 73 question, the, 149 21 INDEX 183 22 Showy accomplishments, 123 Temporary faults, 24 Simple diet, 25 Theater, 108 Sleep, sufficient, 19 Theory before practice, 161 Social advantages of kinder Thermometer in nursery, 18 garten, 113 Throwing, 10 Soft spot in head, 4 Tiedmann's teachings, 35 Solitude remedy for temper, 36 Touching forbidden things, II Songs for children, 86 Toys, 83, 88, 89 Spencer's views, 29 Training, financial, 126 Spending foolishly, 128 for parents, 142 wisely, 127 religious, 131 Standard of morality, double, Truthfulness, obligations of, 38 53. Standing, 14. Unconscious influence, 157 Stanley Hall's views, 137 Underclothing, 22 Stealing, 168 Undesired food, II Stockinet for undergarments, Undisciplined will, 30 Unresponsiveness, 38 Story telling, 93 Unsought advice, 148 Studies, abstract, 119 Untidiness, its remedy,.49 and accomplishments, 119 Useless commands, II correlation of, 121 prohibitions, 34 Success in child training, 143 Sullenness, 38 Value of children's clubs, 45 Sunday school, disadvantage Vanity, parental, 125 of, 134 Variable periods of growth, effect of, 132 15 teachers, 131 Ventilation, means of, 18 Sunlight necessary for growth, Walking, 14 Sympathy and imagination, Water as a plaything, 82 colors, 99 in play, 79 Weak lungs, 21 Symptoms of anæmia, 47 Weight at birth, 4 Systematized duties, 37 Wholesome surroundings, 16 Will, beginnings of, 7 Talent, natural, 124 breaking, the, 29 Teaching mother, 92 growth of, 8 Telling stories, 93. Willful child, 34 Temperament, emotional, 42 Willing industry, 94 Temperature of nursery, 18 Will, undisciplined, 30 Temper, cause of, 35 Work, beautiful, 96 precautions to prevent at- love of, 93 tacks of, 37 Wrappings, extra, 21 16 IIO LESSONS IN COOKING, THROUGH PREPARATION OF MEALS BY EVA ROBERTA ROBINSON AND HELEN GUNN HAMMEL. New Correspondence Course, in 12 Parts, each containing a week's menu, with detailed recipes and full directions for preparing all meals; also menus for all occasions, special articles, etc. American School of Home Economics, Chicago. Synopsis. Part 1. SEPTEMBER MENUS; Tables and Definitions; Processes in Cooking ; General Directions ; Setting the Table; Helpful Suggestions; Cost of Food and the Food Value of the Meals Served. Part II. OCTOBER MENUS; Waiting on Table, With and With- out Maid ; Saturday Baking; Helpful Suggestions; Detailed Cost of Food and Food Value for Each Day, and Summary. Part III. NOVEMBER MENUS; Dish Washing, With and Without Running Water, with Dish Washing Apparatus; Thanksgiving Dinner Menu, Recipes, Table Decoration and Serving ; Dressing and Trussing of Fowls ; Care of Fish; Methods of Cooking in Fats, Tests of Temperature, etc. ; Cake Baking, Temperatures for Oven and Tests; Cost of Food and Food Value of Each Meal, and Summary. Part IV. DECEMBER MENUS : Candy Making, Classes, Methods, and Recipes : Christmas Dinner Menu, Recipes, Table Decoration and Serving ; Cost of Food and Food Value; Suggestions for Reducing the Cost of the Food Served. Part V. JANUARY MENUS : Fuels and Fuel Economy, Coal, Coke, Wood, Gas, Gasoline, Kerosene, Alcohol, Electricity, Reading Gas and Elec- tric Meters; Informal Luncheon Menu, Recipes, Table Decoration and Method of Serving; Fireless Cookers and Their Use; Cost of Food and Food Value; Reducing the Cost. Part VI. FEBRUARY MENUS : Planning of Meals ; A Balanced Dietary; Suitable Combinations ; Economy; Suggestive Menu Chart; School Luncheons; The Worker's Lunch ; Cost of Food and Food Value; Reduction of Cost. Part VII. MARCH MENUS; Marketing and Cuts of Meat; Chafing Dish Supper. Menu, Recipes, Table Arrangement and Decoration, Serving ; Carving at Table ; Amounts to Serve for Various Numbers; Helpful Sug- gestions ; Cost of Food and Food Value ; Reducing the Cost. Part VIII. APRIL MENUS; Kitchen Conveniences and Appliances ; Formal Easter Luncheon Menu. Recipes, Table Decoration, Serving; Help- ful Suggestions, How to Seal Moulds, Shape Croquettes, etc. ; Cost of Food and Food Value; Reduction of Cost. Part IX. MAY MENUS; Care of Food in the Home; Care and Use of the Refrigerator ; What to Do Without Ice; Care of Left-overs; Buy- ing Supplies ; Emergency Meals; May Breakfast_Menu, Recipes, Table Decoration, Serving; Invalid Cookery ; Cost of Food and Food Value; Reducing the Cost. Part X. JUNE MENUS: Canning, Preserving, Jelly Making Recipes, Full Details of Various Successful Methods and Appliances ; Wedding Breakfast Table Decoration, Menu, Recipes, Seating of Guests, etc.; Help- ful Suggestions ; Cost of Food and Food Value; Redyction of Cost. Part XI. JULY MENUS; Pickling Fruits and Vegetables ; Canning Vegetables, Recipes ; Picnic Dinner Menu, Suggestions for Packing, c.'; Children's Party Menu, Recipes, Table Decoration, Methods for Serving ; Cost of Food and Food Value; Reducing the Cost. Part XII. AUGUST MENUS; Household Tests and Food Adultera- tions; A Foraml Dinner Menu, Recipes, Table Decoration, Service, etc.; Final Suggestions ; Complete Index, Alphabetical with Cross References ; Classified Reprint of Monthly Menus ; Glossary; Bibliography. Send 50 cents for Part 1, 21 September Lessons, or ask for free Bul- letin of sample pages. A. S. H. E., 506 W. 69th St., Chicago. CARE OF CHILDREN BY ALFRED CLEVELAND COTTON, A. M., M. D), PROFESSOR DISEASES OF CHILDREN RUSH MEDICAL COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO ATTENDING PHYSICIAN DISEASES OF CHILDREN PRESBYTERIAN HOSPITAL SCHOOL # HOMES CHICAGO AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS 1913 COPYRIGHT, 1916 BY HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION Entered at Stationer's Hall, London Aii Rights Reserved CONTENTS V I 6 15 20 30 32 34 37 38 3) 42 . 47 50 55 LETTER TO STUDENTS Hygiene of the BABY New Born BABY Care of the New Baby Baby's CLOTHES CLOTHING FOR Older CHILDREN SURROUNDINGS AND CARE. SLEEP EXERCISE BATHING REGULATION DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH TEETHING DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL SENSES NUTRITION OF The Child . NATURAL FOOD WEANING AND SUBSTITUTE Feeding ArtiFICIAL FEEDING MODIFIED Milk Foods Other Than MILK Food DISORDERS Food AFTER The First YEAR Food RECIPES . The Sick Child The CRY Colic CONSTIPATION SUMMER DIARRHEAS APNORMAL PASSAGES RICKETS, MALNUTRITION, SCURVY Colds 56 71 76 90 109 113 115 119 123 1 25 127 . I 28 130 134 136 . 141 III IV CONTENTS . SORE THROAT CROUP TEMPERATURE NERVOUS DISORDERS CONVULSIONS, SPASMS, FITS, CRAMPS CONTAGIOUS DISEASES MEASLES SCARLET FEVER CHICKEN POX DIPHTHERIA WHOOPING COUGH FOREIGN BODIES EARACHE THE MEDICINE CHEST HYGIENE OF THE CHILD AND YOUTH EDUCATION PUBESCENCE BIBLIOGRAPHY SODIUM CITRATE IN INFANT FEEDING THE SOOTHER . PROGRAM FOR SUPPLEMENTAL STUDY INDEX 142 145 147 148 149 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 163 165 167 171 174 179 192 . . 201 205 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS CHICADO January 1, 1907. My dear Madam: In my private practice I meet so many mothers, well educated otherwise, who are profoundly ignorant of the care of children that it is a pleasure to find one who is willing to study something of the subject in a systemat- ic way. The feeding of children, especially of bottle babies, calls for the utmost skill of the trained physician, while the responsibility of a sick child is too great for any mother or nurse. It goes without saying that a subject which oft tines taxes the knowledge of exper- ienced physicians cannot be mastered in a few short lessons by the average mother. It is only in the hope that some of the fundamental prin- ciples embodied herein may be impressed upon the student mother's mind and lead to a better appre- ciation of the importance of details in the man- agement of the child that these lessons are of- fered. Children are not alike, nor can they be classified according to their peculiarities with a view to successful care or treatment of their varying disorders. Each child has his particular individuality, study and appreciation of which marks the highest type of the succe88- ful physician. The name of the disease or dis- order is usually of less importance than the in- dividuality or peculiarity of the child. The dosing of children according to any stereotyped formula for real or imaginary ail- iments cannot be too vigorously condemned and the wise mother will rarely administer medi- cines except under the advice of the physician. Prevention is always much easier than cure and a mother's greatest opportunity comes in 80 caring for her child that he may seldom re- quire the services of the physician. I regret that I shall not be able to give the time to look over your answers personally, but my assistant will call upon me Preely and I shall be glad to give any personal assistance that I can. Very truly yours, oltoo THE FOLLOWING ARE A FEW PAGES FROM THE LESSONS ONE OF DR. COTTON'S BABIES IN THE “BABY RAG" CARE OF CHILDREN Hygiene of the Baby Care of the Baby Before Birth THE care of the infant should begin from the moment of conception. So much does the normal development of the unborn child depend upon the physical vigor and mental balance of the mother that her health during pregnancy is of the highest importance. Everything that tends to im- prove the mental and physical condition, such as wholesome food, pleasant surroundings, congenial associates, exercise, fresh air and sunshine should be secured for the expectant mother. Under favorable hygiene even the very delicate woman may bear and nourish healthy children. During pregnancy, especially in the advanced stage, laborious occupation and violent exercise must be avoided. The exercise involved in walking and in the duties of light housework is beneficial while the exertion incident to laundry work, pro- longed use of the sewing machine, hill climbing and driving over rough roads may be positively injurious or even dangerous. Corsets should be discarded upon the first evi- dence of conception and loose clothing suspended from the shoulders should be adopted, thus reliev- ing the hips and abdomen of all weight and com- pression. The ideal dress for this period is the union are of the Mother Dress 2 CARE OF CHILDREN 1851 1851 A PRINCESS MATERNITY GOWN Ladies' Home Journal Pattern. 4 CARE OF CHILDREN The Breasts Gentle massage of the abdomen with olive oil, cocoa butter or goose fat should be practiced daily, not only for its nutritious effect but to facilitate stretching of the tense skin. If the womb drags heavily upon the abdomen great relief may be ob- tained by a properly adjusted supporter so arranged as to support the lower part of the abdomen. The breasts so essential to the future sustenance of the child, should be treated daily to the same gentle massage while the nipples should be gradu- ally toughened by the ap- plication of dilute alcohol or equal parts of brandy and water. If flat or de- AN ABDOMINAL SUPPORTER. pressed the nipples should be developed by moulding with the fingers or drawing out with a cupping glass or breast pump. Swelled feet and distended veins of the legs may be due to pressure of the heavy womb and require frequent rest in the horizontal position with the feet elevated, while the limbs are gently stroked towards the body. In severe cases bandaging may be necessary which, however, should always be done under the advice of the physician. A specimen of the urine should be furnished the doctor from time to time for examination, especially during the later months of pregnancy, as dangerous From Griffith. The Urino BEFORE THE BABY COMES 5. The Teeth Mental Conditions kidney complications may be thereby discovered and relieved by timely treatment. The teeth, which frequently soften and decay dur- ing pregnancy, should be put in first class condition by the dentist during the early months, thus pre- venting much suffering and maybe serious shock. The expectant mother should regard the coming of her baby with feelings of happy anticipation while dread of the ordeal should be kept sedulously in the background. All means for promoting happi- ness and contentment should be cultivated as de- spondency, dread and discontent not only interfere with the mother's physical well-being but may tend to arrest or pervert development of the unborn child. The popular belief in birth marks as a result of disagreeable or unusual occurrences or sights is not well founded, but the hygiene of this period requires that the mother be protected from undue mental strain or intense emotional disturbances. All preparation for the advent of the little one should be simple, rational and complete long before the last weeks of pregnancy thereby avoiding the undue work and worry of hasty preparation. The pregnant woman should be under the care of a competent physician during the entire period of gestation. Since not only the life of the infant but his entire Preparations Importanco of Early Care 6 CARE OF CHILDREN Immortance of Infant Hygiene future health is dependent upon the nature of his early care, intelligent study of all that pertains to the hygiene of this little being is the highest duty of the young mother. The belief that instinct en- dows motherhood with knowledge requisite to her new responsibilities is not only erroneous but pro- ductive of great mischief, as the lost or ruined lives of thousands of mismanaged infants will attest. Viewed in this light a knowledge of the slightest details of the infant's anatomy, physiology and hygiene assumes a new significance and may prove of inestimable value in conserving his health and insuring his normal development. The startling death rate in early infancy calls loudly for a more thorough study of the causes of poor development and disease most of which might be prevented by a better understanding of the infant and his re- quirements. It is evident that the simplest method of studying the new born infant is to become famil- iar with the details of his normal form and propor- tions, for in this way only may departures from the normal be recognized. THE NEW BORN BABY The infant's skin at birth is usually covered with à thick whitish substance (vernix caseosa) which is most abundant in the creases and depressions and upon the scalp. At birth the color is a dusky hue, which after a few full inspirations changes to the Skin TWO NEW BORN BABIES BACK FRONT FOLD-36 INCHES LONG 154 INCHES WIDE PATTERN FOR A SIMPLE MUSLIN SLIP. Draw 2-inch squares on a paper over 36 in. x 16 in. and sketch the pattern as indicated. The gown is gathered at the neck and wrists on very narrow bands. The back is like the front except at the neck. (Only the top and bottom of the pattern is shown.) THE NEIV BORN BABY 9 Weight Proportions “boiled lobster" red. About the third day a scaling of the skin begins, which continues for a week or ten days. The texture of the skin is very delicate and is usually covered with a downy growth, called lanugo. The average weight at birth is about 7 pounds for boys and 6 pounds for girls. The average length is from 18 to 20 inches. To anyone seeing a new-born infant for the first time, the large head, small chest, enormous abdo- men and insignificant extremities seem out of all . proportion. A constant proportional relationship exists be- tween the different members of the normal infant at birth. The following simple rule will aid the student in remembering this relationship. Rule.---Add 4 inches to half the baby's length for the chest circumference; the head is one inch larger than the chest. The abdomen is 1/2 to 1 inch larger than the head, e. g.: Length..... 18 inches Circumference of thorax.. .13 inches Circumference of head. .14 inches Circumference of abdomen.. .147 inches The head, being plastic, shows the pressure effects of recent birth. If labor has been prolonged it sometimes presents a great elongation and not in- frequently there is a soft doughy swelling as large as half an orange near the crown caused by the The Head ΙΟ CARE OF CHILDREN recent pressure. By the end of the first week the head should have resumed its normal shape. Adjacent margins of the bones of the head are separated by fibrous tissue continuous with the lin- Fontanelles SKULL OF AN INFANT, SHOWING FONTANELLES. ing internally and the covering externally. At the places where three or more bones should come to- gether are soft spaces called fontanelles. The larg- est and most important of these is situated at the top of the head well to the front, and is often called the “soft spot”. In this space there is a regular pulsation corresponding in frequency with the heart THE NEIV BORN BABY II Bones Sucking Cushions beats. The fontanelles should be carefully guarded against injury. The softness and elasticity of the bones of infancy are due to their vascularity, the sponginess of their texture, and from the layers of cartilage and mem- brane not yet ossified. The true bony structure of the new born baby corresponds to the needs of the infant, e. g., the bones of the lower jaw and ribs and collar bone which renders possible respiration and suction from birth, are well developed. Over the cheek muscles, in addition to the ordi- nary layer of fat, there is an arrangement of fatty lobules on either side, called "sucking cushions" because they prevent the cheeks being pressed in- ward between the jaws when nursing. The eye at birth is anatomically incomplete, which would prevent perfect sight even if the brain were ready to receive and interpret impressions. The color of the iris is a bluish gray and the pupils are large and sensitive to light. The lachrymal glands are not fully developed, hence no tears before the third month. The nose is relatively small, and the respiratory portion is very small. The tongue is rarely the seat of congenital defect and tongue tied babies are not often seen. The spine of the infant is extremely flexible. It is, in fact, almost wholly cartilaginous at birth, the The Eyos The Spine 12 CARE OF CHILDREN The Lungs Blood Supply centers of ossification being present but the process only slightly advanced. The collar bone is the first bone of the skeleton to ossify and is more frequently fractured during delivery and in early childhood than is any other bone. Rapid and remarkable changes occur in the lungs after birth. During the first inspiration compara- tively little air is taken into the lungs but as one full inspiration follows another, inflation increases more and more until full distension is accomplished after which the lungs are never completely emptied of air during life. Growth and action of all the organs are entirely dependant on the blood supply. As the blood sup- ply not infrequently depends upon the muscular activity of the parts, it is plain that restrained activity or interference with circulation by any means retards both function and growth. In the care of the young infant too much stress can not be laid upon the importance of freedom of motion for all the members, and avoidance of anything that tends to compress the vessels, such as long con- tinued lying in one position, with possibly the addi- tion of blood stagnation in the dependent parts. In this respect, also, the clothing requires that no bands nor seams may press upon the vessels of ditribution or the return supply of blood. From birth to death the oxygen necessary for the vitality of the body is supplied through the air Respiration THE NEIV BORN BABY 13 vesicles of the lungs. If any vital process is pre- eminent in its importance, it is that of respiration. Young children inhale more oxygen and exhale more carbon dioxide, relatively, than adults. This is a result of the more rapid tissue change in the growing organism. As respiration begins only after birth it is prob- ably the least developed of the vital functions. Its want of vigor is partly due to compressibility of the chest walls, to the lack of full development of the respiratory muscles and partly to the narrow- ness of the upper air passages. Care of the nose and throat is necessary to prevent accumulations or growths which interfere with the free entrance of air. The average rate of respiration is from 30 to 60 per minute and during the early months may be very irregular. The yielding character of the chest renders the baby very susceptible to disturbances by compres- sion, so that great care should be exercised not only in the handling of the infant but also in the clothing so that no constriction of the chest be allowed. The glands of the mouth of the new born secrete mucus which serves for protection. The salivary secretion is established but feebly and possesses little, if any, power of changing starch to sugar. The stomach at birth secretes pepsin in very · small quantity and at this early age is more of a Chest Digestive Organs 14 CARE OF CHILDREN receptacle for food than a digestive organ. Coagu- lation of milk by the rennet ferment represents nearly the whole extent of its digestive function. Shortly after birth meconium (a viscid, tarry, odorless substance) is discharged from the bowels. This continues until the feces are changed to a canary yellow by the taking of milk. Urine is normally present in the bladder at birth and is usually voided within a short time, any delay beyond twelve hours causing some anxiety. The urine should be pale and odorless but it may con- tain uric acid crystals which stain the diaper like iron rust and are sometimes so abundant as to completely obstruct the small tubes of the kidneys. This uric acid is a frequent cause of colic in the new born. The delicate skin of the infant demands constant care to prevent irritation and excoriations especially about the buttocks, from the urine and feces. It seems hardly necessary to remark that the diaper should always be removed as soon as it is wet or soiled and should never be used the second time without thorough washing. In regard to the functions of the nervous system it may be said that at birth the infant is merely a bundle of reflexes. Such reflex action however as respiration, swallowing, winking, coughing, sneez- ing, clinging, etc., shows a remarkable pre-natal development of mechanism. Care of the Skin Nervous System CARE OF THE NEW BABY 15 Special Sensos The sense of hearing is probably not present at birth, but is established within the first day or two, as the middle ear fills with air and the congestion of its mucous membrane subsides. In all probability smell is the last of the special senses to develop. The sense of taste is evidently well developed from birth, the young infant readily distinguishing milk from water. Tactile sensation is very acute in the lips, tongue and eyes, although feebly developed in other areas. CARE OF THE NEW BABY The newborn is entirely at the mercy of his sur- roundings. In fact, of all the mammalia, the human infant is the most helpless. Immediately upon delivery the baby should be wrapped in a warm soft shawl or blanket. The eyes, mouth and nose should be thoroughly cleansed of se- cretions by the gentle application of sterilized gauze or cheesecloth dipped in tepid boric acid solution. A saturated solution of boric acid in boiling water, care- fully strained, cooled and bottled should be a part of the equipment of the confinement room and nursery; also a supply of sterilized gauze or cheesecloth cut in three-inch squares and kept in sterilized wrapping. To sterilize the cheesecloth or gauze it should be kept in boiling water for forty minutes, dried in an oven and at once wrapped in a sterilized cloth or wrapping. First Cleansing 06 CARE OF CHILDREN Care of Eyes Gentleness The eyes should be cleansed with separate pieces of gauze moistened with the boric solution by pouring from the bottle. If a few drops of the solution find their way between the lids so much the better. The mouth may be freed of mucus by wrapping the finger in dry sterilized gauze and gently wiping out the secretion, after which the mouth should be washed with the boric acid solution. Then it is well to give the baby a teaspoonful or two of pure tepid water. If necessary to free the nose from secretions it may be done by gently squeezing it between the thumb and finger from the top down, after which the solution should be applied on a piece of twisted gauze. Ex- treme gentleness must be observed in these manipula- tions so as to leave no wound or abrasion upon the delicate tissues which may give entrance to infective germs. The nurse's hands and nails should be cleansed beyond suspicion The cord may be freely dusted with pulverized boric acid and covered with dry absorbent cotton. Placing the baby on the right side favors the new course of blood through the heart. The vernix caseosa with which the new born baby is usually covered is best removed by a thorough rub- bing with warm olive oil, or fresh lard, which forms with it a soft lather and is easily removed by gentle wiping with dry soft gauze. The next day's oiling and wiping will remove from the creases and folds what Care of the Cord CARE OF THE NEW BABY 17 First Bath little of the substance may have escaped the first cleansing On the question of the first bath there is a decided difference of opinion. Considering the temperature from which the new comer has emerged (100° F.), the transition to room temperature even, 78° F. would seem to be sufficiently stimulating. There is a growing opinion in favor of delaying the bath, and the writer believes with others that this first water bath should not be given for several days after birth. A daily rubbing with warm olive oil is to be preferred as affording less danger of shock. The baby's brief toilet completed, the dressed navel supported by a light flannel band, he should be wrapped in a fresh dry blanket and allowed to sleep in a warm, dark, quiet place for three hours, after which he may be given another drink of pure water. It is advisable to place the infant at the breast within a few hours after birth as it is believed that the colostrum or first milk secreted is adapted to the needs of the infant's digestive tract. The mother's nipples and the baby's mouth should be previously cleansed with boric acid solution. An infant's needs are few but imperative. They are warmth, food and repose. It should be disturbed only when necessary for drink, for its daily baths, change of clothing, or for fresh diapers. It should be nursed every two hours during the day and once at night. First Nursing Imperative Needs 18 CARE OF CHILDREN Shock The child should not sleep with the mother or nurse, but in its own crib or basket from the first. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the avoidance of all that tends to shock or fatigue, and the observance of absolutely antiseptic details. Could nurses and mothers realize the need of absolute rest for the new born, the advent of the baby would not be the signal for the "rough house" procedures so frequently seen, A RUBBER BATH TUB. First General Water Bath in the bath attended by admiring relatives, the dressing in unsuitable garments, and the frequent exhibitions of the baby to delighted neighbors and caressing friends. The first general water bath may be given to vigor- ous babies the fifth or sixth day, after which it may be a part of the daily toilet. In cases of premature or very feeble infants the tub bath should be postponed until there is no danger from shock or chill. The early CARE OF THE NEW BABY 19 A Double Ewer for Hot and Cold Water. bathing should be done with the baby on the nurse's lap, protected from drafts by a soft blanket. Each part should be gently bathed with a cheese cloth sponge and quickly dried by patting with a dry, warm towel of the same material. New cheese cloth for this purpose may be rendered absorbent by thorough boiling in soda water, fol- lowed by careful rinsing. The animal sponges should not be used as they can- not be properly cleansed and quickly become breeding places for germs of many kinds. A full tub bath should not be given until the cord has come off. A good quality of castile soap is probably the best to use, for many of the so-called "baby soaps" are too irritating for the infant's delicate skin. After drying the creases may be lightly dusted with a reliable baby powder, using a box with a finely perforated top for this purpose. The ordinary puff ball and powder box should not be used because they are so easily con- taminated with dust laden with bacteria. Unremittent care is required to prevent accumula- tions on the scalp. If crusts are once formed they must be softened by frequent applications of warm oil. Soap Care of the Scalp 20 CARE OF CHILDREN Temperature They should never be removed by use of the fine tooth comb, in fact a comb should not touch the baby's scalp during the early months and strong soap and friction must be avoided in the removal of the accumulations. The sensitiveness of infants to heat and cold is not surprising when we consider the conditions, viz., the relatively large radiating surface of the body (50 per cent more than the adult), the thinness of the skin, the distensibility of its blood vessels, and the undeveloped state of the heat regulating centers. The normal body heat is highest in the afternoon and the lowest from 12 to 4 a. m. Rectal temper- ature, as a rule, is the only reliable one, as in the young infant the mouth can not be utilized for that purpose, and the surface of the body, for reasons above stated, shows a temperature two or three degrees lower than that of the blood. THE BABY'S CLOTHES Weight and Texture In the care of the baby uniformity of the sur- rounding temperature should be maintained and the child protected from excessive radiation by cloth- ing. Nothing is more appropriate for this purpose than wool and as lightness is desired two thick- nesses are better than one containing the same amount of material. Simply made clothing without elaborate ornamentation and trimming designed for the baby's comfort shows better taste in the mother. BABY'S CLOTHES 21 The clothing should not interfere with freedom of muscular movement or blood circulation. This means that it should permit unrestrained freedom of move- Freedom from Restraint BABY CLOTHED IN A SLEEVELESS SACK OR "BABY BAG.” ment of all the muscular structures, whether toes, fingers, feet, hands, legs, arms, abdomen, back or chest. The evils of the old fashioned pinning blanket, the tightly drawn diaper, as well as bands about the chest 22 CARE OF CHILDREN and abdomen, and any tapes or strings which re- strict the circulation should be apparent. Since the object of clothing for the infant is to se- cure uniform temperature the writer can conceive of no reason why one portion of the body requires heavier clothing than another, hence material of uniform thick- ness is required for trunk and limbs. OUTER AND INNER GARMENT OF THE SLEEVELESS SACK. Inner garment shown closed at bottom with the draw string; outer garment opens. Both garments are fastened at the neck in front with safety pins. The Baby Bag The ideal protection would seem to be afforded by a sack of light, flexible, nonconducting material, so con- structed that it envelops loosely the entire body, closed BABY'S CLOTHES 23 FRONT LACK 12 INCHES WOL CUT 36 INCHES LONG PATTERN OF DR. COTTON'S "BABY BAG." To make pattern, draw parallel lines making 2 inch squares on a piece of paper over 36 inches in length and 12 inches wide. Then draw the outline as above. The pattern for the back is the same as for the front except at the neck a. The cloth is folded and cut double, the seams being at the side. It is gathered along the curved lines to give room for the arms. The opening is in front. 24 CARE OF CHILDREN above by safety pins, below by a draw string. Such an arrangement was designed by the author and has been successfully used in a number of hospitals in this coun- try and abroad as well as in private homes. There is good reason for including the hands in the covering as a prevention of the habit of putting the fingers in the mouth. This is a most unhygienic practice, first because it favors introduction of infections; second, be- cause the subsequent chilling of the parts from rapid evaporation of moisture induces local congestions, causing symptoms of indigestion, colic, etc. The author believes that the hands should be included in the outer garment for the first five or six weeks of life after which time the bag may be replaced by the usual white nainsook or muslin slip. The bag will then serve as an ideal night garment for the first six months, and then the combination night drawers with feet are recommended because with these the lower extremities cannot be entirely un- covered. An entire change of clothing should always be made for the night. When necessary under the sack, additional protec- tion against cold is afforded by separate under gar- ments, as a light knitted shirt of silk and wool and a sleeveless slip of baby flannel. The best under garment for a baby is the knitted long sleeved shirt of mixed lamb's wool and silk. This shrinks less and is less apt to be irritating to the skin than all wool, and is warmer than the all silk. The same material, or a mixture of wool and cotton, is suit- Night Garment Under Clothes BABY'S CLOTHES 25 able for the stockings, which should be long enough to pin to the diaper, which in turn is pinned to the shirt, thus leaving no portion of the child uncovered. No socks or bootees are needed. Over this the baby bag as described furnishes all the clothing necessary for moderately warm weather. A KNITWEAR INFANT SHIRT. In Winter In winter, or where the baby cannot be protected from drafts, an additional garment without sleeves, reaching from the neck to ten or twelve inches below the feet, may be used next the shirt. Some mothers prefer to close this garment with a draw string, leav- ing the outer garment open and long enough to conceal the draw string effect of the skirt. Scotch flannel in its various dainty shades and pat- terns is excellent unshrinkable material for the bag, while soft, white baby flannel is suitable for the inter- mediate garment. No other clothing is necessary for Material 26 CARE OF CHILDREN the first few weeks, unless a light shawl or quilt for carrying the baby from room to room, and a light silk scarf for occasional use to protect the head from pos- sible drafts. 47 “ THE FIRST LAYER." Diaper fastened to the shirt, and stockings with safety pins. The Diaper The diaper should be light with no more material than is absolutely necessary for the absorption of the discharges. Absorbent cotton, loose or in pads, pref- erably the latter, retained by a loose cheesecloth diaper, which is secured to the shirt by safety pins in 28 CARE OF CHILDREN Waist and Drawers Foot Covering When diapers are no longer necessary short knitted drawers are substituted, which, with the stocking sup- porters, are attached to a waist. In winter the waist should be of flannel, with or without sleeves, and the drawers of wool extending to the ankle. The shortening of the skirts necessitates extra pro- tection for the feet. Before the creeping time the knitted shoes. without soles should be used. Later the more durable kid or chamois moccasins are neces- sary. Unwittingly, great cruelty is practiced in the conventional baby foot covering. Most of the prevailing deformities seen in the civ- ilized foot have their origin in inſancy at a time when the rapid growth of this plastic member is easily re- tarded or perverted by the slightest degree of persist- ent pressure, as from a too short or too narrow stock- ing. Chalk the sole of the baby's foot and press it against a damp slate or hard black surface and com- pare the impression with the outline of the ordinary baby shoes sold in the shops. The rapid growth necessitates frequent renewal of the moccasin shoe, which should be made for the feet, respectively, rights and lefts. They should fit the foot firmly only about the ankle and instep leaving ample room for the elongation and spreading of the toes. To secure proper adjustment shoes should be laced rather than buttoned. In learning to walk all the separate muscles must be educated to act in unison, hence every part of the foot Moccasin Shoe BABY'S CLOTHES 29 and its toes must be allowed the utmost freedom. A snug shoe deprives some of these muscles of their op- portunity for education by binding the parts together to act as a unit instead of in unison. A stiff, unyield- ing sole interferes with the foot grasp of the ground. SHAPE OF CHILD'S FOOT AND PROPERLY SHAPED SHOE. As well might the child be taught to play the piano with hands encased in husking gloves as to attempt to gain perfect control of locomotion in the modern shoe. Hard shoe soles, like ancient sandals, are merely the outgrowth of the necessities of travel and have no place in the hygiene of infancy. 30 CARE OF CHILDREN, No Bands Since vital capacity is best measured by lung expan- sion anything that interferes in the slightest degree with the movements of the ribs or diaphragm limits by so much vital capacity. A tight band around the abdomen interferes with the normal muscular move- ments of the stomach and bowels, weakens the ab- dominal walls and is frequently the cause of rupture both at the navel and groin. A constriction around the hips, as from a tight diaper, retards the growth of the pelvis at a time when its substance is mostly cartilaginous and is undoubt- edly one of the causes of the prolonged travail so common to American mothers. No Constrictions CLOTHING FOR OLDER CHILDREN Proper Protection As the child grows older its style of dressing neces- sarily changes but certain facts must still be borne in mind. In the adult more than three-fourths of the heat produced in the body is given off from the surface of the skin. In children the per cent of loss is probably still greater because the proportional surface of the body exposed is larger. One of the important func- tions of clothing is to regulate the movement of air streaming to and from the surface of the skin so as to retard the exchange of the warm air surrounding the body with the outer atmosphere without preventing it. The material, form and cut of the clothing all have to do with the proper performance of this function. All vital processes require a certain uniform tem- CLOTHING 31 Matorials perature and interference with these is especially dis- astrous during the period of rapid growth. Allen- deavor is made to maintain this for the infant, but it is often overlooked for the child, where the need still re- mains as great. Clothing may become the cause of disease, either be- cause of permitting sudden chilling of the body or be- cause of checking the circulation, respiration or per- spiration. The material should be selected with spe- cial consideration for the constitution, sex and age of the child; its power of heat regulation, and should be suited to the child's skin as well as so designed that it may permit liberty of movement. A word of caution should be given against the prevailing fad of bare legged children. The bare footed country boy, living out of doors all the time, clad only in shirt and trousers, may resist the ex- posure; but there is danger to the otherwise warmly clad city child. When the stockings are left off and socks and low shoes substituted, for the sake of coolness near home, the custom is permissible; but in our fickle climate, when a change of weather or a thunder storm may lower the temperature from 20 to 40 degrees, there is grave danger of a chill. This disturbs the circulation and may induce digest- ive disturbances, colds, or serious illness. A child's health should not be endangered by fad or fashion. Bare Legs SURROUNDINGS AND CARE Protection The absolute wants of the infant are few and simple, and may be expressed in the two words-Protection and Food The infant must be protected from shock to which he is peculiarly susceptible. Normal function, as di- gestion, may be arrested by shock alone. Shock may occur from sudden changes of temperature, from noise, from blows or jars, from unaccustomed motion, from fear or anger, from intense light, and from excessive or prolonged pain. Protection should be secured from infectious or ir- ritating substances, either internal or external. The baby should not be subjected to rough handling or rough clothing; it should be protected from liability to falls, or from blows especially on the head, and from wounds, scratches, bites or abrasions of any kind. Its surroundings should be as sanitary and antiseptic as possible in all particulars. THE NURSERY The multiplicity of these needs, not to mention the necessity of regularity in feeding, bathing, sleeping and so forth demands a systematic regime. Obviously this can best be se ured through a separate nursery in which the means to the end are under full control. The rooms selected for this purpose should be in a quiet part of the house and should receive direct sun- light during as much of the day as possible. It should The Room 32 THE NURSERY 33 Furnishing Temperature be of sufficient size to secure ventilation without notice- able drafts, and furnished with special reference to an- tisepsis, hence carpetless, except for rugs which may be aired often; curtainless, except for light wash ma- terials; devoid of moldings, pictures or fixtures which invite the lodgment of dust. The walls should be hard finished, preferably painted to permit of thorough cleansing with water or antiseptic applications. Double windows should protect against drafts and diminish direct radiation, and the system of heating and ventila- tion be under absolute control. The temperature should be from 75° to 80° F. during the first week after which time until the child is three months old about 75° is recommended. After that it may be gradually lowered to 70° or even 65° at night. If the sleeping room be too hot and the rarified air fails to furnish the necessary amount of oxygen the child's vitality is low- ered by copious perspiration and his susceptibility to cold taking is increased. The nursery should preferably not be upon the ground floor, or on a level with the ground. Plumbing of any kind, even the best stationary washstand, should find no place in this room, and it is even better to se- lect a room not having direct connection with the fam- ily bathroom, as being more free from possible impure gases. In fact the room should contain nothing save the furniture necessary for the care of the infant. The metal crib should have a mattress filled with selected Furniture SLEEP 35 Regularity its comfort is thus increased is ridiculous and not conducive to the best good of the baby. The sleep during the first few days is profound, but during the rest of the year it is easily disturbed. The position of the child should be changed during the longest sleep of the night. During the time when the bones of the head are hardening it is necessary to change the position of the baby, putting it first on one side, then on the other, that its head may not exhibit a flattening on one side. It is important to preserve great regularity in the hours of sleeping. No child under six years can afford to forego the daily nap, for which the shoes and outer clothing at least should be removed. A normal healthy baby with wants satisfied will sleep if comfortable and left alone. The fussy nurse or mother too frequently interferes with this function by over solicitude or mistaken notion that the baby wants companionship. It is better to put it in its crib and if possible go into an adjoining room, to accustom the child from the very beginning to sleep- ing alone. A few experiences will establish the habit and thus save the mother much time and strength as well as give the child better and more regular sleep. If the habit is fixed early no difficulty will be experienced. The custom of quieting the baby by the use of a blank nipple-"soother"-is not only extremely un- sanitary, but is positively injurious. No more effi- cient means for introducing the ever present disease The Soother 36 CARE OF CHILDREN Thumb Sucking germs into the system could be devised and many a mysterious infection may be explained by this practice. The habit of thumbsucking, if long continued; very commonly induces changes in the shape of the mouth, teeth and jaws which amount in some cases to a de- formity. It is sometimes difficult to secure the necessary amount of sleep for children of active mentality or nervous temperament. Insufficient rest increases this Vicious Circle DEFORMITIES CAUSED BY PROLONGED THUMB SUCKING. (Talbot.) natural nervousness, which in turn, tends to prevent sleep, thus establishing a "vicious circle" which robs growth, arrests development and finally destroys the child or wrecks his future life. The causes of disturbed sleep are so numerous and intricate that a brief enumeration of those most ap- parent must suffice. Disturbed Sleep 38 CARE OF CHILDREN fore taking the baby out of doors, that he be gradually accustomed to the outside air by opening the windows of the nursery for a short period each day, keeping in mind the need of additional clothing in cold weather. As a rule, the child should go out daily after the first month. The more weakly the child the greater the need. One caution should always be observed in his outing, protection from disturbance in securing his re- quisite amount of sleep. In fact, he may spend the greater part of the day in the open air, if properly pro- tected from wind and sun. BATHING Temperature After the first week, the strong, healthy baby should be bathed daily. The temperature of the first baths should be about blood heat, 99° F. This may be re- duced gradually so that at the end of the month the temperature will be 95°, at six months 90° and by the end of the year 85° to 80°. It is well to finish bathing and drying the head before undressing the baby. Little soap is required and if the skin is unusu- ally delicate, that known as "superfatty" is advised. The convenience of the double ewer is seen in having a supply of water free from soap for rinsing. Unless some irritation is present no powder need be used. The addition of the bran bag to the bath for children with a tendency to eczema, and of salt for its stimulat- ing properties to the infants needing it, is recom- mended. The daily bath should be given midway be- tween feedings and should not last longer than five Bran and Salt Bath BATHING 39 minutes. The toweling, though thorough, must be lightly and quickly done. The special care of the eyes, nostrils and mouth Special must never be omitted. As soon as the temporary Care teeth have appeared, they should receive as faithful at- tention as the permanent, since they are as subject to decay, and effects of digestive disturbances are greater in the child. Nothing should ever be introduced into the external ear with the exception of a twisted bit of gauze, gently applied for the purpose of drying. Not only are the genitals subject to local disorders but general mal-nutrition, obstinate reflex nervous dis- turbances and injurious habits are too often the result of their neglect. The daily bath should ensure thorough gentle cleansing of the delicate parts, which with the boy baby, should include the complete retrac- tion of the foreskin. If this is not accomplished by the end of the first month the physician should be con- sulted. In hot weather a rapid sponging with tepid water at night will secure for the baby a more restful sleep. The duration, as well as the frequency of the bath, Duration and should depend entirely upon the reaction; blueness or Frequency chilliness of the surface, or signs of exhaustion are always indications of too frequent or too prolonged bathing. REGULATION The structure of the rectum and lower bowel in in- fancy, with the weakness of the abdominal walls, makes REGULATION 41 permanent distension of the lower bowel with loss of evacuative power. T GIVING AN ENEMA. The lower end of the rubber sheet is placed in a pail. The bag of the fountain syringe should not be hung too high. DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH Importance The importance of a familiarity with the rate of growth during infancy and childhood can not be over estimated, as the irregularities in the growth ratio are frequently the first intimations of disturbed nutrition or developing disease. The following table shows the average heights and weights from birth to fourteen years : Table of Height and Weight Boys. Age. Girls. Height. Weight. Height. Weight. Inches. 19.75 24.75 29.53 33.82 37.06 39.31 41.57 43.75 45.74 47.76 49.69 51.68 53.33 55.11 57.21 59.88 Pounds. 7.15 14.30 20.98 30.36 34.98 37.99 41.00 45.07 48.97 53.81 59.00 65.16 70.04 76.75 84.67 94, 49 Birth. 5 months. 1 year. 2 years. 3 years. 4 years. 5 years. 6 years. 7 years. 8 years. 9 years. 10 years. 11 years. 12 years. 13 years. 14 years. Inches. 19.25 23.25 29.67 32.94 36.31 38.80 41.29 43.35 45.52 47.58 49.37 51.34 53.42 55.88 58.16 59.94 Pounds. 6.93 13.86 19.80 29.28 33.15 36.36 39.57 43. 18 47.30 51.56 57.00 62.23 68.70 78.16 88.46 98.23 Increase in body weight, length and the measure- ments of the different members bear normally a cer- tain constant relation at different periods of life. No period compares in rapidity of growth with that of the first three months. 42 DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH 43 First Loss in . Weight The loss of weight in the first three days is about ten per cent. This is usually regained by the end of the first week. The reason for this early loss is due partly to the loss of fluids from the interior as well as from the surface of the body, and partly to the con- Daily Weight Chart (Holt) Lbs. 112 814516171819 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 9% 9% *** O *** 2x 6 5% sumption of the stored body material before the first feeding takes place. The loss of weight is several ounces but at the end of the first week the baby has usually regained most Rate of Increase 44 CARE OF CHILDREN of the loss. After this the gain should be steady. Dur- ing the last three weeks of the first month and the en- tire second, this gain is about an ounce a day. During the third and fourth months about three-fourths of an Monthly Weight Chart (Holt) Lbs. MONTH OF AGE. 4 5 6 1 2 3 7 8 9 10 11 12 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 11 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 ounce a day, hence the normal infant has doubled its birth weight by the end of the fifth or sixth month. The gain decreases after this from two-thirds of an ounce to one-half an ounce a day as the infant grows older, until the weight has trebled at the end of the first year. Gain in Length The length of the average baby at birth is nineteen inches; this he doubles in four years. The increase DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH 45 during the first year (about half of the initial length) being nearly double that of any succeeding year. The average increase of the second year is about four inches, and from that time on to the age of eleven or twelve years from two to three inches annually. As the weight and height increase there is also a rel- ative value of dimension of the various parts of the body. The legs grow much more rapidly than the trunk but the girth of head and chest are of the great- est moment in determining the normal growth. The circumference of the chest, though smaller at birth, should exceed that of the head before the end of the Relative Growth second year. On account of its compressibility the shape of the The chest depends largely upon the continous action of the Chest muscles, hence the deformities so frequently seen as the result of retarded bone development. Any pro- longed pressure from improper position or constrict- ing clothing may add greatly to chest deformity. The increase in the circumference of the head in The early life is remarkable and like that of the body weight Head is more rapid during the first year, increasing three inches during the first six months, a little more than one inch the second six months, three-fourths of an inch the second year and less than half an inch the third year. By the seventh year the head has attained nearly its full size. The fontanel diminishes in size towards the end 46 CARE OF CHILDREN Development of Powers of the first year and is ordinarily completely closed before the end of the second year. This period of growth also shows a constant de- velopment of acquisitions. The ability to shed tears generally comes at the age of three or four months. The new hair has begun to grow and increased pow- ers of digestion are developed. This is the time when the child begins to "drool," a sign not of irritation caused by the cutting of teeth but merely an evidence of the increased flow of saliva due to development of digestive secretions. The characteristic coating of the baby tongue per- sists during the greater part of the nursing period. The roof of the mouth gradually becomes more arched with the development of the gums and teeth. The soft palate becomes ampler as it descends to its more verticle position, and the tonsils increase in size. The growth of the stomach is most rapid in the first half of the first year, of which the first three months exhibit by far the greater rate of increase. It maintains a very constant ratio of increase with that of body weight in the first year of life. The following table represents fairly the average capacity of the stomach at different ages: At birth End of 1st month 272 ounces. End of 2nd month 372 ounces. End of 3rd month 472 ounces. End of 4th month 434 ounces. End of 5th month 5 End of 12th month Capacity of the Stomach 1 ounce. ounces. ounces. TEETHING 47 TEETHING MIIK Teeth The development of the temporary teeth begins with the first formation of the jaws, about the sixth week of intra-uterine life. At the time of birth the crowns of all the temporary incisors and canines are fairly advanced in calcification. The gums at first are smooth and firm and of a light pinkish color. The edges are rather sharp but grow broader after a few months, as the time of teething draws near. Of the temporary or milk teeth as they are called there are twenty, ten in each jaw; two central incisors, two lateral incisors, two canines and four molars. The lower canines are called the stomach teeth. The teeth have a certain order of eruption, but variation is not uncommon. It is not a contin- uous process, but occurs in gro ps, with intervals of repose between successive groups. The lower cen- tral incisors appear from the sixth to the ninth month, their coming being completed in about ten days; then follows a resting period of two or three months, after which the upper incisors appear, both central and lat- eral. After an interval of a few months come the lower lateral incisors and first molars, four or five months later the canines and finally, about the second year, the second molars. Order of Eruption 48 CARE OF CHILDREN Order of the Eruption of the Temporary Teeth Lower central incisors 6th to 9th month. Upper incisors 8th to 10th month. Lower lateral incisors and first molars 15th to 21st month. Canines 16th to 20th month. Second molars 20th to 30th month. - Permanent Teeth Scarcely a year elapses after complete eruption of the milk teeth before absorption begins at the root and advances towards the crown which either falls off or is pushed out by the growth of the permanent tooth below. The permanent teeth, of which there are 32, may be divided into two sets, the ten anterior which suc- ceed the milk teeth and six others that are added farther back in the jaw. During the growth of the teeth the jaw increases in depth and length and under- goes changes in form. Order of Eruption of Permanent Teeth First molars Central incisors Lateral incisors First bicuspids Second bicuspids Canines 12th to 13th year. Second molars - 12th to 15th year. Third molars (wisdom teeth) 17th to 25th year. The lower teeth usually precede the upper. The prevalent notion that the eruption of the teeth is responsible for many of the disorders of infancy is not only fallacious but is productive of considerable 6th year. 7th year. 8th year. 10th year. 11th year. Teething Falacies TEETHING 49 ha. n. The terms "teething fits," "teething diarrhoea," "teething fever," etc., have no foundation in fact. Many infants have been lost for want of professional aid because of a mistaken notion that the acute dis- order was a necessary accompaniment of teething. Occasionally, however, the gum over the advancing Incisors: Canine-- Bicuspids-- Incisorse- Canine-- Molars: Molarsa- 0 Permanent Teeth Milk Teeth DIAGRAM SHOWING USUAL ORDER OF ERUPTION OF THE TEETH, UPPER FIGURES REPRESENTING THE UPPER JAW, LOWER FIGURES THE LOWER JAW. tooth shows some swelling and the finger biting and the general peevishness of the child finds relief with the appearance of the tooth. As a rule, the so-called symptoms of teething are the appearance of teeth. The fact that the teeth make their appearance at a time when the transitional condition of infant develop- Coniusiai of Ideas 50 CARE OF CHILDREN ment predisposes to a variety of disorders has led to a confusion of ideas. The universal dread of the second summer” (teething summer) is the outgrowth of the frequency of digestive disturbances at this time to which the eruption of the teeth bear little or no causa- tive relationship No tooth eruption is ever retarded by the toighness of the gum. Its advance may be arrested by a tem- porary cessation in its growth due to nutritional dis- turbances, which of themselves produce the symptoms frequently ascribed to the slow coming tooth. Retarded Teething DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL SENSES Motor Development Schiller's observations on the motor nerves of the eye show the perfection not only of its mechanism, but also of its function, at an early period of infancy. This illustrates the method of growth in so much that this mechanism furnishes one of the channels of in- formation before the higher centers are capable of utilizing it, the process being an educational one. As the power and control of motion increases there is a development of senses which are the pathways to the mind. The nervous system of the infant shows well developed sensory and motor tracts, but the con- trol power of the higher centers is tardier in its growth. Taste and touch, especially of the lips and tongue, are fortunately the first of the special senses to show Taste and Touch DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL SENSES 51 Hearing Vision activity, as these are necessary in the instinctive efforts of the young to obtain sustenance. Hearing, although demonstrated as present in the first twenty-four hours, is not developed sufficiently to differentiate between sounds before the end of the third month. Contemporary with the function of hearing is that of vision. Although sensitiveness to light and blinking on the near approach of objects has been observed from the first weeks, still it is not until the end of the second month that the infant may recognize his mother by sight. At first the infant's movements are automatic or instinctive, the voluntary muscles showing only the purposeless, irregular, and unsymmetrical movements suggestive of the mere continuance of the intra-uterine existence. Co-ordinate, voluntary movements are first seen in the face and upper extremities, the hands in addition to grasping showing prehensile tendencies by the end of the third month. Objects are carried to the mouth at about this time. The many ineffectual at- tempts to locate the mouth indicate the vast amount of energy necessary to develop co-ordination. Although the apparatus including muscles and nerves is fairly complete, it requires multiple repetitions of sensations, impressions, volitions, and efforts at volition, before the establishment of such co-ordination as will ensure the performance of the most simple voluntary motion. 52 CARE OF CHILDREN Expression of Emotion Sitting About the end of the third month the voice is recog- nized as expressing emotions such as anger, fear or pleasure. About this time tears are observed to accom- pany the crying. It is interesting to note that perspira- tion is not common before the end of the third month. Following the development of the senses of sight and hearing to the extent of differentiating as to the color and size of subjects and the quality and direction of sound, we find co-operation of the muscles of the neck to a degree that the infant's head is held erect, balanced and turned at will. After the eighth month the infant should be able to sit for a short time without support and shortly after he begins to creep, roll or hitch towards desired ob- jects. About the tenth month he usually utters a few indefinite syllables, singly or repeated, as da da, ma ma, goo, etc. Between the tenth and twelfth months he shows a disposition to pull himself up on his feet, is usually able to stand by a chair and, exceptionally, may walk alone at the end of the first year. Infants exhibit a marked variation as to the time of these acquirements, dependent largely upon mus- cular vigor and education. A child left much alone will learn to develop his resources earlier. On the other hand, he will talk earlier if associated with other children. The subject of infant hygiene should not be dis- missed without reference to a practice that is as per- Standing Walking DEI'ELOPMENT AND GROWTH 53 The Baby not a Plaything nicious as it is common, viz., the custom of regarding the baby as a plaything, an animated toy for the enter- tainment of the family as well as a large circle of admiring friends. Children are fond of babies and never tire of stimulating their funny performances. The same is, unfortunately, true of parents and friends, but from a purely economic point of view, such amuse- ment is exceedingly expensive, and the mortality statistics are constantly increased for the amusement of the elders. Nervous and mental wrecks too fre- quently owe the origin of their disorders to want of repose in early infancy, due to injudicious stimulation. In this connection let it be understood that all evi- dences of mental precocity, called "smartness," should be regarded as danger signals and call for repression, rather than encouragement. Axiom-An infant dur- ing the first year should neither be amusing nor amused. TEST QUESTIONS The following questions constitute the "written reci. tation" which the regular members of the A. S. H. E. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. They are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. CARE OF CHILDREN Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. Leave space between the answers for the notes of the instructor. Use your own words and answer fully. Read the lesson paper a uumber of times before attempting to answer the questions. 1. What special precautions should the expectant mother take? 2. What are fontanelles and why should they be guarded 3. What can you say of the bony development of a young baby? 4 Give a brief outline of the first three days' care of the new born babe ? 5. How would you sterilize gauze? Why is this necessary? 6. Why is the baby so susceptible to temperature changes ? 7. In clothing an infant what principles are to be observed? 8. Describe the clothing suitable for baby's first six weeks. 9. What may be the effects of tight clothing about the chest ? Abdomen? Hips? 10. How should a baby be put to sleep? u. Name some of the commonest causes of dis- turbed sleep. CARE OF CHILDREN 12. What objections are there to the “soother”? 13. Give your ideas of a nursery. 14. What can you say of the effects of teething upon the infant's health ? 15. During what period is growth most rapid ? 16. Why is familiarity with the rate of growth im- portant? 17. Name the milk teeth and give their order of eruption. 18. Why should the temporary teeth be cared for and how ? 19. How do you interpret the statement “The senses are the pathways to the mind"? What objections are there to playing unduly with with the baby? 21. Is any point not clear or are there any questions? Note.-After completing the test sign your full name. 20. CARE OF CHILDREN PART II CARE OF CHILDREN PART II Nutrition of the Child Importance Diet and Infant Mortality The subject of nutrition will always be of para- mount importance in the care of infants and children. As important as food is to supply energy for the mani- fold functions of adult life, it is doubly important during infancy, as during this period the demands for material for growth are most imperative. Since, therefore, the necessity for food is a double one dur- ing the developing period the importance of a thor- ough knowledge of all that pertains to foods and feeding cannot be exaggerated. Errors in diet, especially in infancy, are respon- sible for more deaths and cases of imperfect develop- ment than all other causes combined. In fact, the highest degree of infant mortality, especially during the summer months, is admittedly due to mismanage- ment of the feeding. For this reason infants nursed at the breast are fortunate, as they escape many of the dangers to which artificially-fed infants are sub- jected. Children, as well as infants, require the best of nutrition, not only to meet the demands for material for growth, but also to furnish energy for the enor- mous work of training and educating the muscles, as well as for the development of the mind. The school pupil is a machine which not only converts raw mate- Requirements of the Child 55 56 CARE OF CHILDREN rial (food) into ideas, but also utilizes the food to construct the machine itself. What wonder, then, that many failures in the educational scheme must be attributed to the improper food supply. Because of imperfect nutrition, the imperfect machine not only furnishes unsatisfactory products, but is liable to mis- hap from its inherent weakness, as in the case of children who fall an easy prey to the various in- fections against which a well-nourished constitution would have proved a safeguard. Nature's Supply NATURAL FOOD For the second "want" of the infant, namely, food, ample provision has been made by nature in an ap- paratus admirably adapted to its requirements. It is evident from the anatomy of the infant that he is especially adapted for the act of nursing. This the infant does instinctively. That no fully-developed milk is found in the breasts at the time of birth has been generally ac- cepted as conclusive evidence that the new-born child is in no immediate need of food. In fact, his deport- ment, if undisturbed, suggests the need of rest during the first forty-eight hours after birth. This belief is so universal that attempts at feeding before nature has furnished the supply have not met with general approval. However, it is recommended that the child be put to the breast early for two reasons : First, to stimu- late milk secretion; and, second, in the belief that the Early Nursing Advisable NATURAL FOOD 57 Weight first secretion (colostrum) promotes early evacua- tion of the bowel. Probably, by so doing, the child secures a little of the water so much needed at this time. · The infant's habitual loss in body weight during the first days, as shown by tables on growth, has been regarded by some as unnecessary. In fact, it is claimed to be unfortunate, as interfering with the rate of subsequent growth. On this account some physi- cians recommend that nourishment be supplied during the first two days. This is usually unnecessary, how- ever. If the milk is slow in coming the baby may be given on the second day, every four hours, a tablespoonful of boiled water slightly sweetened with milk sugar. Caution: If this procedure lessens his eagerness for the breast, it should be discontinued, as much depends upon his early learning to nurse. Intelligent control or supervision of the act of suck- ling averts or corrects many evil effects of its abuse when left entirely to instinct. A few rules may be formulated, the observation of which is manifestly important in the hygiene of nutrition. (1) Asepsis must be observed, since one of the commonest causes of infantile disorders is infections introduced into the stomach. To this end the nipple, as well as the infant's mouth, for the first few weeks, must be cleansed before and after nursing. Milk re- maining exposed to the air shortly swarms with micro- Rules for Control of Nursing 58 CARE OF CHILDREN Frequency organisms, many of which cause disease when intro- duced into the digestive tract of the infant. Even the milk in the orifices of the ducts often becomes in- fected, hence the expression of a few drops is recom- mended before each nursing. In this connection it should be remembered that little or no hydrochloric acid is secreted in the stom- ach of the infant for several months. This acid in the gastric juices of the adult kills almost all the germs introduced with food. The absence of such a safeguard necessitates special care to exclude the germs of decomposition and disease from the intes- tinal tract of the infant. (2) The infant should be put to the breast every two hours during the day and once or twice at night during the first six weeks. From six weeks to three months the interval between feedings should be in- creased to two and one-half hours. Between the third and sixth month the interval should be increased to three hours, giving seven feedings from 5 A. M. to II P. M., inclusive. Night feeding may be discontinued. Six feedings a day should be sufficient for a child at six months. By the end of the year he may be accus- tomed to five. If sleeping, he should be wakened at the proper time for nursing until the habit becomes established. If the milk is abundant the breasts should be used alternately at first; later, the child may need both breasts at a feeding. 60 CARE OF CHILDREN Time of Nursing (3) The time occupied in nursing and the quan- tity taken should be controlled by the mother. The differences in the formation of the nipple and in the supply of milk in different mothers affects nursing more or less. There is a difference, too, in the nurs- ing energy of different infants, so that one infant will occupy half an hour in securing his dinner, while another may gorge himself in ten minutes. The act of nursing in its perfection is the result of the mutual co-operation of mother and child. A child can not properly nurse the passive breast of a sleeping or even inattentive mother. In breasts where the nipple formation is imperfect, making the nursing laborious to the infant or painful to the mother, or when milk secretion is tardy or in- sufficient, the mother should aid and encourage the babe by placing herself in full harmony with the pleasurable duty of the moment, and endeavor to secure a full response to the stimulating appeal of the tiny solicitor for a better supply. When the milk flows too freely, or in case of in- fants who nurse with such avidity that the process from beginning to end resembles a struggle against suffocation, the mother should control the outflow. This may be done by dexterous manipulation of the nipple between the fingers, by withdrawing from the mouth, or by diverting the baby's attention. It is safe to say that twenty minutes should be given to each nursing. Toc rapid feeding throws into the Mother to Oontrol NATURAL FOOD 61 Overfooding Water stomach a large quantity of food, with the result of over-distention, and hasty feeding invariably means overfeeding. Not infrequently the stomach resents this abuse by immediate regurgitation of a portion of its contents, which has led to the erroneous belief that the stomach is endowed with some quality which enables it to re- ject superfluous food. That this is a pernicious error, the frequent occurrence of gastric dilatation and intes- tinal indigestion is ample evidence. A little sterilized water given before nursing frequently prevents the over-ingestion of milk. Instinct is not always a guide as to the amount a child should nurse. (4) Give water systematically and freely. The baby's food, as will be shown when we consider the composition of milk, is made up of several widely different constituents. Although all of them are essential for perfect nutrition, one or more may be temporarily omitted without any immediate percep- tible interference with vital processes. In fact, one only must be present under all circumstances, and this is water. Without water no digestion, absorption or elimination is possible. Water enters largely into the composition of the infant's food, milk containing about 88 per cent. Water is essential to peptone ab- sorption, and many diseased conditions result from an insufficient supply. The restlessness of an infant is frequently only an expression of his thirst. Often unrequired and inju- Thirst 62 CARE OF CHILDREN Uric Acid rious food is forced upon an unwilling stomach in response to the infant's appeal for water. Evidences of pain, usually ascribed to intestinal colic, are too frequently indicative of uric acid irri- tation and point to a need for more water. Fortu- nately the doping of the baby with carminative "teas" for the supposed intestinal spasm occasionally fulfills the needs of the child through the water of the de- coction. There is very little danger of giving a baby too much sterilized water, as it passes quickly out of the stomach and is absorbed. The water should be given at blood heat, either with a spoon or from a nursing bottle. Composition of Mother's Milk Milk is an emulsion of innumerable minute globules of fat floating in plasma. Among the globules are smaller particles of proteid matter. All the five principal classes of foods are found in milk, viz.: water, fats, proteids, carbo-hydrates, (milk- sugar), and salts. A symmetrical development requires not only the presence of all the constituents, but that they should maintain a certain definite quantitative ratio. Although perfect nutrition is dependent upon the presence of all these food principles, life may be main- tained for a longer or shorter time if one or more be omitted from the diet, always excepting water. Thus an infant may exist for a time on water and sugar, as a solution of sugar of milk, or on water and proteids, or on water and salts; the result, however, in each Importance of Water NATURAL FOOD 63 Protoid Fats case invariably showing the deficiency of the constit- uents in impaired nutrition. (This is so well recog- nized that the absence of one or more of these essen- tial constituents is not infrequently determined by the condition of the infant.) The proteids furnish the only source from which the tissues obtain nitrogen, without which no proto- plasm can exist, nor cell life be possible. Insufficient nitrogen means interrupted gain in body weight, les- sened muscular force, anaemia with the weakened heart's action, arrested secretions and all the evi- dences of lowered nutrition. The fats are necessary, not only to maintain the body heat, but to aid in the formation of bone and nerve tissue. Fat also maintains the healthy function of the lower bowel by promoting the passage of the faeces. A deficiency of fat produces results distinctly characteristic of impaired nutrition so uniform as to have been classified under the one term, rachitis. Sugar furnishes muscular energy and heat and in- creases the formation and deposition of fat, sugar- fed babies frequently showing a remarkable plump- ness, even though fat and proteids are low in the food. The fourth group—the salts-principally those of lime, phosphorus, potash, soda and a trace of iron, forms a small but fairly uniform and very important percentage of the total constituents. A deficiency in any of these salts shows quickly in the impairment of the child's bony, nervous, muscular, circulatory or digestive system. Sugar Saltt 64 CARE OF CHILDREN Water Absolutely Necessary Variation in Quality Were all the other ingredients present in noirnal mother's milk in proper proportions, the absence of water would render them valueless for food. only in a state of solution that these substances can undergo digestion in the intestines of the infant. The normal secretions of the digestive tract are relatively scant in proportion to the enormous work accom- plished during the growing period. Hence, the neces- sity for water at all stages. Attention is again called to what has been said in the preceding pages, as the importance of the demand for water can hardly be overestimated. As before stated, normal mother's milk is made up of these five constituents; moreover, they maintain a fairly constant percentage relationship. Frequent variations, however, are observed in normal milk, as in different mothers, or in the same mother at different times, or in the same mother in the different breasts, or in the same breast at the same nursing drawn at different times, as fore, middle and last milk. Of these constituents the percentage of fat is sub- ject to the widest variation; next, the proteids; the milk sugar and salts showing little change. Nor would these variations be considered as indications of abnormality, the only criterion being its effect upon the child. An infant at the breast, digesting well. gaining steadily in weight and strength, is getting good milk, regardless of what the analysis may show. It is a fact of common observation that the breast at est of Food CHANGING QUALITY OF FOOD 65 which one infant thrives may not meet the require- ments of another child of the same age. CHANGING THE QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF THE MILK Milk secretion is subject to variations in quantity Variations in Quantity as well as in quality. In the majority of mothers it is regulated to meet the requirements of the infant, although instances are not uncommon in which the quantity is insufficient. On the other hand, it fre- quently occurs that the mother may successfully nurse two infants, as in cases of twins, or in wet-nursing in foundlings' homes. From this it may be inferred that in some mysterious way, and to a limited extent, the supply is regulated by the demand. The growth of large babies is relatively more rapid than that of smaller ones, and it would appear that to a certain degree there is an automatic adjustment of the quan- tity of milk to the needs of the child. It is a question whether the daily quantity of milk can be increased by any medical agent. However, the milk secretion is quite sensitive to many influences, both as to its quantity and composition. A so-called "dry diet" in which there is a deficiency of water, usually diminishes the secretion, while, on the other hand, it may be increased by a liberal allow- ance of water, milk and other Auids. The secretion of milk, when scanty, may be ic. Increasing Quantity creased by any agency that increases normal meta- bolism (digestion and assimilation); as diet, exercise, massage, electricity, fresh air, sunlight, congenia! 66 CARE OF CHILDREN Mental Attitude surroundings, freedom from physical discomfort and an equable temperament. Sudden emotion, as grief, anxiety, anger, fear, or anything that produces shock or profoundly impresses the nervous system, may not only diminish the secre- tion, but occasionally cause total suppression. Regularity should be observed in putting the child to the breast, even though there be little evidence of milk as the secretion is undoubtedly promoted by the act of nursing Attention is again called to the mental attitude of the mother during nursing, as influencing the quan- tity of milk. It must not be forgotten, however, that over-anxiety to produce defeats its very object. Loss of fluids from any cause, as copious perspira- tion, menstruation or diarrhoea, may lessen the amount of the milk. The relative proportion of the constituents of the milk may be influenced by variations in the hygiene of the mother, especially in the diet. The former be- lief that the fat of the milk was increased by the fat eaten has been repeatedly disproved by actual experi- ment. It is believed to-day that the proportion of fat in the milk depends largely upon the amount of pro- teiď in the mother's food, increase or decrease in the latter causing a like change in the former. The mere eating of proteid food, however, is not sufficient to produce a “rich milk,” since thorough digestion and assimilation are essential to fat production. Changing the Fats CHANGING QUALITY OF FOOD 67 Fat may be scanty in the milk, not only from an in- sufficiently nitrogenous diet, but also as a result of excess of fats in the food. Examples are not wanting of mothers who in their efforts to enrich their milk defeat this object by drinking too much rich milk or cream. A poorly nourished or rachitic infant is frequently seen at the breast of the mother whose diet consists largely of starchy foods. The substitution in this case of a diet of eggs for breakfast, meat for dinner and supper, with a cup of beef broth between times, and a limited supply of vegetables and sweets will almost invariably show an increased percentage of fat in the milk, with subsequent improvement in the nutrition of the child. It occasionally occurs that the infant shows the effects of excessive fat in the so-called “fatty diar- rhoeas," in which fat is seen in the diapers in glisten- ing masses or floating on the surface of the washing water. Again, in the "spitting babies," who regurgi- tate their food shortly after nursing, analysis of moth- er's milk shows sometimes as high as seven or even nine per cent fat. In such cases meats should be re- stricted and vegetables and breadstuffs substituted in the mother's diet. The proteids are rarely low except in cases of ex- haustion or debility, as from sickness or insufficient food. In this condition the milk is poor and watery, there being a deficiency in all the solids. In such Too Much Fat Changing the Proteids 68 CARE OF CHILDREN Excessive Proteids cases the hygiene of the mother requires a liberal diet with all the accessories for the improvement of her general nutrition. Here nitrogenous foods are neces- sary to increase proteids in the milk. It may happen that the mother's milk in cases of debility shows an excess of proteids with a deficiency of other constitu- ents, the debilitated infant exhibiting evidences of in- digestion, in constipation or in diarrhoea and vomit- ing Excessive proteids may appear, also, in the milk of the overfed mother of sedentary habits for whom ex- ercise in the open air with reduction of diet is re- quired. Idleness and discontent may be replaced by congenial occupation, to the improvement of the milk in this respect. The relief of constipation or the alle- viation of any bodily discomfort may alone be suffi- cient. Violent agitation of the nervous system of the mother may change the quality of the milk almost in- stantly. Quite frequently, under these circumstances, it resembles colostrum in its changed proteids, low fat and colostrum corpuscles. Instances are known where convulsions and even death to the nursling have followed. The secretion of the colostrum milk sometimes fol- iows undue fatigue, excitement, anger, grief, also menstruation and conception. Disturbances of diges- tion in the infant are frequently the first intimation of Colostrum Milk CHANGING QUALITY OF FOOD 69 pregnancy in the mother. In the event of the above disturbances, the child should be removed from the breast and artificially fed until the milk approaches the normal as shown by analysis. Meanwhile, the breasts should be emptied regularly by the breast pump. SUCTION BREAST PUMP. Effect Frequency of Nursing Both quantity and quality of the milk are influenced by the frequency of nursing. Poor milk usually re- sults from irregular intervals in nursing. The more frequently the breasts are emptied, the higher will be the percentage of solids, especially the proteids. The infant, restless from indigestion induced by excess of proteids, often is unfortunately given the nipple at short intervals to quiet him. The result is increased indigestibility of the milk from greater excess of pro- teids. What is needed is water for his thirst, rest for his stomach and rest for the mammary glands. 70 CARE OF CHILDREN In conclusion, a table may best express a summary of the means at our command for regulating the com- position of mother's milk. The percentages of sugar and salts vary but little. The Percentage of Proteid may be Increased by Increased frequency of nursing. Increased liberality of proteid food. Insufficient exercise. The Percentage of Proteid may be Diminished by Diminished frequency in suckling. Diminished proteid food. Increased exercise. The Percentage of Fat is Increased by Increased proteid diet. The Percentage of Fat is Diminished by Deficiency of proteid food. Excess of fatty foods. Fasting. The Percentage of Water is Increased by Increased fluid diet. The Percentage of Water is Diminished by Saline cathartics. Diminished fuid diet. Care of the Mother The nursing mother must keep herself in the best possible physical condition if she would have a healthy, contented baby. She should take daily exercise in the open air, simple food, and plenty of sleep. She should keep free from worry, avoid too much excitement, un- due fatigue and late hours. Constipation should be remedied. NATURAL FOOD 71 VOMITING engineer.' Vomiting should never be regarded as trivial. It should be to the baby feeder as the red light is to the A careful consideration of all the condi- tions may determine the cause, which should always be sought, and when found removed. With rare ex- ception, this cause will be found in the non-observ- ance of the rules of hygiene outlined in these lessons. Although almost invariably the vomiting of infancy is due to dietetic errors, it occasionally ushers in some of the graver diseases, such as scarlet fever, measles, meningitis, cholera infantum, etc. Whatever be the cause, no mistake will be made if the food is diminished in quantity or withheld entirely for a time. The regurgitation of a small quantity of milk directly after a feeding is not always an indication of serious trouble, but may result from overfeed- ing and careless handling. Diminish the Food WEANING AND SUBSTITUTE FEEDING The question of substitute feeding is of secondary importance only to that of lactation. Conditions may develop at any time which render breast feeding im- practicable. Progressive changes occur in the con- stituents of breast milk which render it, after a time, insufficient to furnish the material demanded by the rapid growth of the infant. Moreover, the presence of several teeth, the changes in the salivary secretion, 72 CARE OF CHILDREN Period of Lactation Do Not Wean for Cause as well as in those of the stomach and pancreas, indi- cates preparation for digestion of a different class of foods. The changes in breast milk show considerable vari- ation as to the time of their occurrence in different women. Thus, one mother may have exhausted her power to produce good milk by the end of the seventh month; while another woman may continue to furnish good milk until the fifteenth month. The growing tendency to recommend weaning upon Slight the slightest pretext suggests the need of more em- phasis upon the injunction not to substitute artificial for breast feeding until it is clearly proven that the latter can not be made to agree. However, the infant should not be deprived of his right to a fair start in life by being confined to the breast which fails to fur- nish all the requisites for normal nutrition. Aside from the normal time of weaning, which should rarely be deferred beyond the twelfth month, occasions may arise during the first year when the decision must be made as to whether the child can thrive on the milk of his nurse. Transient disturb- ances due to the milk should not be considered suffi- cient cause for rejecting the breast, since many tem- porary disagreements may be corrected by attention to the hygiene of the mother or child. Early The indications for early weaning, so far as the Weaning infant is concerned, are evidences of deficiency in normal development, which is frequently best shown WEANING 73 by a failure to gain in weight. However, weight gain is not always evidence of normal nutrition, as many rachitic babies make fat rapidly. The process of weaning should be gradual, the in- fant having been accustomed to supplemental feeding commencing with one a day and increasing the num- ber through a period of several weeks. The food selected for the supplemental feeding should at first be weaker than that for an artificially- First Substitute Food BREAST PUMP WITH BULB. fed infant of the same age and development. This is particularly important in the proteids, which in cows' milk are much more difficult to digest. As the skimmed milk contains most of the proteids, about one-half of this constituent may be replaced with water in the food formula for an infant of the same age. If the new diet is tolerated, the skimmed milk may be increased cautiously from day to day until the regular formula is used. The season or time of year must be considered in the weaning, as radical food changes should not be Time of the Year 74 CARE OF CHILDREN made at the commencement of or during the heated term, at which time infants are especially susceptible to digestive disorders. The cutting of an unusually troublesome tooth might well delay the change in food. A child should be immediately removed from the breast upon the appearance of acute infectious dis- ease in the mother or upon well- grounded suspicion of the exist- ence of syphilis or tuberculosis. A suitable wet nurse should be se- cured if possible, in case the infant is free from syphilitic infection. The development of abscess ren- ders the affected breast unfit for Artificial Nipple for nursing while suppuration con- tinues. Menstruation frequently disturbs lactation. Its early appearance may not require weaning, but its regular return should suggest its advisability. It is usually best to give substitute feedings during the first day of a period. The occurrence of conception is an indication for the immediate removal of the child from the breast, as this condition renders the milk insufficient, if not positively injurious. When it becomes evident tha substitute feeding is necessary, the question what shall be substituted is of Use with Sore Breasts Menstruation SUBSTITUTE FEEDING 75 The Wet Nurse the greatest importance. Errors in the management of substitute feeding are probably responsible to a greater extent than any other cause for the high infant mortality. The best substitute is the wet nurse. The draw- backs to wet-nursing are many and extremely trying, and it is probably on account of these that this substi- tution is not more frequently resorted to in this coun- try. The wet nurse should be chosen with reference to her temperament, the quality and quantity of her milk and her freedom from syphilis or tuberculosis. She should be examined by the family physician and accepted only upon his recommendation. Should the first wet nurse's milk fail to agree, it need be no cause for discouragement, as in some cases repeated trials are necessary. In case a wet nurse is not available it will become necessary to adopt arti- ficial feeding ARTIFICIAL FEEDING Gastric Digestion More has been written and said concerning artificial feeding during the past ten years than all other pedia- tric subjects combined. Having studied natural feeding, we should have a fairly practical knowledge of the quantity and quality of food required at different ages, and also the time and method of feeding. That we should keep close to nature, both in the composition and physical proper- ties of the food, seems hardly necessary to state. Yet we see infants fed (?) on compounds differing so widely from those which their organs are prepared to digest that it is surprising so many survive. The stomach of the infant at birth was found to be little more than a receptacle for food in which the action of rennet coagulating the milk, prepares it for the first step in the digestive process. As the infant grows the capacity of the stomach in- creases rapidly, its walls thicken, the glands develop and pepsin and hydrochloric acid secretions gradually become more abundant. It is not, however, until after the sixth month that the salivary and pancreatic secre- tions develop to any great extent the power of con- verting the starch into sugar. This conversion is necessary before cereals may 'en- ter largely into the food, as nature has made little or no other provision for the digestion of starch. During the latter half of the first year the stomach empties itself of a digested meal in two or three hours, 76 COVERED MILK PAIL IN USE AT CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE The first jets from each quarter of the udder are drawn into a cup and discarded MODERN SANITARY DAIRY BARN From Report of Office of Experiment Stations, 1903 ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 77 Complotoness of Digestion the time depending upon the quality of the food taken, cow's milk requiring the longer time. That a very large percentage of the food is ab- sorbed in the normal infant normally fed, is shown by analysis of the faeces. As a result of observations upon infants fed wholly upon milk, it is stated that the faeces consist of 84 to 86 per cent water; that digestion and absorption of proteids in the alimen- tary canal are so efficient that but little is lost; that the whitish flakes and clots, nearly always seen, are composed largely of fat, fatty and lactic acids in com- bination with lime. Milk acids are always found and to their presence are attributed the slightly acid smell and reaction. Fermentation of milk sugar leads to the development of carbon-dioxide and hydrogen, which are the prin- cipal gases in the intestinal tract of a healthy infant fed purely on milk, foul-smelling gases being absent. Though the amount of faeces varies much in in- fants, yet three per cent of the milk taken is the aver- age proportion. The fecal discharges after the first few days are an orange yellow, frequently turning to green on exposure to air, are of the consistency of batter and homogeneous throughout. They average from three to five movements daily. These character- istics vary somewhat with the quality of food taken and the completeness of the digestive process. The urine increases from about six ounces at the end of the first week to eight or sixteen ounces at six Fecal Dischargos 78 CARE OF CHILDREN Essentials in Substitute Feeding Composition months. There is considerable variation, however, de- pendent upon the secretions from the skin and bowels and the amount of fluids taken. The marked tend- ency to urination is variable, occurring sometimes every hour during the day and twice or thrice at night, while at other times several hours may elapse without urination. The urine is usually light in color, of low specific gravity, 1.004 to 1.010, and in health rarely stains the diaper. A few “essentials” from Cheadle may be of value in assisting the student to a practical application of ome of the principles already indicated. First-The food must contain the different ele- ments in the same proportions as found in human milk, viz.: proteids, 1 to 2 per cent; fats, 3 to 4 per cent; milk sugar, 6 to 7 per cent; salts, * per cent; water, 88 per cent. Second-It must possess the anti-scorbutic prop- erty. Infants at the breast very rarely suffer from scurvy, that disease being found among those fed upon condensed or sterilized milk, or upon dried or evaporated preparations. Prompt recovery usually occurs with the food unchanged, except the discon tinuance of sterilization. Fresh milk possesses this anti-scorbutic element, but not in large proportion, for milk in extreme dilution will not prevent the de- velopment of scurvy. Third-The total quantity in twenty-four hours must represent the equivalent in nutritive value of Anti-Scorbutic Quantity ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 79 Animal Origin from one to three pints of human milk, according to age. No fixed arbitrary rule can be given for all chil- dren. Careful observation of the infant as to whether he rejects some of his food soon after taking it or seems hungry half an hour after feeding, may prove a guide. The best indication that he is receiving his full equivalent is a steady weekly gain of two or three ounces or more in the early months. Fourth-It must not be purely vegetable, but must contain a large proportion of animal matter. Most vegetable substances are deficient in proteids and yield but a small quantity of fat. Moreover, it is known that the infant does not assimilate them as easily and fully as those derived from animal sources, even though these ingredients be supplied in the proper percentages. Fifth-It must be in a form suited to infantile digestion. The digestive organs, it will be remembered, have only recently assumed their function and are de- signed to deal solely with the bland, dilute and easily- dissolved nutriment of mother's milk. In the natural method of feeding, the infant gets his nourishment in the same form at every meal; so in artificial feeding variety is not desirable. As the walls of the stomach are lacking in muscular power and the glands produce but little secretion, it is evident that it is not right to ask this organ to deal Fluid 80 CARE OF CHILDREN Sterile Cow's Milk with large masses of solid or semi-solid matter. Sol- ids can be digested only in a state of minute subdivi- sion. Sixth-It must be as nearly sterile as possible. Infants are extremely susceptible to stomach and in- testinal disorders, having little resistance to bacteria and their poisons. The products of fermentation are highly irritating and the sensitive, unstable nervous system of the infant may be profoundly affected there- by. The gastric secretions of the infant do not con- tain the protecting hydrochloric acid of the adult. Cow's milk, on account of its cheapness and the abundant supply, is the most available substitute for mother's milk. The proneness to stomach disorders and the great mortality among the bottle-fed babies has led to a systematic study of cow's milk. As a re- sult of this study, some of the reasons why cow's milk does not meet all the requirements of the infant may be shown. The results of recent analyses give the con- stituents of cow's and mother's milk as follows: Composition of Milk Average Composition. Cori's. Mother's. Per Cent. Per Cent. Specific gravity . 1.032 1.030 Total solids 14-13 13-12 Proteids 4.00. 1.50 Fat 4.00. 4.00 Sugar 4.50. 6.50 Salts 0.70.. 0.15 Reaction Acid*. Alkaline Bacteria Swarming with* None *This refers to cow's milk as it reaches the consumer. ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 81 Differences from Mother's Milk It will be seen at a glance that the milks differ but little in specific gravity, in the quantity of their total solids and water, and in their percentage of fat; more widely in their salts, sugar and proteids; most widely in regard to chemical reaction and presence of bac- teria. The sugar in cow's milk is identical with that in breast milk. The fats are nearly the same, although those in breast milk are in more finely divided par- ticles and more easily digested. It is in the proteids that the greatest difference comes, the percentage be- ing much higher in cow's milk and the composition different. The proteids of both cow's and mother's milk are made up chiefly of casein and albumen (lac albumen), but the relative porportion of the casein to the albumen in cow's milk is about 6 to 1, and in breast milk is about i to 1. Even the casein in the two milks is not of identical composition; that in cow's milk coagulates in much denser and less digestible clots. The nitrogenous substances called "extractives" differ in the two milks and the mineral parts—the salts—are not the same. Thus it is apparent that cow's milk can not be so modified as to be identical with mother's milk. The best we can do is to approximate nature's supply as nearly as possible. Most of the disturbances of infants' digestion are traceable directly to proteids; their excess in cow's milk being the principal factor in its disagreement. It is usual to reduce the percentage of proteids by the addition of water. Proteids Cause of Trouble 82 CARE OF CHILDREN Modified Milk Laboratories In this dilution, however, the nutritive value of the milk suffers from a diminution of fats and sugars. Consequently it is necessary that the percentage of sugar and fats be maintained by the addition of sugar of milk and cream. Laboratories for this modification, like those of the Walker-Gordon Co.,* have been established in the leading American cities, to which orders are sent for definite percentages of modified milk, as drugs are ordered by prescription from a pharmacy. The physi- cian may, at will, control the amount of different in- gredients, varying their percentages to meet the vary- ing requirements of the little patient. That many disorders of infancy are due to the presence of bacteria in cow's milk is no longer a mat- ter of doubt. In addition to infection from the pos- sible presence of such germs as those of tuberculosis, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, etc., it should be emphasized that the proneness of cow's milk to decomposition with its effects upon the nursling is one of the greatest dangers of milk feeding. Hence, the hygienic dairy management becomes a question of the highest importance. It has been proved that milk production may be so guarded as to furnish a product comparatively free from bacteria. As an example of what scrupulous Bacteria the Cause of Disorders Safe Milk * The Walker-Gordon Co. have laboratories or stations in the follow. •ing cities: New York, Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, Washington, Baltimore, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Detroit, Grand Rapids, Milwaukee, Pittsburg, St. Louis, Atlantic City, Princeton, Newark, Elizabeth, Montreal, Can., Ottawa, Can., London, Eng. ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 83 care and cold can accomplish in producing bacteria- free milk, may be mentioned the exhibits of a number of American dairies at the Paris exposition in 1904. Milk and cream were shown that remained sweet for several days after the journey of ten days or more. The officials found it hard to believe that no preserva- a 6 MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE OF MILK. a. Pure milk. b. After standing in a dirty dish for some hours in a warm room, showing many varieties of bacteria. tives had been added or treatment given until con- vinced by analysis and by proof. The same care in the selection of the cow is rec Selection and Care ommended as in the selection of the wet nurse; the of Cows same details in her hygiene as well as in the antiseptic care of the milk will insure milk that is practically... sterile. In the choice of the family cow three requisites at least should be kept in view. First: The quality of the milk. Second: The constitution of the animal, 84 CARE OF CHILDREN her hardihood and freedom from disorders and her adaptability to variations in climate and food. Third: Her temperament and freedom from disturbances due to accidental causes. Of many types distributed throughout the country we will discuss but three, viz., the Jersey, the Hol- stein and the Durham. The Jersey gives a fair quantity of milk, exceed- ingly rich in cream. In-breeding, however, has made Jorseys 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1718192021 22 VARIATION IN PERCENTAGE OF CREAM IN ONE COW'S MILK. Holstoins her delicate and quite susceptible to diseases, as tuber- culosis, etc., and though quite gentle she is nervous and sensitive. The fats of Jersey milk differ some- what from those in other milks and the globules of fat are larger, thus making it less digestible. The Holstein is docile, hardy and the greatest of all milkers, but the milk is low in the percentage of cream and proteids. The third type, the Durham, undoubtedly is the best, as she is a good feeder, of placid temperament, and yields a large quantity of very good milk. In the best of cows, however, the milk varies from time to time in quantity and quality under the chang- Durhams 80 09 o 30 0 wo FAT GLOBULES IN HUMAN MILK Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 31 . ထ ဝ or သို့ ဝ ဝ } ဝ ထ ဒီ ထိ ဝ ro 6% ao 2 . or } ဝင် d ? 'd 0 0 oh FAT GLOBULES IN HOLSTEIN MILK FAT GLOBULES IN JERSEY MILK ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 85 ing influences of food, care and surroundings, so that the popular idea of the great value of a "one cow's milk" supply for the baby is erroneous. The mixed product of a herd secures a greater uniformity in the quality and the percentage of constituents. The selection of the dairyman should depend upon · his known methods of handling his herd and its prod- Tho Baby's Milkman THE CUVERED MILK PAIL. ucts. Does he select his cows upon the principles above enumerated ? Is his herd regularly inspected by a competent veterinarian for evidences of tuber- culosis or other disease? Are the animals properly fed, watered and pastured? Are they comfortably housed in stables that may be cleaned daily and regu- larly whitewashed? Are the milkers kind, intelligent, cleanly and conscientious ? Is the cow cleaned and her udder washed before each milking? Is the first teat full of milk discarded and the remainder received 86 CARE OF CHILDREN in a sterilized pail through a cover of cheesecloth? Is the milk immediately strained, bottled and placed in a cooler which rapidly reduces its temperature to 40° F? Rapid cooling and refrigeration are fully as impor- tant as cleanliness in the production of safe milk, for Importance of Refrigeration al b DIAGRAM SHOWING THE RATE OF INCREASE OF BACTERIA IN MILK. a. Single Bacteria. c. Increase in b. Increase in 24 hours at 500 F. 24 hours at 70° F. the few bacteria which are present in even the most carefully-cared-for milk multiply with enormous ra- pidity at 70° F., while they increase only about five- fold in 24 hours in milk kept at 50° F. The above enumeration includes most of the prin- ciples, the observation of which is absolutely neces- sary in the production of milk suitable for baby feed- ing. The source of supply should be investigated by Certifed Milk COVERED MILK PAILS, SHOWING STRAINER IN PLACE Sixty-three per cent of the dirt that would fall in an open pail kept out by the cover COVERED MILK PAILS, SHOWING COVERS REMOVED Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, Storrs, Connecticut ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 87 Home Care of Milk personal visit if possible. Some dairies in the larger cities furnish milk especially for babies, called "certi- fied milk," at advanced price-12 to 14 cents a quart. It will be found economy to pay the advanced price necessary for the extra care, but it may be well to make sure that the extra care is given. The cold sealed bottle when received at home must be placed at once in a clean refrigerator (free from taint or odor of other food or vegetables), and kept stoppered. The refrigerator should be kept at least as low as 50° F. This point should be tested with a thermometer. Milk received in good condition is not infre- quently rendered unfit for infants' food by careless handling in the home. The bacteria which by their growth render the milk unsafe are present everywhere in the air with dust, THE FREEMAN PASTEURIZER. in every particle of dirt, in water, on the hands and clothes, on all utensils and vessels. (See Household Bacteriology.) No utensil, spoon or receptacle should be used which has not been sterilized. Milk once poured out should never be re- turned to the bottle, nor should remnants ever be used. Flies (common carriers of infections) must be reli- giously excluded. 88 CARE OF CHILDREN Treatment of Unsafe Milk Pasteurizing Where doubt exists as to the safety of the milk, or during hot weather, it may be freed from germs by pasteurization or sterilization. The first is accom- plished by subjecting the milk for 40 minutes to a temperature of 150° F. A pasteurizer is on the market in which the bottles of milk are placed and sufficient boiling water added to bring the temperature of the whole to 150° F.* In the absence of a spe- cial pasteurizing apparatus, a small jar or cup about the height of a nursing bottle is filled with boiling water. Into this the bottle containing one feeding of milk is immersed, the projecting neck stoppered with sterilized unabsorbent cotton. The whole is then cov- ered with a cozy or another jar to retard radiation and allowed to stand 40 minutes. The temperature should be tested in an extra bottle with a thermometer until the correct amount of boiling water to be added is determined. If preferred, the entire day's supply may be pas- teurized at once, either in bulk or, better, in a number of separate feeding bottles, which should then be cooled rapidly and kept on ice until used. It is im- portant to cool the milk as soon as possible, for the spores not killed by pasteurizing will develop if the milk is kept warm for some time. The quickest way to do this is to place the bottles in running water. Sterilization, i. e., the destruction of both bacteria and spores, is accomplished by heating the milk to a Sterilizing * The Freeman Pasteurizer. Price, $3.50. ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 89 temperature of 212° F. (boiling temperature) for about an hour. This may be done in an ordinary double boiler or farina kettle. Thus treated the milk will keep unchanged for 24 hours or so. If necessary to protect it for a longer period, as for traveling, ship- ping, etc., the process must be twice repeated after intervals of 24 hours each, when, if properly sealed, it will remain bacteria free indefinitely. ARI STE PRIL MON CAS Depot THE ARNOLD STEAM STERILIZING AND PASTEURIZING APPARATUS. Price, $3.00 to $5.00. Milk Must Be Fresh It must be borne in mind that no amount of pasteur- ization or sterilization can make bad milk good. It merely destroys the bacteria, which by their growth render the milk unfit for infant food. The chemical changes in the milk which, through age, has begun to deteriorate, are beyond retrieve. Milk should be at first hand, like Caesar's wife, “above suspicion,” in which case pasteurization is un- necessary and sterilization is unwise, as the high tem- perature changes it somewhat and renders it more 90 CARE OF CHILDREN difficult of digestion. A child fed continuously on cooked or sterilized milk is liable to develop nutri- tional disorders, as scurvy, etc. The practice of keeping the baby's food warm for emergencies is entirely wrong, as it favors the devel- opment of any bacteria present and spores which are not destroyed by pasteurization. Because of the limited field of operation of the milk laboratory home modification is of great impor- tance in artificial feeding. In this connection, the protection of the supply will ever continue to be the most important consideration. Supply Most Important MODIFIED MILK Apparatus and Supplies To modify milk satisfactorily in the home the mother or nurse must be equipped with all necessary utensils. These include a good ice box, two syphons (made by heating and bending glass tubing), a ster- ilizer or pasteurizer thermometer registering to 212° F., a dozen graduated feeding tubes (large mouth without shoulder with small lip), bottle brushes, ab- sorbent cotton, straining gauze, non-absorbent cotton for stoppers, mixing pitcher, 8-ounce graduate, tall cup for warming bottle, three to six black rubber nipples (to fit mouth of tubes, reversible for clean- ing), bicarbonate of soda and boric acid. Lime water should be kept in well-corked bottles, as it is soon changed by the carbon dioxide in the air to carbonate of lime, which is deposited on the sides MODIFIED MILK 91 Timo of Preparation P of the bottle. Milk sugar solution should be prepared fresh for each day's supply. The supply of food may be prepared once or twice in the twenty-four hours, depending upon the time of milk delivery and number of tubes to be used. The milk should always be kept on ice before and after preparation. All bottles and utensils should be washed with hot soapsuds, then rinsed and boiled or steril- ized. Nipples must be scrubbed inside and out with soap and water, rinsed and kept in a solu- tion of soda or boric acid until needed again. Milk tubes when filled should be stoppered with non-absorbent cotton so that in cooling the air may pass through. After warming to about 100°F. (38° C.) by standing the bottle in a cup of AN EIGHT OUNCE warm water the cotton is re- GRADUATE. placed by the nipple. After nursing, any food remaining in the bottle must be thrown away. No Alies should ever touch food, utensils or baby. Of course, the nurse will never touch the nipple with her lips. The temperature of the milk may be tested by allowing a few drops to fall upon the back of the hand. Eternal vigilance is the price of sterility. Warming 92 CARE OF CHILDREN Feeding The bottle should be held inverted in the hand dur- ing the feeding so that the babe will not suck air. If the milk flow is too free the nipple may be with- drawn from time to time so that about twenty minutes is consumed in the feeding, during which the babe APPARATUS AND MATERIALS FOR MODIFYING MILK. Walker-Gordon Co. Follow Nature would better be on the arm or lap of the nurse. If the milk does not drop freely enough more holes should be made in the nipple by means of a hot needle. The rules of feeding as to regularity, number and length of intervals should be about the same as those given for infants at the breast. Water between feed- ings is generally required, and to a ravenous infant should be freely given. The water should be boiled and cooled and may be given from either bottle or spoon. MODIFIED MILK 93 Composition As a rule, artificial feeding in the normal vigorous babies should be begun with formulae representing low percentages. Especially is this true of the pro- FEEDING THE BABY, Showing Proper Position of Infant. teids. Taking average mother's milk as a standard, the percentage of sugar may be about the same, the fats about half, and the proteids about one-third, for the first weeks, remembering that temporary error MODIFIED MILK 95 Increase Amount Gradually 6 In considering increase in the amount of food, we must be governed by age, size for age, stomach ca- pacity for age and the infant's hunger, but largely by the daily weight gain which should be manifest from week to week. The increase in the amount of food, like that of the percentage of its constituents should never be made suddenly. An ounce added to the total day's food in Breast early infancy means an increase of from 6 to 3 per cent. This one ounce increase should be distrib- uted among the different tubes, i. e., if there are ten tubes, about one-tenth of an ounce should be Cell added to each. If tolerated for PAT. JUNE LOT-1896 several days another advance may be made in quantity. Four THE HYGEIA NURS. ING BOTTLE. consecutive weeks should be the outside limit for an increase of an ounce at a feed- ing, as the tendency will be to far exceed the infant's stomach capacity by flooding him with a too diluted food. (See “Capacity of the Stomach," page 46.) Both the amount at a feeding and the strength should not be increased at the same time. The acid reaction of cow's milk renders the addi- tion of an alkali necessary. For this purpose bicar- bonate of sodium (baking soda) or lime water may Noutralizing Acidity 96 CARE OF CHILDREN SE OD WAS OBRAT 4 be used (preferably the latter, of which 5 to 10 per cent may be necessary). The lime water also has the important property of making the curds more floc- culent and therefore. more easily digested. Of the so- dium bicarbonate, one or two grains to the ounce will be sufficient. A solution of one drachm of sodium bicarbon- ate in a quart of water has the same alkaline strength as lime water. If the food is to be steril- ized, sodium bicarbonate should be used or the lime water should be added to the tube afterwards. Heating with lime water brings about certain undesirable changes in the milk. The following formulæ fairly express the com- position, amount and frequency of feeding, with the length of intervals, for normal, healthy infants of average weight and development: FOOD WARMER AND ALCOHOL LAMP. MODIFIED MILK 97 Formula 1. or Proteids; 0 22% Fats; 1.00% Sugar; 6.50% Cream-(16%) 4 ounce First 3 days Milk sugar. Lime water.. Premature. Boiled water.. Salt .. small pinch Total 8 ounces Feedings, 10 to 12; Quantity of each, 1 to 4 ounce; Inter- vals, 2 hrs. Formula 2. 1 1st week. Proteids; 0.47% Fats; 1.00% Sugar; 6 75% Cream-(16%) 1 ounce Skimmed milk Milk sugar.. 1 Lime water. 1 Boiled water. 13 Salt..... a pinch Total 16 ounces Feedings, 10; Quantity of each, 1 to 2 ounces; Intervals, 2 hrs. Formula 3. Proteids; 0.58% Fats; 1.50% Sugar; 6 50% Cream-(16%) 17 ounces Skimmed milk 17 Milk sugar. 11 2nd week. Lime water. 11 Boiled water. 20 Salt..... 2 pinches Total 244 ounces Feedings, 10; Quantity of each, 1 to 2 ounces; Intervals, 2 hrs. as CARE OF CHILDREN Formula 4. 11 3rd week. Proteids; 0.70% Fats; 2.00% Sugar; 6.50% Cream-(16%) 4 ounces Skimmed milk 2 Milk sugar.. Lime water. 2 Boiled water. 24 Salt.. 2 pinches Total 32 ounces Feedings, 10; Quantity of each, 2 to 3 ounces; Intervals, 2 hrs. Formula 5. Proteids; 0.92% Fats; 3.00% Sugar; 6.00% Cream-(16%) 6 ounces Skimmed milk 2 4th & 5th Milk sugar. 11 weeks. Lime water. 2 Boiled water 22 Salt... 2 pinches Total 32 ounces Feedings, 10; Quantity of each, 2 to 3 ounces; Intervals, 2 hrs. Formula 6. 6th, 7th, 8th weeks. Proteids; 1.15% Fats; 3.00% Sugar; 6.00% Cream-(16%). 6 ounces Skimmed milk 3 Milk sugar. 11 Lime water 2 Boiled water 21 Salt.. 2 pinches Total 32 ounces Feedings, 9; Quantity of each, 3 to 34 ounces; Intervals, 21 hrs. MODIFIED MILK 99 Formula 7. 3rd month. Proteids; 1.40% Fats; 3.50% Sugar; 6.25% Cream-(16%) 7 ounces Skimmed milk 4 Milk sugar.. 11 Lime water. 2 Boiled water. 19 Salt.... 2 pinches Total 32 ounces Feedings, 8: Quantity of each, 3 to 4 ounces; Intervals, 3 hrs. Formula 8. 4th & 5th months. Proteids; 1.50% Fats; 3.50% Sugar; 6.75% Cream-(16%). 71 ounces Skimmed milk 51 Milk sugar.. 2 Lime water. Boiled water. 21 Salt.... 2 pinches Total 361 ounces 21 Feedings, 7; Quantity of each, 4 to 54; Intervals, 3 hrs. Formula 9. Proteids; 1.90% Fats; 4.00% Sugar; 7.00% Cream-(16%) 10 ounces Skimmed milk 10 6th, 7th, 8th Milk sugar. 2 months. Lime water. 2 Boiled water 18 Salt ..... 2 pinches Total 404 ounces Feedings, 6; Quantity of each, 6 to 7 ounces; Intervals, 3 hrs. 100 CARE OF CHILDREN Formula 10. 9th & 10th months. Proteids; 2.40% Fats; 4.00% Sugar; 6.00% Cream-(16%). 10 ounces Skimmed milk 15 Milk sugar. 11 Lime water. 21 Boiled water. 121 Salt.... 1 pinch Total 40 ounces Feedings, 5; Quantity of each, 7 to 8 ounces; Intervals, 31 hrs. Formula 11. 11th month. Proteids; 2.90% Fats; 4.00% Sugar; 6.00% Cream-(16%). 12 ounces. Skimmed milk 2 4 Milk sugar. 11 Lime water. 3 Boiled water 9 Salt... 1 pinch Total 48 ounces Feedings, 5; Quantity of each, 7 to 9 ounces; Intervals, 31 hrs. Formula 12. 12th month. Proteids; 3.40% Fats; 4.00% Sugar; 5.50% Cream-(16%). 12 ounces Skimmed milk 30 Milk sugar.. Lime water. 3 Boiled water. 3 Total 48 ounces دهم Feedings, 5; Quantity of each, 8 to 10 ounces; Intervals, 4 hrs. MODIFIED MILK IOI Formula 13 Proteids; 4.00% Fats; 4.00% Sugar; 5.50% Whole milk. 48 ounces 13th month. Milk sugar 4 ounce Bicarbonate of soda... 30 grains Total 48 ounces Feedings, 5; Quantity, 8 to 10 ounces; Intervals, 4 hrs. These formulae are intended only as a suggestive Formulae for Normal guide in the feeding of normal infants according to Infants Only ages specified. Delicate babies, or those of impaired digestion, should be given the formula for younger infants. These mixtures may be prepared from 16 per cent cream, skimmed milk, milk sugar, salt, lime water and boiled water. Six ounces of 16 per cent cream may be obtained Sixteen Per Cent from a quart bottle of good milk which has stood un Cream disturbed for six hours by siphoning away the lower four-fifths. This 16 per cent cream may also be obtained from a reliable dairyman. Milk sugаr may be bought from the druggist by the pound, or more cheaply at wholesale in five-pound packages. Accurate scales not being available in most house Measuring Milk Sugar holds, the milk sugar must be measured. As different brands vary a little in weight for bulk, it is always advisable to have the druggisi weigh accurately por- tions of one, one and one-hzif, and two ounces, which may be kept as standards. One of the most convenient 102 CARE OF CHILDREN and accurate ways of measuring the amount for a formula is to put the required weighed portion into the graduate, tap a few times, and mark the level by scratching the glass with a file. This mark will show the amount to be used each time the formula is made up. Tablespoons vary so greatly in size that it is not safe to use them for measuring the sugar. Two and one- half large size tablespoons leveled with a knife will measure about an ounce, but if an ordinary kitchen tablespoon is used, it may take three and one-half leveled to give an ounce. As the milk sugar is the largest constituent of the baby's food, it is necessary that it be measured accurately. Milk sugar is used because it is more easily digested than cane sugar, and is not so liable to fermentation. Although only about one-half as sweet to the taste, it has about the same nutritive value as cane sugar. In the later months of the first year cane sugar may be substituted for milk sugar, if economy demands it, a smaller amount being used. Salt is added to promote digestion and to make up the deficiency occasioned by dilution. Milk containing 4 per cent of fat should be used in the formulae given. A good milk will have this amount, but the legal standard in many localities is 3 per cent or less, so that it is best to have the milk supply analyzed occasionally. The board of health or the milk commission in many cities will make an- Milk Should be Analized MODIFIED MILK 103 for Mixing alyses free, and in the country the dairies will per- form the same service for a small charge. If there is 4 per cent of fats present, it is safe to conclude that the proteids are up to standard. For making up a formula the following directions may not be amiss: As soon as the baby's special bottle of milk is delivered to the house, it should be taken in and placed in the coldest part of the re- frigerator. If it is delivered very early in the morn- ing (during hot weather), a small ice box should be provided in which the milkman may place the bottle. In the country, if the milk is received while warm, it should be strained through absorbent cotton or cheesecloth into a clean quart milk bottle or preserve jar, stoppered, and placed in cold running water for about half an hour, and then put on ice for six hours, or until the cream has risen. It will be found convenient to keep the vessels, lime water, milk sugar, etc., together on a tray. The one to do the mixing should wash her hands carefully and put on a clean apron. The mixing should be done in a clean place. A copy of the formula to be made up should be at hand. To siphon off the milk, a glass tube should be used, as shown in the illustration.* To start the siphon, fill it full of boiling water by pouring water in, place the thumb over the end of the long arm and invert the siphon, lowering the short arm gently to the bottom of the bottle of milk. Remove the thumb and the milk will * A milk syphon may be obtained through the school for 25 cents. Siphoning off the Skimmod Milk MODIFIED MILK 105 Keep the MIIK Cool bent cotton, which is kept in some receptacle away from the dust. After stoppering the tubes are placed in a rack and put in the coldest part of the refrigera- tor. The whole operation should be accomplished as 6 oz. Cream 16 126 02. Shimmed Milk SIPHONING SKIMMED MILK FROM THE CREAM. If there is a difference in level of about 4% inches between the two milk bottles, the siphon will stop running with approximately 6 oz. of cream left in the upper bottle, and 26 oz. of skimmed milk in the receiving bottle. quickly as possible, so that the milk will not have time to become warm. It should be borne in mind that there is always dust laden with bacteria in the air of the cleanest room. The bacteria we are endeavor- ing to exclude. All the utensils used should now be rinsed first in cold water, then washed in hot soap and water, put Washing Vossols MODIFIED MILK 107 oz. of Changing from Formula 6 to Formula 7, add 7 oz. of water the first day, and i oz. less every two days. Changing from Formula 7 to Formula 8, add 21/2 oz. of water the first day, 2 oz. the second day, 1 oz. the third and fourth days. Changing from Formula 8 to Formula 9, add 10 water the first day, and i oz. less during succeeding days. Changing from Formula 9 to Formula 10, add 10 oz. of water the first day and i oz. less during succeeding days. Changing from Formula 10 to Formula ii, add 9 oz. of water the first day and i oz. less during succeeding days. Changing from Formula ii to Formula 12, add 5 oz. of water the first day and i oz. less during succeeding days Changing from Formula 12 to Formula 13, add 8 oz. of water the first day and i oz. less during each succeeding day. In case the new formula does not seem to agree, the number of ounces of water added should be reduced more slowly. Carefully written notes should be kept of all changes. Cream containing 16 per cent of fat also contains a certain percentage of proteids and milk sugar. Roach gives the following composition : Composition of 16 Per Cent Cream Per Cent Water ..76.7 Proteids 3.2 Fats . 16.0 Milk Sugar 4.05 Composition of Skimmed Milk Per Cent Water ..927 Proteids Fats trace Milk Sugar Koop Notes 3.6 4.6 108 CARE OF CHILDREN Use of Whey Where proteids are not tolerated whey (see recipe) may be substituted for the skimmed milk and for the whole or part of the boiled water. The whey contains the lac albumen (but no casein), the sugar and the salts of the milk. The Walker- Gordon Co. gives the following analysis for the whey which they furnish. It is made from skimmed milk and contains practically no fat. Composition of Whey Water Proteids Milk Sugar Mineral Matter Per Cent. ..93.6 I.O 4.7 0.7 Egg Albumen If the intolerance for milk proteids persists, the pro- teid of egg white (see recipe) may be substituted. The white of one egg has the proteid value of eight ounces of skimmed milk. Composition of White of Egg Water Proteids Fats Mineral Matter Per Cent. .85.7. ..12.6 0.25 0.59 FOODS OTHER THAN MILK 109 FOODS OTHER THAN MILK Starch Fruit Juicos Other foods than milk may be utilized, to a limited extent, in the dietary of the infant. Of these there are three general classes. First: Farinaceous substances ; such as barley, oat- meal, arrowroot, farina, rice, wheat and bread, pref- erably in the form of water gruels, and jellies. Second: Albuminoids or proteids, of which class beef juice and egg white are the best representatives. Third: Fruit juices, as orange, prune and unfer- mented grape. The first class have, before the sixth month of in- fancy, but a limited food value, because of the indi- gestibility of their starchy contents. A partial con- version into sugаr may be secured, however, by thor- ough and prolonged cooking, as in the preparation of gruels and jellies. A still further conversion may be secured by the addition of diatase, as malt and malt extracts, a few minutes before feeding. This changes a certain amount of the starch into dextrin. Cereal gruels, in some cases, promote digestion of cow's milk by mechanically preventing the formation of dense curds in the stomach. They may be used to replace all or a part of the water of a formula. When the proteid of cow's milk is not well borne that most essential constituent may be supplied from raw beef juice or egg white. (See recipes.) Orange juice, prune juice and unfermented grape juice are very valuable food adjuncts in cases of nutri- Gruols IIO .CARE OF CHILDREN Patent Baby Foods tional depravity. These are especially needed where the infant has been subject to the prolonged use of cooked and pasteurized foods. Many of the so-called baby foods contain little more than starch, and on that account not be too severely condemned for young children; but the prac- tice, somewhat in vogue, of denouncing all patent foods on that account is thoughtless and unjust. There can Percentage Composition of Infant Foods Food Moisture Proteids Fat Carbo- hydrates Mineral Matter Remarks Horlick's Malted Milk 3.9 13 8 3.0 76.8 2.7 A mixture of desic- cated milk (50%) and malted wheat and bar- ley. No unaltered starch. Mellin's Food * 5.7 10.7 0.1 79.1 4.4 A completely malt- ed food. All the carbo- hydrates in soluble form. Nestle's Food * 3.6 14.0 5.2 75.1 1.9 Eskay's Food * 1.7 6.7 3.5 87.1 1.0 A mixture of desic- cated milk, partially malted wheat flour and cane sugar (27%). Starch 15%. A mixture of par- tially malted wheat, egg albumin and milk sugar (54%). Starch 29%, especially treated. Unsweetened whole cow's milk. 1 part di- luted with 2 parts wa- ter gives ordinary milk. Sweetened con- densed milk contains about 37% cane sugar. Condensed Milk 62.0 9.1 10.7 15.5 4.3 Dried Human Milk 12.2 26.4 52.4 2.1 Analysis by Hutchison * Latest analyses, viven by the manufacturers. MEDICAL SUPERVISION III is much to recommend in some of these preparations, since intelligent modification by supplying a deficiency, may convert it into a most valuable adjunct in sub- stitute feeding. Food which would not meet the re- quirements of nutrition for a long-continued period, because deficient in some essential constituent, may be used temporarily, as in weaning, traveling or tem- porary removal from the breast. Among the objections to many of the patent foods may be mentioned: small amount of fats; insolu- bility of their proteids when present; excess of sugar, especially cane sugar; the high percentage of uncon- verted starch and the fact that all have been cooked. The writer believes that the artificially fed infant should always be under the supervision of a competent physician. Some one has said that it is twice as dan- gerous to be a baby as it is to have smallpox. The mortality in untreated typhoid is less than half that of artificially fed babies, yet no one questions the necessity for a physician in typhoid. Few regard the physician as out of place at the birth of the infant, yet the mortality during birth is slight compared with that of bottle feeding. The most active function of a physician's life is remedying errors, in attempting to patch up the evil results of mistakes. His highest function is to ward off the error and to prevent the mistakes. The infant at the breast is in normal relation with his most imperative need and is seldom under the physician's care. He who substitutes artificial for Medical Supervision in Artificial Feeding Bottlo Fod Babies not in Normal Condition FOOD DISORDERS 113 FOOD DISORDERS Overfeeding is responsible for many of the diges- Ovorfooding tive disturbances of infancy. Among the causes of overfeeding may be mentioned irregularity as to time; thirst; perverted taste; improperly balanced or too concentrated a food; too rapid feeding, and general ignorance or carelessness on the part of the nurse. The usual result of occasional overfeeding is acute indigestion, with or without vomiting, belching, colic, diarrhoea, curds in stool, restlessness, broken sleep, fever or loss of weight. Habitual overfeeding may cause dilatation of the stomach with loss of digestive power and all the symp- toms of chronic dyspepsia, such as flatulence, colic. constipation or diarrhoea, loss of weight or general mal-nutrition. Occasional colic or loose stools or even vomiting Colic may call for nothing more than a temporary diminu- tion of food and a dose of castor oil. In mild cases, the food may be diluted with about a fourth the vol- ume of water, either in the nursing bottle before feed- ing or when the day's supply is made up. The quan- tity given may also be reduced somewhat. In return- ing to the original formulae the change should always be made gradually. Persistent colic may be an indication of excessive proteids, the percentage of which should be reduced to the relief of both colic and diarrhoea, with the dis- appearance of curds from the stools. Vomiting, or "spitting up,” with or without diar Vomiting 114 CARE OF CHILDREN Hot Weathor Diet rhoea, may be caused by an excess of fat and yield promptly to a reduction of this constituent. If food is not digested fermentation occurs in the bowels, with the formation of poisons, which cause restlessness and fever. This "auto-intoxication" is of frequent occur- rence in infancy, but is usually relieved by the cor- rection of the dietetic errors. A common mistake is the neglect to modify the food with due regard to the season. Hot weather re- quires diminution in the fats and proteids (from one- eighth to one-half), so that what constituted a well- balanced food for the winter months is not suitable for the heated term. In hot weather infants need more water and frequently cry from thirst rather than hunger. The long-continued use of food deficient in fat is often productive of rickets. Scurvy may be de- veloped by the habitual use of cooked food, while mal-nutrition is the result of chronic indigestion. The prevention and correction of these disorders lies in proper feeding (See "Essentials.") Their symptoms will be discussed in the section on Chil- dren's Ailments. The practice of experimenting on the baby with all kinds of food-patent and otherwise—is a most per- nicious one. Nature takes some time to rectify diges- tive disturbances, and a slight improvement at each feeding is all that can be expected. If the simple changes suggested do not give relief after a day or two, the physician should be consulted. Do Not Experiment FOOD AFTER THE FIRST YEAR Taking Away the Bottle Bom/- Solids Bottle feeding is rarely necessary after the twelfth month. The child may be gradually taught to drink from a spoon or cup. Where the baby is delicate the bottle may be used until the fifteenth month. The eruption of teeth, the increase in the salivary, gastric and pancreatic secretions give not only greater power of starch and proteid digestion, but also the ability to masticate some solid food. Semi-solids must be introduced gradually into the dietary,“ milk remaining the principal food. Cream is required particularly where there is a tendency to constipation. Until the eighteenth eighteenth month little change should be made except the addition of gruels, meat broths and cracker or stale bread soaked in milk. Five feedings in the 24 hours during the second year are sufficient for a healthy child. The following dietary is intended only as a sugges- tive guide. Variety at this age is not necessary, but a choice is designated by the letters a, b, c. Dietary from 12 to 18 Months First MEAL. 6 TO 7 A. M. a-Glass of warm milk containing a little stale bread or rolled cracker. -b—A porridge of well cooked (at least two hours) cereal with milk. 6-A little soft egg (poached or boiled) with stale bread crumbs and a glass of milk. 115 116 CARE OF CHILDREN SECOND MEAL. 10 A. M. Glass of warm milk. THIRD MEAL. TO 2 P. M. a-Stale bread soaked in gravy from the roast or steak. Milk. b—Soft egg, a little zwieback, glass of milk. (_Toast soaked with beef juice (see recipe), glass of milk. FOURTH MEAL. 5 to 6 P. M. Glass of milk or milk with cereal jelly. (See recipe). FIFTH MEAL. (If necessary late in the evening or night.) Glass of warm milk. Dietary from the 18th to 24th Month. a- FIRST MEAL. 7 A. M. -Warm milk with stale bread or buttered cracker. b--Cereal porridge with milk and cream. (_Glass of milk, soft boiled egg with bread and butter. SECOND MEAL. IO A. M. a—Bread and milk. b—Milk from oyster stew and cracker. (--Milk toast. THIRD MEAL. 2 P. M. a—Mashed potatoes with dish gravy and a glass of milk b-Mutton, beet or chicken broth thickened with rice or barley, bread or cracker and milk. 6-Beef juice on toast, rice or tapioca pudding. With this meal may be given a little well baked apple pulp or stewed prune pulp and juice. FOURTH MEAL. 5 TO 6 P. M. Bread and milk, or bread with butter and milk. Milk may be given during the night if the baby seems hungry. 118 *CARE OF CHILDREN Foods Not Advisable accept the food suitable to his age and condition. In planning the meals for a family containing several young children consideration should certainly be given to their requirements. The following articles are best avoided during early childhood: Condiments or highly sea Cake. soned food. Hot breads. Pork. Cucumbers. Fried meats. Corn. All fried foods. Doughnuts. Griddle cakes. Doughey puddings. Cabbage. Rich puddings. Tomatoes. Over or under ripe fruits. Pastry. Raw celery. Dumplings. Turnips. It goes without saying that children should never be allowed tea, coffee, beer or other stimulants. Nuts and confections should never be allowed on an empty stomach. General Rules 1-Regularity as to meals is of prime importance. 2—Thorough mastication is absolutely essential to perfect digestion. 3—Rapid eating invariably induces dyspepsia. 4-Fluids are essential to good digestion, but the food should never be "washed down.” 5-A judicious balance must always be maintained between the five food constituents, viz. : pro- teids, fats, sugar, salts and water. Stimulants FOOD RECIPES Beef Juice Salt and slightly broil small pieces of thick, lean, round steak and while hot express the juice with a meat press or a lemon squeezer. The juice may be given cold or with the addition of a little warm water. Hot water coagulates the albumin. Made in this way the juice contains from 5 to 6 per cent of coagulatable proteids and from 2 to 3 per cent of “extractives"- nitrogenous substances without nutritive value, but stimulating to the digestive organs. Beef Tea To i pound of lean chopped or minced beef add i pint of cold water. Stir and let stand for 2 hours; then let simmer for 20 minutes. Do not boil. Strain and when cool remove all fat. When ready to use warm and season. Best prepared in double boiler. Mutton Broth Over 1 pound of lean meat, cut in small pieces, pour i quart of cold water, let stand in cold place for 3 hours, then cook slowly down to i pint. Cool, skim off fat, and strain. Veal, chicken or beef broths may be made in the same way. Meat Pulp By scraping with a dull knife separate the meat pulp from the fiber. Season pulp, make in small cake and slightly broil, or may be salted and eaten raw. 119 120 CARE OF CHILDREN Whey Heat i quart of fresh milk luke warm; into this gently stir 2 teaspoonfuls of Fairchild's essence of pepsin ; let stand about twenty minutes or until firmly coagulated, then with a fork break up the clot and strain through fine muslin without pressure. Bring the whey thus obtained to a boil to kill the ferment, then cool and keep on ice. Albumin Water Add i cup Put the white of one egg in a saucer and cut (do not beat) until fine with knife and fork. cold boiled water and strain through cheesecloth. Keep on ice until ready to use. If desired a tiny pinch of salt may be added. Lime Water Drop a piece of unslaked lime as large as a walnut into a vessel containing 2 quarts of pure filtered water, stir thoroughly and allow to settle. Pour off the clear solution into bottles, which should be kept corked. Oat Jelly Soak half a cup of coarse oatmeal in a quart of cold water for 10 hours. Boil down so as to make a pint and while hot strain through fine cheesecloth. A jelly is formed when cold. It should be kept on ice until needed. Wheat and rice jelly can be prepared in the same way. - FOOD RECIPES I21 Barley Water Put 1 tablespoonful of washed pearl barley in a saucepan with a quart of water; boil slowly down to I pint; strain. Barley Jelly Boil slowly down to a pint, i quart of water and 3 tablespoonfuls of pearl barley; strain and let stand until jellied. Peptonized Milk In 4 ounces of boiled cold water, dissolve a tablet containing 15 grains of bicarbonate of soda and 5 grains of pancreatine, to which add 12 ounces of milk. Set vessel containing this mixture in a pan of water at a temperature of 115°F for from 8 to 10 minutes. Cool quickly by placing in running water and keep on ice until used. Use double boiler for making. To completely peptonize the milk heat for two hours. It then has a bitter taste. Dropped Egg Drop a fresh egg into enough boiling milk to cover; remove from milk as soon as the white is set; salt and serve hot with cracker or bread crumbs. Dried Bread Cut bread at least 24 hours old in thick slices; put in slow oven and bake until thoroughly dried. (20 to 30 min.) 122 CARE OF CHILDREN Kumyss-(Holt) I quart of fresh milk, half an ounce of sugar, 2 ounces of water, a piece of yeast cake at least half an inch square; put into wired bottles, keep at a tem- perature between 60 and 70 F. for 1 week, shaking 5 or 6 times a day; put on ice. CARE OF CHILDREN 12. State general objections to the patent baby- foods. 13. What is safe milk? How should the baby's milk be cared for in the home? 14. What governs the quantity given at a feed- ing? The strength of the food ? 15. Give the causes and effects of over feeding. 16. What are the principal dangers in feeding a baby cow's milk? 17. What is meant by a balanced food? 18. Why are special precautions necessary to keep the baby's food as nearly sterile as possible? 19. What can you say in regard to feeding during the second year? 20. How would you alter the food of a young baby in very hot weather? 21. What may the mother or nurse safely do if the baby has indigestion ? 22. Mention new facts you have learned from this lesson. 23. What questions have you to ask? Note. After completing the test, sign your full name. CARE OF CHILDREN PART III JAN. FEB. MAR. APL. MAY JUN JUL. AUG. SEP OCT NOV DEC d. CHILDREN UNDER [ Yr. 1-2 Yr. 2-5 Yr. 5-15 Yr. OVER 15 Yrs. 60 CHART SHOWING MORTALITY IN LARGE CITIES BY MONTHS AND AGES From Circular of Illinois State Board of Health on Infant Feeding - CARE OF CHILDREN PART III The Sick Child Symptoms in šoulth SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE The sick child should, of course, always be under the physician's care, but the mother can aid greatly by giving him an intelligent account of symptoms. The mother knows (or should know) her child much more thoroughly than can any outsider and it is on her carrying out of directions faithfully and intelligently that the recovery of the sick child must depend. In order to recognize the symptoms of disease it is necessary to become thoroughly familiar with the nor- mal, healthy infant. This is accomplished only by careful, conscious observation. Attitude, both sleep- ing and waking; facial expression, movements of ex- tremities, trunk, head and eyes; sounds, both articu- late and inarticulate; respiration, frequency and regu- larity; color of the skin and condition as to tempera- ture and moisture, are all significant of sickness or health. Restlessness or apathy, if but slight, may be esti- mated only by comparison with the baby's normal con- dition. A few of the most easily recognized indications of acute disorder may be mentioned, such as sudden loss of appetite, excessive thirst, unusual drowsiness, lan- uor or fretfulness, all of which may indicate intoxi- cation. 123 THE CRY 125 ing during sleep, especially about the head, is always suggestive of rachitic malnutrition. Disinclination or inability to move a limb should never be overlooked as it may mean a grave disorder, either in the affected limb or in the central nervous system. Refusal to nurse may be due to trouble in the mouth, throat or nose which parts should be frequently examined. No Moaninglos. Crying THE CRY There is no such thing as a meaningless cry. It is only a question of interpretation. The cry is the in- fant's only means of making his wants known. Most welcome is the baby's first cry induced by the discomfort of his new surroundings and its vigor and volume may indicate vital capacity. A little lusty cry- ing in the first days is good for the baby as thereby deep inspiration is induced which more fully inflates the lungs and establishes more completely the new function of respiration. Some babies never entirely overcome the adhesions of the bronchial tubes and air cells, a part of the lung remaining unused. The cry should be clear and distinct and any devi- ation from its normal tone is an indication of disorder. Whatever the cause of crying it is usually tearless be- fore the third month. Hunger is usually expressed by crying, but it is a great mistake to conclude that because the child was quieted by the nipple he was therefore hungry. He may have been thirsty, or the warm milk may have Hungry Ory COLIC 127 Causes put into the mouth, while cry after swallowing sug- gests sore throat. The baby may cry when passing urine due to tight foreskin or the passage of brown uric acid sand, which may be found staining the diaper. If the child frowns while crying.or fretting and avoids the strong light, headache is probably the cause. COLIC Colic is usually due to the pressure of gas in the bowels, one of the results of indigestion. Sudden and violent crying, distended abdomen, alternate drawing up and straightening of the legs, which ceases with the expulsion of gas by mouth or anus, usually indi- cate colic. This colic is often due to too frequent or too copious feeding, hence the great mistake in quiet- ing the cries of the colicky baby by more feeding. Some babies are especially prone to colic and must be fed with extreme care. Again babies are colicky while showing no other evidence of dietetic error. In these cases the attacks may be due to chilling of the surface of extreinities. Great care, therefore, is necessary in maintaining proper warmth by suitable clothing, especially of the hands and feet. (See baby bag, page 22.) Another form of colic is caused, as before men- cioned, by sharp uric acid crystals in the kidneys and urinary tubes. Simply changing the position, as holding the baby over the shoulder, is often effective in expelling the Uric Acid Colio DIARRHEAS 131 age, hence mother's well-known dread of the baby's second summer. In children of all ages a transient form may occur at any season, with decided predilection, however, for the heated term. In midwinter occasional attacks of severe, although usually transcient, diarrhea without fatal tendency are seen, but it is in the summer months that intestinal disorders, with diarrhea as a common symptom, are most fatal. The high rate of mortality among infants and children during the summer months, resulting from disorders of which diarrhea is an ac- companiment, exceeds that of all other diseases dur- Mortality BULB INFANT SYRINGE ing the same period. Nearly 90 per cent of the deaths from this cause are among artificially fed babies. The immediate cause of summer diarrhea is thought to be the presence of great numbers of certain bacte- ria found in unclean and improperly cared for milk. The onset is sometimes sudden, being ushered in by a convulsion, vomiting and diarrhea. There is usually high temperature, thirst and nausea which makes the infant snatch at food but push it quickly aside as soon as a few mouthfuls have been swallowed. Restlessness Onset of Diarrhea 132 CARE OF CHILDREN Vomiting is nearly always present. The stools may change sud- denly or may be two or three days in changing from the normal in frequency and character. There may be a great deal of coiicky pain. The infant while apparently in perfect health may develop vomiting, the matter ejected being at first the contents of the stomach but little changed-highly acid or in dense curds; this is soon followed, however, by a watery, slimy and rarely by a biled-stained fluid, less acid or even alkaline in reaction. Diarrhea frequently accompanies and invariably follows the onset of the disturbance. The first stools may be nearly normal but they quickly change, showing evidence of fermen- tation and later on putrefaction. Finally they become watery and may be of a brownish or greenish color. The odor of the stool varies from the normal sour to intensely putrid and later to a sickening musty smell. The infant, apparently well nourished and playful, quickly shows signs of systemic disturbance in fretful, peevish irritability and restlessness, with head rocking, anxious facial expression, persistent whining cry, fever, dry mouth and softened flabby tissues. The depressed fontanel, sunken, lusterless eyes, sharply de- fined temples, drawn features with the intense thirst all give evidence of the great drain of fluids. The abdomen, at first distended with gas, may soon be- come flabby and depressed and the extremities cold, although the rectal temperature may be from 103° to Drain of Fluids DIARRHEAS 133 Acuto Poisoning 106° F. Convulsions may usher in the attack, follow the initial vomiting by a few hours, appear only at the final stage or occasionally they may not develop. Within twenty-four hours from the onset, and fre- quently earlier, the stage of collapse is reached, with pallor and coldness of the surface, though the internal temperature may be high. The restlessness soon sub- sides into stupor with shallow breathing, collapsed veins, failure of pulse, half closed filmy eyes and death occurs in convulsions or from exhaustion. This picture presents symptoms of acute poisoning from the stomach or intestinal tract occurring in a state of apparent health and terminating fatally in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Though the well-nourished infant is not exempt from this form of acute poisoning it occurs with much greater frequency among those who show evidence of malnutrition. Acute summer diarrhea is frequently but improperly called cholera infantum. Fortunately the true cholera infantum (caused by a specific germ) with its almost invariably fatal termination is by no means common. The commonest form of summer diarrhea is the re- sult of acute indigestion usually caused by improper or impure food or overfeeding. Not infrequently these attacks of vomiting and diarrhea are relieved by the giving of one or more doses of castor oil and the withdrawal of food for twenty-four hours. In such cases the diet should be resumed very gradually, be- Cholore Infantum Yild Casos 134 CARE OF CHILDREN After Effects ginning with small quantities of white of egg water, barley water, strained broth or weak malted milk. A prolonged attack of summer complaint rarely leaves the child free from evidence of retarded devel- opment, which in many instances is never fully com- pensated. Perhaps the most important effect of severe summer complaint upon the survivors is the feeble resistance to infection from lowered vitality, so that the danger from contagious diseases is greatly in- creased. It is needless to say that the mother's immediate duty is to summon her physician upon the appearance of the first symptom of summer diarrheas. ABNORMAL PASSAGES The normal passages of the infant have been de- scribed on page 77, and various abnormal stools have been mentioned in connection with other disorders, but it may be well to summarize here. Like vomiting, any divergence from the normal in the appearance of the stool is a sign of warning. They should be kept for the inspection of the physician. Stools may be abnormal in frequency, consistency, color and odor. During the suckling period the baby's stools may vary in frequency from one to 'six daily without apparent departure from health, the average probably being three movements in the twenty-four hours. Variations in the quantity and quality of food in- ABNORMAL PASSAGES 135 gested may cause variations in the quantity and fre- quency of the discharges which, if normal in color and consistency, need occasion no anxiety. Breast or exclusive milk feeding gives a light color to the evacuations, varying from a canary to a cream. As before stated, the normal consistency of the suck- Color JOINTLESS BULB SYRINGE. ling's stool is about that of thin batter and is smooth and homogeneous throughout. But little gas is pres- ent and the normal odor when freshly voided is slightly sour and not especially offensive. If cereals, starch, sugar or proprietary foods enter largely into the dietary the stools will be darker, rang- ing from orange to brown with a greater tendency to gas formation and a disagreeable odor. Stools are abnormal when they have a putrid odor suggestive of decomposition; when they are bubbly or yeasty, suggestive of fermentation ; when they are watery or contain blood or mucus ; when they are Odor 136 CARE OF CHILDREN Mucus heterogeneous in character; when they are acrid and irritate the anus and skin of the buttocks; when they are green or variegated in color or gray and tough or putty like; when they are hard and lumpy like mar- bles coated with slime or when they are dry and crumbly, either dark brown, pale gray or white. Mucus is normally present in the discharges, but it is only when irritation of some part of the mucous membrane of the digestive tract has caused an extra abundant flow that it becomes visible. Curds in the passages indicate incomplete digestion, the causes of which are many and sometimes hard to determine. The quantity of food may be too great, or it may be too strong, it may be taken too rapidly, too often, too cold, there may have been chilling of the baby or too much excitement, and so on. Although some of these conditions may be remedied by the judicious use of castor oil and slight changes in diet, or manner of feeding, they all suggest the advice of the physician, before the underlying causes lead to disorders which may become obstinate. RICKETS MALNUTRITION AND SCURVY Rickets (rachitis), Malnutrition (marasmus) and Scurvy (scorbutus) are essentially nutritional disor- ders, and as such depend both for their treatment and cure largely upon proper feeding. The rickety child shows a constitutional perversion of development which, if not arrested, may lead to ac- RICKETS 137 Nervous Symptoms tual deformities. There is lessened resistance to dis- orders of an infectious nature, hence a marked tend- ency to catarrhal conditions of all the mucous tracts. Early deaths from acute diseases are frequently due to the feeble resistance of the rickety constitution. Rickets is oftenest seen in children between the ages of six months and four years, though some of its effects are visible throughout life. Three groups of symptoms and signs stand out pre- eminently as rachitic. First. The nervous system shows instability; there is fretfulness, irritability and intellectual precocity. Tendency to spasmodic seizures is sometimes marked. A form of general spasm, known as "tetany" being peculiar to the rachitic infant. So, also, the crowing spasms so frequently mistaken for croup are essen- tially rachitic. The bright, fidgety child who runs on his toes and the head-sweating, restless, cover kicking, sleep moaning infant suggest the same rachitic disturb- ance of nerve function. Second. The muscular system shows tardy devel- opment in strength and remains flabby, so that the in- fant is late in learning to stand or walk and does not sit erect. Curvatures of the spine frequently show the inefficiency of the muscles to support the trunk. The child, meanwhile, may appear to the uninformed as well nourished; in fact, may be fat or overfat with pin-cushiony pads on the top of his feet and the back of his hands. His inability to stand is frequently at- tributed to his great weight. Kuscular Development MALNUTRITION 139 Malnutrition Since a paucity of fat in the food is largely responsi- ble for this disorder that constituent should be freely, though judiciously, supplied, while the inert starchy constituents and the excessive fattening and gas form- ing sugars should be reduced. Meanwhile the physi- cian may endeavor to secure a better supply of earthy salts for the deficient bone forming constituents. Marasmus is a special term applied to that general form of malnutrition which seems to be seated upon an inherited or inherent vice of nutrition. It goes without saying that if the feeding of a normal baby requires judgment that of the marantic infant will ex- ercise the highest skill of the ablest physician. “Weakly from birth" is the common expression applied to these babies whose death could be ascribed to no definite disease. Of course, malnutrition may result from mal- hygiene in what would otherwise prove to be a nor- mal infant, and rachitis, one of the results, not only of improper feeding but also of bad environment as to pure air, sunlight and warmth, plays no small part in the production of marasmus. No one may prescribe the exact line of feeding or treatment for an unseen case of malnutrition. Since no two marantic children present the same specific disturbances. There is usually the extreme emacia- tion which gives the infant the appearance of senility. The rheumy lack luster eye, the weazened face, feeble wail and voracious hunger, presents a vivid picture of starvation, while the large abdomen and frequent foul Feeding 140 CARE OF CHILDREN Scurvy smelling stools with or without vomiting emphasizes the need of most careful feeding. How to do this is the special problem for the doctor in each individual case. That any intercurrent infection should speedily terminate the existence of the marantic infant is not surprising Scorbutus is a disease occurring only in infants fed continuously on cooked food and is never seen in the baby fed exclusively at the breast. The modern tend- ency or fad for artificial baby foods and sterilized milk is largely responsible for the increasing frequency of this disorder in recent years. Scorbutus is so eminently a food disorder that no treatment is necessary other than the proper change in diet. The earliest symptom is crying when the in- fant is handled as in bathing, changing, dressing, etc., and the nurse may discover that it is the legs, espe- cially the thighs, that are tender to the touch. Some- times a swelling is observed about the inner or back part of the thigh, above the knee, with a red or blue discoloration as from a bruise. Frequently the swell- ing is marked and the limb so tender that rheumatism is suspected. Black and blue spots are occasionally seen on different parts of the body or limbs, the re- sult of ordinary handling. The absence of fever (the temperature is usually subnormal) excludes rheuma- tism and ordinary inflammations. Later the skin shows purple spots due to "blood settling," and sometimes bright red spots, the size of a pin head, under the skin as though a little artery had leaked. COLDS 141 The baby takes nourishment poorly and may have indigestion with diarrhea. The inside of the mouth is dark red, the swollen, spongy gums bleed readily upon pressure. Occasionally blood is vomited which had previously been swallowed from the mouth. Later still, hemorrhages may occur from any mucous tract and the stools show blood in clots like liver or changed to the appearance of coffee grounds. Without relief death soon follows. For treatment cooked food must be replaced by something raw. A teaspoonful of orange juice, di- luted, may be given 5 or 6 times a day. Raw milk properly modified, raw beef juice; the white of egg will, if not too late in its administration, bring about a remarkable change. Troatmont COLDS No Gorms No Colds Ordinary colds are the infections from the ever present micro-organisms which cause catarrhal in- flammation of some mucous tract when normal resist- ance is lessened. Lessened resistance may be due to lowered temperature from exposure, from over fa- tigue, excitement, loss of sleep, mal-nutrition or indi- gestion. Also from over-feeding, occasional or ha- bitual. Impure air, also, lowers vitality and invites infection. Acute catarrh (acute cold) may affect the mucous membrane of the nose (Rhinitis); mouth (Stomati- 142 CARE OF CHILDREN Common Cold tis); the middle ear (Otitis); the eyes (Conjuncti- vitis); the pharynx (Pharyngitis); tonsils (Tonsilli- tis) ; larynx (Laryngitis); bronchial tubes (Bron- chitis); stomach (Gastritis); bowels (Enteritis); large bowel (Colititis or Dysentery); bladder (Cys- titis); or the genitals (Urethritis, Vaginitis or Vul- vitis). Catarrh rarely is confined to a single area but shows a tendency to extend along the continuous mucous lin- ing to adjacent tracts. Repeated acute attacks tend to become chronic under neglect and low vitality. The secretions or discharges from any catarrhal tract will positively infect another which is susceptible, hence their prevalence and the term “common cold.” No cold is trivial. All colds, with discharges, are con- tagious. SORE THROAT Frequent Symptom Sore throat is always due to infection, and though it may prove trivial it should never be so regarded, as it is frequently the forerunner of a most grave dis- ease. No physician ever fails to examine the throat of a sick child, and the mother should always do so. The tonsils are very commonly the seat of disease from which infection readily gains access to the blood and system. Recurrent attacks of acute tonsillitis re- sult in permanent enlargement of these structures with increased tendency to acute attacks, and absorption of poison which causes enlargement of the neck glands. SORE THROAT 143 The throat may become nearly closed, breathing in- terfered with, voice is changed and relief is found only in removal of the tonsil by the surgeon. The space above the tonsils, behind the soft palate Anarchlot's and at the top of the pharynx, is most important. It Don may well be called the anarchist's den, for here hidden Raplie of palate Uvula Posterior Jalatine arch Pharyngeal isthmus Tonsil Anterior palatine arch Tongue DIAGRAM OF THE MOUTH. The "Anarchist's Den" is above the "Pharyngeal Isthmus" from sight more dangerous infections are cultivated than in any other part of the body. It is called the "post nasal space." Into it open from in front the passages from the nose; from the sides, the tubes from 144 CARE OF CHILDREN thë middle ears; and from below, the upper end of the pharynx. It is warm, moist, dark and ventilated, an ideal place for the growth of micro-organisms which find in the catarrhal secretions of its mucous lining their ideal food. All nasal catarrhs extend to this space, and the hawking and spitting is due to ac- cumulations here. Repeated attacks of catarrh (cold in the head) cause soft warty growths, called Adenoids, or "the Adenoids AN OIL ATOMIZER third tonsil," which sometimes fill this space, blocking the ear tubes, causing ear disease and deafness, shut- ting off the air and forcing the child to breathe through the mouth with snoring in sleep. These adenoids give to the voice a nasal tone, change the shape of the face, raise the roof of the mouth which gives the child a stupid expression and ultimately af- fects both mind and body. The only cure when well advanced is in removal by the surgeon. The early habitual care of the nose, naso-pharynx and throat by sprays and washes will do much to pre- Care of the Nose CROUP 545 vent the numerous ills due to the neglect of this im- portant area. With a child subject to colds, the oil atomizer should be used daily, night and morning. Alboline with some Oil Atomizer GIVING A NASAL DOUCH. medication such as menthol will be prescribed by a physician. The formula may need to be weakened at first by adding plain alboline until the child becomes accustomed to the treatment Kinds of Croup CROUP There are two forms of croup, spasmodic and diph- theritic. The first form occurs usually at night. The child may or may not have shown signs of illness be- fore going to sleep. Frequently he has been troubled NERVOUS DISORDERS Exciting Causes An excitable condition called nervousness is usually due to unbalanced nutrition or insufficient rest. In- heritance may exert an influence as a remote or pre- disposing cause and the "nervous temperament" has long been recognized. Among the exciting causes may be mentioned fa- tigue, indigestion, foreign bodies in the digestive tract, as worms; local irritations which by reflex action dis- turb nerve equilibrium, as disorders of the genitals, irritable bladder, constipation, seat worms; inflamma- tion of the middle ear; growths in the naso-pharynx; eye strain; skin eruption as eczema, etc. Also im- proper clothing which occasions unequal temperature or discomfort. Some of the manifestations are seen in disturbed sleep, grinding of teeth, bad dreams, night terrors, muscular twitchings, chorea (Saint Vitus's dance), convulsions or epilepsy. Some of the minor symptoms appear as fidgeting, squirming, grimacing, blinking, chewing, nail biting, head scratching, picking at the nose, bed wetting and ready crying, which to the experienced eye proclaim some nerve irritation. Children should rarely be punished but rather fed for the correction of these involuntary manifestations of nervousness. The wise parent will always consult the physician in these cases. Symptoms of Nervousness - 148 NERVOUS DISORDERS 149 CONVULSIONS, SPASMS, FITS, CRAMPS the Cause of Convulsions In the category of infantile disorders nothing is more dreaded and no childhood ailment demands great- er presence of mind on the part of the mother. It has frequently been stated that children rarely die of spasms, that is, the convulsion of itself rarely kills. Spasms do not constitute the disease, but are only symptoms of some disorder which disturbs equilibrium of the nervous system. We have seen that reflex action was highly devel- oped at birth and that inhibition (control) was a func- tion of later development. The younger the infant the greater the likelihood of muscular contractions heing excited beyond control of the feeble inhibition. Therefore anything which powerfully excites mus- cular contraction may induce convulsions in infants and young children. Hyper-excitability and feeble inhibition are also to a certain extent hereditary. The so-called nervous constitution finds its best expression in this want of balance between excitability and inhibition. Nutri- tion also plays an important part in determining the balance between these two functions of the nervous system (see Rickets). What might be a very trilling disturbance in the adult may induce convulsions in the infant. Again spasms may be one of the symp- toms of a very grave disease. It is the cause of the fits, then, that is of paramount importance. CONVULSIONS 151 Treatment sometimes occurs with the breathing and the free flow of saliva may be churned into a froth which clings to the lip. The jerking then becomes less marked and finally ceases and the child soon recovers consciousness and cries or falls asleep from exhaustion. This cycle is usually completed in from one to three minutes, though to the watching parents it may seem many times that. The attacks may recur at intervals for many hours if the cause is not removed and death has been known to occur apparently from exhaustion. Since in infancy one of the commonest causes of convulsions is indigestion or the presence of some irri- tant in the digestive tract the first thing to be done is to clean out the stomach and bowels. A prompt emetic should be given at once, followed by a dose of castor oil. A copious enema of warm salt solution (teaspoonful of salt to a pint of warm water) should also be given. For the relief of the immediate spasm the child should be quickly immersed in a hot bath (temperature 110° F. or test with the whole arm) containing a tea- spoonful of strong mustard to the gallon, with ice cold cloths to the head. A simpler method of applying moist heat is to wrap the baby in a small blanket or turkish towel wrung out of hot water. A physician should be at once summoned, but if he is not in reach anıl the convulsions recur an enema of five grain tablet of sodium bromide dissolved in an 152 CARE OF CHILDREN ounce of tepid water may be administered and retained by pressure upon the anus, or half this dose may be given by mouth to a child of 18 months, every two hours if necessary. A NIGHT LIGHT. After Effects Although as stated, death is rarely due to a convul- sive seizure, it is none the less to be dreaded, and all means should be employed to ward off its recurrence, for the reason that severe spasms, from whatever cause, may result in permanent injury to the delicate tissues of the brain, among the results of which may be paralysis, with mental impairment. CONTAGIOUS DISEASES Sourco of Infoction Contagious diseases are those due to germs carried to the individual from some other person suffering from that disease. These germs may come through direct contact or may be brought by air, water, food, clothing, books, papers, letters, etc., so that the source from which the child is exposed is often difficult to trace. Of the contagious diseases we will consider only those most commonly found in infancy and childhood, viz., measles, scarlet fever, chicken-pox, diphtheria and whooping cough. They have a common resem- blance in that they have a stage of incubation (the interval from exposure to the first symptoms), all are self limiting diseases (run out their course), all are accompanied by more or less fever, one attack usually immunes from a second (except in diphtheria), each has the characteristic skin eruptions (except diph- theria and whooping cough), and each has its stage of invasion (the interval between the first symptoms and the appearance of the characteristic symptom). Eruptivo Fevers MEASLES Measles, German measles, scarlet fever and chicken- pox are called the "eruptive fevers." Measles is the most frequent and most contagious, attacking all ages and is most prevalent in the winter season. It is contagious during stages of incubation, probably from the breath of the patient, and is rarely carried by a third person. Though lightly regarded 153 154 CARE OF CHILDREN Symptoms of Measles by most people, measles is a very serious disease, espe- cially in delicate children, where it may prove fatal from the broncho-pneumonia or tuberculosis which frequently follows it. The attack begins with the symptoms of a bad cold; eyes red, nose wet, fever, hoarseness, sneezing and cough, with slight sore throat, coated tongue and fe- verish breath. About the fourth day the rash appears, first on the face, gradually spreading downward over the trunk and limbs, which it usually covers in twenty- four hours. This consists of dusky red, slightly ele- vated, flattened papules, from wheat grain to split pea in size. On the face and trunk, especially, they run together, giving a blotchy look to the dark red with little spaces of normal skin between. The rash period is less than a week and fades away gradually. The eyes may be very troublesome and permanent im- pairment often follows. The cough may increase with symptoms of pneumonia. The fever, in uncompli- cated cases, subsides with the rash, which is followed by a falling off of fine branny scales continuing dur- ing the week of convalescence. Treatment: Call a doctor, avoid bright light and put child to bed in a warm room. GERMAN MEASLES (ROETHELN) A milder disease than measles, for which it is fre- quently mistaken. It generally comes in epidemic form in the winter season. The rash appears on the second day, first on the face in pale rose spots slightly SCARLET FEVER 155 elevated, size of pin head, which usually remain sepa- rate. When they do run together they do not form blotches like measles but rather a continuous redness like scarlet fever, for which it is sometimes mistaken. The rash spreads downward rapidly over the body, at the same time beginning to fade from the face so that in three days it has disappeared. The fever is slight, with a little sore throat and wet eyes and nose. Usually small scales from the outer skin fall off a few days after the rash. Treatment: Protect from broncho-pneumonia by keeping in bed on light diet. SCARLET FEVER (SCARLETINA) Scarlet fever is very common at all ages above six months. Occurs most frequently in Autumn (after schools open) and is very contagious. The germs may be carried in clothing and may live for a year stowed away in clothes and bedding. The disease may be so mild as to be overlooked or so severe as to destroy life in 24 hours. The mildest case may furnish germs for one of the severest type, hence the importance of recognizing and isolating every case. It usually comes on suddenly with vomit- ing. High fever appears on the first day and rash on the second. Eruption first appears on the neck and spreads rapidly over the body and limbs but usually spares the face. The color is uniformly scarlet in typ- ical cases with pin points of intense red showing through. The throat is red and sore from the begin- Virulence 160 CARE OF CHILDREN EARACHE Earache may be the first intimation of an inflamma- tion of the middle ear. The screaming infant may sometimes pull his hair or put his hand to the affected side of the head. Gentle pressure with the thumb in front of or behind the ear may cause flinching from tenderness. After pus has formed its pressure will usually rupture the drum membrane and allow a dis- charge through the external passage. Inflammation of the middle ear is usually due to infection from the throat or naso-pharynx through the tube (eustachian) which connects the two cavities. Acute congestion of RUBBER EAR SYRINGE. the ear with intense pain is sometimes the result of ex- posure to cold or drafts and may be relieved by hot applications as salt or water bag. The infected ear may be gently filled with hot water or warm sweet oil, care being taken not to burn. So great harm results from neglected ear trouble that the best medical advice should be obtained upon the appearance of the first symptoms. Aside from pain and danger of impaired hearing from formation of pus in the middle ear it should be remembered that Danger of Meningitis Table of Contagious Diseases. DISEASE From Exposure to First Symp- toms Day of Charac- Characteristic Symp- teristic toms by which the Disease is Recog- Symp- nized. toms Other Principal Symptoms Duration of Disease from Important After First Effects Symptoms Measles (Bubeola 12 to 14 days German Measles (Rotheln) 7 to 21 days and Scarlet Fever (Scarletina) 2 to 7 days Broncho - Pneu- Dusky red spots, Starts with red monia, Tuberculo- 4th slightly elevated be eyes, wet nose, and 7 to 10 sis, Diarrhoea Di. ginning on face and cough with hoarse- day days seases, Eye Disease spreading over body. ness. Ear Disease. Bright pink spots Slight fever and 1st 3 to 4 or papules beginning but little indisposi- on face and extend- Rarely any. day days ing rapidly over body tion, Starts with sore Continuous bright throat, vomiting (or Ear Disease, 2nd 7 to 10 red rash, extending convulsions) Heart Disease, from neck down- Gland Disease, day wards over trunk itching and feeling high fever, later days or longer Anarmia, Bright's and limbs. of skin. Disease. Scattered blisters 1st 5 to 7 on face and body, A very little fever. Nothing but from grain of wheat days pock marks. to split pea in size. Ear, Nose, or Greyish white Slight fever, debi. Throat Diseases. 1st or 2nd membrane on throat lity, sore throat, 1 to 2 Kidney Disease. or bidden behind the croupy cough, or dis- Paralysis of Soft day weeks palate or in the charge from the nose Palate and Sudden Larynx. enlarged neck glands Death. Recurrent pro- longed paroxysms of Bronchitis, 2nd cough (with or with Vomiting after 6 to 12 Broncho-Pneumo- week out whoop) fermin- | cough. weeks nia, Pulmonary, ating in gagging or Phthisis, vomiting. Chicken Pox (Varicella) 12 to 16 days day 2 to 10 Diphthers. days Whooping. Cough (Pertussis) 7 to 14 days 164 CARE OF CHILDREN Ipecac, Syrup of.--As an emetic give a year old baby 1/2 tea- spoonful, followed by drink of warm water. Repeat dosė every 15 minutes until vomiting. Lime Water. Mustard. Peppermint, Essence of. Sweet oil. Vaseline. Absorbent Cotton, antiseptic. Adhesive Plaster. Alboline Atomizer (Constructed to spray oils). Ear and Nose Syringe. (Soft rubber.) Fountain Springe. Flexible rubber Catheter, number 10 (for rectal tube). Gauze, antiseptic. Hot water bottle. HYGIENE OF THE CHILD AND YOUTH Moro Caro Not Loss Getting the baby out of arms should not diminish the mother's care, but the same protection as given in the nursery should extend throughout childhood, with such modifications as the changing anatomy and physiology demand. In fact, the child of two or three years should receive more of her time and thought than the younger babe, for it is now that his training in personal hygiene should begin and habits of per- sonal cleanliness be established. After infancy, the danger from death may be lessened but not of per- verted development. The fact that a child is able to dress himself does not relieve the mother of the responsibility of seeing that he is properly clothed, and even though he is old enough to sit at the family table, especial attention must still be given to his diet and manner of eating. Thorough mastication is a most important feature of the child's early training and he should not be allowed to “wash down” his food. He should eat some foods requiring vigorous mastication, such as toast and hard cracker, to help in developing strong teeth. Too frequently the temporary teeth are neglected both as to personal and dental care under the mistaken impression that their early loss renders them of little importance. Even were this true (which it is not) the health and comfort of the child would suggest that they be kept clean and in perfect condition as long Care of the Toeth 165 166 CARE OF CHILDREN Care of the Throat as they remain. To accomplish this end the teeth should be thoroughly brushed and the mouth cleansed with a pleasant antiseptic, such as dilute listerine, boro- lyptol or glyco-thymoline, night and morning (especi- ally at night) and the slightest decay of the teeth should be referred to the dentist. After a child is taught to properly cleanse his mouth it is but a short step to teach him to garzlé and this mastered a little tact and patience on the part of the mother or nurse will soon initiate him into the use of the atomizer and nasal douche, accomplishments which may prove of inestimable value at some critical time. Every night and morning (oftener if necessary) the nasal passages should be freed from excessive secre- tion, not only so that the child can breathe through his nose but to get rid of material which harbors in- fections. The child should early be taught the use of the handkerchief and required to carry his own and impressed with the danger of contact with those soiled by others. Any tendency to mouth breathing should be immedi- ately corrected and if necessary the advice of a physi- cian sought. Deep breathing should be early taught and insisted upon until it becomes a firmly established habit. This cannot be accomplished with unsuitable clothing or without correct postures in standing, sitting and walk- ing. Frequent exercise in the open air, such as taking a deep inspiration while five, ten or even fifteen sec- Deep Broathing HYGIENE OF THE CHILD 167 Sleep Bathing onds are being counted, may be made a game of com- petition. The need of plenty of sleep throughout the entire developing period can not be unduly emphasized and to this end quiet, well ventilated chambers and indi- vidual beds are necessary. Young children should retire soon after the light supper. Studying, playing or reading by artificial light may interfere with the rest and recuperation required after the fatigue of the day. The frequency, duration and temperature of the bath should depend upon the reactionary effects upon the child. A cold tonic shower bath is best given in the morning and should not last more than half a minute. The child should stand in warm water which covers his feet and be gently sprayed with warm water before turning on the cold shower. If a shower bath is not available, a quick sponge with tepid to cold water with a brisk toweling may be given. The advisability of the cold baths should be decided by the family physician, as all children should not take them. The warm bath may be given before retiring if suffi- cient time be allowed for the digestion of the supper. General bathing should never immediately follow a meal. EDUCATION Childhood is recognized as the p.aytime of life and most of the plays of children are educational in their tendency. That physical development and training 168 CARE OF CHILDREN Games for Girls should take precedence of the mental is self-evident to all who witness the sad spectacle of an over-trained mind in a feeble body. In childhood, at least, girls should share the outdoor sports of their brothers. There is no reason why the pleasurable and useful exercise of running, jumping, swimming, rowing, skating, riding, cycling and most games should be confined to boys. The cry of "tom- boy” has deprived many a girl of the physical founda- tion for the duties and responsibilities of mature womanhood. Rousseau says, and truly, the weaker the body is, the more it commands; the stronger it is, the more it obeys. “A well-trained nervous system is the greatest friend that the mind can have.”-Halleck. The country affords special advantages for the nor- mal development of the child, for here it is that he comes close to nature which furnishes innumerable object lessons and problems which his inherent curi- osity impels him to solve. Thus he is led to develop himself through a symmetrical training of muscles and brain. For the city child, these conditions should be approximated as nearly as possible. The brain, relatively large, even at birth, is suscepti- ble of very rapid development. If, however, this be allowed to exceed that of the muscles, irreparable dam- age may result and mediocrity take the place of early precocity through early exhaustion of the brain cells from over stimulation. It must never be forgotten Development of the Brain - HYGIENE OF THE YOUTH 169 Poriod of Woak Heart that young nerve cells tire quickly, not yet having the stored energy of maturity. The younger the child the more should the early educational efforts be restricted to the larger groups of muscles,-leg, arm and body exercise rather than those of the fingers and smaller groups of muscles which require concentrated efforts at finer co-ordina- tion. The use of the needle, pencil, brush and scissors may well be deferred and replaced by romping games, efforts at house building with large blocks or shovel and sand pile. The proverbial laziness of the boy of eight years is based upon a physiological fact which is too frequently overlooked. His heart at this time has not kept up with the rapid growth in body length and is barely able to maintain the circulation of the blood for ordinary mental and muscular exertion. He is least fitted at this time for the extra demands made upon him for running errands and doing all sorts of chores which he usually does clumsily and tardily because of ex- cessive fatigue. Many boys and girls are stunted for life or succumb to infectious disease from excessive burdens imposed during this period of weak heart, namely, from the eighth to the twelfth year. It has been shown often that the purpose of our so- called educational systems has been defeated by ig- norance of the child's capacity for concentrative atten- tion to a given subject. Fifteen minutes is about the limit for a child between five and seven years of age Limit of Attontion 170 CARE OF CHILDREN and the grammar school pupils rarely show a ca- pacity for more than thirty minutes of uninterrupted study. This power may be even further reduced by debilitating conditions, such as improper food, im- paired digestion, physical fatigue, insufficient sleep or vitiated air of the school room. 12 13 14 15 16 YEAR 8 9 10.11 BOYS GIRLS TIME Eyo and Ear Strain Krohn's Diagram Representing Relative Time of Fatigue at Different Ages. Early exhaustion of nerve force is frequently in- creased by eye strain from defective vision and pupils often appear dull at school because they can not see distinctly maps, charts or blackboard exercises. In the same category as a cause of apparent mental dull- ness is defective hearing,—the words of the teacher failing to make a definite impression upon the child's sensorium, with resultant confusion of ideas. In this respect a grave responsibility rests upon parents and teachers. The oculist and aurist should be frequently PUBESCENCE 171 Schoo Hygiene consulted and any defects in these "avenues to the mind" corrected. The subject of school-room hygiene is too broad to receive more than passing mention here. The parent should visit the schools and satisfy himself as to the heating and ventilation of the rooms in which his chil- dren spend so many hours. The seating with refer- ence to light and vision, adaptation of seat and desk to the size of the child so that undue fatigue or actual deformity may be obviated, should also be given con- sideration. Is there a judicious alternation between mental concentration and free-limbed exercise suitable to the child's age? PUBESCENCE Pubescence is a period of the greatest importance in the development of the child, not only physically but mentally and morally. The rounding out of the girl's physique with broad- ening of the hips and rapid growth of the breasts sug- gests the approach of menstral function. This should never be allowed to take the little maiden by surprise, but the mother should have prepared her daughter's mind for this sign of womanhood. Unfortunate is the girl whose mother has not had the tact and courage to instruct her beforehand concerning the true meaning of conception, gestation and motherhood. Many lives have been lost or ruined because the mother has failed in her duty in this respect. Probably the best argument for the early study of Changes in the Girl 172 CARE OF CHILDREN Oaro biology, including botany, is the natural introduction thus afforded to the great mysteries of ovulation, fruc- tification, conception, gestation and parturition and the true physical relation of the sexes in the great plan of life. There is nothing to shock the modesty of the normal girl if these subjects are properly approached along the lines of comparative biology. The pubescent girl's periodical indisposition should be recognized and guarded from undue burdens and responsibilities, as the foundation for future suffering and disease is often laid at this time. The woman is fortunate whose pubescent life escaped the crippling effect of tight or high-heeled shoes, whose anatomy has not been distorted and generative organs disar- ranged by the corset, and whose moral and social edu- cation has followed natural family and domestic lines rather than the artificialities of the so-called modern society. Wholesome companions and literature, out-of-door exercises and amusements with reasonable domestic responsibilities should alternate with judicious selec- tion of musical, physical and literary curriculum in well-selected schools. The judicious parent will endeavor to teach the pu- bescent boy manliness rather than mannishness, and to inculcate early reverence and respect for pure womanhood. He should have the companionship of pure-minded girls. The boy ought to be taught by a senior whom he re- The Boy PUBESCENCE 173 veres (preferably his father) the true meaning of sex differentiation and sexual passion. It should be clearly shown him that venereal disease with its far-reaching baneful effects lurks ever as the penalty for licentious- ness. He should be given to understand that an oc- casional seminal emission while sleeping is no more sinful than a transient hemorrhage from overcharged blood vessels or vomiting for an overloaded stomach. Above all, he should be taught to respect his own body. Here again competitive athletic sports, good litera- ture, the study of natural sciences with abundance of out-door life will lead the boy away from tendencies toward immorality and dissipation. Close confinement to books and literature too fre- quently causes physical and mental collapse during pubescence, for which the prizes for scholarship are not infrequently responsible. Plenty of fresh air both day and night and the daily cold bath are items of tre- mendous value in the hygiene of pubescence. Empha- sis and encouragement to physical development should be given by the parent at this time (and at all times). Better take the boy or girl out of school for a term or two, if necessary, than to harm his body for life. Book learning can easily be made up, but perverted physical development often can never be rectified. Physical Dovolopment Most Important 174. CARE OF CHILDREN BIBLIOGRAPHY Care of the Baby ($1.50, postage .18). J. P. Crozer Griffith, M. D. Care of a Child in Health ($1.25, postage .12). N. Oppenheim, M. D. Care and Feeding of Children ($.75, postage .08). L. E. Holt, M. D. Century Book for Mothers ($2.00, postage .18). Yale and Pol- lock. Development of the Child ($1.25, postage .12). N. Oppenheim, M. D. Hygiene of the Nursery ($1.00, postage .08). Louis Starr. Theory and Practice of Infant Feeding ($2.25, postage .20). Henry Dwight Chapin, M. D. Food and Principles of Dietetics ($3.00, postage .26). Robt. Hutchison, M. D. Chapters 24, 25, 26. School Hygiene (For teachers) ($1.00, postage .10). Edward R. Shaw. Medical Books Diseases of Children ($3.50). A. C. Cotton, M. D. Pediatrics—Hygiene and Medical Treatment of Children ($6.00). T. M. Rotch, M. D. Diseases of Infancy and Childhood ($6.00). L. E. Holt, M. D. TEST QUESTIONS The following questions constitute the "written reci. tation" which the regular menībers of the A. S. H. E. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. They are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. CARE OF CHILDREN PART II Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. Leave space between the answers for the notes of the instructor. Answer every question fully. Read the lesson paper a number of times before attempting to answer the questions. 4. 1. Does crying benefit the baby? If so, how? 2. Describe different cries and give their interpre- tation. 3. What do you understand by nervousness in a child? Name some causes for nervousness and the symptoms. 5. (a) What does fever indicate in an infant? (b) What may be done for its relief? 6. (a) What is an ordinary cold? (b) Why is no cold trivial ? 7. Give the cause of sore throat. 8. (a) What is the "anarchist's den"? (b) How may it be cared for? 9. What contagious diseases are the most danger- ous and why? Mention the possible after effects of measles. of scarlet fever. 11. What causes convulsions? Why are they to be dreaded? 12. What should be done for their immediate re- lief? What for their prevention ? IO. SODIUM CITRATE IN INFANT FEEDING * BY A. C. COTTON, M. D. The infant deprived of the breast must, in relation to his feeding, be regarded as a pathologic problem. That this statement is axiomatic is shown by the fact that more earnest work has been bestowed on infant feeding during the past twenty years than on all other pediatric subjects combined. That the problem is still unsolved the high relative mortality and later morbidity (illness) of artificially fed infants bear constant witness. The six essentials of Cheadle, enunciated by that observer some time in the '8o's, bear witness that the essential requirements of an artificial food for babies were broadly understood twenty years ago. Quoting from memory, they are briefly as follows: 1. Steril- ity. 2. Antiscorbutic property. 3. Quantity. 4. Some Animal constituents. 5. Form suitable. 6. Constituency. Much has been learned since Cheadle by amassing clinical results and observations. Mean- while the deductions from a priori reasoning have proven unsatisfactory for the simple reason that so little was known of the physiology of infant digestion. Latterly the premises from which we reasoned have been proven, almost without exception, to be incor- rect. * Read in the Section on Diseases of Children of the American Medical Association, at the Fifty-seventh Annual Session. June, 1906. Reprinted from the Journal of the American Medical Association of Octcber 6, 1906. 179 180 CARE OF CHILDREN Thus the great American experiment known as the exact percentage method of feeding required that the baby's diet should consist wholly of cow products and water, so modified in its five gross constituents as to coincide quantitatively with simi- larly named constituents of average breast milk. One other ingredient only was allowable in this feeding mixture, viz., some alkalin solution, as lime water, sodium bicarbonate, or magnesia. This dogma, which in connection with laboratories established throughout the country had almost become a cult in infant feeding, was practically based on seven assumptions, which have recently been proven erroneous, to wit: 1. The qualitative similarity in breast and cow's milk of the lactose, fats, albuminoids, proteids and their chemical combination with the milk salts. 2. The claimed alkalinity of breast milk in contra- distinction to the acidity of cow's milk. 3. The possibility of a synthetical substitute for breast milk from cow products alone. 4. The claim that cereals were not allowable because indigestible in the infant's secretions and that they induced dyspepsia and intoxication by acting as decomposing foreign matter. 5. That cereal gruels were no more efficient in the prevention of dense milk coagula than dilution with plain water. 6. That HCI played no part in the digestive process until later infancy. 184 CARE OF CHILDREN acidulated milk has been tried; admixture with gruels has been tried; koumiss, matzoon, and kephir milk have been tried; the addition of various alka- lies is much in vogue; all with varying degrees of success, and each measure has its ardent advocates. That the question is not yet settled this diversity of opinion amply indicates. It is still an open field, and the cry that no chemical tampering with the milk should be encouraged need deter no one, since it is proven beyond dispute that cow's milk, however modified, is not a natural food for the human infant. The more orthodox observers of the original labora- tory percentage modification have from the first chemically tampered with the milk in the addition of lime water, sodium bicarbonate, etc., in the mistaken notion of humanizing the mixture by rendering it alkalin. That we reached further than we intended in our administration of alkalies and secured tolera- tion of the curds through neutralization of the normal gastric acids does not lessen the evils of inhibition of those digestive processes which can occur only in an acid medium. Since deductive methods from a priori reasoning have thus far failed of a satisfactory solution of this problem, let us welcome inductive methods conducted along rational lines, since massed clinical evidence must ever be the tribunal before which all method must come to trial. Whether secundus artem or secundus scientiam, it is the greatest number of babies 186 CARE OF CHILDREN its effects for a considerable time, also, by the courtesy of Dr. Vanderslice, a history of 29 cases reported by him at different times to the Chicago Pediatric Society. In addition to this I have read carefully Dr. Shaw's report of 22 cases, making a total of 112 cases embrac- ing nearly all conditions from simple dyspepsia to marasmus and ranging in age from the new born to adults who have suffered from milk dyspepsia. Sodium citrate being very soluble in water, the method of employment is simple, as follows: An aqueous solution is ordered containing from 1 to 5 gr. to the dram. A quantity of this solution is furnished the mother or nurse with instructions to add to the baby's bottle immediately before feeding enough of the solution to represent 1, 2, or even 3 gr. of the citrate to each ounce of milk in the feeding mixture, accord- ing to the prescriber's idea of the requirements. The feeding mixture may consist of varying dilutions of milk with water or gruel, with the addition of cane or milk sugar, with or without cream. No alkalies are added, the sodium citrate used being a neutral salt. A most noticeable feature in this method of feeding is the large proportion of milk in the feeding mixture that the infant will tolerate without evidence of gastric disturbance or the appearance of any considerable amount of undigested casein in the stools. In fact, the stools of babies fed on citrated milk have come to be regarded by Drs. Merrill, Vanderslice, and myself as positively characteristic, being firm enough 188 CARE OF CHILDREN bring the baby's feeding up toward whole milk as rapidly as possible. As toleration is established the amount of citrate is reduced to one, to one half and to one fourth of a grain per ounce of milk until it can be discontinued. It happens not infrequently that the citrate is profitably resumed on the recurrence of signs of indigestion. In but 6 cases have I felt obliged to discontinue the citrated milk and adopt other methods of feeding. Some of these were among my early cases which, if occurring later, would pos- sibly have received a more persistent treatment with citrated milk. In consideration of this subject three questions naturally arise: I. Is the employment of sodium citrate any better than other methods of rendering cow proteids tolerable and digestible? 2. Is its employment harmful? 3. In what manner does it act? In answer to the first I would say that this method seems to allow a more rapid increase in the propor- tion of milk ingested than any other known to me. Moreover, the frequency of relief from milk indi- gestion on the addition of the citrate and the favor- able reports from all whom I have known to give it a thorough trial are not without significance. In regard to its harmfulness, no case of citrated milk feeding has been brought to my attention in which there appeared to be cause for regret because of the employment of this method. 190 CARE OF CHILDREN milk (to one of which sodium citrate has been added) drop a given quantity of liquid rennet and dilute hydrochloric acid. In both milks coagulation occurs, with this difference, that the citrated milk clots less promptly and the resultant curd is softer, less dense, more nearly resembling the curd of breast milk. My assistant, Dr. F. W. Allin, as the result of more than a hundred careful comparisons, has obtained the following results: Materials Used.—Ordinary dairy milk was used in these experiments. Wyeth's liquid rennet was used for curdling agent, which was always added last. A i per cent hydrochloric acid solution and 4 per cent sodium citrate solution were used. Two drops of HCl in 5 c.c. milk equals .025 per cent. Five drops of sodium citrate solution equals .25 per cent. One grain of sodium citrate to the ounce of milk would be .20 per cent. The gruels were stand- ardized to one ounce of flour or oatmeal to the quart of water and cooked three hours in a double boiler. Conditions.—The experiments were all performed at 40 C. in glass test tubes. The milk was used as whole milk or diluted with water, flour gruel, or oat- meal gruel. The dilutions made were two thirds, one half, one third, one fourth, one eighth milk. CONCLUSIONS Sodium citrate in .25 per cent, or more, retards, and very high percentages will inhibit coagulation. I. THE SOOTHER 193 milk supply and methods of handling the same, also in the means of protection from germs which might prove detrimental to the quality of the milk or injurious to the digestive apparatus of the infant. Pasteur- ization, and even sterilization, though undoubted- ly depreciating the food value of the milk as well as its digestibility, are advocated by many who would minimize the danger from the introduction of path- ogenic micro-organisms with the food. For the same reason, the improved hygiene, including the care of the nursing bottle, the sterilization of the nip- ple, the antiseptic care of the baby's mouth, and everything pertaining to the act or process of feed- ing, is widely practiced. The unanimity of the profession in regard to these details leads the writer to call attention to a glaring inconsistency in infant hygiene, which is so wide- spread as to come under the daily observation of every baby feeder. The long-tube nursing bottle is practically obsolete; indeed, some municipalities have enacted laws against the sale or use, for the evident reason which has been amply demonstrated – that the apparatus can not be kept germ-free. Great cedit is due to Doctor Ernest Mende, of Buffalo, for his vigorous and successful crusade against this death-dealing tube. As though the nursling had not enough to contend with in securing his right to protection in our unhygienic homes, it would seem 196 CARE OF CHILDREN formation, the writer does not believe, though he accepts the deformity or any other condition which interferes with free nasal respiration as prolific in the causation of naso-pharyngeal catarrhs, with hyper- trophy of adenoid tissue. The direct current in- spired in the mouth-breather incites tonsilar hy- peremia and hypertrophy, so that the familiar type of this deformity may prove the starting point to the lesions of the mucosa above mentioned. In the absence of heredity it may be questioned whether intrauterine conditions or pressure at the time of delivery, with or without forceps, may not influence the peculiar conformation known as con- genital adenoid facies." Be that as it may, the fact is well known that an infant apparently normal at birth may gradually develop this oro-naso-facial deformity between the sixth month and the third year of its life. The not uncommon dental deform- ity produced by thumb sucking has been thoroughly exploited. Little, however, so far as the writer knows, has been said in regard to the effect of the continuous use of the 'soother” in this connection. When we recall the plastic condition of the structures that make up the oral and nasal cavities, giving form to the infant face, and remember that ossification is incomplete at birth, proceeding only from numer- ous ossific centers with intervening areas of plastic tissue, it is not difficult to perceive that persistent, LIBRARY OF HOME ECONOMICS COMPLETE HOME STUDY COURSE 12 Volumes, 3,000 Pages, 1,000 Illustrations; Bound in Green and Gold; Price, $1.50 per vol. FOOD SUBJECTS CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD, FOOD AND DIETETICS, by Prof. by Margaret E. S. B., Mass. In Alice P. Norton, Un versity of Chi- stitute of Technology. cago. "A Day's Chemistry"—the unseen Food economy, composition, nutri- forces in the common things met in a tive value and digestibility of foods; day's work-water, air, fire, fuel; how the body makes use of food; bal- chemistry of food, of digestion, of anced ration; healthful diet for the cookery, of cleaning, of laundry, of sedentary, the aged, the children, and stains, of lighting; home tests, etc. so on; food adulterations, "Food Val- ues,” etc. PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY, by Anna HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT, Barrows, by Columbia University and Prof. Bertha M. Terrill of University Chautauqua School of Cookery. of Vermont. "A key to the cook books''-ana Household finance; economy in lyzing and explaining the principles spending; division of income; house- on which success rests, particular ar hold accounting; system in house- tention being paid to economy of time work; the servant problem; buying and materials, menus, making a fire supplies and furnishings; marketing; less cooker, "Directions for Wait cuts of meat; season of vegetables; resses," "Free Hand Cooking," etc. “Co-operative Housekeeping,” etc HEALTH SUBJECTS HOUSEHOLD BACTERIOLOGY, by PERSONAL HYGIENE, by M. Le- S. Maria Elliott, Simmons College. Bosquet, S. B., Director of A. S. H. E. The microscopic forms of life and The human machine; running the their relation for good and evil to the machine; care of the machine-suffi- household; how to make "dust gar cient physiology to show the reasons dens''; disease germs and how to for the directions for maintaining avoid them; the protecting agencies health; emphasis placed on do rather of the body and how to keep them than don't; "Ethics of Health," "Use active; sanitation, etc. and Abuse of Drugs," etc. HOME CARE OF THE SICK, by Amy HOUSEHOLD HYGIENE, by S. Maria E. Pope, Presbyterian Hospital, New Elliott, Simmons College, Boston. York City. The healthful home; the best situa Essentials of trained nursing; han- tion; the cellar; drainage, heating, dling and caring for the patient; lighting, disposal of wastes, plumbing nursing in contagious diseases; ob- tests, water supply; sanitary furnish stetrics; food for the sick; emergen- ings and care; hygienic housekeeping, cies; poisons and their antidotes; ban- etc. daging; communicable diseases, etc. HOUSEHOLD ARTS THE HOUSE: ITS PLAN, DECORA TEXTILES AND CLOTHING, by Kate TION AND CARE, by Prof. Isabel H. Watson, formerly Lewis Institute Bevier, University of Illinois. and University of Chicago. The development of the modern Fully illustrated descriptions of home and the American house, plan- primitive and modern methods; tex- ning convenient houses, construction, tile fibres and fabrics; plain and or- floors, decoration and furnishing, sug- namental stitches; machine sewing; gestions for changes, repairs, house- cutting and fitting; color and orna- hold conveniences, "The Cost of ment; children's clothes; repairs, etc. Building," etc. CHILDREN CARE OF CHILDREN, by Dr. A. C. STUDY OF CHILD LIFE, by Marion Cotton, Prof. Children's Diseases, Rush Foster Washburne, editor "Mothers' Medical College, University of Chi Magazine." • cago. Sensible and practical directions for Care of the baby before and after the treatment of children; faults and hirth: healthful clothing; develop their remedies; character building; tient and growth; specific directions home occupations; play; associates; for feeding; food disorders; food for studies and accomplishments; relig- older children, treatment of children's ious training; the sex question, an- ailments; hygiene of the child, etc. swers to questions, etc. BULLETINS: Free Hand Cooking, 10 cts.; Food Values, 10 cts.; The Up-To-Date Home, 15 cts. SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR CLASSES ON CARE OF CHILDREN MEETING I (Study pages 1-31) Before Baby Comes. Care of the Child in Health, Oppenheim, pages 1-46. ($1.25, postage 12c.) Century Book for Mothers, Yale and Pollock, pages 1–24. ($2.00, postage 18c.) Care of the Baby, Griffith, pages 17–34. ($1.50, postage 18c.) The New Born Baby and His Care. Care of the Baby, pages 34-46; Century Book for Mothers, pages 25-29. Clothing Century Book for Mothers, pages 44-58. Care of the Baby, pages 86–115. Exhibit. (1) Make pattern, cut and finish a baby bag," as shown on page 23 Contrast this with a typical pinning blanket. (2) Show simple and tasteful baby's dresses and over elaborate dresses, (3) Trace the outline of a child's bare foot. (4) Show good and bad shoes. MEETING II (Study pages 32 - 53) The Nursery, Sleep, Bathing. Care of the Baby, pages 213-224, 68–85. Century Book for Mothers, pages 18–24. 201 202 CARE OF CHILDREN See article on The Soother in the Supplement. Development and Growth Century Book for Mothers, pages 59–76. Care of the Baby, pages 46–67. If possible, show a weight chart for some baby. (Select answers to the Test Questions on Part I and send them to the School. Report on supplemental reading, etc. for the first two meetings.) MEETING III (Study pages 55 – 75) Natural Food. Food and Dietetics, Hutchison, pages 414-427. ($3.00, postage 26c.) Care of the Baby, Griffith, pages 116-132. If not familiar with food principles and their use in the body, read Food and Dietetics, Norton (Volume VI, Library of Home Economics), or send to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., for some of the free bulletins called Farmers' Bulletins: No. 142, Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food; No. 42, Facts about Milk; No. 74, Milk as Food; No. 93, Sugar as Food; No. 108, Eggs and their Use as Food, etc. MEETING IV (Study pages 75 – 122) Artificial Feeding Care and Feeding of Infants, Holt. (750. postage 6c.) Food and Dietetics, Hutchison, pages 428-453. ($3.00. postage 26c.) See article in the Supplement on Citrate of Soda in Infant Feeding. See Farmer's Bulletin, No. 210, The Covered Milk Pail; No. 227, Clean Milk. Have a report on the local milk supply as to sanitary condi- tion of dairies, age of milk when delivered, enforcement of local regulations. . PROGRAM 203 Visit a model dairy. Send for the booklets of the manufacturers of the various “infant foods.” Weigh the evidence. Food for the Second-year and Older Children. See Food and Dietetics, Norton (Vol. VI of the Library) pages 174-178. How to Feed Children, Hogan. ($1.00, postage roc.) (Send in answers to the Test Questions on Part II and give a report of Meetings III and IV.) MEETING V (Study pages 123 – 164.) Food Disorders. Care and Feeding of Infants, Part III. Century Book for Mothers, pages 124-135; 258–265. Minor Troubles. Send 2 cent stamp to the State Board of Health, Spring- field, Ill., for their bulletin on “Infant Feeding." See article on "Soothing Syrups” in Collier's Weekly, April 28, 1906. Century Book for Mothers, pages 193-218; 233-242. Children's Diseases. Care of the Baby, pages 314-336. Send to the State Board of Health, Lansing, Michigan, for their bulletin on Diphtheria, Scarlet Fever, Whooping Cough, Measles, Meningitis, and Teachers' Bulletin No. 87, “ The Milk Problem." Also send to the Secretary of your own State Board of Health (to the capital city) for any bulletins on conta- gious diseases. MEETING VI (Study pages 165-173.) Hygiene of the Child and Youth. Report on the ventilation, heating, lighting, and sanitary care of local schools. What attention is given to physical education. 204 CARE OF CHILDREN 19 Read extracts from “The Medical Inspection of Schools," Lewis S. Somers, M. D. Prize essay, free from the publish- ers, The Maltine Company, Brooklyn, N. Y. (6c. of the School.) (Send answers to the Text Questions on Part III and give a report of Meetings V and VI.) 206 CARE OF CHILDREN Croup treatment for, 146 Cry, the, 125 Crying, 37 persistent, 126 Daily outing, 37. Diaper, material of, 26, Diarrhea, summer, 130 Dietaries for children, 116 Digestion, completeness of, 77 gastric, 76 Digestive organs, 13 secretions, development of, 46 Diphtheria, cause of, 157 symptoms of, 157 Diseases, contagious, 153 nervous, 148 symptoms of, 123 table of contagious, 162 Drawers, 28 Dress of mother, I Dressing, care in, 27 Drugs, use of, 130 Earache, 160 Ear strain, 170 Education, 167 Emotion, expression of, 52 Exercise, 37 Eye strain, 170 Eyes, care of, 11, 16 Fats, 63 Feeding, 92 artificial, 76–114, 179 irregular, 59 substitute, 71 Fever, 124 scarlet, 155. Fevers, eruptive, 153 Fluids, drain of, 132 Fontanelles, 10 Food, artificial, 74 coarse, 129 disorders, 113 first substitute, 73 for mother, 3 Food for older children, 115 natural, 56 other than milk, 109 patent, 110 recipes, 119 semi-solid, 115 test of, 64 unadvisable, 118 Foreign bodies, 159 Formula, making up a,, 104 Formulæ, changing, 106 Fruit juices, 109 Furnishing of nursery, 33 Games for girls, 168 Genitals, care of, 39 Growth, relative, 45 Gruels, 109 Head, development of, 45 shape of, 9 Health, symptoms in, 123 Hearing, development of, 51 Height, table of, 42 Hot weather diet, 114 Infant feeding, sodium citrate hgyiene, importance of, 6 Kicking, 37 Kumyss, 122 Lactation, period of, 72 Length, gain in, 44 Lime water, 120 Lungs, 12 Malnutrition, cause of, 139 treatment for, 139 Marasnius, 139 Massage, 129 Maternity gown, ? Materials for children's clothes 31 Measles, 153 German, 154 Medicine chest, 163 Meningitis, 160 Mental attitude of mother, , 66 in, 179 208 CARE OF CHILDREN Soother, the, 35, 192 Sore throat, 142 Spasms, cause of, 149 Special senses at birth, 15 Spine, condition at birth, II Standing, 52 Starch as food, 109 Sterilizing milk, 88 Stimulants, 118 Stomach, capacity of, 46 Stools, color of, 135 Substitute feeding, essentials in, 78 Sucking cushions, II thumb, 36 Sugar, 63, 101 Summer complaint, 130 after effects, 134 Surroundings and care, 32 Symptoms in health, 123 Syringe, use of, 159 Taste, development of, 50 Teeth, care of, 39, 165 examination of, 5 Temperature of nursery, 33 variations in, 147 Thirst, 61 Throat, care of, 166 Thumb sucking, 36 Under clothes, 24 Unsafe milk, 88 Uric acid, 62 Urine, examination of, 4 Viscous circle, 36 Vision, development of, 51 Vomiting, 113, 132 cause of, 71 Walking, 52 Water bath, first general, 18 Water, importance of, 62 Weak heart, period of, 169 Weaning, 71 early, 72 time of year, 73 Weight at birth, 9 chart, 43 loss of, 57 rate of increase in, 43 table of, 42 Wet nurse 75 Whey, 120 Whining, 126 Whooping cough, 158 Winter clothes, 25 milk, 47 order of eruption, 47 permanent, 48 Teething, 47 retarded, 50 Temperature, 20, 147 of baths, 38